903R81001
•A.
                          SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION DOCUMENT


                                        to the

                          Areawide Environmental Assessment

                         for Issuing New Source  NPDES  Permits

                                 on Coal Mines in the

                              Monongahela River Basin,

                                    West Virginia
                                    Prepared by:

                         US Environmental Protection Agency
                         Region III
                         Sixth and Walnut Streets
                         Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  19106
                              With the Assistance Of:

                                    WAPORA,  Inc.
                             Berwyn, Pennsylvania 19312
                                   February 1981
   U.S. EPA Region HI
   .Regional Center for Environmenta
     Information
,-. 1650 Arch Street (3PM52)
   "hiladelphia, PA 19103

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     \
          UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                                 REGION III
                          GTH AND WALNUT  STREETS
                     PHILADELPHIA. PENNSYLVANIA 19106
February 1981
TO ALL INTERESTED AGENCIES,  PUBLIC GROUPS, AND CITIZENS:

Enclosed is a revised copy of  the Supplemental Information Document  (SID)  to
the Areawide Environmental Assessment for Issuing New Source Coal  Mining
NPDES Permits in the Monongahela River Basin in West Virginia.   This
revision is in the new format  used for the recently published SID's  for the
Elk, Guyandotte, Coal/Kanawha, Ohio, and Potomac River Basins.   The most
significant technical changes  made to this SID include new water quality and
aquatic resource data,  visual  impacts and socio-economic  impacts analysis.
The Gauley SID is being revised under separate cover.  Detailed  information
on known environmental  resources potentially affected by  new source coal
mining activity is included  in this SID and forms the technical  basis  for
the designations of the Potentially Significant Impact Areas specified in
the Areawide Environmental Assessment.  The Permit Review Program  specified
in this document formally  began with NPDES permit applications received
after December 31, 1980.

Due to the continual  acquisition of new environmental information  from
site-specific permit  application and new federal and state studies, this
document will be updated as  new data becomes available.  New data  may be
submitted to EPA's Enforcement Division (3EN23) at any time for
consideration in the  new source NPDES permit review process.

Sincerely yours,
        O.GL4.
Georges D. Pence,  Jr.,  Chief
Environmental  Impact Branch

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                             TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                                   Page

List of Tables                                                      v
List of Figures                                                     ix
List of Acronyms                                                   xiii

1.0.  Introduction                                                 1-1
2.0. Existing Conditions
2.1. Water Resources and Water Quality
2.1.1. Surface Waters
2.1.2. Groundwater Resources
2.2. Aquatic Biota
2.2.1. Stream Habitats
2.2.2. Biological Communities
2.2.3. Erroneous Classification
2.3. Terrestrial Biota
2.3.1. Ecological Setting
2.3.2. Vegetation and Flora
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features
2.3.5. Data Gaps
2.4. Climate, Air Quality, and Noise
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the Basin
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality
2.4.4. Noise
2.5. Cultural and Visual Resources
2.5.1, Prehistory
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources
2.5.3. History
2.5.4. Identified Historic Sites
2.5.5. Visual Resources
2.6. Human Resources and Land Use
2.6.1. Human Resources
2.6.2. Land Use and Land Availability
2.7. Earth Resources
2.7.1. Physiography, Topography, and Drainage
2.7,2. Steep Slopes and Slope Stability
2.7.3. Floodprone Areas
2.7.4. Soils
2.7.5. Prime Farmland
2.7.6. Geology
2.8. Potentially Significant Impact Areas
3.0. Current and Projected Mining Activity
3.1. Past and Current Mining Activity in Basin
3.1.1. Surface Mining
3.1.2. Underground Mines
3.1.3. Preparation Plants
3.2. Mining Methods in the Basin
3.2.1. Surface Mining Methods
3.2.2. Underground Mining Methods
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-56
2-77
2-77
2-81
2-94
2-97
2-97
2-100
2-107
2-116
2-120
2-123
2-123
2-124
2-145
2-156
2-159
2-160
2-169
2-170
2-186
2-186
2-205
2-207
2-279
2-295
2-295
2-298
2-305
2-305
2-311
2-312
2-339
3-1
3-1
3-3
3-3
3-18
3-21
3-21
3-44

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                                                                   Page

            3.2.3.   Coal Preparation                               3-72            *
            3.2.4.   Abandonment of Coal Mining Operations          3-76
            3.2.5.   Coal Mining Economics                          3-77
      3.3.  The National Coal Market:   Demand Issues        '       3-93
            3.3.1.   General Trends in  Market Demand                3-94
            3.3.2.   Specific Trends in Market Demand by End-Use    3-95
            3.3.3.   Effects of Legislation and Regulations  on       3-101
                      the Coal Market

4.0.  Regulations Governing Mining Activities                      4-1
      4.1.  Past and Current West Virginia Regulations              4-1
            4.1.1.   Outline History of State Mining Regulations    4-1
            4.1.2.   Current State Permit Programs                  4-5
            4.1.3.   General Framework  of State Laws and            4-7
                      Regulations
            4.1.4.   Specific Permit Applications                    4-8
      4.2.  Federal Regulations                                    4-37
            4.2.1.   EPA Permitting Activities                      4-37
            4.2.2.   SMCRA Permits                                  4-41
            4.2.3.   Clean Air Act Reviews                          4-44
            4.2.4.   CMHSA Permits                                  4-52
            4.2.5.   The Safe Drinking  Water Act                    4-52
            4.2.6.   Floodplains                                    4-53
            4.2.7.   Wild and Scenic Rivers                         4-54
            4.2.8.   Wetlands                                       4-54            ^
            4.2.9.   Endangered Species Habitat                     4-55            ^
            4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands                  4-55
            4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic       5-55
                      Sites
            4.2.12. United States Forest Service  Reviews           4-56
      4.3.  Interagency Coordination                               4-57
            4.3.1.   USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of               4-57
                      Understanding
            4.3.2.   Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility                4-61
      4.4.  Other Coordination Requirements                        4-62
            4.4.1.   Fish and Wildlife  Coordination  Act              4-62
            4.4.2.   Local Notification                             4-62
            4.4.3.   Lands Unsuitable for Mining                    4-62
      4.5.  Potential for Regulatory Change                        4-65
            4.5.1.   Delegation of the  NPDES Permit  Program          4-65
            4.5.2.   SMCRA Permit Program                           4-65

5.0.  Impacts and Mitigations                                      5-1
      5.1.  Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations                  5-1
            5.1.1.   Surface Waters                                 5-1
            5.1.2.   Groundwater                                    5-14
      5.2.  Aquatic Biota Impacts and  Mitigations                  5-19
            5.2.1.   Major Mining-Related Causes of  Damage to       5-19
                      Aquatic Biota
            5.2.2.   Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts   5-24
            5.2.3.   Sensitivity of Basin Waters to  Coal Mining     5-28
                      Impacts

                                     ii

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                                                                   Page

            5.2.4.   Mitigative Measures                            5-40
            5.2.5.   Erroneous Classification                       5-49
      5.3.  Terrestrial Biota                                      5-51
            5.3.1.   Impacts Associated with Mining Activities'      5-51
            5.3.2.   Mitigation of Impacts                          5-61
            5.3.3.   Revegetation                                   5-75
            5.3.4.   Long-term Impacts on the Basin                 5-77
            5.3.5.   Data Gaps                                      5-80
      5.4.  Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations           5-85
            5.4.1.   Air Quality Impacts                            5-85
            5.4.2.   Noise Impacts                                  5-87
      5.5.  Cultural Resource and Visual Resource Impacts  and
              Mitigations                                          5-99
            5.5.1.   Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural
              Resources:  Historic Structures and Properties       5-99
            5.5.2.   Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural
              Resources - Archaeological Resources                 5-102
            5.5.3.   Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual
              Resources                                            5-105
      5.6.  Human Resources and Land Use                           5-111
            5.6.1.   General Background                             5-111
            5.6.2.   EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Signi-
                      ficant Human Resource and Land Use Impacts   5-112
            5.6.3.   Special Considerations for Detailed Impact
                      and Mitigation Scoping                       5-121
            5.6.4.   Employment and Population Impacts and  Mitiga-
                      tive Measures                                5-122
            5.6.5.   Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse
                      Impacts                                      5-127
            5.6.6.   Transportation Impacts and Mitigative
                      Measures                                     5-134
            5.6.7.   Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigation
                      of Adverse Impacts                           5-137
            5.6.8.   Indirect Land Use Impacts                      5-143
      5.7.  Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations                 5-145
            5.7.1.   Erosion                                        5-145
            5.7.2.   Steep Slopes                                   5-155
            5.7.3.   Prime and Other Farmlands                      5-158
            5.7.4.   Unstable Slopes                                5-161
            5.7.5.   Subsidence                                     5-163
            5.7.6.   Toxic or Acid Forming Earth Materials  and
                      Acid Mine Drainage                           5-170

6.0.  EPA New Source NPDES Program NEPA Review Summary             6-1
      Water Resources                                              6-2
      Aquatic Biota in BIA's                                       6-7
      Aquatic Biota in Unclassifiable Areas                        6-10
      Special Terrestrial Vegetation Feature,  Outstanding  Tree,     6-11
        or Virgin Stand
      Wetlands                                                     6-13
      Special Terrestrial Wildlife Feature                         6-19
      Air Quality                                                  6-21

                                    iii

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                                                                   Page

      Noise Levels                                                 6-22
      National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District  6-23
      Non-National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or       6-25
        District
      Primary and Secondary Visual Resources                       6-27
      Macroscale Socioeconomic and Transportation Conditions       6-29
      Adjacent Land Uses                                           6-32
      Floodplains                                                  6-34
      State Lands                                                  6-36
      Federal Lands                                                6-37
      Soil Subject to Erosion                                      6-38
      Steep Slopes                                                 6-39
      Prime Farmlands                                              6-40
      Significant Non-Prime Farmland                               6-41
      Unstable Slopes                                              6-42
      Lands Subject to Subsidence                                  6-43
      Lands Capable of Producing Acid Mine Drainage                6-44

Appendix A.  Aquatic Biota                                         A-l
Appendix B.  Terrestrial Biota                                     B-l
Appendix C.  Reclamation Techniques                                C-l
Appendix D.  Air Quality Impact Review                             D-l
Appendix E.  Acknowledgments and Authorship                        E-l

Glossary                                                           GL-1            M

Metric Conversions                                                 GL-32

Bibliography                                                       BB-1

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                               LIST OF TABLES

Table                                                                 page

 2-1   Streamflow records                                    •         2-3
 2-2   West Virginia water quality criteria                           2-5
 2-3   Proposed West Virginia water quality criteria                  2-6
 2-4   Water quality data                                             2-10
 2-5   Sources of public drinking water supplies                      2-32
 2-6   Stream classification in the Basin                             2-35
 2-7   Sediment loads for selected streams                            2-44
 2-8   Miles of streams affected by acid mine drainage                2-46
 2-9   Mine-affected streams                                          2-47
 2-10  Coal mine related discharges                                   2-50
 2-11  Effects of time, season, and mining on water quality           2-53
 2-12  Summary of aquifer characteristics                             2-59
 2-13  Iron, pH, chloride, and hardness concentrations  in groundwater 2-73
 2-14  Fish species that are indicators of water quality              2-83
 2-15  Macroinvertebrate indicator species for BIA's                  2-85
 2-16  WVDNR-HTP indicator species for BIA's                          2-89
 2-17  WVDNR-HTP rare and endangered West Virginia fish               2-93
 2-18  Land use/land cover inventory for the Basin                    2-99
 2-19  Species of animals of special interest (WVDNR-HTP)             2-114
 2-20  Game animals in the Basin                                      2-117
 2-21  Surface temperature inversions                                 2-127
 2-22  Elevated temperature inversions                                2-127
 2-23  Wind direction and speed                                       2-128
 2-24  Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class A                        2-129
 2-25  Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class B                        2-130
 2-26  Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class C                        2-131
 2-27  Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class D                        2-132
 2-28  Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class E                        2-133
 2-29  Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class F                        2-134
 2-30  Atmospheric stability, all Pasquill Classes                    2-135
 2-31  Temperature, precipitation, and wind data at Elkins            2-138
 2-32  Precipitation data at Buckhannon                               2-139
 2-33  Precipitation data at Clarksburg                               2-140
 2-34  Precipitation data at Mannington                               2-141
 2-35  Temperature data at Buckhannon                                 2-142
 2-36  Temperature data at Clarksburg                                 2-143
 2-37  Temperature data at Mannington                                 2-144
 2-38  Total suspended particulates in and near the Basin             2-149
 2-39  Dustfall in and near the Basin                                 2-150
 2-40  Sulfur dioxide in and near the Basin                           2-151
 2-41  Ambient concentration limits that define the AQCR areas        2-154
 2-42  Ambient noise levels                                           2-157
 2-43  Chronology of known prehistoric cultures                       2-161
 2-44  Historic and Archaeological sites of the Basin                 2-171
 2-45  Primary visual resources in the Basin                          2-189
 2-46  Demographic profile of the Basin                               2-211

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Table
                                                                Page
 2-47
 2-48
 2-49
 2-50
 2-51
 2-52
 2-53
 2-54
 2-55
 2-56
 2-57
 2-58
 2-59
 2-60
 2-61
 2-62
 2-63
 2-64
 2-65
 2-66
 2-67
 2-68
 2-69
 2-70
 2-71
 2-72
 2-73
 2-74
 2-75
 2-76
 2-77
 2-78
 2-79
 2-80
 2-81
 2-82
 2-83
 2-84
 2-85
 2-86
 2-87
 2-88

 3-1
 3-2
 3-3
 3-4
 3-5
Population in the Basin, 1950 to 1980
Rates of growth/decline, 1950 to 1980
Population projections
Total mining employment
Rate of growth of mining employment
Total employment
Rate of growth in total employment
Wage and salary employment, by sector
Wage and salary employment, percentage by sector
Employment and income
Travel sales, wages and employment
Annual visitation of recreation areas  in the Basin
Housing characteristics
Miles of highways by type
Cost of coal haul road improvements
Railroads with track in the Basin
General revenues and expenditures
Distribution of revenues and expenditures
Definitions of terms
Per capita general revenues and expenditures
Health care facilities
School enrollment
Recreation larid use and ownership
Federal recreational facilities
National natural landmarks
State recreational facilities
Recreational facility descriptions
Park and Recreation Commissions
Status of planning
Land by slope class
National Flood Insurance Program participation
Major land owners in the Basin
Land development characteristics
Mapped landslide areas in  the Basin
USGS 1:24,000-scale quadrangles with floodplain data
Major soil series in the Basin
Status of soil surveys in  the Basin
Prime farmland soils in West Virginia
Criteria for depositional  environments
Stratigraphic column of coal-bearing rock (minable  coal
ASTM classification of coal
Coal seams associated with acid-producing overburden
       2-212
       2-213
       2-215
       2-217
       2-218
       2-220
       2-221
       2-222
       2-223
       2-224
       2-229
       2-231
       2-232
       2-239
       2-242
       2-244
       2-248
       2-249
       2-250
       2-252
       2-257
       2-259
       2-261
       2-263
       2-267
       2-271
       2-273
       2-274
       2-280
       2-285
       2-287
       2-291
       2-294
       2-304
       2-306
       2-307
       2-310
       2-313
       2-318
seams) 2-327
       2-331
       2-334
Sources of data for analysis of mining activity  in the Basin    3-3
Coal production in the Basin and State (short  tons)             3-5
Coal production in the Basin and State (percentages)            3-6
Surface mining in the Basin and State                           3-7
Coal production by method in the Basin and State                3-8
                                     vi

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Table                                                                 page

 3-6   Coal production by method in the Basin and State               3-10
 3-7   Surface mining data for the Basin                              3-14
 3-8   Surface mines of the Basin                            -         3-18
 3-9   Underground mines of the Basin                                 3-34
 3-10  Selected coal preparation plants                               3-41
 3-11  Raw waste characteristics of coal preparation plant water      3-74
 3-12  Coal mining cost variation for surface contour mining          3-81
 3-13  Estimated operating costs and capital investment  for
       underground mining methods                                     3-84
 3-14  Reported incremental cost increases by specific requirements   3-85
 3-15  1976 US coal consumption by region and sector                  3-97
 3-16  1985 US coal consumption by region and sector                  3-98
 3-17  Bituminous coal prices, F.O.B. mines, by state 1955-1976       3-102

 4-1   Current existing source effluent limitations                   4-38
 4-2   New source effluent limitations                                4-40
 4-3   New source performance standards                               4-46
 4-4   Federal ambient air quality standards                          4-47
 4-5   Nondeterioration increments by area class                      4-48
 4-6   Emissions subject to PSD revision                              4-49
 4-7   Overlapping EPA and USOSM responsibilities for resource
         protection                                                   4-58
 4-8   Circular A-95 clearinghouses in West Virginia                  4-63

 5-1   Composite characterization of untreated AMD                    5-10
 5-2   Contaminant levels in drinking water                           5-12
 5-3   Water quality parameters affecting groundwater                 5-16
 5-4   Results of embryo-larval bioassays on coal elements            5-25
 5-5   Summary of BIA waters in the Basin                             5-29
 5-6   Non-sensitive   streams in the Basin                           5-36
 5-7   Aquatic biological and chemical survey and monitoring
         requirements                                                 5-42
 5-8   Examples of aquatic biological survey and monitoring programs  5-46
 5-9   Adverse and beneficial impacts of coal mining                  5-52
 5-10  Impact mechanisms on wildlife                                  5-53
 5-11  Activities related to mitigations for terrestrial biota        5-62
 5-12  Mitigations for impacts on terrestrial biota                   5-66
 5-13  Habitat requirements of wildlife for reclamation  planning      5-68
 5-14  Requirements and values for grasses and herbs                  5-71
 5-15  Requirements and values for shrubs and vines                   5-72
 5-16  Requirements and values for trees                              5-73
 5-17  Estimated emission rates for construction equipment            5-86
 5-18  Efficiency of dust control methods for unpaved roads           5-88
 5-19  Dust emission factors from coal operations                     5-89
 5-20  Comparison of intensity,  sound pressure level, and common
         sounds                                                       5-90
 5-21  Measured noise levels of construction equipment                5-92
 5-22  Results of noise surveys of coal-related facilities            5-93

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Table                                                                 Page         j

 5-23  Health impacts of average noise levels                         5-95
 5-24  Employment thresholds for significant mining  impacts           5-116
 5-25  Soils with potential limitations for reclamation      -         5-150
 5-26  Examples of AMD treatment processes and costs                  5-195

 6-1   Aquatic resources, data sources                                6-4
 6-2   Terrestrial resources, data sources                            6-15
 6-3   Directory of Regional Planning and Development Councils  in
         West Virginia                                                6-31
                               APPENDIX TABLES

 A-l   Fish collected in the Basin by WVDNR                            A-2
 A-2   Descriptions of WVDNR fish sampling stations                    A-18
 A-3   Fish collected in the Basin by Hocutt and Stauffer              A-22
 A-4   Aquatic Macroinvertebrates found in the Basin                   A-25
 A-5   Number of macroinvertebrate taxa present and percent of
       individuals in each of three sensitive categories               A-32
 A-6   Diversity values and number of macroinvertebrate taxa  found
       during 1970 to 1979 at 31 stations in the Basin                 A-34

 B-l   Ecoregions of the Basin                                         B-4
 B-2   Comparisons of vegetation classification schemes                B-10
 B-3   Species of amphibians and reptiles in the Basin                 B-17
 B-4   Species of mammals in the Basin                                 B-19
 B-5   Orders and families of birds in the Basin                       B-21
 B-6   Birds considered to be animals of scientific interest           B-23

 D-l   Sample work sheet                                               D-5
                                    viii

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                              LIST OF FIGURES

Front Pocket Maps:
       Land Use/Land Cover
       USGS Quadrangle Overlay

Figure                                                                page

 1-1   Major sub-basins in the Monongahela River Basin                1-2
 1-2   New Source NPDES Review Process                                1-6

 2-1   Water quality sampling stations                                2-30
 2-2   Public water supplies in the Basin                             2-34
 2-3   Water quality limited streams in the Basin                     2-38
 2-4   High quality streams in the Basin                              2-39
 2-5   Trout streams in the Basin                                     2-40
 2-6   Lightly buffered streams                                       2-41
 2-7   Critical streams                                               2-43
 2-8   Hydrogeologic regions of the Basin                             2-58
 2-9   Yields of wells in the Basin                                   2-63
 2-10  Hydrogeologic region 1                                         2-64
 2-11  Hydrogeologic region 2                                         2-65
 2-12  Hydrogeologic regions 3, 4, and 5                              2-66
 2-13  Pottsville group data                                          2-67
 2-14  Potential for developable groundwater resources                2-68
 2-15  Location of shallow saline waters                              2-70
 2-16  Geologic cross-section                                         2-71
 2-17  Sulfate concentrations and distance relationships in the
         Basin                                                        2-75
 2-18  Major forest types of West Virginia                            2-101
 2-19  Significant species and features in the Basin                  2-105
 2-20  Black bear breeding areas                                      2-109
 2-21  Principal fossil fuel power plants in West Virginia            2-126
 2-22  Climatological monitoring stations                             2-137
 2-23  Air quality control regions                                    2-146
 2-24  Ambient air monitoring stations in or near the Basin           2-152
 2-25  Air quality non-attainment areas                               2-155
 2-26  Distribution of Late Middle Woodland cultures                  2-166
 2-27  Distribution of Late Prehistoric cultures                      2-167
 2-28  Distribution of cultures having had European contact           2-168
 2-29  Historical and archaeological sites                            2-187
 2-30  Primary visual resources in the Basin                          2-198
 2-31  Examples of primary visual resources                           2-200
 2-32  Examples of secondary visual resources                         2-201
 2-33  Examples of visual resource degradation                        2-203
 2-34  Human resources and land use impacts                           2-206
 2-35  1970 population distribution                                   2-209
 2-36  1970 population density                                        2-210
 2-37  Major highways                                                 2-238
 2-38  Coal haulroads                                                 2-241
 2-39  Railroads                                                      2-245
 2-40  Per capita general revenues by county                          2-254
 2-41  Monongahela National Forest                                    2-265
                                     ix

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                              LIST OF FIGURES

Figure                                                                 page

2-42   Land owned by companies  and individuals               •          2-290
2-43   Physiography                                                    2-296
2-44   Topography                                                      2-297
2-45   Steep slopes                                                    2-299
2-46   Landslide and rockfall diagram                                  2-301
2-47   Landforms prone to landslides                                   2-302
2-48   Landslide incidence by county                                   2-303
2-49   Geologic time scale                                             2-315
2-50   Carboniferous rocks in the eastern US                           2-316
2-51   Depositional model for peat-forming environments                2-317
2-52   Coastal and back-barrier deposits                               2-319
2~53   Generalized vertical sequence                                   2-321
2-54   Northern and Southern Coalfields of West Virginia               2-322
2-55   Geology of the Basin                                            2-323
2-56   Structural geology of the Basin                                 2-324
2-57   Stratigraphic cross-section                                     2-326
2-58   Toxic overburden                                                2-336
2-59   Potential significant impact areas                              2-340

3-1    Coal production in the Basin                                    3-4
3-2    Surface mine locations in the Basin                             3-13
3-3    Unclassified surface mines                                      3-32
3-4    Underground mine locations                                      3-39
3-5    Coal preparation plant locations                                3-40
3-6    Sequence of operations for box cut contour surface
       mining                                                          3-45
3-7    Typical box cut contour mining operation                        3-46
3-8    Typical block cut contour mining operation                      3-47
3-9    Sequence of operations for block cut contour mining             3-48
3-10   Flow diagram of haulback mining method                          3-50
3-11   Haulback mining methods                                         3-51
3-12   Low-wall conveyor haulage mine layout plan                      3-53
3-13   Low-wall conveyor haulage scheme                                3-54
3-14   Coal losses from auger mining                                   3-56
3-15   Mountaintop removal mining method                               3-58
3-16   Cross-ridge mining method                                       3-60
3-17   West Virginia head-of-hollow fill                               3-62
3-18   Cross sections of head-of-hollow fill                           3-63
3-19   Illustration of Federal Valley fill                             3-64
3-20   Cross sections of Federal Valley fill                           3-65
3-21   Methods of entry to underground coal mines                      3-67
3-22   Typical room and pillar  layout                                  3-68
3-23   Cut sequence for continuous mining system - five
       entry heading                                                   3-70
3-24   Typical longwall plan                                           3-71
3-25   Typical coal cleaning facility                                  3-73
3-26   Coal preparation plant process                                  3-75
3-27   Construction cost vs. capacity for AMD treatment plant          3-86
3-28   Installed pipe costs                                            3-88

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                              LIST OF FIGURES

Figure                                                                 page

3-29   Filter costs                                           -         3-88
3-30   Pond costs                                                      3-89
3-31   Flash tank costs                                                3-90
3-32   Capital costs of installed pumps                                3-90
3-33   Capital costs of lime treatment                                 3-91
3-34   Capital costs of clarifier                                      3-91
3-35   US consumption of coal by end-use  sector                        3-96
3-36   Selected coal prices                                            3-103

4-1    Organization of WVDNR, 1979                                     4-6
4-2    Prospecting permit procedure                                    4-10
4-3    Unsuitable lands petition procedure                             4-12
4-4    Unsuitable lands inquiry procedure                              4-13
4-5    Principal WVDNR mining permit review  process                    4-22
4-6    WVDNR mining reclamation bond release procedure                 4-28
4-7    Prevention of significant deterioration areas                   4-50

5-1    Theoretical hydrographs                                         5-4
5-2    Biologically important areas and unclassified  areas  in the
         Basin                                                         5-34
5-3    Non-sensitive areas in the Basin                                5-38
5-4    Leq versus distance from major noise  sources at typical coal
         mine and preparation plant                                    5-94
5-5    Mean subsidence curves                                          5-164
5-6    Relationship of surface subsidence/seam thickness  to  panel
         width/depth                                                   5-165
5-7    Acid-base account, Bakerstown Coal                              5-173
5-8    Acid-base account, Freeport Coal                                5-174
5-9    Plan view of contour surface mine                               5-178
5-10   Cross-section views of contour surface mine                     5-179
5-11   Minimum pH value for complete precipitation of metal  ions
         as hydroxides                                                 5-193
5-12   Hydrogeologic cycle and mine drainage                           5-198

6-1    Regional Planning and Development Councils in West Virginia     6-30
                              APPENDIX FIGURES

A-l    WVDNR fish sampling stations                                   A-17
A-2    Macroinvertebrate sampling stations                            A-37

B-l    Ecoregions of West Virginia                                    B-3
B-2    Ecological regions of West Virginia                            B-6
B-3    Deciduous forests in West Virginia                             B-7
B-4    Potential natural vegetation in West Virginia                  B-8
                                       XI

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                              LIST OF FIGURES                                        ^

Figure                                                                 page

B-5    Types of forest vegetation in West Virginia            -         B-9
B-6    Forest regions of the Basin                                     B-12
B-7    Forest regions of the Basin                                     B-13
B-8    Forest types of the Basin                                       B-15
B-9    Existing forest types of the Basin                              B-16

C-l    Examples of structural mitigation for terrestrial biota         C-3
C-2    Sample planting plan for establishment of cottontail  rabbit
         habitat on surface-mined areas                                C-8
C-3    Sample planting plan for establishment of bobwhite  quail
         habitat on surface-mined areas                                C-9
C-4    Sample planting plan for establishment of ruffed grouse
         habitat on raountaintop removal site                           C-10

D-l    Nomograph for determining ground-level concentrations  from
         point sources of air pollutants                               D-9
                                      xii

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                          ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS







AASHTO    American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials




AQCR      Air Quality Control Region




ARC       Appalachian Regional Commission




ARDA      Appalachian Regional Development Act




ASTM      American Society for Testing and Materials




BACT      Best Available Control Technology




BIA       Biologically Important Area




BOD       Biochemical Oxygen Demand




Btu       British Thermal Unit




CAA       Clean Air Act




CEQ       National Council on Environmental Quality




CFR       Code of Federal Regulations




CMHSA     Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969




CWA       Clean Water Act, P.L. 92-500 (as amended)




dB        decibels




dBA       decibels (A-scale)




EA        Environmental Assessment




EELUT     Eastern Energy and Land Use Team (USFWS)




EIS       Environmental Impact Statement




EO        Executive Order (of the President)




EPA       Environmental Protection Agency




FEMA      Federal Emergency Management Agency




FHA       Federal Housing Administration




FHwA      Federal Highway Administration
                                    xiii

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FHBM      Flood Hazard Boundary Map

FIRE      Fire, Insurance, and Real Estate

FIRM      Flood Insurance Rate Map

FONSI     Finding of No Significant Impact

FPM       Floodplain Management

FR        Federal Register

FWPCA     Federal Water Pollution Control Act

g/dscm    grains per dry standard cubic meter

gr/dscf   grains per dry standard cubic foot

gpm       gallons per minute

HSA       Health Systems Agency

mgd       million gallons per day

MM        million short tons

NAAQS     National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NACD      National Association of Conservation Districts

NEPA      National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, P.L. 91-190

NFIP      National Flood Insurance Program

NHPA      National Historic Preservation Act of 1966

NOAA      National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
          (US Department of Commerce)

NPDES     National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NRHP      National Register of Historic Places

NSPP      New Source Permit Program

NSPS      New Source Performance Standards

P.L.      Public Law (of the United States)

ppm       parts per million
                                       xiv

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PSD       Prevention of Significant Deterioration

PSIA      Potentially Significant Impact Area

RPDA      Regional Planning and Development Act (West Virginia)

RPDC      Regional Planning and Development Councils (in West Virginia)

SAM       Spatial Allocation Model

SAT       Scholastic Aptitude Test

SCMRO     Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Operation

SCS       Soil Conservation Service (US Department of Agriculture);
          also listed as USDA-SCS

SEAM      Social and Economic Assessment Model

SHPO      State Historic Preservation Officer

SID       Supplemental Information Document

SIP       State Implementation Plan (for Attainment of Air Quality)

SMCRA     Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

STAT      Statutes (of the United States)

STORET    Storage and retrieval data base system maintained by EPA

STP       Sewage Treatment Plant

SWRB      State Water Resources Board (West Virginia): also listed as WVSWRB

TDS       Total Dissolved Solids

TSP       Total Suspended Particulates

TSS       Total Suspended Solids

TVA       Tennessee Valley Authority

UMWA      United Mine Workers of America

USAGE     United States Army Corps of Engineers

USACHP    United States Advisory Council on Historic Preservation

USBEA     United States Bureau of Economic Analysis
          (US Department of Commerce)
                                    xv

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USBLM     United States Bureau of Land Management
          (US Department of the Interior)

USBM      United States Bureau of Mines

USBOR     United States Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, now the'Heritage
          Conservation and Recreation Service
          (US Department of the Interior)

USC       United States Code

USDA      United States Department of Agriculture

USni      United States Department of the Interior

USDOC     United States Department of Commerce

USDOE     United States Department of Energy

USDOT     United States Department of Transportation

USEIA     United States Energy Information Agency

USERDA    United States Energy Research and Development Administration

USFmHA    United States Farmers Home Association

USFS      United States Forest Service (US Department of Agriculture)

USFWS     United States Fish and Wildlife Service
          (US Department of the Interior)

USGAO     United States Government Accounting Office

USGS      United States Geological Survey (US Department of the Interior)

USHCRS    United States Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service
          (US Department of the Interior)

USHUD     United States Department of Housing and Urban Development

USICC     United States Interstate Commerce Commission

USMSHA    United States Mining Safety and Health Administration

USOSM     United States Office of Surface Mining
          (US Department of the Interior)

USOTA     United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment
                                       xv i

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VA        Veterans Administration

vint       vehicle miles traveled

WV        West Virginia

WVAPCC    West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission

WVDC      West Virginia Department of Commerce

WVDCH     West Virginia Department of Culture and History

WVDE      West Virginia Department of Education

WVDES     West Virginia Department of Employment Security

WVDH      West Virginia Department of Highways

WVDM      West Virginia Department of Mines

WVDNR     West Virginia Department of Natural Resources; Divisions include:
          WVDNR-Reclamation
          WVDNR-Water Resources
          WVDNR-HTP (Heritage Trust Program; recently renamed Natural
                    Heritage Program)
          WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
          WVDNR-Parks and Recreation

WVGES     West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey; Divisions include:
          WVGES-Archaeology Section
          WVGS (West Virginia Geological Survey)

WVGOECD   West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic and Community
          Development

WVGOSFR   West Virginia Governor's Office of State-Federal Relations

WVHDF     West Virginia Housing Development Fund

WVHSA     West Virginia Health Systems Agency

WVPSC     West Virginia Public Service Commission

WVRMA     West Virginia Railroad Maintenance Authority

WVSCMRA   West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act

WVSHSP    West Virginia Statewide Health Systems Plan, 1979

WVURD     West Virginia University Office of Research and Development

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                             1.0.  INTRODUCTION

     This Supplemental Information Document presents the comprehensive
technical basis for standard environmental reviews of New Source  coal mine
permit applications that are required by NEPA and CWA.  EPA will  use
information in this document to evaluate New Source coal mine  applications.

     Specifically, the information in this document will "...provide
sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an
environmental impact statement or a finding of no significant  impact
(FONSI)..." [40 CFR 1508.9(1)] before a New Source coal mining  permit can be
issued by EPA.  A "...Finding of No Significant Impact means a  document  by  a
Federal agency briefly presenting the reasons why an action  [EPA's  issuance
of the permit]...will not have a significant effect on the human  environment
and for which an environmental impact statement therefore will  not  be
prepared..." (40 CFR 1508.13).

     EPA has chosen to comply with NEPA when evaluating New Source  coal  mine
permits in West Virginia on an areawide basis.  The State of West Virginia
has been divided into seven areas which encompass the major river basins
with coal reserves.  This document concerns one of the basins,  the
Monongahela River Basin (Figure 1-1).  The characteristics of  the seven
basins vary, but the manner in which EPA will evaluate and issue  New Source
permits will be consistent from basin to basin.

     The procedure for reviewing New Source coal mine applications  involves
the use of three principal information sources which include:   an Areawide
Environmental Assessment (EA) with map, as included in the front  of this
document; this Supplemental Information Document; and a series  of 1:24,000
scale environmental inventory map sets.  For each topographic quadrangle,
in addition to a Base Map, the environmental data are mapped on three
overlays.  The SID and environmental inventory map sets were prepared
together.  They provide detailed geographical information on known  environ-
mental resources potentially affected by New Source mining activity and  form
the basis of the EA.

    The EA map divides the Monongahela River Basin into three  types of
environmentally sensitive areas.  The first type is called "Potentially
Significant Impact Areas" (PSIA's).  These areas are the most  sensitive  to
New Source coal mine impacts.  Permit applications for mines in PSIA's
automatically will require detailed NEPA review to evaluate possible
measures or alternatives to prevent or minimize adverse impacts.  An EIS may
be required for a New Source coal mine proposed in a PSIA.

     Regions shown on the EA map as "Mitigation Areas" contain  specific,
sensitive resources that will require careful application of mitigative
measures that may translate into New Source permit conditions.  If
mitigative measures appropriate for the sensitive resources are agreed upon
                                    1-1

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Figure I-1

MAJOR SUB-BASINS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WAPORA 1981)
              Elk/Creek  XyTygart Vallciy
                                                  I
                                          0       IO
                                             W*POR*,INC.
                            1-2

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by the applicant and EPA, the properly conditioned New  Source  permit  can  be
issued under the Basinwide EA/FONSI.  Alternatively,  if  the  applicant can
demonstrate that no impact will occur, the  permit can be issued without
additional conditions under the Basinwide EA/FONSI.

     The third type of area found  in  the Basin  is the "FONSI"  area,  where
this evaluation process has determined that mining will  have no significant
adverse impacts, provided that all other local,  State,  and Federal  permit
requirements are satisfied.  These FONSI areas  assume that New Source
Performance Standards and other regulations will be  adequate to maintain
water quality, associated biota, and  other  environmental resources.

     In each case, notice of the proposed New Source  application  will be
circulated to the public and to interested  agencies.  EPA will consider
carefully all comments received prior to issuing the  permit, and  will
mandate avoidance of adverse impacts  in so  far  as practicable.

     The SID is intended to have a user orientation.  Section  2.0.  presents
environmental setting information  for those functional  areas which  EPA has
determined can be affected by New  Source mining  (i.e.,  resources  which are
both significant and sensitive).   Section 3.0.  discusses New Source mining
activities ("the proposed action") and highlights mining activity locations
and practices from an historical,  current,  and  future perspective.   Section
4.0. describes the numerous current and proposed regulatory  constraints on
mining.  Section 5.0.  assesses the impacts of mining on the resources
discussed in Section 2.O., mitigative measures  are put  forward to the extent
possible.  Section 6.0. summarizes these impacts and  mitigative measures  and
translates this information into program guidance for EPA evaluations of  New
Source coal mining permits applications.  This  program  guidance is  presented
in the form of summary sheets specific to the potentially affected  resource.
Additional forms and guidelines necessary for EPA to  conduct its  New  Source
permit evaluation program are included with these summary sheets.   Specific
contacts, including office names,  addresses, and phone  numbers needed for
the program also are attached.  Mechanisms  to update  EPA1s information base
on a periodic basis are set out.  Lastly, appendices  have been reserved for
key data files and other auxiliary information  referenced in the  SID.

     The information contained in this SID, in combination with the
1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map  sets, is  the  foundation  for an
environmental review process.  This process has been  designed  to  avoid
unnecessary delays, to utilize existing information  and  data files  when
available, and to rely upon other in-place mechanisms and regulatory
techniques to implement EPA's congressional mandate  under CWA, NEPA,  and
other laws.  Consequently, the SID user not only is referred to other SID
sections quite frequently, but is directed  to other  agencies and  programs
whenever possible.  In this manner, EPA feels confident  that its
environmental mission is being furthered, while National energy objectives
are being met and the absolute minimum requirements  for  additional
information are being imposed on the mining industry.
                                    1-3

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BACKGROUND OF THE NEW SOURCE PROGRAM

     With the enactment of P.L. 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution  Control
Act Amendments of 1972 (now known as the Clean Water Act), it became  a
National goal to achieve "fishable and swimmable" waters throughout  the
United States by July, 1 1983.  By 1985 there is to be no discharge  of
pollutants into navigable waters.  To achieve these ends, Section 402 of  the
CWA law established the "National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System"
or NPDES.

     To implement this system, a permit program was developed which
established effluent discharge limitations for existing point sources of
pollution, according to category of discharge or industry.  The  performance
standards for existing sources were followed by stricter limitations  for
"New Sources," which also are being issued industry by industry.

     Because they are point sources of pollution, coal mines must meet NPDES
standards.  All coal mines that begin construction after January 12,  1979
are subject to the New Source Performance Standards.  If they propose to
discharge wastewater into surface waters, they must meet these Standards.

     New Source coal mines include three basic categories of operation
established by the EPA regulations: new coal preparation plants, new  surface
or underground mines, and substantially new mines.  First, new coal
preparation plants, independent of mines, are considered New Sources  as of
January 12, 1979, unless there were binding contractual obligations  to
purchase unique facilities or equipment prior to the January 12  promulgation
date.  Second, surface and underground mines that are assigned identifying
numbers by the US Mine Safety and Health Administration subsequent to
January 12 1979, automatically are considered to be New Sources, again
unless there were binding contracts prior to that date.  Third,  other mines
may be regarded by EPA as "substantially new" operations for NPDES permits,
if they:

     •  Begin to mine a new coal seam not previously extracted by
        that mine

     •  Discharge effluent to a new drainage area not previously"
        affected by that mine

     •  Cause extensive new surface disruption

     •  Begin construction of a new shaft, slope, or drift

     •  Make significant additional capital investment in
        additional equipment or facilities, or

     •  Otherwise have characteristics deemed appropriate by the
        EPA Regional Administrator to place them in the New Source
        category.  Numerous existing mines may qualify as
                                    1-4

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        "substantially new."  The determination of whether a mine
        is a New Source will be conducted case by case, based
        largely on the information supplied with the permit
        application to EPA.

Congress, through the Clean Water Act, has determined  that the New  Source
Permit Program is a "major Federal action" and falls under the mandate of
the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Section  102(2)(C), which
states:

      [All agencies of the Federal Government  shall] include in
     every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation
     and other major Federal actions significantly affecting the
     quality of the human environment, a detailed statement [an
     Environmental Impact Statement] by the responsible official
     on:

     i.    the environmental impact of the proposed action
     ii.   any adverse environmental effects which cannot be
           avoided should the proposal be implemented
     iii.  alternatives to the proposed action
     iv.   the relationship between local short terms uses of
           man's environment and the maintenance and enhancement
           of long-term productivity, and
     v.    any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of
           resources which would be involved  in the proposed
           action should it be implemented.

     NEPA binds EPA to a comprehensive environmental permit review  process
for coal mining applications in West Virginia, as long as it administers
NPDES permits (Figure 1-2).  The New Source NPDES program offers
significantly enhanced opportunity, as compared with the Existing Source
program, for:

     •  Public and inter-agency input to the Federal NPDES permit
        review process before mine construction begins

     •  Effective environmental review and consideration of
        alternatives that may avoid or minimize adverse effects

     •  Implementation of environmentally protective permit
        conditions on mine planning, operation, and shutdown.

     Additionally, NEPA reviews can assist substantially in maintaining and
protecting the present environmental, aesthetic,  and recreational resources
of the coal regions of West Virginia.

     Congress, by enacting the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977, also established a National environmental,  public health, and safety
regulatory scheme for surface coal mining and reclamation operations.  Under
                                    1-5

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AREAW1DE
FINDING OF NO
SIGNIFICANT
IMPACT



ISSUE
OR
DENT
PERMIT
Figure 1-2  EPA NEW SOURCE NPDES PERMIT NEPA REVIEW
         PROCESS FOR THE COAL  MINING POINT SOURCE
         CATEGORY
                1-6

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the SMCRA, detailed environmental protection performance  standards
applicable to the coal industry are to be  applied through  a phased,
comprehensive regulatory program.  The permanent regulatory program  (44  FR
15311-15463; March 13, 1979) requires more detailed Federal standards  than
those set in the initial,  interim program, and  they are to be  imposed
through a permit system.

     The SMCRA permit program  for privately owned lands in the  future  may  be
delegated to the States, upon  approval by  the Secretary of the  Interior.
However, mining activity on Federal lands  will  continue to require Federal
agency review.  Most coal  lands in West Virginia are  privately  owned.

     The EPA is currently  working with the US Office  of Surface Mining in
the Department of the Interior to develop  procedures  for coordinating  the
New Source NPDES environmental review process for coal mining  industry
applications with the similar  permit review mandated  for those  mines
regulated by USOSM under SMCRA.  This coordination will reduce  potential
duplication of requirements and will contribute to an efficient and
comprehensive review process.

     Currently, EPA issues NPDES permits in West Virginia.  Section 402(a)5
of the Clean Water Act authorizes the EPA Regional Administrator  to delegate
the permit program to any  State "which he  determines  has  the capability  of
administering a permit program which will carry out the objective of this
Act".  The State of West Virginia is working to obtain delegation and  may  be
ready to issue NPDES permits sometime in 1981.

     NPDES permits issued  through delegated State programs are  not
considered significant Federal actions.  Hence they are not subject to NEPA
review.  The procedure used by EPA in implementing the New Source NPDES
permit program NEPA reviews in West Virginia, therefore, is expected to be
an interim procedure until the State assumes the program.

     The mandated NEPA review has culminated in the attached Areawide
Environmental Assessment of New Source Coal Mining in the Monongahela  River
Basin.  The basic goal of  this SID and any subsequent environmental reviews
associated with NPDES permits  is to maximize compatibility between the
mining industry and environmental values.  EPA has determined that for West
Virginia "...the most effective way to comply with NEPA on New  Source  coal
mine permits is to assess new coal activity on an areawide basis.  (An)
environmental analysis...will  document the full range of impacts... apply
NEPA effectively to new mining operations and at the  same time  avoid
significant disruption to  the  permitting of new and needed operations  that
are environmentally sound" (41 FR 19840, May 13, 1976).

     EPA recognizes the serious pollution problem posed by abandoned mines
in West Virginia.  Therefore it expects to expedite its permit  review
process to accommodate with priority any application  for the re-mining of
abandoned mine sites,  so long as the proposal anticipates that  wastewater
discharges and reclamation will satisfy all the currently  applicable
standards.
                                    1- 7

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2.1  Water Resources and Water Quality

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2.1. Water Resources and Water Quality                                2-1

     2.1.1.  Surface Waters                                           2-1
             2.1.1.1.  Hydrology                                      2-1
                       2.1.1.1.1.   Climatic Characteristics           2-1
                       2.1.1.1.2.   Streamflow Characteristics         2-2
                       2.1.1.1.3.   Low Flow Frequency                 2-2
                       2.1.1.1.4.   Flooding                           2-2
             2.1.1.2.  State Water Uses and Criteria                  2-2
             2.1.1.3.  Stream Classification                          2-31
             2.1.1.4.  Pollution Sources                              2-42
             2.1.1.5.  Coal Mine Related Problems                     2-45

     2.1.2.  Groundwater Resources                                    2-56
             2.1.2.1.  Hydrology of the Basin                         2-57
             2.1.2.2.  Groundwater Quality                            2-72
Page
              I

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2.1.  WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALITY

     Due  to the  extensive water quality  problems  that  have  existed  in the
Monongahela River Basin, a  significant amount  of  information has  been
gathered  during  the  past 20 years.  However,  the  rapidly  changing conditions
in the Basin render much of the older data useless  in  terms of  assessing
current water quality conditions.  Consequently,  prime reliance was  placed
on data gathered recently,  especially during  1979 and  1980  under  the
Federal/State 208 and 303 programs and long-term  information gathered as
part of the EPA's STORET water quality monitoring program.  Analyses were
complicated by the  fact that  mine-related effects are  often highly  localized
and temporal in nature.  These deficiencies can be  overcome only  by
investigations that  are comprehensive in terms of geographical  coverage  and
are of sufficient duration  to determine  long-term trends.

2.1.1.  Surface Waters

     This  section first summarizes hydrologic  conditions  in the Basin.   Then
it reports established water  uses, current and proposed State water  quality
standards, and stream classifications.   It concludes with a review  of
pollution  problems.

     2.1.1.1.  Hydrology

     The Monongahela River  is formed at  Fairmont  WV, at the confluence of
the West Fork River and the Tygart Valley River.  The  Cheat River, which
drains the eastern  third of the Basin, enters  the Monongahela River  at Point
Marion, PA.  The Youghiogheny River, which drains a small portion of extreme
eastern Preston County, enters the Monongahela River near McKeesport, PA
(Figure 1-1).  Together, these streams drain  approximately 4,340  square
miles in West Virginia.

     The Basin is typically divided into two  general physiographic  regions:
(1) the western plateau of  generally low, rolling topography; and (2) the
Allegheny Mountain  section  in the east which  is comprised of rugged  terrain,
narrow deep valleys, and steep slopes.   The streams on the western  plateau,
especially those in the West  Fork River  drainage, are  generally low  gradient
in nature, while those in the Cheat River drainage are high gradient
streams.  The principal streams in the Basin  are  described  in detail in
Section 2.1.5.

     2.1.1.1.1.  Climatic Characteristics.  Climatic conditions in  the
Monongahela River Basin are discussed in detail in Section 2.4. of this
assessment.  In summary, precipitation averages about  50 inches per  year
over the entire Basin, ranging from about 40  inches in the northwestern
portion of the Basin to about 70 inches  in the southern and eastern  portions
of the Basin (Friel et al.   1967).
                                     2-1

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     Precipitation is well distributed  throughout  the  year,  being  somewhat          fl
higher during the spring and summer months, and lowest during  the  fall.             ™
Heavy precipitation may occur in any month of  the  year.

     2.1.1.1.2.  Streamflow Characteristics.   Streamflow data -from 43
stations in the Basin show that discharge rates vary greatly and that  low
flows were zero during low flow periods in many of the streams  (Table  2-1).
High flows are about 20 to 75 times the mean flows.

     2.1.1.1.3.  Low Flow Frequency.  Lowest flows typically occur during
late summer and early autumn (lISGS 1979).  The lowest  average  flow over  a
consecutive 7-day period that is expected to recur at  10-year  intervals
(7/Q/10) has been adopted as the basis  for establishing the  West Virginia
water quality criteria.  State standards do not apply  when streamflows are
below 7/Q/10 values.  Empirically derived 7/Q/10 values are  not available
for most of the smaller streams, thereby necessitating estimation  of this
important parameter.  Estimations of 7/Q/10 values typically are taken from
graphs based on drainage area,  slope, climate, and geological
considerations.  Chang and Boyer (1976) developed  a model for  the
Monongahela River Basin that has a standard error  of approximately 30%.
They reported that the occurrence of limestones decreases the model's
precision significantly.

     2.1.1.1.4.  Flooding.  Major floods occurred  in the Monongahela River
Basin in 1888, 1912, 1932, 1939, and 1950.  The relationship between coal
mining and flooding is discussed in Sections 2.6., 5.1., and 5.2.  of this
report.

     2.1.1.2.  State Water Uses and Criteria

     For all streams in the Basin except the tributaries of  the
Youghiogheny, the intended uses as designated  by the SWRB are  water contact
recreation (e.g., swimming, fishing, etc.), public water supplies,
industrial water supplies, agricultural water  supplies, propagation of fish
and other aquatic organisms, water transport (commercial and pleasure
boating), hydropower production, and industrial cooling water.  For the
tributaries of the Youghiogheny, the intended uses are water contact
recreation, public water supplies, and  propagation of  fish and  other aquatic
organisms.   New  dischargers must not render the waterways unsuitable  for
the above uses.

     Whereas present State water quality criteria  (Table 2-2)  include  only
one (pH) of the four parameters (pH, manganese, iron, and suspended solids)
covered by the EPA New Source Limitations, the proposed State  criteria
summarized in Table 2-3 would cover all four (SWRB 1980).  The  present and
proposed State water quality are similar for dissolved oxygen,  pH,
temperature, odor and radiation, but the proposed  regulations are  more
specific for toxic substances,  and have changed based  on more  current
information for heavy metals and other compounds.
                                     2-2

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Table 2-1.  Stream flow records for selected streams in the Monongahela River
  Basin (Friel et al. 1967, USGS 1979).
Stream and location
of gage
(downstream order)
Tygart Valley R.
near Dailey
Tygart Valley R.
near Elkins
Tygart Valley R.
at Belington
Middle Fork at
Midvale
Middle Fork R. at
Audra
Sand Run near
Buckhannon
Buckhannon River
at Hall
Big Run at Volga
Tygart Valley R.
at Philippi
Tygart Valley R. at
Arden
Tygart Valley R. at
Tygart Dam near
Graf ton
Tygart Valley R. at
Fetterman
Tygart Valley R. at
Colfax
Skin Creek near
Brownsville
West Fork R. at
Brownsville
West Fork R. at
Butchervi-lle
West Fork R. at
Clarksburg
Elk Creek at Quiet
Dell
Salem Fork suhwatershed
No. Ha
Salem Fork subwatershed
No. 9
Salem Fork at Salem
West Fork R. at
Enterprise
1
Drainage
area
| (square
miles)

187

272

408

122

149

14.5

277
6.19

916

945


1,184

1,304

1,366

25.7

102

181

384

84.6

0.29

0.92
8.32

759
Period
of Record
(water
years)

1915-63

1944-to date

1907-to date

1915-42

1942-to date

1947-to date

1915-to date
1941-45

1940-to date

1938-40


1938-to date

1907-38

1939-to date

1945-60

1946-to date

1915-to date

1923-to date

1943-63

1955-60

1956-60
1951-63
1907-16
1933-to date
Maximum
discharge
(cfs)

13,100

13,100

18,400

11,500

9,780

2,000

13,000
473

43,000

31,700


20,000

74,300

22,500

2,280

6,420

18,000

17,800

—

11

25.8
2,280
933
36,500
Minimum
daily
discharge
(cfs)

0

0.1

0.1

0

0.2

0

0.2
0

4.9

11


0

1.2

129

0

0

0

0

0.2

0

0
0

3.4
Average
discharge
(cfs)

345

533

803

282

345

26.4

591
—

1,842

—


2,324

2,599

2,613

41.4

162

299

586

124

0.427


11.9

1,138

-------
Table 2-1.  Stream flow records for selected streams in the Monongahela River
  Basin (concluded).
I
Stream and location
of gage
(downstream order)
Buffalo Creek at
Barrackville
Monongahela R. at
Lock 15, at Hoult
Deckers Creek at
Morgantown
Monongahela R. at Lock
8, Pt. Marion, PA
Gandy Creek at Horton
Laurel Fork at Wymer
Glady Fork at Evenwood
Dry Fork at Hendricks
Blackwater R. above
Beaver Creek near
Davis
Blackwater R. at Davis
No. Fork Blackwater R.
at Douglas
Shavers Fork at
Cheat Bridge
Shavers Fork at Bemis
Shavers Fork at Flint
Shavers Fork at
Parsons
Cheat R. near Parsons
Cheat R. at Rowlesburg
Big Sandy Creek at
Rockville
Cheat R. near Pisgah
Cheat R. near
Morgantown
Drainage
area
(square
miles)
115
2,388
63.2
2,720
36
44
41
345
58.7
86.2
17.9
57.5
115
124
214
718
972
200
1,354
1,380
Period
of Record
(water
years)
1932-to date
1915-26
1939-63
1946-63
1929-55
1924-26
1924-26
1924-26
1941-to date
1929-32
1921-to date
1929-31
1922-26
1922-25
1924-32
1941-to date
1913-to date
1924-to date
1921-to date
1927-58
1923-25
Maximum
discharge
(cfs)
9,490
91,500
5,680
90,400
550
1,100
1,010
47,000
1,640
7,170
1,020
4,210
—
8,800
16,000
52,100
66,300
21,300
127,000
86,300
Minimum
daily
discharge
(cfs)
0
33
195
0.9
235
3
1
1
5.5
2.3
1.6
2.2
4
11
1.6
3
9 -
10
0.1
13
99
Average
discharge
(cfs)
169
4,143
107
4,484



753

196

—
—
319
549
1,679
2,257
421
2,988
3,190
                                       2-4

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nd total residual chlorine, 0.002 mg/1.
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-------
Table 2-3.  Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
  the Monongahela River Basin (SWRB 1980).  Where lesser quality is due to
  natural conditions, the natural values are the applicable criteria.  Footnotes
  follow the table.
Parameter

Aluminuml
Ammonia, un-ionized
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium, soluble^
                    Standard
Chlorides
Chlorine, total residual^
Chromium, hexavalent
Coliform bacteria, fecal^
Copper

Cyanide
Fluoride
Iron, total5
Lead
Magnesium^

Manganese
Mercury
Nickel"7
Nitrate
Nitrite

Odor, threshold
Organics:  Aldrin-Dieldrin
           Chlordane
           DDT
           Endrin
           Methoxychlor
           PCB
           Toxaphene
Oxygen, dissolved
PH
Phenols
 £0.05 mg/1
 £0.05 mg/1
 £1.0 mg/1
 £0.8 mg/1
 £2.0 mg/1
 £5.0 mg/1
£12.0 mg/1  (hardness
            (hardness 0-35 mg/1
            (hardness 35-75 mg/1
            (hardness 75-150 mg/1
                      150-300 mg/1
 <30.0 mg/1  (hardness >300 mg/1 CaC03)

£100 mg/1
  £0.01 mg/1
  £0.05 mg/1
£200 organisms/100 ml, 30-day geometric mean
£400 organisms/100 ml in >90% of samples over
  30 days
  £0.005 mg/1

  £0.005 mg/1
  £1.0 mg/1
  £1.0 mg/1
  £0.025 mg/1 (hardness 0-100 mg/1
  £0.050 mg/1 (hardness 100-300 mg/1
  £0.10 mg/1  (hardness >300 mg/1 CaC03)
  £0.05 mg/1
  £0.2,ug/l unfiltered (£0.5 ug/1 body burden)

 £10 mg/1
  <1.0 mg/1
  £8 at 40°C daily
  £0.003 ug/1 (0.3
   0.01 jug/1  (1.0
   0.001 ug/1 (0.1
   0.004 «g/l (0.3
   0.03 ug/1
   0.001 Aig/1 (2.0
   0.005 Mg/1 (1.0
  >5.0 mg/1
   6-9 pH units
  <0.005 mg/1
                  average
                  Mg/1 fish
                  Mg/1 fish
                  ug/1 fish
                  ug/1 fish

                  ug/1 fish
                  ug/1 fish
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)

burden)
burden)
                                     2-6

-------
Table 2-3.  Proposed West Virginia  in-stream water  quality  standards  for
  Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Parameter
Radioactivity
Selenium
Silver^
Temperature (daily mean)
Tin

Turbidity



Zinc
                    Standard
0,000 pCi/1 gross beta activity
   <10 pCi/1 dissolved strontium 90
    £3 pCi/1 dissolved alpha emitters
    £0.005 mg/1
    £0.05 mg/1
    <5°F rise above natural ambient
   £87°F May-November
   £73°F December-April


   £10 NTU over background of 50 NTU or less
    10 NTU plus 10% of background where back-
      exceeds 50 NTU

    £0.050 mg/1 (hardness 0-150 mg/1 CaC03)
    £0.10 mg/1  (hardness 150-300 mg/1 CaC03)
    £0.30 mg/1  (hardness 300-400 mg/1
    <0.60 mg/1  (hardness >400 mg/1 CaC03)
     In addition to these numerical criteria, the proposed regulations
prohibit the following from the waters of  the State:

     a.  Distinctly visible floating or settleable  solids, suspended  solids,
scum,  foam, or oil slides.

     b.  Sludge deposits of sludge banks on the bottom.

     c.  Odors in the vicinity of the waters.

     d.  Taste or odor that would affect designated uses  adversely.

     e.  Concentrations of toxic materials harmful or  toxic to people,
aquatic organisms, or other animals.

     f.  Color.

     g.  Concentrations of bacteria that may impair or  interfere with
designated uses.

     h.  Matter that would entail unreasonable degree  of  treatment  to yield
potable water.

     i.  Any other condition that alters the chemical,  physical, or
biological integrity of the water.
                                      2-7

-------
Table 2-3.  Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality  standards  for
  Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
     trout waters:              £0.56 mg/1

 2In trout waters:              £0.04 jug/1  (hardness 0-75 mg/1 CaCC>3)
                                  £1.2 jug/1  (hardness >75 mg/1 CaCOs)

 3In trout waters:              £0.002 mg/1

 ^As determined by mean plate number or membrane  filtration  on five  or
     more samples during the 30-day period.

 5 In trout waters:              £0.5 mg/1

 6ln trout waters:              £0.005 mg/1

 7 In trout waters:              £0.05 mg/1

 "_>_6.0 mg/1 in trout waters and X7.0 mg/1  in trout  spawning  areas  at  all  times.

 9ln trout waters:              <0.01 mg/1

    In trout waters:
     October-April               £50°F daily mean,  55 °F hourly mean
     September-May               £58°F daily mean,  62°F hourly mean
     June-August                 £66°F daily mean,  70°F hourly mean

    In trout waters:              £0.54 mg/1

    Not applicable to permitted surface mines,to  agricultural activities,  or
to activities covered by CWA Section 208 Best Management Practices.
                                     2-8

-------
     Existing water quality in the Basin was  assessed by  compiling  data  from
the EPA STORE! data bank, various USGS reports, and information  gathered
during Federal 208 and 303 studies conducted  by the State  (Table 2-4  and
Figure 2-1).  The following parameters were considered to be of  greatest
interest because they are most likely to be affected by coal mining:

     Parameter               Acceptable Range in Stream

     Conductivity                     	
     pH                      6.0-9.0 (SWRB  1980)
     Iron                    less than 1.0 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
     Manganese               less than 0.05 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
     Sulfate                 less than 250 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
     Alkalinity              greater than 20.0 mg/1 as CaC03 (EPA 1976a)
     Dissolved oxygen        5 mg/1 except in trout waters, 6 mg/1  in
                               trout waters,  7 mg/1 in trout spawning
                               areas (SWRB 1977)

     The degradation of water quality is to be avoided, according to  the
proposed regulations.  Existing high quality  waters (including trout
streams, streams designated by the Legislature under the Natural Streams
Preservation Act; streams listed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources [1979] as
having high quality, Federal Wild and Scenic  Rivers; all waterways  in State
and National Parks,  State and National Forests, and Recreation Areas; and
National Rivers) are to have their high quality maintained, unless  limited
degradation is allowed (following public hearing) that will not  impair
existing uses, will not violate State or Federal water quality criteria,
and will not interfere with attainment of National water quality goals.

     With reference to AMD, the proposed regulations require:

     •  Diversion of surface water and groundwater to minimize the
        flow of water into mine workings

     •  The handling of water in mine workings so as to minimize
        the formation and surface discharge of AMD

     •  The retention of refuse that produces discharge of pH less
        than 6.0 outside of waterways

     •  Handling of acid-producing overburden to minimize AMD
        formation

     •  24-hour flow equalization of discharge

     •  Mine closure methods to minimize AMD

     •  Treatment of AMD where appropriate.
                                     2-9

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Figure 2-1
WATER QUALITY SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (STORET 1971-1978, Friel and Bain 1971, USGS 1979)
                                              0        10
                                                WAPORA, INC.
   NOTE:
   STATIONS  75,76,81,82,84,93,123,124,127, 130,1 55,164,185,191, AND 195
   HAVE NOT BEEN LOCATED DUE TO  INSUFFICIENT  INFORMATION.
                             2-30

-------
     Surface waters are used by  a  number  of municipalities  within  the  Basin
as their source of public water  supply.  Table 2-5 and Figure  2-2  present
municipalities in the Basin and  the  source of  their water  supply,  whether
surface or underground waters.

     2.1.1.3.  Stream Classification

     The streams of the Basin have been classified in several  ways.  The
majority of streams in the Basin now meet or are expected  to meet  the
applicable water quality standards when reasonable measures have been  fully
implemented, including the construction of municipal treatment  plants  and
compliance with NPDES permit conditions.  In these streams, controllable
point source effluents are considered to be the principal  limiting factor
affecting water quality.  Such streams have been designated by  the
WVDNR-Water Resources as effluent-limited streams.  However, in 46 streams
(see Section 2.1.1.2.) in the Basin, water quality is considered to be
unlikely to meet standards in the  foreseeable future even  after
implementation of best practical control  technology.  All  of these streams
are affected by acid mine drainage and 14 are also affected by  organics.
These streams are categorized as water quality-limited (Table  2-6,  Figure
2-3.

     High quality streams have been  identified by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
so that consultation with their  personnel can occur before construction that
might damage fish resources takes  place.  High quality streams  include
streams with native or stocked trout plus warm water streams (more  than five
miles long) that have both desirable fish populations and  public use.  There
are 163 high quality streams in  the Basin (Table 2-6, Figure 2-4).

     Trout waters have been designated by the SWRB and are  protected by
special water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen, aluminum,  cadmium,
iron, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, residual chlorine, and temperature
(Table 2-2).  The trout waters in  the Basin are listed in Table 2-6 and
shown on Figure 2-5.  The Special Standards for trout waters are to be
applied to all trout streams, whether formally designated or not
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1980).

     In the southern and eastern portions of the Basin there are many
streams that have very low alkalinity (less than 15 ppm) and low
conductivity (less than 50 umhos/cm; Table 2-6 and Figure 2-6).  These
lightly buffered streams are highly susceptible to pH changes and  therefore
are very sensitive to acid mine  drainage.  Many of these streams support
native trout populations.   Streams or watersheds principally affected
include the Buckhannon River and its tributaries above the  confluence  with
French Creek, Middle Fork River watershed, Shavers Fork and many of  its
tributaries, Blackwater River watershed, Red Creek watershed,  and  Otter
Creek watershed.

     The WVDNR-Reclamation adopted surface mining regulations  during 1978
under Chapter 20-6 of the West Virginia Code and in conformance with the
                                     2-31

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RIVER BASIN (WV DEPT of Health 1977)
                                         0       10
                                           WAPOFU, INC.
                          2-34

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-------
       Figure 2-3
       STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN THAT ARE WATER
       QUALITY LIMITED DUE TO MINE  DRAINAGE AND ORGANICS
       (adapted from WVDNR-Water Resources 1976)
      SEGMENTS CLASSIFIED AS WATER
mi..-'' .."  QUALITY LIMITED DUE TO MINE
      DRAINAGE

      SEGMENTS CLASSIFIED AS WATER
*•••  QUALITY LIMITED DUE TO BOTH
      MINE DRAINAGE AND ORGANICS
MILES
                                                    0        10
                                                       WAPORA, INC.
                                     2-38

-------
Figure 2-4
HIGH QUALITY STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from WVDNR - Wildlife Resources 1979)
                                                 \
                                          0        10
                                            WAPORA.INC.
                            2-39

-------
Figure 2-5

TROUT STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA  RIVER BASIN (adapted
from WVDNR- Wildlife Resources 1979)
                                       COOPERS ROCK
                                      .LAKE
                                                 \
                                          a       10
                                             WAPOFA, INC.
                            2-40

-------
Figure 2-6

LIGHTLY BUFFERED STREAMS IN  THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from WVDNR - Wildlife Resources 1978)
                                         0       10
                                            WAPORA, INC.
                           2-41

-------
SMCRA.  Included in the proposed regulations  are critical  streams,  defined
as streams with less than 15 ppm methyl orange alkalinity  (to pH 4.5)  and
conductivity less than 50 umhos/cm.  Thus, the definition  of critical
streams and low nutrient streams is identical.  When surface mining  is
proposed in watersheds of such streams, the premining  application  for  a
permit is to contain the results of analyses  of samples of the overburden
that is to be encountered.  Special measures  to prevent stream pollution by
runoff from such overburden may be required from applicants.  To date  18
streams have been designated as critical under the proposed regulations in
the Monongahela River Basin (Table 2-6 and Figure 2-7).  Other streams in
the Basin also may satisfy the definition of  critical  streams.

     Many streams in the Basin are adversely  affected  by either active or
abandoned mines.  Those most severely affected are categorized as
non-sensitive (Table 2-9; see Section 5.2.).  These streams generally have
pH values below 5 and currently support little or no aquatic life.   Some
streams appear in more than one category and  appear to reflect contradictory
evidence or data of various ages.  For instance, over  half (29 of 46)  of the
water quality-limited streams, which have long-term pollution problems
according to the WVDNR-Water Resources (1975) are considered to be high
quality streams by the WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1979).  Similarly,  several
trout streams also appear on the list of water quality-limited streams.

     2.1.1.4.  Pollution Sources

     Mine drainage is the primary origin of point source pollution  in  the
Basin (see Section 2.1.1.5.).   Industrial effluents are not a major  problem
in the Basin (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976).  Except in  portions of  the West
Fork drainage, municipal wastes are not a problem (WVDNR-Water Resources
1976).

     Non-point sources in the Basin include runoff from mining facilities,
timberlands, agricultural lands, roadways, and urban areas.  Sediment
concentrations in streams increase naturally  following heavy rains,
particularly in steep slope areas,  even under undisturbed conditions.
Timbering, roadbuilding, and other disturbances often  increase sediment
concentrations sharply over undisturbed conditions.  Sediment loads  for
various streams in the Basin are shown in Table 2-7.

     Timber harvesting operations can be especially significant sources of
sediment, but they are unregulated under the  Clean Water Act.  The humus
beneath stands of hemlock and other conifers  can yield organic acids to
runoff and create low pH values in some undisturbed streams.  Sediment
loads typically are high in the runoff from cultivated fields and heavily
grazed pastures; nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations also may be  high in
agricultural runoff.  Combined storm and sanitary sewers in urban areas may
overflow during intensive rains.

     Only logging and road construction appear to be significant non-point
source problems in the Basin.   Pollution from agricultural sources  is not a
                                    2-42

-------
Figure 2-7
CRITICAL STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR 1978)
                                              I
                                         WAPORA, INC.
                        2-43

-------
Table 2-7.  Annual sediment loads for selected streams in the Monongahela
  River Basin (Friel et al. 1967).
                                           Drainage       Average Annual
                                           area (sq.      Sediment Load
                                            miles)      (tons per sq. mi.)
Tygart Valley River near Beverly
Tygart Valley River at Belington
Shavers Fork at Cheat Bridge
Middle Fork River at Audra
Cheat River at Rowlesburg
Cheat River at Albright
Buckhannon River at Hall
Tygart Valley River near Graf ton
Blackwater River at Hendricks
Monongahela River at Fairmont
Monongahela River near Morgantown
West Fork River at Gypsy
West Fork River at Enterprise
  187
  408
   64
  149
  972
1,048
  277
1,302
  138
2,143
2,642
  610
  759
 46.0
135.0
 93.0
 36.6
 85.0
 81.0
 94.0
 31.9
 34.0
120.0
146.0
326.0
674.0
                                2-44

-------
ma^or problem,  and urbanized  areas  comprise  only  10%  of  the total area
(WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).  Because  67% of  the- Basin  is  forested,  logging
is of special concern  and has  been  identified  as  one  of  the causes of
turbidity in Basin streams  (WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).   Streams that have
been adversely  affected  by  logging  activities  include Tygart  V-alley River,
Shavers Fork, and Blackwater River  (WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).
Sedimentation caused by  road  construction  also is  a problem,  especially in
small streams.  Siltation caused by construction  of Interstate  79,  and
Corridors F, and H have  affected  a number of  streams in the  Basin
(WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).

     2.1.1.5.  Coal Mine Related Problems
     Mining is the major  source  of  pollution  in  the  Basin,  in  fact,  the
Basin is considered  to  be more  intensely  polluted  by mine  drainage  than any
other ma}or river system  in the  United  States  (EPA 1971).   Of  6,217  stream
miles in the Basin,  1,368 (22%)  are  affected  by  mine drainage  (Table 2-8).
Watersheds having the highest percentage  of stream miles affected include
Monongahela River, Lower West Fork  River,  Elk  Creek,  Lower  Tygart Valley
River, and the Lower Cheat River.   All  had greater than 40% of the  stream
miles in their watersheds affected  by mine drainage.   Streams  in the Basin
affected by mine drainage are listed in Table  2-9.   Some streams on  the list
have improved (e.g., Monongahela River, Booth's  Creek, Indian  Creek, Elk
Creek); others have  gotten worse (e.g., Middle Fork  River,  North Fork of
Blackwater River); many have remained the  same  (e.g.,  Cassity  Fork,  Roaring
Creek, Deckers Creek, West Run).  The lack of  improvement  is in many cases
due to the large number of abandoned mines in  the  Basin.  Green
International (1979) reported that,  in  the Monongahela River Basin  there
were almost 4,000 abandoned mines (Table 2-10) compared to  less than 350
active mines, a ratio of greater than 10:1.  Clearly,  water quality  in the
Basin will not be improved significantly  until  these abandoned mines are
sealed or reclaimed  adequately.

     Active mining operations are regulated as point source discharges under
the NPDES permit program.  The Nationwide effluent limitations for  existing
sources in the coal  mining category  were  last  revised  during 1977.   They
limit the pH level and the concentrations of iron, manganese,  and total
suspended solids in  the effluent that legally  can  be discharged by mines and
coal preparation plants.  Self-monitoring requirements are  imposed on
permittees, who must report the  actual  values  of regulated  parameters in
their discharge to WVDNR-Water Resources and to EPA  Region  III.  Enforcement
of the Nationwide effluent limitations  is receiving  a  growing  priority in
Region III.  Revised regulations are expected  to be  promulgated in the near
future.

     The major problems associated with active and abandoned mine discharges
and other mine facilities and their haul roads are sedimentation, acid mine
drainage, and high levels of iron, manganese,  and  sulfates.
                                      2-45

-------
Table 2-8.  Miles of streams affected by mine drainage in the Monongahela
  River Basin (EPA 1971).
Stream
Upper Monongahela River
Buffalo & Paw Paw Creeks
Lower West Fork River
Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Upper West Fork River
Lower Tygart Valley River
Middle Tygart Valley River
Buckhannon River
Middle Fork River
Upper Tygart Valley River
Leading Creek
Lower Cheat River
Big Sandy Creek
Upper Cheat River
Shavers Fork
Blackwater River Area
Total Miles
of Streams*
440
260
375
188
182
579
287
470
464
227
521
90
255
312
495
323
749
Miles
Affected
180
42
171
37
96
146
123
140
64
19
22
0
144
68
30
42
44
Ratio miles affected/
Total miles
.41
.16
.46
.20
.53
.25
.43
.30
.14
.08
.04
0
.56
.22
.06
.13
.06
TOTALS                           6,217          1,368               0.22
*  Estimated values obtained by multiplying the  drainage  area by
   1.5 miles of stream per square mile.
                                   2-46

-------
Table 2-9.  Streams in the Monongahela River Basin affected by mining
  (after WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980).
Stream
Barbour County
Buckhannon River
Laurel Creek
Middle Fork River
Sugar Creek of Laurel
Big Run
Cranes Branch
Dick Drain
Fork Run
Perks Run
Wash Run
Brushy Fork
Buckhannon River
Elk Creek
Foxgrape Run
Hacker Creek
Left Branch
Sandy Creek
Simpson Creek
Tygart Valley River
Harrison County
West Fork River
Tenmile Creek
Little Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Jones Creek
Rockcamp Run
Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Little Tenmile Creek
West Fork River
Little Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Simpson Creek
Lewis County
Hackers Creek
Right Fork Stonecoal
West Fork River
Stonecoal Creek
Polluted Length
(Miles)

2.4
4.5
12.0
4.5
1.6
1.2
1.1
2.0
2.0
2.1
5.2
6.6
12.0
3.4
0.5
3.0
14.0
7.0
36.5

39.0
18.0
5.0
11.0
6.0
6.7
6.0
4.0
3.0
29.0
3.8
5.0
8.5

12.6
5.5
35.0
2.0
Area
(Acres)

29.1
10.9
101.8
10.9
0.8
0.6
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
10.2
0.8
0.2
0.7
25.5
2.5
530.9

520.0
65.5
15.2
46.7
2.9
3.2
2.9
1.9
1.5
386.7
11.5
21.2
20.6

22.9
10.0
212.1
4.8
Pollution Level"

Light
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Heavy
Very Light
Very Light
Very Light
Very Light
Very Light
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Moderate
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly

Moderate
Heavy
Moderate
Moderate
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Moderate
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly

Light
Light
Light
Grossly
                                  2-47

-------
Table 2-9.  Streams in the Monongahela River Basin affected by mining
  (continued).
                                              I
      Stream
Polluted Length  Area
    (Miles)     (Acres)  Pollution Level"
Marion County
Paw Paw Creek
Buffalo Creek
Pricketts Creek
Pyles Fork
Monongahela River
West Fork River
Tygart Valley River
Monongalia County
Whiteday Creek
Monongahela River
West Run
Dents Run
Deckers Creek
Booth's Creek
Indian Creek
Cheat River
Preston County
Big Sandy Creek
Cheat River (Above Albright)
Lick Run
Pringle Run
Little Sandy Creek
Muddy Creek
Brains Creek
Deckers Creek
Little Sandy Creek
Cheat River (Below Albright)
Sandy Creek
Randolph County
Middle Fork River
Red Run
Taylor Run
Shavers Fork
Grassy Fork
Cassity Fork
Fishing Hawk Creek
Middle Fork Tygart Valley
River
Panthers Run
Roaning Creek
Taylor Run
Tygart Valley River
Unnamed

5.7
23.0
0.4
1.0
11.1
11.5
9.8

3.5
26.5
6.5
4.5
10.2
6.6
9.2
5.8

17.0
19.0
3.7
4.3
7.0
5.0
3.0
7.0
7.0
20.0
7.5

4.7
2.5
1.9
54.6
2.5
2.5
3.6
5.0

4.6
12.1
1.0
5.3
3.5

13.8
83.6
14.5
0.5
664.0
243.9
326.7

23.2
1,492.0
7.9
8.2
24.7
16.0
22.3
298.8

206.1
806.1
1.8
2.1
21 . 2
18.2
7.3
25.5
24 . 2
545.5
13.6

28.5
1.5
1.2
529.5
1.2
1.2
2.2
24.2

1.1
8.8
0.2
70.7
0.4

Light
Light
Light
Heavy
Light
Moderate
Grossly

Light
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly

Moderate
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly'
Gross! v
Grossly

Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Heavy
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly

Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
                              2-48

-------
Table 2-9.  Streams in the Monongahela River Basin affected by mining
  (concluded).
         Stream
Polluted Length  Area
    (Miles)     (Acres)
Pollution Level*
Taylor County
Right Fork of Simpson Creek
Buck Run
Maple Run
Little Sandy Creek
Simpson Creek
Threefork Creek
Tygart Valley River
Raccoon Creek
Tucker County
Cheat River
Black Fork
N. Fk. Blackwater River
Beaver Creek
Blackwater River
Chaffey Run
Hawkins Run
Lang Run
Lost Run
North Fork
Pendleton Creek
Upshur County
Middle Fork River
Bull Run
Mud Lick
Turkey Run
Buckhannon River
Left Fork of Sand

2.5
3.1
2.1
2.1
6.3
9.8
10.0
10.5

21.0
4.0
4.2
11.2
10.4
1.5
1.8
3.1
1.0
2.5
5.6

14.4
4.0
2.6
4.6
13.8
2.4

1.2
1.5
1.0
3.8
3.8
17.8
242.4
19.1

636.4
58.2
3.1
10.9
63.0
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.1
0.9
2.0

122.2
1.9
1.3
2.2
117.1
1.2

Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly

Light
Moderate
Light
Grossly
Light
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly

Light
Moderate
Heavy
Very Light
Grossly
Grossly
* Pollution level is based upon judgement of the Department of Natural
  Resources'  personnel.

-------
Table  2-10.  Coal mine related discharges in the Monongahela River Basin
  (Green International 1979).

























Sub-basin Watershed
Monongahela River (Mainstem)
Buffalo Creek/Paw Creek
Lower West Fork
Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Upper West Fork
Lower Tygart Valley River
Middle Tygart Valley River
Upper Tygart Valley River
Buckhannon River
Middle Fork River
Lower Cheat River
Upper Cheat River
Big Sandy Creek
Blackwater River
Shavers Fork
Snowy Creek/Rhine Creek
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     Active mines  and  abandoned  mines  represent  widespread and significant
sources of non-point pollutants  that may  affect  both  surface  water and
groundwater.  Where reclamation  has not been accomplished to  replace top-
soil and vegetation on the  surface, fractured overburden material  offers an
extensive rock  surface for  oxidation  and  leaching.  As a resul-t various
elements can be dissolved and  carried  into  streams  along with sediment.

     Sedimentation  from  active and  abandoned mines  historically has
contributed to water quality problems  in  the Basin.   It  is of special
concern in the Basin because of  the large number of trout streams  in the
Basin and the number of  sensitive fish species presently inhabiting Basin
waters (see Section 2.2.).  The  sediment  load from  uncontrolled surface
mines may be 2,000 times greater than  in  runoff  from  undisturbed forests
(EPA 1976a).

     Abandoned mines eventually  are to be reclaimed under the direction of
WVDNR-Reclamation using  Federal  funds  allocated  pursuant to the SMCRA.
Some abandoned mines may be reclaimed  by  mine operators  who undertake
remitting or mining adjacent to the  abandoned mines.

     Water quality varies tremendously throughout  the Basin.   It is
typically good to excellent in areas where  mining  is  absent or minimal
(e.g., Upper Cheat River, Upper Tygart Valley River),  but is  often poor or
marginal in areas where  mining is heavy.  Acid production, high sulfates,
high iron, and sedimentation are the principal concerns.   Low pH values are
already a problem in many Basin  streams including most of those listed in
Table 2-9.  Sampling during 1980 as part  of the  303 planning  process
identified over 100 streams in which the  pH was  less  than 5.   Low  pH is of
special concern because  of  the naturally  low buffering capacity exhibited by
many Basin streams.  Sedimentation, which historically has been a  problem,
is of added concern because of the  difficulties  associated with controlling
it and the inherent sensitivity  of many of  the Basin's aquatic organisms to
sedimentation (see Section 2.2.).  Because  of the extensive surface mining
that has occurred there,  the greatest sedimentation problems  occur in the
West Fork River watershed (WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).   A study by USDA-SCS
indicated that sedimentation rates in the Elk Creek watershed might be as
high as 970 tons per square mile.  Several  streams  in the Elk Creek
watershed (Brushy Run,  Stewart Run, and others)  already  have  had their
aquatic habitat severely reduced due to mine-induced  sedimentation
(WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).   High sulfate levels  are a problem in selected
streams throughout the Basin and are a major concern  in  much  of the West
Fork River drainage.

     The biggest problem associated with  analyzing  water quality data is
having sufficient data to analyze problems  on a  local  or specific  level.
This problem primarily results from the fact that most of the water quality
sampling stations are located  on the major  streams  of  the Basin, and very
few are located on the smaller streams.   Thus, the  water quality in
mainstems of such streams as the Monongahela River  can be described fairly
accurately,  but little information  is available  for smaller streams like
                                    2-51

-------
Stalnacker Run.  Unfortunately,  it  is  the  smaller  streams  of  the  Basin that
are most susceptible to mine-related effects.

     The water quality in small  streams or watersheds depends  on  a host of
factors including overburden characteristics, mining and reclamation
practices, and local hydrologic  conditions.  The water  quality in four
small watersheds tributary to the Clear Fork of the Coal River,  for
example, was compared by Plass  (1975)  to ascertain the  effects of mining
(Table 2-11).  He found that pH  increased  slightly, iron remained constant,
and sulfate  increased after mining.  Specific conductance,  alkalinity,
bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and zinc  also increased after mining.
These data,  like the ambient data discussed  in this report,  indicate  the
wide seasonal and annual variations for most parameters.   Thus, the water
quality impacts of mining in specific  local watersheds  appear  to  be
variable, and the quantitative  changes in  the values of the affected
parameters can be predicted only on the basis of local  data.

     The following sections describe water quality in the  major watersheds
of the Basin with an emphasis on those parameters  most  likely  to  be affected
by mining.

     Monongahela River

     Until the early 1970's the Monongahela River  was highly  acidic and
supported little aquatic life (see Section 2.2.).  Since 1972,  however,  pH
values have  been above 6 and now are regularly between  6.5  and 7.5
(Jernezcic 1978).  Sulfate levels are high (100-200 mg/1),  but not  so  high
as to be a major concern.  Iron  concentrations are also rather high,
typically averaging about 1 mg/1.  Concentrations  of other  metals are  low
(USAGE 1976).  Overall water quality in the mainstem Monongahela  River has
improved to  the point where it now supports a substantial  sport fishery
(see Section 2.2.).

     Dunkard Creek

     Water quality in Dunkard Creek is fair to good.  pH values  are
typically near neutral (7.0) and sulfate concentrations are usually between
50 and 100 mg/1 (STORET file data,  1978-1980).  Iron concentrations vary
widely (0.3-18.8) but usually are below 1 mg/1.  These  fluctuations suggest
that Dunkard Creek receives periodic "slugs" of acid mine  drainage.

     Buffalo Creek

     pH values in Buffalo Creek  are typically near or above 7.  Sulfate
concentrations are usually quite high,  regularly exceeding  100 mg/1 and
often exceeding 200 mg/1 (Table 2-4).  Iron concentrations  vary widely
(0.3-11.6 mg/1), but are generally near 1 mg/1.
                                     2-52

-------







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     West Fork River

     Due to intense mining  activity  throughout  much  of  its  watershed,  the
West Fork River until recently was severely  polluted  by  acid  mine  drainage.
Although it still receives  significant AMD inputs,  its high (r-elative  to
other streams in the Basin) buffering capacity  has  allowed  it to recover
substantially.  pH values typically  are  near 7  throughout the length of the
River.  Sulfate and iron levels, however, show  distinct  differences  over the
length of the River.  Iron  and sulfate concentrations  in the  mainstetn  above
Weston WV, although high, are not excessive.  Sulfates are  generally near 50
mg/1 and iron is usually between 1 and 2 mg/1 (USAGE  1979).   Near
Enterprise, sulfates average more than 300 mg/1 and  iron over 4  mg/1 (Table
?.-4).  The high sulfate levels have  caused problems  at Clarksburg  which uses
the West Fork River as its  source of drinking water  (WVDNR  1976).  These
elevated levels apparently  are the result of significant treated and
untreated mine effluents which the River receives  from the  Simpson Creek and
Tenmile Creek watersheds.   Thus, the water quality  in  the River  above
Simpson Creek can be characterized as fair to good, while below  Simpson
Creek it is poor.

     Tenmile Creek

     Water quality in the lower Tenmile  Creek is  still poor,  but,  above
Sardis WV, it is fairly good (Verbally, Mr. D.  Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources to Mr. Greg Seegert, October 1980).   pH values are  generally  not a
problem, but high sulfate and iron concentrations  are.   Data  collected  near
Lumberport WV show that sulfates are high (50-400 mg/1)  and iron
concentrations regularly exceed 2 mg/1.  Recent (1980) data gathered near
Maken WV show much lower levels for  these two parameters.   Sulfate and  iron
concentrations averaged 25  and 0.9 mg/1, respectively  (208  program file
data) .

     Elk Creek

     Water quality data for this watershed is sparse.  Data gathered as part
of the 208 program showed pH values  of 6.7-8.4, iron concentrations  of
0.4-0.9 mg/1, and sulfate concentrations of 360-610  (Table  2-4).   Water
quality in the Basin has been characterized as  still  poor from past  AMD
problems but is improving (Verbally, Mr. Dave Elkinton,  WVDNR-Water
Resources to Mr. Greg Seegert, October 1980).

     Tygart Valley River (TVR)

     The TVR has good to excellent water quality  above Roaring Creek
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1976).  For instance, near Daily  WV,  pH values  were
=7, sulfates were =10 mg/1, and iron concentrations were usually less  than
0.5 mg/1.  Water quality in the middle and lower reaches varies
considerably.  Water quality is generally good  in  the middle  sections  of the
River except during low flow periods when acid  inputs  from  a  variety of
tributaries can cause significant adverse impacts.  For  instance,  during the
summer of 1980 a severe depression of the pH was observed in  the TVR near
Belington with pH values being as low as 4.1 (Zeto  1980).   A significant
                                     2-54

-------
fish kill resulted.  The  principal AMD  sources  were Grassy  Run,  Roaring
Creek, Beaver Creek, and  Island Run.

     Water quality  in  the  lower TVR  is  generally  poor,  primarily because of
the acid impacts from  the Three Forks watershed  (USWFS  1979).- At  Colfax WV,
near the mouth of  the  TVR,  the River  typically  shows  the  following
characteristics:   pH - 6,  iron - 0.5 mg/1,  and  sulfate  -  20-40 mg/1.

     Buckhannon River

     Water quality  in  the  upper portions  of the watershed is  excellent:   pH
values are between  6 and  7, and iron and  sulfate  concentrations  are  low.
Alkalinities are very  low,  often less than  10 mg/1, meaning that the
Buckhannon River is poorly  buffered and hence very susceptible to  AMD.
Water quality declines rapidly as one proceeds  downstream.   pH values  near
Hall WV are similar to those upstream but sulfates have increased  from
<10 mg/1 to 20-50 mg/1, and iron concentrations have  increased from  0.4 mg/1
to as high as 3 mg/1.  Alkalinities are still quite low (10-15 mg/1).

     Middle Fork River (MFR)
     The situation in the MFR  is very  similar  to  that  in  the  Buckhannon
River.  That is, in its upper  reaches  the MFR  is  a high quality,  poorly
buffered stream, which, because of  acid  inputs  from  mine  polluted  streams,
becomes rapidly degraded as one progresses downstream.  Near  Adolph WV,  the
MFR is a naturally acidic (pH  5-6),  lightly  buffered  stream  (alkalinities
<5 mg/1).  No evidence of mine pollution is  present;  sulfates are  <10 mg/1,
and iron concentrations are typically  0.1  to 0.2  mg/1  (STORET file data,
1980).  Due to acid inputs from Cassity Fork and  other smaller  tributaries,
the MFR becomes increasingly acidic  as one proceeds  downstream,  and by
Audra WV, pH values below 5 are common.

     Three Forks Creek

     This stream and much of its watershed is  highly  polluted by AMD.   Iron
concentrations regularly exceed 1 mg/1, sulfates  typically exceed  100 mg/1,
and pH values below 4 are common (Table 2-4).

     Cheat River
                                                                           \
     The Cheat River above Rowlesburg  WV has good to  excellent  xi/ater
quality; however,  between Rowlesburg and Albright WV, a number  of  acid
pollution tributaries enter the river  and  severely depress its  pH.  Above
Rowlesburg, pH values are generally between  6  and 7,  alkalinities  between  15
and 20 mg/1, sulfates between  15 and 25 mg/1 and  iron  less than 0.5 mg/1
(Table 2-4).  At the Route 73 bridge in Preston County, WV, pH  values are
usually below 6 and often below 5,   sulfates  average 40-50 mg/1  and iron
concentrations are generally between 0.5 and 1.0 mg/1.  Streams contributing
the most to this deterioration of water quality include Lick  Run,  Heather
Run, Pringle Run,  Morgan Run, and Muddy Creek.
                                    2-55

-------
     Big Sandy Creek

     This stream, though adversely affected by AMD, continues  to  support  a
surprisingly diverse aquatic community (see Section 2.2.).  Water quality
data suggest that conditions are fairly good  (Table 2-4).  Recent data
suggest that Little Sandy Creek is the major  source of AMD in  the watershed
(Table 2-4, 1980, 303 program data).

     Blackwater River

     The Blackwater River is a naturally acidic, poorly buffered  stream.
Above Davis WV, it has pH values between 5 and 6 and low  alkalinity,
sulfates, and iron concentrations (Table 2-4).  Below Davis, due  to AMD
inputs from North Fork and from Beaver Creek, pH values are depressed below
5, and sulfate and iron concentrations are increased.

     Shavers Fork

     Shavers Fork is another naturally acidic, poorly buffered  stream.  Many
of its tributaries are too acidic to support  any fishery  (Menendez  1978).
pH values in the mainstem vary from 5 to 7 depending on time of year with
alkalinities usually near 10 mg/1 (Menendez 1978).   This  combination of low
pH and low alkalinities makes it highly susceptible to damage  from AMD.
Sulfate and iron concentrations are usually low (Table 2-4).   Shavers Fork
also has had problems with sedimentation caused by logging operations in  the
stream's headwaters (Menendez 1978).

     Dry Fork

     The Dry Fork watershed has been essentially unmined  resulting  in high
water quality throughout the Basin.  pH values in the watershed are
generally between 5 and 7.  The lower pH values, however, are  a result of
natural acidity, not AMD.  Iron and sulfate concentrations are  low  (1980 303
program data).  Most of the streams in the watershed have alkalinities of
about 20 mg/1, but some (e.g., Red Creek and  Otter Creek) have values
considerably below this level.  The combination of naturally low  pH values
and low to medium alkalinities makes  the watershed susceptible to AMD.

2.1.2.  Oroundwater Resources

     Although surface waters are the  maior sources of public water  supplies
for the larger communities in the Basin (Table 2-5), groundwater  is the
principal source for many of the smaller communities and  individual users  in
the Basin.  The available water supply data (Table 2-5 and Figure 2-2)
indicate that 22 municipal water supply systems rely solely on  groundwater
from wells and springs in the Basin.   Three other municipal systems are both
groundwater and surface water.  Most  of these municipal consumers are
located in the northern part of the Basin and use less than 50 thousand
gallons per day.  Other large groundwater consumers include mines,
industrial operations, and recreational and institutional facilities.
                                     2-56

-------
Private water  supply wells  are  common  in  the  sparsely  populated  rural
sections of the Basin.

     2.1.2.1.  Hydrology of the Basin

     The groundwater resources  of  the  Monongahela  River  Basin generally
occur in sedimentary rocks  of Devonian age  (395 million  years) or  younger.
The alluvial sand and  gravel deposits  in  the  valleys of  the  Monongahela
River and its  tributaries also  contain locally  important'groundwater
supplies.  Older, deeper strata generally contain  saline or  brackish
groundwater that locally may occur close  to the surface.   A  rock stratum
that bears groundwater  is known as an  aquifer.

     The value of groundwater as a resource is  related mainly to three
factors:  the  depth at  which the water is found; the rate at which it can
flow into a well; and,  the  quality of  the water produced.  These
characteristics are governed by geological  structures.   The  Monongahela
River Basin is in the Appalachian Plateau.  The western  half of  the Basin is
underlain primarily by  nearly horizontal  layers of shales, coal, and
sandstone, and the eastern half of the Basin  is underlain primarily by
moderately folded layers of sandstone,  coal,  and shales  (Figure  2-8).
Portions of Tucker and  Randolph Counties  contain deposits  of alluvial sand
and gravel, and limestone (see  Section 2.7. for additional geology
discuss ion).

     The quality and quantity of groundwater  in the Basin generally is
determined by  the mineral composition,  structure,  and depth  of the aquifers.
Naturally-occurring minerals, saline and  brackish  water,  and agricultural
and domestic wastes locally can degrade the quality of groundwater.

     The aquifers of Basinwide  importance generally consist  of sandstones
interbedded with thinner strata of coal,  shale, limestone, and clay (Table
2-12).  Except where they crop  out at  the surface,  permeable sandstone
aquifers are confined  above and below  by  relatively impermeable  strata of
clay and shale.

     Most wells in the  Basin are drilled  into rock aquifers.   In this type
of well, the water moves to the well through  pores between the grains  of
the sandstone  or through cracks where  the rock  is  fractured.   The
sandstones store large  quantities of water, but the delivery of  adequate
amounts of water to a well  depends on  the presence of  a  network  of
fractures.  The geological  characteristics, water  yields,  and  water quality
of the various geological formations in the Basin  are summarized in
Table 2-12.  The locations  of these  formations  are  shown on  Figure 2-55,
Section 2.7.

     Landers (1976) recognized  six regions  that characterize the groundwater
regimes of West Virginia.  Five of these  regions are recognized  in the
Monongahela River Basin (Figure 2-8).   Landers  also mapped the average
yields of wells throughout  the State.  This map has been adapted to the
                                     2-57

-------
Figure 2-8

HYDROGEOLOGIC  SUBREGIONS OF THE  MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (Landers 1976)
                Nearly horfeontal scales
                                        •^'Moderately ~"t
                                        folded sandstone
                                              and co
Near ryVhoriz exit al
                     with shale and
                        coal
                                           Alluvial;
                                       sands and gravels
                                        f       /'
                                                       \
                                               O        10
                                                  WAPORA, INC.
                              2-58

-------
Table  2-12.    Summary  of  aquifer  characteristics  in  the  Monongahela  River

      Basin,  West  Virginia  (Friel  and  others  1967).
                  Rock units
                                       Thickness
                                        (feec)
               Water yield and development
  Water quality
            Quaternary aZluviua --

            I'nconsol idated river,
              lake, and glacial  out-
              wash deposits of gravel,
              sand, clay,  and  silty
              clay.  Deposits  are
              brown, gray,  red,
              yellov and are gen-
              erally pcorly sorted;
              ferns semiconfined
              aquifer in moat  areas.
   0-50    Source  of a few domestic  supplies.
            Yields range from less than 1 to 10
            gptn and average about 5  gpm.  Wells
            drilled as deep as SO feet, average
            depth  18 feet.
Water soft, low
  in dissolved
  solids and chlo-
  ride; high in
  iron.
            Dur.kard Group — Permian and Pennsylvanian
            Gray, green,  and  brown
             sands tone;  red and
             varicolored  sandy or
             liny shale;  minor beds
             of coal,  fire clay,
             carbonaceous shale,
             and fresh-water  lime-
             stone:  forms confined
             aquifer.
0-1,090    Yields adequate for many domestic
           and farm supplies and  a few small
           to moderate industrial supplies
           along northwest edge of basin.
           Yields of wells range  from less
           than 1 to 75 gpm and average about
           12 gpm.  Wells drilled as deep as
           321 feet, average depth 77 feet.
Moderate hardness,
 ] ov in iron and
 chloride; mod-
 erate amount of
 dissolved solids.
            Monongahela Group -- Pennsylvanian

            Gray and  brown sand-
             stone, red and vari-
             colored  sandy and
             1im>  shale,  some im-
             portant  coal beds;
             ninor beds of fresh-
             water 1 iaiestone, fire
             clay  and carbonaceous
             shale; fenns confined
             aquifer.
  0-485    Yields enough water  for cany domestic
           and farm and small  to moderate in-
           dustrial aupplies  in north-central
           part of basin along Monongahela
           River.  Yields range from less than
           1 to 75 gpm and average about 13
           gpm.  Wells drilled as deep as 385
           feet,  average deptn 98 feet.

           Extensive mining in Monongahela
           Group has partly drained some areas;
           ground-water conditions stable in
           some areas, but continually chang-
           ing in areas where  heavy mine pump-
           age is maintained and periodically
           alcared.
Water hard, low
 in iron, chlo-
 ride, and dis-
 solved solids.
            Conecaugh Group -- Pennsylvanian

            Gray and brown sand-
             stone, massive and
             coarse-grained at
             base; red and gray
             sand/ shale, and cal-
             careous shale; minor
             beds of coal, lime-
             stone, fire clay:
             forms confined
             aquifer.
 79-839    Most developed  aquifer  in the basin.
           Adequate yield for domestic, farm,
           and small to moderate  industrial
           supplies throughout central and
           western parts  of basin.  Yields of
           wells range  from less  than 1 to as
           much as 400  gpm; however, the aver-
           age is about 16 gpm.   Highest yields
           are reported from wells situated in
           valleys and  tapping the massive
           sandstones at  the base of the Group.
           Wells drilled  as deep as 985 feet,
           average depth  107 feet.
Water is moderat-
 ely hard,  low in
 irori, chloride,
 and dissolved
 solids.
Allegheny Group -- Pennsylvanian
Gray and brown massive 153-300
coarse-grained sand-
stone; sandy shales
and siltstones, s ev-
eral important coals,
minor beds of lime-
stone, and fire clay:
forms confined
aquifer.





Yields adequate for st&all to moderate
industrial and publ ic water suppl les
in central and northeastern part of
baain. Yields of wells range from
less than 1 to 350 gpm and average
about 26 gptn. Aquifer untested in
many areas; also is dev eloped in
many areas where overlain by
Conemaugh Group. Wells drill ed as
deep as 672 faet, average depth Hi
feec. Coal minirg has partly
dra tned some rocks , but ground-wate r
conditions stable in most areas.

Water is moderat-
ely hard , h igh
in iron, and low
in chloride and
dissolved solids.








                                                    2-59

-------
Table 2-12.  Summary  of  aquifer  characteristics  (continued).
             Rork units
                                  Thickness
                                    (feet)
                Water yield and development
  Water quality
       pottsvilie  Group — Pennsylvania!)
       predomiriar.tly massive
        conglomcrat ic sand-
        stones wirh  some  inter-
        b&dded sandy shales,
        shale, thin  irregular
        end impure coal beds;
        end minor beds of
        lir.estone:  forms  con-
        fined aquifer.
                                    225-1,155
            Yields  large quantities of fresh
            water  of good  Duality in central
            and  northeastern parts of basin.
            yields  of wells range from less
            thin 1  to 250  gpm and average about
            -5 gpm.  Aquifer is untested in
            niany ereasj also is developed In
            areas  where overlain by Allegheny
            Group  and lower part of Conetaflugh
            Group,  Veils  drilled as deep as
            1,000  feet, average depth 202 feet.

            Also known ss  "Salt sands" of
            drillers.  Yields saline (mineral-
             ised)  water to veils in much of the
            western part of the Monongahela
            River  basin.   Unsuitable for use
            except  possibly for cooling.
Water is soft,
 high in iron,
 and low in chlo-
 ride and dissolved
 solids.  Water Is
 saline in western
 part of the basin
       Mauch Chunk Group  -- Mississippian
       Predominantly red  and
        green shale with
        interbedded f ine-
        grained micaceous
        sandstone,  minor  beds
        of impure 1imestone:
        forms confined
        aquifer.
48-1,610    Yields  enough water for domestic and
             fare supplies  in  southeastern part
             of  basin.  Yields of wells range
             from less  than  1  to 5 gpm and aver-
             age about  3 gpm.  Wells drilled as
             deep as  193 feet, average depth 115
             feet.  Yields  of  100 to 600 gptn
             evailsble  from springs in minor
             limestone  beds.
Water is moderat-
 ely hard and is
 low in iron and
 chloride.
       Greerbrier Limestone —-  Upper  Mississippian
       Massive gray limestone,
        with interbedded
        argillaceous lime-
        stone, and thin beds
        of red or green cal-
        careous shale and
        sandstone: forms con-
        fined aquifer.
   0-430    Source cf  large  yielding springs
             that  supply  snail  to moderately
             large industrial supplies.  Yields
             of springs range from 50 to 1,000
             gpm and average 180 gpm.  Yields of
             veils tapping Greer.brier range from
             5 to  100  gpin and average 45 gpm.
             Wells drilled as deep as 310 feet,
             average depth 107  feet.  Aquifer
             has relatively  small a reel exposure
             in eastern part of basin and is
             deeply buried and  probably of low
             permeability in western part.
Water is moderat-
 ely hard, extre-
 mely low in iron,
 chloride, and dis-
 solved solids.
       Pocono Formation -- Lower Mississippian

       Predominantly gray                0-600
        massive conglomeratic
        sandstone with some
        brown eandy shale;
        forms confined
        aquifer.
            Yields of wells  range  from 4 to 120
             gpm and average 45  gpm  in eastern
             part of basin.   Wells drilled as
             deep as 322  feet, average depth 100
             feet.  Pocono has a limited areal
             extent in the eastern part of the
             basin.
Water  is hard end
 very  low  in iron,
 chloride, and
 d issolved sol ids.
       Catekill Formation -- Upper and Middle Devonian

                                     220-1,025
        Predominantly red or
        greenish-brown sand-
        stones and shales:
        forms confined
        aquifer.
            Yields water for domestic,  farm, and
             email industrial supplies  in east-
             ern part of basin.   Yields of wells
             range from less than 1  to  22 gpm
             and average 13 gpm.   Wells drilled
             ss deep as 170 feet,  average depth
             69 feet.
Water  ie moderat-
  ely hard, contains
  iron  and  is  low  in
  chloride  and  dis-
  solved solids.
        Chemung Formation — Upper Devonian
        Predominantly olive-
         green,  flaggy  sand-
         stones  and  shales:
         foras confined
         aquifer.
                                     105-3,147
            Yields adequate for domestic,  farm,
             and email industrial  supplies in
             eastern part of basin.   Yields  of
             wells range from less than 1  to 25
             gpm and average 16 gpra.   Wells
             drilled as deep as 325  feet,  averagi
             depth 83 feet.
Water  is  soft,
  contains iron
  end  is  low  in
  chloride and
  dissolved solids.

-------
Table  2-12.   Summary of  aquifer  characteristics   (concluded)
                Rock units
                                    Thickness
                                     (feet)
                 Water yield and development
                                                    Hater quality
          Brallier Formation —  Upper Devonian
          Thin,  green, flaggy
           sandstone, and green
           sandy shales: forms
           confined aquifer.
                                      801-2,500
            Yields adequate for domestic,  farm,     Water  is soft,
             and small industrial supplies  in        contains iron,
             eastern part of basin.   Yields of       is  low in chlo-
             wells range from less than 1  to 280     ride  and dis-
             gpm and average 27 gpm.   Wells          solved solids.
             drilled as deep as 572  feet,  aver-
             age depth 112 feet.
          Harrell Shale -- Upper Devonian
          Black and dark-brown
           fissile shale:  forma
           confined aquifer.
150-2,500    Yields adequate for domestic, farm,
             and small  industrial supplies.
             Yields of  wells range from less
             than 1 to  40 gpm and average 20 gpo.
             Limited surface exposure  in eastern
             part of basin.  Wells drilled as
             deep as 300 feet, average depth
             100 feet.
Water is moderat-
 ely hard and ia
 low in  iron and
 chloride.
         Rocks of Middle  and Lover
         Devonian undifZerentiated
         in  this report.
Mostly limestone,
shale, sandstone,
and chert: form
confined aquifers.



Sedimentary rocks
(undif f erent iated in
this report) overly-
ing crystalline base-
ment complex of
precatnbrian age: pro-
bably fo~ confined
aquifer.
Approx. Available data indicate that most of
800-1,800 these deep-lying rocks probably are
poor aquifers, although sandstone
may yield some brine to wells. So
knovn development.


Approx. Rocks probably would yield little
10,000-19,000 water to wells, except snail a=cur.ts
of brine. No kncvn development .





Highly mineralized
brine; unfit for
any ordinary use
except for cool-
ing or as a
source of chemi-
cal elements.
do.







                                                      2-61

-------
scale of the Basin (Figure 2-9), and serves as a rough  indicator  of
available supplies (Figures 2-8 and 2-9 and Table 2-12  also refer  to  Figure
2-55 in Section 2.7.).

     Region 1 includes a small part of the Basin in eastern Tucker County.
The Greenbrier Limestone (Table 2-12) crops out along the  limbs and   axes  of
synclines and anticlines in the Mountain section (Figure 2-10; see Section
2.7.).   Ground-water generally occurs in open fractures  and solution channels
in limestone aquifers (Figure 2-10).  The average well  in  this region yields
45 gpm and is 107 feet deep (Ward and Wilmoth 1968a).

     Region 2 includes most of the eastern third of the Basin  in Preston,
Tucker, and Randolph Counties.  All of the moderately folded sandstone,
shale,  and coal strata of Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, and Devonian  age  are
included in Region 2, except the Monongahela Group.  The average  well  yields
range from 150 to less than 15 gpm.  Depths of wells vary  with topographic
position and local geologic structure (Figure 2-11).  Recommended  maximum
drilling depths are 200 feet in valleys and 300 feet on mountaintops;  deeper
wells generally encounter saline or brackish groundwater (Landers  1976).

     Regions 3 and 4 generally encompass the western two thirds of the
Basin.   They have similar geologic structures (Figure 2-12),  Region  3
includes the thick, massive sandstones of the Pottsville group (Figure
2-13).   Region 4 largely consists of the shales, clay,  coals, and  thinner
sandstones of the Conemaugh, Monongahela, and Dunkard Groups.  The Allegheny
Group occurs at the surface in both regions.

     Wells in the Pottsville group of Region 4 have an  average depth  of 202
feet and yield of 45 gpm.  Yields are substantially higher in Lewis and
Upshur  Counties, where the surface exposures of the Pottsville Group
predominate.   Wells elsewhere in Regions 3 and 4 have average depths  between
77 and  111 feet and average yields between 12 to 26 gpm.

     Region 5 includes limited areas with alluvial sand and gravel deposits
in the  valleys of Blackwater River and Tygart Valley River (Figures 2-8 and
2-12).   Wells in these sediments have an average yield  of  5 gpm and an
average deoth of 18 feet (Table 2-5).

     Ward and Wilmoth (1968a) studied the hydrogeology  of  the Basin and
recognized regions of high, moderate, and low yielding  aquifers.  Large
areas of the Basin, according to Ward and Wilmoth, have moderate-  to
high-yielding aquifers with acceptable water quality (Figure 2-14).
High-yielding aquifers can be expected to furnish ample water  for  the future
development of industrial and municipal water supplies.  Domestic  supplies
are available everywhere in these areas, which are underlain by sandstone
and limestone with interbeds of coal and shale.  These  rocks typically yield
50 to 350 epm to individual wells.  Valleys in this terrain are more
favorable for development of high-yielding wells than hilltops.   Depths of
wells range from less than 50 feet to 1,000 feet and average approximately
130 feet.
                                    2-62

-------
Figure 2-9

AVERAGE YIELDS OF WATER WELLS DRILLED IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN  (Landers 1976)
  GALLONS PER MINUTE



  fi/fQ  LESS THAN  15


  I	I
  I   1  15-50



       50-150
                            2-63

-------
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2-66

-------
Figure 2-13
THE POTTSVILLE GROUP IN  THE  MONONGAHELA  RIVER BASIN
(Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
         AREA OF EXPOSURE OF THE
         POTTSVILLE GROUP

         PROBABLE WESTERN LIMIT OF
         POTABLE  WATER  IN POTTSVILLE
         GROUP AT DEPTHS LESS THAN
         500 FEET BELOW STREAM
         VALLEYS

         AREAS MOST FAVORABLE FOR
         DEVELOPMENT OF  POTABLE GROUND
         WATER SUPPLIES FROM POTTSVILLE
         GROUP  YIELD OF INDIVIDUAL WELLS  AS
         MUCH  AS 250 GPM, AVERAGE  YIELD  45 GPM

         LINE OF GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION

         KEYED TO FIGURE  2-16
                                     2-67

-------
          Figure  2-14
          POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPABLE GROUNDWATER RESOURCES  IN THE
          MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
^^H   HIGH-YIELDING AQUIFERS

|    [   MODERATE-YIELDING AQUIFERS

I    I   LOW-YIELDING  AQUIFERS
                            2-68

-------
     Moderate-yielding  aquifers  (Conemaugh Group)  have good potential for
development of  small  industrial  and  community supplies.   Domestic supplies
are  obtainable  nearly everywhere in  these areas.   Wells  located in valleys
yield  from 10 to 400  gpm,  with an average yield of 21 gpm.   Given the proper
hydrogeologic conditions  in  outcrops of  the Conemaugh Group,  yields of up to
250  gpm are achieved  by drilling 400 to  1,000 feet to tap the Allegheny
Formation and Pottsville  Group.   Low-yielding aquifers are the least
favorable for development  of  large industrial and  community water supplies.
Individual domestic  and commercial water supplies, however, are available in
nearly all of these  aquifers.  Wells in  these areas have an average depth of
88 feet and an  average  yield  of  12 gpm.

     Recharge of freshwater  aquifers in  the Basin  generally occurs in zones
of highly fractured rock  along the axes  of anticlines (Figure 2-56 in
Section 2.7.).  Several confined aquifers of Basinwide importance probably
are  recharged in the  Mountain section of the Basin, especially along the
limbs  and axial traces  of  the Blackwater Anticlines,  Deer Park Anticlines,
Etam-Briery Mountain  Anticline,  Texas Anticlines,  and Hiram Mountain
Ant icline.

     Recharge of Mississippian and younger aquifers (Figure 2-56  in Section
2.7.)  also occurs  along the Chestnut Ridge Anticline  in  the north central
part of the Basin.  This  groundwater recharge generally  reduces the
concentration of chloride  in  aquifers of the Pottsville  Group that crop out
along  the anticline  (Ward  and Wilmoth 1968a).   Salinity  in the Basin is
related to the body of very salty sea water several hundred feet  under the
fresh water aquifer which  was trapped during past  geological  ages.  The
effect of this  layer  of saline water can be seen in the  high  sodium chloride
contents of some wells  as  shallow as 100 feet.  The salt content  increases
with depth, until  at  depths of several hundred  to  1,000  feet  very
concentrated brines can be found (Figures 2-15  and 2-16).   Salinity of
groundwater in Mississippian  aquifers increases  in a  northwest direction
across the Basin.

     Both underground and  surface coal mines can disrupt local water
supplies by dewatering  aquifers  that are encountered  in  the course of
mining.  For example, blasting can fracture rock strata  and create new flow
patterns.   Underground mines constitute  major voids where  water can flow
much more rapidly  than  in  ordinary fractures and between the  grains of
overlying rocks.  The water that  accumulates in mines is a  nuisance or
hazard for the mine operator, who must pump or  otherwise drain it to provide
access to his workings, thus insuring a  continuing drawdown during active
mining operations.

     Surface mines can  increase  the  rate of flow from a  hillside  by inter-
cepting water at the highwall.   The  effect  mining  has on groundwater move-
ment varies with distance; this  relationship,  in turn,  is  very much affected
by local geologic conditions.  The magnitude of the effect  depends both on
the  rate of change in water movement through the system  and on the presence
of water supply wells in  the affected zone.   Well  levels and  yields vary in
                                    2-69

-------
Figure 2-15
LOCATION OF SHALLOW SALINE  WATERS AND  OIL AND GAS  FIELDS,
AND RELATIVE SALINITY OF GROUNDWATER IN  PRE-DEVONIAN ROCKS.
                                        (Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
                                               122
    , I0
— •"  lla
        SHALLOW, SALTY GROUNDWATER
        LESS THAN 90 METERS
        (300 FEET) BELOW LAND
        SURFACE

        OIL AND GAS FIELDS (ADAPTED
        FROM WV-GES 1958 AND 1962)
LINES OF EQUAL DENSITY, IN GRAMS PER
CUBIC CENTIMETER, OF BRINES BELOW
THE DEVONIAN  SHALES (ADAPTED FROM
A MAP BY HOSKINS  1949)
     A'  LINE OF GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION

        KEYEDTO FIGURE 2-16
                                  2-70

-------
           3NH3I1NV —
        30010
        M3AIM »13H»SNONOfl —
                            133d Nl NOU.VA3H3
2-71

-------
response to pumpage rates  and recharge  rates; hence,  it  historically has
been difficult to establish unequivocally the effects  of mining  on nearby
water supplies.  Full implementation  of  the  Surface Mining  Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 and the West  Virginia Surface  Coal  Mining and
Reclamation Act of 1980 should assure that  adequate data on local ground-
water supplies are collected prior to mining, so  that  probable  impacts can
be anticipated, and mitigations can be  implemented  for  individual mines (see
Section 4.0.).

     2.1.2.2.  Groundwater Quality

     Groundwater quality  is determined  by several  factors  (see  Section 5.1.,
Tabe 5-3").  Minerals can be picked up by surface water  as  it  passes through
the ground to the water table.  Pumping  can  draw  upward  the highly saline
water layer existing at lower depths.  Various materials can  be  dissolved in
the surface water before  it enters the  ground, including materials added to
the water by acid mine drainage.  Groundwater in  the Basin  generally is of
sufficient quality for potable use.

     The aquifers of the Basin generally yield sodium-calcium bicarbonate
water.  Weak carbonic acid solutions  are formed as water infiltrates the
ground and comes in contact with carbon  dioxide produced during  the natural
decomposition of organic material.  Weak carbonic acid  solutions  infiltrate
and react with the limestone, shale,  clays,  and certain  other minerals to
leach sodium, calcium, and magnesium  which react  further to form  bicarbonate
ions.

     Iron, manganese, and  other constituents also  are  leached by  acidic
waters.   The dissolved iron content of  groundwater is  inversely
proportional to pH, being  typically about 2 mg/1  at pH  6 and  under 0.2 mg/1
at pH 8.  Iron also is present in well water in suspended  form,  at highly
variable concentrations which may be  several times  the  dissolved  iron
concentrations.  Total iron concentrations in the range  of  10 to  60 mg/1
are found occasionally under natural  conditions,  but  iron  in  excess of 0.3
mg/1 is  considered objectionable for  household use because  it imparts a
poor taste to the water and stains laundry.  Manganese  typically  is
dissolved, and generally is present in  the range  of 10  to 50% of  the
dissolved iron content.  Manganese can  cause stains and  bad taste in
drinking water when present in excess of 0.05 mg/1.  Because  of  taste and
staining problems, the Safe Water Drinking Act specifies that iron and
manganese concentrations in public water supplies not  exceed  0.3  and 0.05
mg/1, respectively.

     Table 2-13 shows the  concentrations of  several key  groundwater
parameters that occur in the major geological formations in the  Basin.  Iron
concentrations are high enough in many  places in  the Basin  to require
treatment (Ward and Wilmoth 1968).  The  aquifers  that contain the highest
iron concentraitons are the Quaternary  alluvium,  and the Allegheny and
Pottsville Formations (Table 2-13).  The occurrence of  saline water below
the streams throughout much of the western portion of  the Basin  limits the
                                    2-72

-------
Table 2-13.  Summary of chloride, iron, hardness, and pH of ground water (Ward
  and Wilmouth 1968).
Chloride
(ppm)
Number
of
Water-bearing samples
unit analyzed
Quaternary alluvium
Dunkard Group
Monongahela Group
Conemaugh Group
•Allegheny Formation
Pottsville Group
Mauch Chunk Group
Greenbrier Limestone
Pocono Formation
Catskill Formation
Chemung Formation
Brallier Formation
Harrell Shale
2
39
42
161
38
49
3
21
17
5
17
23
9
Range
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
3 -
1 -
1 -
2 -
0 -
4 -
2 -
14
1,610
105
1,700
237
688
4
8
32
17
1,565
7,750
16
Median
concen-
tration
7.0
16
6
5
4
4
3.5
3
6
8
18
16
5

Iron
(ppm)

Range
0.2 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
7.5
16
18
24
12
20

10
3
.5
10
10
10
Median
concen-
tration
3.7
.2
.2
.1
1.0
1.5
.01
.01
.01
.4
.4
.4
.05

Hardness
(ppm)

Range
60 -
5 -
0.5 -
0 -
1 -
5 -
70 -
8 -
3 -
34 -
5 __
5 -
34 -
68
720
1,212
1,479
1,650
242
136
188
208
72
171
1,708
206
Median
concen-
tration
64.0
112
124
102
81
46
77
81
124
68
26
54
103
Hydrogen ion
concentration (pH)
Median
concen-
Range
5.1 -
6.0 -
5.8 -
4.8 -
5.0 -
4.3 -
5.0 -
6.3 -
4.5 -
4.5 -
5.0 -
4.8 -
6.5 -
6
8
8
9
8.
8.
6,
8.
7
6,
7
7.
7.
.0
.5
.8
.0
.4
,1
.8
.0
.0
.8
.0
.3
,0
tration
5
7
7
7
6
6
5
6.
6
6
6
6
6.
.6
.5
.1
.0
.7
.6
.9
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
                                   2-73

-------
occurrence of fresh groundwater to relatively  shallow  depths  (Ward  and
Wilraoth 1968 and Figure 2-15).  Most  of this saltwater  contamination of
shallow aquifers is apparently a result of natural  causes; however,  leakage
from oil and gas wells and disturbance from underground mining  activities
may be contributing factors  (Ward and Wilmoth  1968).

     Sulfate is of special concern, because at concentrations above  250 mg/1
it can cause diarrhea.  Most wells and springs in the  Basin with  more than
100 mg/1 sulfate in the water were receiving drainage  from mines  within a
few hundred feet, and all wells and springs with sulfate  concentrations
greater than 250 mg/1 (the US drinking water standard)  were located  near
sources of AMD (Rauch 1980).  Rauch suggested  that  as  a general rule, most
wells and springs with more  than 100 mg/1 sulfate were  being  contaminated  by
AMD, and that most wells and springs  with less than  100 mg/1  are  either not
affected or are not significantly contaminated.

     The correlation between underground mining activity  and  sulfate
concentration was assessed for the Clothier and Wharton USGS  1:24,000-scale
quadrangles encompassing sections of  Boone and Logan Counties in  the
Coal/Kanawha River Basin.  Sulfate data for 35 wells in that  area were
obtained from a USGS study of mines which had  been  operating  for  at  least
six months based on WVDM permit records.  Figure 2-17  is  a correlation  plot
relating the sulfate concentration in well water to  the distance  between the
well and the nearest underground mine.  It can be seen  that 78% of  the  wells
that were less than 1.6 miles from an underground mine  had a  sulfate
concentration of 10 mg/1 or more, whereas 82%  of the wells that were over
1.6 miles from a deep mine had less than 10 mg/1 of  sulfate.  Such  an
obvious skewing of the data  indicates a strong possibility of mine-related
increased sulfate concentration in the groundwater  in  the vicinity  of
underground mining activity.  These findings,  though not  in this  Basin,  have
bearings on the Monongahela River Basin situation.

     Water containing hydrogen sulfide with its characteristic  "rotten  eggs"
odor also can be a problem.  Specifically, Adrian WV,  Parsons WV, and areas
south of Rlkins have experienced hydrogen sulfide problems (Ward  and Wilmoth
1968).

     Groundwater pollution from coal  mining can be  either direct  or
indirect.  The water in wells downhill or downgradient  from a mine  can  be
affected directly by groundwater that flows through  pits, ponds,  or
underground pools and from infiltration through spoil  or  gob  piles.
Blasting can initiate indirect leakage of ponded drainage from  old
underground mines in the same or different coal seams  as  those  being mined.
AMD in groundwater typically undergoes a greater degree of acid
neutralization and iron precipitation than in  surface  water,  because it
moves much more slowly away  from the  mine and  has opportunity for contact
with carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite.   Because  sulfate
ordinarily remains in solution and is not precipitated, it is often a good
indicator for mine contamination.  Rauch (1980) reported  that all wells and
springs in the Basin with sulfate concentrations exceeding 250  mg/1  were
located near sources of AMD.
                                    2-74

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  1,000
en
UJ
_
CO
   too
    10
                         in
                         CJ
             • •
         i	I

OVER 2 5 km
FROM MINE
UNDER 2.5km
FROM MINE
S04
UNDER
9 mg/l
14
3
S04
OVER
9 mg/l
4
14
                                            -9 mg/l S04
                DISTANCE FROM DEEP MINE(km)

    Figure 2-17
    RELATION  BETWEEN  SULFATE  IN WELL WATER  AND
    DISTANCE  FROM DEEP MINE IN BOONE AND  LOGAN
    COUNTIES, WEST VIRGINIA (Morris etal. 1976)
                  2-75

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     Underground mines have been  shown  to  produce  drainage  characterized by
low pH, high iron, and high sulfate,  based  on  the  reaction  of FeS2
(pyrite) exposed to air and water by  mining  activity  to  produce  an iron
sulfate-sulfuric acid solution.   Such a solution  could  enter an  aquifer
either through fractures or directly  where  the  aquifer  is exposed by the
mining activity.  The acidic  solution is neutralized  rapidly by  materials
such as limestone, resulting  in an increase  in  the hardness  of the
gorundwater but not affecting the elevated  sulfate content.   The iron
generally is removed by precipitation as a hydrated  ferric  oxide or a
ferrous carbonate, depending  on its state  of oxidation.  Limestone is
present over portions of the  Basin, but  its  absence  locally  could prevent
the neutralization of mine acid.  Springs  and  very shallow  wells are more
likely to be affected by surface mine drainage  than  are  cased wells deeper
than 30 feet (Rauch 1980).
                                     2-76

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2.2  Aquatic Biota

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                                                                      Page

2.2.  Aquatic Biota                                                    2-77

     2.2.1.  Stream Habitats                                          2-77

     2.2.2.  Biological Communities                                    2-81
             2.2.2.1.   Criteria for   Biologically Important  Areas     2-81
                       2.2.2.1.1.  Trout  Waters                        2-82
                       2.2.2.1.2.  Areas  of High Diversity            2-82
                       2.2.2.1.3.  Streams  Containing Macroinverte-
                                    brate Indicator Species            2-84
                       2.2.2.1.4.  Areas  Containing Species  of
                                    Special Interest                  2-88
                       2.2.2.1.5.  Areas  of Special Interest          2-88
                       2.2.2.1.6.  Nonsensitive  and Unclassifiable
                                    Areas                             2-90
             2.2.2.2.   Application of the Criteria and Limitations
                        of the Data                                    2-90
                       2.2.2.2.1.  Trout                               2-91
                       2.2.2.2.2.  Fish Diversity                     2-91
                       2.2.2.2.3.  Macroinvertebrate Indicator
                                    Species                           2-92
                       2.2.2.2.4.  Species  of Special Interest        2-92
                       2.2.2.2.5.  Areas  of Special Interest          2-94
     2.2.3.  Erroneous Classification                                 2-94

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2.2.  AQUATIC BIOTA

     The Monongahela River Basin historically  has  been  one  of  the most
severely polluted watersheds  in the United  States.  Acid  mine  drainage has
been the primary  source  of this pollution,  affecting  1,368  str-eam miles
(22%) out of a total of  6,217 miles in  the  Basin  (WVDNR-Water  Resources
1976).  Recently, however, better mining  techniques,  new  water quality
regulations and strict enforcement of old regulations,  and  reclamation of
abandoned mine sites have combined to produce  significant improvements in
the Basin's water quality.  Areas showing dramatic  improvements  in water
quality, and thus aquatic life, within  the  past  10  years  include the  lower
Tygart River (especially Tygart Lake),  much of the  West Fork drainage,  and
the mainstem of the Monongahela River.  Despite  these impressive gains, poor
water quality still adversely affects aquatic  life  in many  Basin streams.   A
more detailed discussion of water quality in the  Basin  is given  in Section
2.1.

2.2.1.  Stream Habitats

     The Monongahela River drains 7,340 square miles, 4,128 of which  are  in
West Virginia.  The Basin is comprised  of four major  rivers:   the West Fork
River, Tygart Valley River, Cheat River,  and the Monongahela River.   These
major drainages can be divided into 15  sub-basins  as  follows (Figure  1-1).

Monongahela River

     The Monongahela River is formed at Fairmont WV by  the  confluence of  the
West Fork and Tygart Valley Rivers.  The 37-mile section  of the  Monongahela
River in West Virginia is used throughout its  length  as a commercial
waterway.  A minimum seven foot channel is  maintained using three
navigational lock-and-dam structures.   Until the  late 1960's,  the river was
too acidic to support all but the most  tolerant  forms of  aquatic life.  At
the Maxwell Lock  and Dam, located approximately 40  miles  below Morgantown,
the number of fish species collected increased from 0 in  1967  to 16 in 1973
(USAGE 1976).

     A substantial sport fishery has recently  developed on  the Monongahela
River.   For instance, in 1978 and 1979  a total of 22  bass fishing tourna-
ments were held in the Opekiska Pool (Jernejcic  and Courtney 1980).   The
mainstem of the river has two tributaries that drain  in excess of 100 square
miles:   Dunkard Creek and Buffalo Creek.

Dunkard Creek

     Dunkard Creek is 47 miles long and drains 227  square miles,  about half
of which are located in West Virginia.  It  is  a low gradient stream that
supports a good muskellunge and an excellent smallmouth bass fishery
(Verbally,  Mr.  D.  Courtney,  WVDNR-Wildlife  Resources  to Mr. G. Seegert,
November 1980).
                                      2-77

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Buffalo Creek

     Buffalo Creek is 30 miles  long,  drains  125  square miles,  and  has  an
average fall rate of 16 feet/mile.  Its  lower half has a very  low  gradient,
falling only 5 feet/mile in  the  section  from Mannington to  Fairmont  WV
(WVDNR- Water Resources 1976).   Buffalo  Creek has been adversely affected  by
acid mine drainage and domestic  wastes  (Menendez  and Robinson  1964).
Fishing pressure, mainly for smallmouth  bass and  panfish, is light to
moderate (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  1971).

West Fork River

     The West Fork River, which  originates  in southwestern  Upshur  County WV,
flows northward for 103 miles before  joining with the Tygart Valley  River
just south of Fairmont WV, to form  the Monongahela River.   The West  Fork
River is a low gradient stream  (fall  rate averages only 7 feet/mile) that
drains 881 square miles.  Much  of this drainage  was intensely  polluted  by
mining in the past, and high sulfate  and iron concentrations are still  a
problem throughout most of the watershed (see Section 2.1.).  The  West  Fork
River between Weston and Clarksburg,  WV  now  supports an excellent  sport
fishery for smallmouth bass  (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources to Mr. G. Seegert, November 1980).  Two tributaries drain  over 100
square miles:  Elk Creek and Tenmile  Creek.

Elk Creek

     Elk Creek, which has its source  in  west-central Barbour County  WV  is
the longest tributary to the West Fork River, flowing approximately  32  miles
before joining it in Clarksburg WV.   It  falls rapidly during its first  five
miles, but during its last 20 miles,  it  falls at  only 4 feet/mile.   The
river drains 121 square miles.  The area in  the  drainage has been
intensively mined with over 200  existing or  abandoned sites  identified
(Green International 1979).  Although grossly polluted in the  past,  its
water quality has improved to the point where it  occasionally  produces  some
catches of smallmouth bass (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources to Mr. G. Seegert, November 1980).

Tenmile Creek

     In terms of drainage area  (132 square miles), Tenmile  Creek is  the
largest tributary to the West Fork River.  It is  28 miles long and has  an
average gradient of 12 feet/mile.   Its watershed  contains over 100 active  or
abandoned mines and the lower portions of Tenmile Creek (below Sardis WV)
are still grossly polluted.  Above  Sardis, however, water quality  improves
considerably and a fair warmwater fishery exists  (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney,
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources to Mr.  G.  Seegert,  November 1980).

Tygart Valley River

     The Tygart Valley River originates  in northern Pocahontas County WV
just east of Mace WV.  It is 130 miles long  and  drains 1,435 square  miles.


                                      2-78

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The river  alternates  periodically  between  high  gradient,  rough,  turbulent
sections and broad, placid,  meandering  sections  (WVDNR-Water Resources
1976).  Water quality  above  Roaring  Creek  is  generally good (USFWS 1979).
Until recently, acid mine drainage  from Roaring  Creek  and  several other
tributaries caused  the  lower Tygart  Valley River to  have  low pH  values,
generally below 6.O.,  thus preventing the  establishment  of any significant
fisheries  (Jernejcic  1978).  Improvements  during the 1970"s have progressed
to the point where  the  river now supports  a substantial warmwater sport
fishery.  Tygart Lake,  an impoundment located near  the Taylor-Barbour County
line, has gone from being a  very unproductive fishery  during the 1960's
(Benson 1976) to possessing  a  good  fishery for  several warmwater species and
an excellent fishery  for walleye (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1976-1979).  The
Tygart Valley River has three  tributaries  that  drain more  than 100 square
miles:  the Buckhannon  River,  the Middle Fork River, and Three fork Creek.

Buckhannon River
     The Buckhannon River  originates  east  of Pickens  in  Randolph County,  WV.
It is 55 miles long and drains 310  square  miles.   From its  source to
Hampton, WV it is a high gradient,  turbulent  stream;  from Hampton to Century
Junction it is smooth-flowing and placid;  and,  from Century Junction,  WV  to
its mouth it is again rough  and  rapid.  Many  of  the streams in the upper
portion of the watershed are native trout  streams.  The  lower  portions of
the river produce fair to  good fishing  for smallmouth bass  and muskellunge
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  1977).  Green International (1979) reported  that
there were -.nore than 500 active  or  abandoned mines in the watershed.   Acid
mine drainage has limited  the success of the  fisheries of the  Buckhannon
River (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  1977).

Middle Fork River

     The Middle Fork  River  is approximately 30 miles long  and drains  151
square miles.  It is a coldwater, high  gradient stream that supports  trout
throughout much of its length.   Many  of its tributaries  support native brook
trout populations.  A naturally  low pH  and low  alkalinities make this  stream
highly susceptible to acid mine  drainage.

Three-Fork Creek

     Three-Fork Creek begins in  Preston County, WV and flows  for about 20
miles before entering the Tygart Valley River about two  miles   below the  dam
in Grafton, WV.  This stream and many of its  tributaries are badly polluted
by acid mine drainage and  generally are devoid  of  aquatic life (USFWS
1979).

Cheat River

     The Cheat River is the  largest tributary to  the Monongahela River,
draining over 1,400 square miles.   In contrast  to  the low gradient streams
comprising most of the West Fork drainage  and much of the Tygart Valley
drainage, the majority of  the streams in the Cheat River drainage are  high
                                     2-79

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gradient streams typically  flowing  through  narrow, V-shaped  valleys.   Water
quality in the upper portions of the drainage  is  generally good  whereas  it
is poor in the lower portions of the drainage.  The  mainstem of  the Cheat
River from its source at the confluence  of  the Blackwater River  and Shavers
Fork River to Pringle Run has good  water quality  and supports a  wide variety
of fish and tnacroinvertebrates.  Below Pringle Run,  inputs  from  a number of
•mine- polluted streams  lower the pH in the  raainstem  of  the Cheat River to
such a degree that only the most acid tolerant fish  species  are  present
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation  1975).   Lake Lynn (Cheat  Lake) is
similarly affected.  Tributaries draining more than  100  square miles are Big
Sandy Creek, Blackwater River, Dry  Fork  River, and Shavers Fork  River.

Big Sandy Creek

     Big Sandy Creek, which has its source  in  Fayette County PA,  is the
largest northern tributary  to the Cheat  River  draining 203 square miles.
The upper portion  of this stream is generally  low gradient in character
(approximately 10  feet/mile).  This contrasts  dramatically with  the portion
between the mouth  of Big Sandy Creek and the mouth of Little Sandy Creek
where the fall rate averages 77 feet/mile (WVDNR-Water Resources  1976).
This lower section plunges  through  gorges with 1,000 foot high walls.  Three
cataracts between  10 and 20 feet high also  are found in  this section.
Although the watershed has  been degraded by past mining  activities,  the
mainstem of the Big Sandy River supports  a  diverse warmwater fish fauna
(Menendez and Robinson  1964).

Blackwater River
     The Blackwater River has its source  in Canaan Valley  State Park  in
Tucker County WV.  It drains 142 square miles and is 31 miles  long.   The
Blackwater River above the mouth of  the Little Blackwater  River  is  a  low
gradient stream with an average fall of only 8 feet/mile.  Between  the
Little Blackwater River and Beaver Creek  the rate of fall  averages  20
feet/mile.  Below Beaver Creek the gradient increases dramatically  to over
100 feet/mile, and the river, now tumultuous in nature, is confined to  a
narrow gorge filled with huge boulders.   Extensive mining  in the Beaver
Creek and North Fork River watersheds have not only destroyed  the  fish  faun;
in these streams, but have severely  affected fish populations  in the
mainstem of the Blackwater River.  Above  the mouth of Beaver Creek  several
tributaries to the Blackwater River  contain native brook trout.

Dry Fork River

     The Dry Fork River is 40 miles  long, drains 502 square miles,  and  has
an average fall rate of 54 feet/mile.  The watershed is composed mainly of
coldwater streams, many of which contain  populations of native brook  trout.
Water quality is good to excellent throughout the watershed.   Because of
naturally low pH values and the poor buffering capacity of most  streams in
the watershed, this area is highly susceptible to damage from  acid  mine
drainage.
                                    2-80

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 Shavers  Fork

      Shavers Fork is  83  miles  long,  drains 213 square miles, and has an
 average  fall rate of  35  feet/mile.   It is one of the heaviest stocked and
 fished  trout streams  in  the State (Menendez 1978).   Natural reproduction of
 brook and  rainbow trout  occurs  in the headwaters of the stream and in many
 tributaries.   Smallmouth bass  are common in its lower reaches.   It is poorly
 buffered  (alkalinities  10-12 mg/1)  and naturally acidic (pH 5-7),  a
 combination  making it very sensitive to inputs of acid water (Menendez
 1978).

 2.2.2.   Biological Communities

     Fishes  and  macroinvertebrates  collected in the Basin are summarized in
 Appendix A,  Tables A-l,  A-3, and A-4.  The locations of these sampling
 stations  are shown in Appendix  A, Figures A-l and A-2.   The locations of the
 fish  sampling  stations are described in Table A-2.   The data presented in
 these Tables  are  discussed later in  this section-and section 5.2.

      In  the  following sections  descriptions are given for the criteria which
 were  used  to determine biologically  significant areas in the Monongahela
 River Basin.   These criteria then are applied to existing data  in  order to
 categorize the waters and  watersheds of the Basin.

     2.2.2.1.  Criteria  for Biologically Important  Areas (BIA's)

     In  order  to  determine aquatic-related impacts  which ultimately can be
 expected as  a  result  of  coal mining  in the Basin,  it is necessary  to
 identify both  those aquatic resources that are inherently sensitive to coal
 mining activities  (e.g., trout  streams) and those  that  contain  exceptional
 or highly  diverse  faunal assemblages.   The areas that warrant the  greatest
 degree of  protection  when  new sources of wastewater discharge are  proposed
 are designated are as Biologically  Important Areas  (BIA's).   BIA's are
 subdivided into Category I (sensitive)  and Category II  (extremely  sensitive)
 types on the basis  of sensitivity to mine-related  pollutants,  stream size,
 mine-waste assimilation  capacity, and other available information.   The
 purpose  of this classification  of streams and their watersheds  is  to flag
 areas where  the best  available  data  indicate the presence  of significant
 biological populations sensitive  to  mining impacts.

     Any system that  attempts to  establish the environmental worth of an
 area or  resource  is,  of  necessity, based on scientific  judgment  and
 constrained  by available data.   For  this document,  prime reliance  was placed
 on classification  systems  that  used  quantitative data (e.g., diversity
 indices) and on traditionally accepted  indicators  of high  value  (e.g.,  trout
 streams, rare  or  unusual species).   Areas generally were considered
Biologically Important (either  Category I or Category II)  if they  met one or
more of  the  criteria  defined in the  following paragraphs.
                                     2-81

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     2.2.2^.1.1.  Trout Waters (Criterion  1).  Trout  require  a habitat  of
high water quality in which to  live and breed, and are highly sensitive to
mining impacts.  For example, concentrations  of  iron greater than 1.37  mg/1
are known to affect trout adversely (Menendez 1979),  and  trout  eggs  and
larvae are harmed by pH values  of 6.5 or  less (Menendez  1976)".   Increased
sedimentation resulting from mining also  has  an  adverse  impact  on spawning
by smothering eggs, which, under natural  conditions,  are  laid in oxygen-rich
gravel substrates.  Thus, because the presence of trout  is an indication of
high water quality, trout waters, both native and stocked, are  designated as
BIA's.  In order to protect any stream or  lake known to  contain trout,  it
also is necessary to preserve water quality  in all tributaries  adjacent to
or upstream from the segment containing trout.   Therefore, the  entire
watershed above a trout stream  or lake normally  is considered to be  a  BIA.

     Table 2-14 presents fish species, including trout: that  can be used as
indicators of good water quality, along with  a number of  species that  are
often indicators of poor water  quality.

     2.2.2.1.2.  Areas of High  Diversity  (Criterion  (2).  To determine  the
quality of the aquatic biota at those fish sampling  stations in the  Basin
for which quantitative data were available,  Shannon-Weaver diversity indices
and equitability indices were calculated.  The Shannon-Weaver diversity
index (d) measures both species richness  (i.e.,  the  number of species
present) and the distribution of individuals  among those  species—the higher
the value of d, the better the  condition  of  the  aquatic  environment.  The
diversity index theoretically can range from  0 to Iog2 N  where  N = the
total number of individuals captured.  In  practice d typically  ranges  from 0
to 4.0.  Values greater than 3.0 are  indicative  of unpolluted conditions
(Wilhm 1970).

     Equitability (e) measure the component  of diversity  affected by the
distribution of individuals among species.   In unpolluted habitats most
species are represented by only a few individuals, whereas in polluted
environments there typically are few species  but many individuals of each
species.  The measure of equitability is  calculated  by the formula e =
S^/S where S = number of taxa in the  sample  and  S^ = the  hypothetical
number of taxa as calculated_ by Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964) using the
MacArthur (1957) model for d.   Values of  e generally range from 0 to 1;
those greater than O.R usually  indicate unpolluted conditions (Wilhm 1970).

     BIA's were identified for  this assessment where one  or  both of  the
following conditions were met:

     •  At least 50 specimens and at  least 4  species were
        captured, and the diversity value was >3.0

     •  At least 50 specimens and at  least 4  species were
        captured, and the equitability value  was <0.8.

     There are certain Imitations associated  with these  indices; however,
unusual or atypical events (such as ineffective  sampling  techniques,
                                    2-82

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  Table 2-14.  West Virginia fish  species  determined to  be  indicators
     of  water  quality  as  defined by sensitivity  to  turbidity and  sedi-
     mentations (WAPORA 1980;  data from Pfeiger  1975, Clay  1975,  Trautman
     1957,  and Scott and  Grossman  1973).   See footnote  for  definitions.
Ichthyomyzpn bdellium
I. unlcuspis
Lampetra aepyptera
L_._ lamoCtei
Polyodon spathula
Lepisosteus osseus
Anquilla rostrata
Alosa chysochloris
A. pseudoharengus
Dprosoma cepedianun
D. petenense
Hiodon alosoides
H. tergisus
Salmo gairdneri
S^ trutta
Salvelinus  fontinalis
Esox amerlcanus
_E._ luclus
E. masquinongy
Campostoma  anoroalum
Cyprinus carpio
Ericymba buccata
Exoglossum  larvae
Climostomus funduloldes
Hybopsis aestivalis
H. amblops
H. dlssimills
H. storeriana
Nocomia micropogon
W._ platyrhynchus
Notemlgonus crysoleucas
Notropis albeolus
N. atherlnoldes
N. blennius
N. buchanani
N. chrysocephalus
N. cornutus
N. dorsalis
N. hudsonlus
N. photogenis
N. rubellus
N. scabriceps
N. spilopterus
N. stramineus
N. telescopus
N. umbratalus
N. volucellus
NT whipplei
Phenacobiiis mirabllis
P_^ teretulus
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Plmephales  notatus
P. promelas
P^ vigilax
Rhinichthys atratulus
R. cataractae
Semotilus margarita
Semotllus atromaculatus
Carpiodes carpio
C. cyprinus
C^ vplifer
Catostomus  commersoni
I
I
S
S
U
I
NS
I
I
NS
NS
NS
S
S
S
S
I
I
I
I
NS
I
I
I
NS
S
S
NS
I
U
NS
U
NS
NS
S
NS
I
U
I
I
S
S
NS
I
U
I
NS
I
NS
S
S
NS
NS
NS
S
S
S
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
 Erimyzon oblongus
 Hypentellum nigricans
 Ictlobus bubalus
 I. cyrpinellus
 I. niger
 Mlnytrema melanops
 Moxostoma anisurum
 M> carinatum
 M. duquesnel
 M. erythrurum
 M. macrolepidotum
 Ictalurus catus
 I. melas
 I. natalis
 I. nebulosus
 I. punctatus
 Notorus  flavus
 N. miurus
 Pylodictus olivaris
 Percopsis omlscomaycus
 Lab idesthes sicculus
 Morone chrysops
 M.  saxatllus
 Ambloplites rupestris
 Lepomis  auritus
 L.  cyanellus
 L.  gibbosus
 L.  gulosus
 L.  humilis
 L.  macrochirus
 L.  megalotis
 L.  microlophus
 Mlcropterus dolomieui
 M.  punctulatus
 M.  salmoides
 Pomoxis  annularis
 P.  nigromaculatus
 Ammocrypta pelluclda
 Etheostoma blennioides
 E.  caeruleum
 E.  camurum
 E.  flabellare
 E.  maculatum
E. zonale
Perca flavescens
Percina caprodes
P. copelandi
P. evides
P. inacrocep_ha_l£
P. maculjta
P. oxyrhyncha
P. sci(;ra
Stizostedion canadensj;
S. virteum
Aplodinotus grunniens
Cottus bairdi
SL carolinae
C^ g irardi
 I
 S
 I
 NS
 NS
 S
 S
 S
 I
 I
 I
 NS
 NS
 NS
 NS
 NS
 I
 I
 NS
 I
 I
 I
 S
 I
 I
 NS
 I
 1
 NS
 I
 I
 I
 S
 I
 I
 NS
 S
 S
 S
 S
 S
 I
 S
 NS
 I
 S
 S
 S
 S
 S
 S
 I
 S
 S
 I
U
 I
NS
 S
NS
 I
 I
U
 S - Sensitive, defined as highly  susceptible; would  be  extirpated under continuous turbid conditions
 or if  sedimentation were severe;  36 species identified.   I = Intermediate;  can withstand periodic
 high turbidities and some sedimentation; 42 species  identified.  NS = Not  Sensitive; unlikely to be
 affected  adversely except in the  most severely polluted conditions; 36 species identified.
 U - Unknown;  7 species identified.

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abnormal flow conditions, and equipment malfunctions^  all  tend  to reduce the
number of species captured, and thus the values of d and e.  Only through
misidentification, however, can diversity values  and equitability values be
increased, because the maximum number of species  at any given location is
fixed.  High index values can be achieved only  as a_ result  of.the actual
capture of species.  Thus, stream segments having d values  >3.0 can  be
reasonably considered to have highly diversified  aquatic populations at the
time of sampling.  Conversely, however, a low Shannon-Weaver value is  not
necessarily indicative of low diversity because it may have been the result
of improper sampling.  The same considerations  apply to equitability values.
Estimates of both parameters  increase in reliability as sample  size
increases.  Estimates derived from samples containing  less  than 100
specimens should be evaluated cautiously (Weber 1973),

     Diversity and equitability measure the environmental quality of a
stream at a given point in time.  Because many  of the  data  for  sampling
stations in the Basin used to calculate the values shown in Appendix A,
Table A-l are not recent, conditions in these streams  may have  changed
significantly since the original collections were made.  In most cases,
additional monitoring will be required in BIA Category I and Category  II
areas and in unclassified areas as discussed later in  this  section.   The
nature of the monitoring is specified in Section  5.2.

     2.2.2.1.3.  Streams Having Diverse Macroinvertebrate Communities  or
Containing Macroinvertebrate Indicator Species  (Criterion 3).   Much  of the
macroinvertebrate data available for the Basin  were not quantitative.   The
evaluation of streams for which such data were  available was based on the
presence of indicator organisms.  Certain macroinvertebrate species  are
intolerant of toxic substances, siltation, organic enrichment,  and other
forms of environmental disturbance.  Thus, the  presence of  these species in
a stream is indicative of high water quality (Weber 1973).  Several
classification schemes have been developed (Mason et al. 1971,  Weber 1973,
Lewis 1974).  A  species was considered to be a  reliable indicator (i.e., a
sensitive species) for use in this assessment only if  the  above three
sources all agreed that the species was known to  exist exclusively in
unpolluted waters (Table 2-15).  Three criteria have been used  to designate
BIA's.  These are:

     •  Locations where at least two species of sensitive
        macroinvertebrate species were present.

     •  Locations where at least 10 taxa were found and at  least
        50% of the total individuals collected  were from sensitive
        taxa, based on a comprehensive benthological survey of  the
        Basin streams (FWPCA  1968)

     •  Locations where the diversity index averaged X3.0,
        regularly was >_3.0, or was X3.0 for the most recent sample
        collected, based on file data (1970-1980) provided  by the
        Pittsburgh District USAGE.
                                    2-84

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Table 2-15. Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators to designate
  BIA's.  These organisms are identified as intolerant of toxic sub-
  stances, siltation, organic enrichment, and other forms of environ-
  mental disturbance by Mason et al. (1971), Weber (1973), and Lewis (1974).
Phylum Porifera
      Spongilla fragilis

Phylum Bryozoa
      Plumatella polymorpha var, regens
      Lophopodella carter!
      Pectinatella magnifica

Phylum Arthropoda
    Order Hydracarina
  Class Crustacea
    Order Isopoda
      Asellus spp.

    Order Decapoda
      Cambarus bartoni bartoni
      Cambarus conasaugaensis
      Cambarus asperimanus
      Cambarus acuminatus
      Cambarus hiwassensis

      Cambarus extraneus
      Cambarus cryptodytes
      Cambarus longulus longirostris
      Procambarus raneyi
      Procambarus acutus acutus

      Procambarus paeninsulanus
      Procambarus spiculifer
      Procambarus versutus
      Orconectes juvenilis

  Class Insecta
    Order Diptera
      Pentaneura inculta
      Pentaneura carneosa
      Pentaneura spp.
      Ablabesmyia americana
      Ablabesmyia mallochi

      Ablabesmyia ornata
      Ablabesmyia aspera
      Ablabesmyia auriensis
      Ablabesmyia spp.
      Labrundinia floridana

      Labrundinia pilosella
      Labrundinia virescens
      Coelotanypus concinnus
Tanypus stellatus
Clinotanypus caliginosus
Orthocladius obumbratus
Orthocladius spp.
Nanocladius spp.

Psectrocladius spp.
Metriocnemus lundbecki
Cricotopus bicinictus
Cricotopus exilis
Cricotopus trifasciatus

Cricotopus politus
CJLLcotopus tricinctus
  llcotopus absurdus
Cflicotopus spp.
cArynoneura taris

Corynoneura scutellata
Corynoneura spp.
Thienemanniella xena
Thienemanniella spp.
Trichocladius robaki

Brillia par
Diamesa nivoriumda
Diamesa spp.
Prodiamesa olivacca
Chironomus attenuatus group

Chironomus tentans
Chironomus plumosus
Chironomus anthracinus
Chironomus paganus
Kiefferullus dux

Cryptochironomus fulvus
Cryptochironomus digitatus
Cryptochironomus sp. B (Joh.)
Cryptochironomus blarina
Cryptochironomus psittacinus

Chaetolabis atroviridis
Chaetolabis ochreatus
Endochironomus nigrlcans
Stenochironotnus macateei
S tenochironomus hilaris

Stictochironomus devinctus
                                  2-85

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Table 2-15. Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators (continued).
      Stictochironomus varius
      Xenochironomus xenolabis
      Xenochironomus scopula
      Pseudochironomus richardson
      Pseudochironomus spp.

      Microtendipes pedellus
      Microteudipes spp.
      Paratendipes albimanus
      Tribelos jucundus
      Tribelos fuscicornis
      Harnischia tenuicaudata
      Phaenopsectra spp.
      Dicrotendipes neomedestus
      Dicrotendipes nervosus
      Dicrotendipes fumidus

      Glyptotendipes senilis
      Glyptotendipes paripes
      Glyptotendipes lobiferus
      Polypedilum halterale
      Polypedilum fallax

      Polypedilum illinoensg
      Paratanytarsus dissimilis
      Paratanytarsus simulans
      Paratanytarsus nubeculosum
      Paratanytarsus vibex

      Polypedilum spp.
      Tany tarsus neoflayellus
      Tanytarsus gracilentus
      Tanytarsus dissimilis
      Rheotauytarsus exiguus

      Micropsectra dives
      Micropsectra deflecta
      Microi^sectra
      Calopsectra spp .
      Stempellina ^ohannseni

      Aiiopheles punctipennis
      Chaoborus puuctipennis
      Tipula caloptera
      Tipula abdominalis
      Pseudolitmiophila I uteipennis

      Hexatoma spp.
      Telmatoscopus spp.
      Simulium venustrum
      Simulium spp.
      Prosimuliun iohanuseni
  Cnephia pecuarum
  Tabanus stratus
  Tabanus stygius
  Tabanus benedictus
  Tabanus variegatus

  Tabanus spp.

Order Trichoptera
  Hydropsychidae simulans
  Hydropsychidae frisoni
  Hydropsychidae incommoda
  Hydrop_sychg spp.
  Macronemura Carolina

  Macronemun spp.
  Psychomyia spp.
  Neureclipsis crepuseularis
  Polycentropus spp.
  Oxyethira spp.

  Rhyacophila spp.
  Hydroptila waubesiana
  Hydropt_i_l_a spp.
  Ochrotrichia spp.
  Agraylea spp.

  Lepto_cel_l_a spp.
              spp
  Chimarra p er i gua
  Chimarra spp.
  B ra chy cen t rus spp.

Order Epherneroptera
  Stononema jubromaculatum
  Stenonema fuscum
  Stenonema fuscum rivulicolum
  _S_teuonema gildersleevei
  Stenonema interpunctatum ohioense

  S_teiionema_interpunctatus canadense
  Stcnoi^em^i pud i cum
  S tcnoiiema_proximum
  Stenonema tripuiictatum
  S_tenonema floridense

  j^t cnoncma In t cum
  jtenonema niodiopunctatus
  Stenonema bipunctatum
  S tenonoma candidum               4
  Stenonema_carlsoni               ™

  Stenonema Carolina

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Table 2-15.  Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators (concluded).
      Hexagenia limbata
      Hexagenia bilineata
      Pentagenia vittgera
      Beatis vagans
    Campeloma decisum
    Lioplax subcarlnatus
    Goniobasis spp.
    Amiicola emarginata
    Amuicola limosa
       Isonychia  spp.
    Order Plecoptera
       Acroneuria  arida
       Taeniopteryx nivalis
       Isoperla bilineata

    Order Neuroptera
       Climacia areolaris
    Order Megaloptera
       Sialis  infumata

    Order Odonata
       Hetaerina  titia
       Argia spp.
       Enallagma  signatum
       Anax junius
       Gomphus  plagiatus

       Gomphus  externus
       Progomphus spp.
       Macromia spp.

    Order Coleoptera
       Steneltnis  crenata
       Stenelmis  sexlineata
       Pronioresia spp.
       Macronychus  glabratus
       Anacyronyx variegatus

       Microcylloepus pusillus
       Tropisternus dorsalis

Phylum Mollusca
   Class  Gastropoda
       Valvata  tricarinata
       Valvata  bicarinata
       Valvata  bicarinata var. normalis
       Vivaparus  coutectoides
       Vivaparus  subpurpurea
    Somatogyrus subglobosus

  Order Physidae
    Physa acuta
    Physa fontinalis
    Aplexa hypnorurn
    Lymnaea polustris
    Lymnaea stagnalis

    Lymnaea s.  appressa
    Planorbis carinatus
    Planorbis corneus
    Plauorbis marginatus
    Ancylus lacustris

    Ancylus fluviatilis •
    Ferrissia rivularis
Class Pelecypoda
    Margaritifera niargaritifera
    Proptera alata
    Leptodea fragilis
    Unio batavus
    Unio pictorum

    Lampsilis parvus
    Truncilla donaciformis
    Truncilla elegaus
    Anodonta mutabilis
    Proptera alata

    Leptodea fragilis
    Obliguaria reflcxa
    Corbicula maiiilensis
    Sphaerium moenauum
    Sphaerium vivicolum

    Sphaerium sol-idulum
    Pisidium Fossarinum
    Pisidium pauperculum crystalense
    Pisidium amnicum
                                    2-87

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     2.2.2.1.4.  Areas Containing Species of Special  Interest  (Criterion 4).
Areas that contain aquatic organisms that have been classified  as  threatened
or endangered according to the Endangered Species Act  of  1973  (16  USC  1531
et seq.) were considered to be BIA's.  There is no State  act that  protects
endangered species in West Virginia.  Organisms which  potentially  qualify
for such protection, however, have been  identified by  WVDNR-HTP  (Table
2-16).

     The majority of aquatic organisms included in the WVDNR-HTP inventory
are peripheral species at the edge of their geographical  range.  They  are
rare in West Virginia, but may be common or even abundant  in other parts of
the US.  The State list of fish that are considered rare  or of  special
interest as recently revised is shown in Table 2-16.

     2.2.2.1.5.__ Areas of Special Interest  (Criterion  5).  Areas which do
not fall into any of the above categories,  but nevertheless deserve special
attention or protection during New Source permit review also will  be
considered on a case by case basis by EPA as Category  I or II  BIA's.
Examples may include multipurpose reservoirs, areas known  to support  a
substantial sport fishery, or areas  supporting aquatic communities that, in
the professional judgment of the agency  investigator,  are  especially
susceptible to mining activities.  Also  because of the rapidly  changing
conditions in many Basin streams, WVDNR  district fish  biologists were
contacted for recent changes that may have  occurred but which  would not be
reflected by the existing data file.  Any such areas were  considered on a
case by case basis for inclusion as  BIA's.

BIA Category I and Category II

     The further differentiation of  BIA's,  once identified, into Category I
and Category II levels was accomplished qualitatively  on  the basis of
consultation with technical experts, State  agency review,  and  citizen  input.
At the heart of the differentiation  was  the extreme sensitivity of certain
species to sediment, pH, iron and other mine-related  pollutants.   Current
regulatory programs under SMCRA and  WVSCMRA also were  considered.   EPA has
determined that because of certain species' extreme sensitivity  to mine-
related pollutants that could be expected even with current regulatory
efforts, a special category (Category II) was necessary which  would be
associated with special mitigative measures or requirements prior  to  permit
issuance (see Section 5.2.).  The sensitive species identified  in  BIA
Category I areas would be associated with less stringent  mitigative measures
because of these species' lesser sensitivity.

     All trout waters, whether native or stocked, have been classified as
either Category I or II BIA's (by Criterion 1).  Exceptions are  allowed for
some of the other criteria,  however.  For example, there  may be waterbodies
which satisfy one or more of Criteria 2  through 5 but  are  not  designated as
Category I or II BIA's on the basis  of best professional  judgment  concerning
the significance of the criterion in the individual case.  All  BIA's  and
criteria for the designation of each, are listed in Table 5-5  and  are  shown
in Figure 5-2 of Section 5.2.

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Table 2-16.   Fish species of special interest that were used to designate
  BIA's.   These species have been classified as rare,  threatened or en-
  dangered,  and/or in need of special protection in West Virginia (WVDNR-
  HTP 1980).
                                  Fish
 Ichthvomyzon unicuspis
 Ichthyomyzon bdellium
 Ichthvomyzon greeleye
 Lampetra lamottei
 Acipenser fulvescens
 Polyodon spathula
 Scaphirhynchus platorynchus
 Hiodon tergisus
 Hiodon alosoides
 Notropis ariomus
 Notropis dorsalis
 Notropis scabriceps
 Clinostromus elongatus
 Exoglossum laurae
 Hybopsis storeriana
 Nocomis platyrhynchus
 Nocomis leptocephalus
 Phenacobius teretulus
 Pimephales vigilax
 Catos tomus catostomus
 Cycleptus elongatus
 Ictiobus bubalus
 Ictiobus cyprinellus
 Ictiobus niger
 Etheostoma longimanum
 Etheostoma maculaturn
 Etheostoma obsurni
 Percina copelandi
 Percina no togramma
 Percina gymnocephla
 Cottus girardi
 Lepomis gulosus
 Lepomis humilus
                               Shellfish
 Epioblasma torulosa torulosa*
   (-Dysonomia)
 Lamnsilis orbiculnta orbiculata*
Silver lamprey
Ohio lamprey
Allegheny brook lamprey
American brook lamprey
Lake sturgeon
Paddlefish
Shovelnose sturgeon
Mooneye
Goldeneye
Popeye shiner
Bigmouth shiner
New River shiner
Redside dace
Tonguetied minnow
Silver chub
Bigmouth chub
Bluehead chub
Kanawha minnow
Bullhead minnow
Longnose sucker
Blue sucker
Smallmouth buffalo
Bigmouth buffalo
Black buffalo
Longfin darter
Spotted darter
Finescaled saddled darter
Channel darter
Stripback darter
Appalachia darter
Potomac sculpin
Warmouth
Orange spotted sunfish
Tuberculed blossom pearly
 mussel
Pink mucket pearly mussel
 *0n the Federal List of Threatened and Endangered Species
                                   2-89

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     2.2.2.1.6.  Non-sensitive and Unclassified Areas.   In  addition to
identifying BIA's (Category I and Category II), non-sensitive  areas (i.e.,
those streams and lakes for which the New Source effluent  limitations  are
sufficient to prevent adverse effects) were  identified.  These  primarily are
areas that already are heavily polluted or where adequate  dilution  capacity
exists to accept New Source discharges that meet effluent  limitations.

     Unclassified areas are those for which  sufficient  information  did  not
exist at the time of this assessment to allow assignment to  a  category.
Unclassified areas will be designated as either BIA's  or non-sensitive  areas
on the basis of additional data.  As new data become  available, EPA will
update the information in this document and  reclassify  these areas  as  either
BIA's or non-sensitive areas.  The sampling  data required by EPA  for New
Source applications from unclassified areas  are described  in Section 5.2.

     2.2.2.2.  Application of the Criteria and Limitations  of  the Data

     In this section the available data on the aquatic  resources  in the
Basin are used to categorize the streams.  Nearly 100 papers and technical
reports were reviewed during the preparation of this  section,  but relatively
few contained the site-specific, quantitative data necessary for a  thorough
areawide. assessment.  The data in the following text  and tables were taken
predominantly from file data supplied by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources,  including
species management information from the RUNWILD computer program, computer-
stored stream surveys, stream sampling data  for fish and invertebrates, the
West Virginia Benthological Survey (Tartar 1976b),  oublished  and
unpublished literature on fish fauna provided by Drs. Stauffer  and  Rocutt of
the University of Maryland (1978), macroinvertebrate data  from FWPCA (1968),
file data on macroinvertebrates gathered by the Pittsburgh District USACE,
and other information supplied by ichthyologists familiar with West Virginia
fish fauna and WVDNR-Wildlife Resources personnel.

     Biological data by their nature are extremely variable; the data
presented herein are subject to three sources of variation:

     •  Temporal considerations.  Biological sampling  provides  an
        integrated assessment of conditions over an extended
        period, in contrast to the instantaneous information from
        one-time chemical sampling.   The fish and macroinverte-
        brate data used for this assessment were collected  over a
        20-year period.  Most of the stations were sampled only
        once, and conditions may have changed significantly  in
        particular streams since sampling was conducted.

     •  Sampling efficiency and gear bias.  Both the  fish  and
        macroinvertebrate data were gathered using a wide range of
        sampling techniques and gear types including electrofish-
        ing,  seines, gill nets, hoop nets, poison, several  types
        of bottom dredges, Surber samplers,  and fine mesh  nets.
        Each of these gear types has its own inherent biases.
        Also, the area sampled varied considerably.
                                     2-90

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      •   Operator  efficiency.   Individuals with varying levels of
         expertise  were  involved  in collecting the data included in
         this  report.   It  is  assumed that all individuals particip-
         ating in  the  collections were trained for their respective
         tasks,  but the  actual level of expertise of these individ-
         uals  undoubtedly  varied  with  respect to operating the
         sampling  gear or  identifying  the specimens with accuracy.

      2.2.2.2.1.  Trout.   Trout waters in the Basin are listed in Table 2-6
 and  shown  in  Figure 2-5 in Section 2.1.   These waters  were determined from
 SWRB  (1980) and WVDNR data and may or may not currently contain trout.   Most
 of  these streams  are  located  in  the southern and eastern portions  of the
 Basin; especially  in  the  headwaters of the Buckhannon, Middle Fork,  and
 Tygart Valley Rivers,  and throughout  the Cheat River drainage.   Many of
 these trout streams support native trout populations.   Because  of  the
 vigorous spawning  requirements of trout  (detailed in Section 5.2.),  these
 streams  are highly sensitive  to  mine-related impacts,  especially
 sedimentation.  Some  of these streams (e.g., Shavers Fork)  are  among some of
 the most heavily  fished streams  in the State.

      All trout  streams were designated as Category II  BIA's.   Because of
 their marginal nature as  trout habitat,  many of the trout lakes  in the  Basin
 generally  were  designated as  Category I  BIA's.

      2.2.2.2.2.  Fish Diversity.   Information on 250 fish sampling stations
 is  presented  in Tables A-l and A-3 in Appendix A.   Sixty-four species are
 listed in  these tables, a fairly low  number  considering the  number of
 stations and  the size of  the  Basin.   Eight other species were collected
 during routine collections made  during 1973,  1976 and  1978  at the  three Lock
 and Dam  chambers located  on the  Monongahela  River mainstem  in West Virginia
 (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1974,  1977,  1979).   These include  ghost  shiner
 (Notropis  buchanani), steelcolor shiner  (Notropis whipplei),  gizzard shad
 (Dorosoma  cepedianum), muskellunge (Esox masquinongy),  river  carpsucker
 (Carpiodej^ carpio), white catfish (ictalurus catus), warmouth (Lepomis
 gerlosus), and walleye (Stizostedion  vitreum).   The northern  pike  (Esox
 lucius) has been introduced into Tygart  Lake.   Other species  such  as the
 longnose sucker (Catostomus c a t ostomus)  and  the  popeye shiner (Notripis
 ariomus) were  originally  in the  Basin but may  be extirpated  (WVDNR-Wildlife
 Resources  1973).

     Of  the 250 stations  studied,  only 94 contained enough  data  for  divers-
 ity and equitability  values to be  validly calculated.   Forty-three of these
 94 stations had either equitability values X).8  or diversity  values  >3.0.
 The majority  of these high diversity-high  equitability  stations  are  concen-
 trated in  the upper portions  of  the watershed.   For instance,  there  are 10
 such stations  in the Dry  Fork River watershed  alone.   The upper  portions of
 the West Fork River,  Buckhannon  River, Middle  Fork River, Tygart Valley
 River and  Shavers  Fork contained 3, 4, 4,  3,  and 4 such  areas, respectively.
Thus, 28 of these  areas occur in the  upper portions of  the Basin's
watershed.   Undoubtedly,  this reflects the fact  that these areas have,  to
 date, been those least affected  by mining.   Because these headwater  BIA
 stations typically occur  on small,  poorly  buffered  streams which often
 contain trout, they typically were  considered  as  Category II  BIA's.
                                    2-91

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     2.2.2.2.3.  Macroinvertebrate Diversity  and  Indicator  Species.   Macro-
invertebrates  found in the Basin are  listed in Table A-4  (Appendix A).
Locations  for  these stations  are plotted  on Figure A-2  (Appendix  A).   Two or
more macroinvertebrate indicator species  were  found at  6  of the 44 stations
sampled.   These six stations  were  located in  the  southern and  eastern
sections of the Basin.

     Ten of the 58 stations sampled by  the FWPCA  (1968) yielded at least ten
taxa and at least 50% of the  individuals  were  in  the sensitive category
(Table A-5).  Most of these stations  were located in the  upper portions of
the Cheat  River and Tygart Valley River watersheds (Figure  A-2 in
Appendix A).

     Eight  of  the 37 stations  sampled quantitatively by the Pittsburgh
District USAGE either had diversity values that regularly were >3.0 or  had a
diversity  value of X3.0 during  the most recent sampling period (Table A-6).
Seven of these eight stations were located in the Cheat River watershed,
and these  were all located above Pringle  Run.  Thus, they  are  located in
that part  of the Cheat River  drainage that has been relatively unaffected by
coal mining.

     In summary, those stations supporting diverse macroinvertebrate  commun-
ities and/or those at which sensitive forms predominately were found  were
located primarily in trie upper  portions of the drainage and generally were
in the same areas where high  fish diversity was observed.

     2.2.2.2.4.  Species of Special Interest.  No species  appearing on  the
Federal list of endangered or threatened  species pursuant  to the  Endangered
Species Act of 1973 have been  found in  the Basin.  Species  that the WVDNR-
HTP considers to be rare or endangered  in West Virginia and that  have been
identified  in the Basin are listed in Table 2-17.  The  locations  where  each
of these species have been collected  are  listed in Table A-2 and  are  plotted
on USGS l:24,000-scale Overlay  1.  Although Tables A-l  and  A-3 in Appendix A
contain data from 250 stations, only  three species of fish  on the  WVDNR-HTP
list were  collected:   redside dace, orange-spotted sunfish,  and spotted
darter.

Redside dace

     Thirty-five redside dace were collected  on Whiteday  Creek (Table A-l,
Appendix A, Station 177).  It also has been collected recenlty on Laurel Run
of Big Sandy Creek (Verbally, Mr. F.  Jernejcic to Mr. G.  Seegert,  December
18, 1980).   This species has a  disjunct,  rather sporadic  distribution (Lee
et al.  1980).  It has been reported from  the  upper Mississippi River  drain-
age in Wisconsin and Minnesota, the upper Susquehanna drainage in New York
and  Pennsylvania, and the upper Ohio River Basin in Ohio  and Pennslvania.
It may be  locally common, but overall is  rather rare (Lee et al.  1980)  and
typically  inhabits small to medium-sized  streams  that have  gravel  or  rubble
bottoms.  These types of habitat are obliterated by silt  from  agricultural
fields and  coal washings.  Trautman (1957) stated that  during his  surveys
                                   2-92

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-------
from 1925-1950, many redside dace  populations  decreased  drastically in
abundance or disappeared entirely.  He concluded that reduction  of  the
redside dace populations east of  the Flushing Escarpment was  due to mine
pollution.  Reductions in redside  dace populations elsewhere  were related
chiefly to agricultural practices.

Orange Spotted _Sunfis_h_

     The orange spotted sunfish is common  in the midwestern and  south-
central portions of the US.  West  Virginia, however, is near  the eastern
edge of its range  (Plieger  1975),  and it only  recently has been  reported in
the State (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973).  It is tolerant of siltation and
continuous high turbidities (Plieger 1975).  It  is usually not found in
streams with high  gradients, clear or cool water, and continuous strong
flows.  Recently this species has  been reported  in the Basin  in  Hackers
Creek and Elk Creek (Table A-l, Appendix A, Stations 208, 210, 211).

Spotted darter

     The spotted darter occurs principally in Tennessee  and Kentucky,  with
small relict populations present  in Ohio and Pennsylvania (Lee et al.  1980).
The only confirmed record in West  Virginia is  from the Elk River (Stauffer
and Hocutt 1979).  The status of  the single specimen reported from  the Cheat
River is unclear;  it may be a misidentification  (Table A-l, Appendix A,
Station 163; Verbally,  Mr.  D,  Cincotta, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources to Mr.  G.
Seegert, December  13, 1980).

     Because the orange spotted sunfish is highly tolerant of turbidity and
siltation, this species was not used to identify BIA's.  Likewise the
validity of the spotted darter record is questionable and it  was not used to
identify a BIA.  The redside dace  clearly  is sensitive to mine-related
pollution; Whiteday Creek and Laurel Run, where  it has been reported,  have
already been identified as BIA's.

     2.2.2.2.5.  Areas of Special  Interest.  Because of  the substantial
sport and recreational fisheries  they provide, the following  waters (or
portions thereof)  are designated  as BIA's:  Monongahela River, West Fork
River, Tygart Valley River  (including Tygart Lake), Buckhannon River,
Buffalo Creek, Elk Creek, Hackers  Creek, and Tenmile Creek.   Waters support-
ing substantial fisheries,  but already designated as BIA's for other reasons
are listed in Table 5-5 in Section 5.2.

2.2.3.  Erroneous Classification

     EPA has based its BIA (Category I and Category II) designations on the
best available information.  Nevertheless, this data base is  not flawless,
is not always current,  and should  be updated continuously.  EPA  expects to
update and improve this data base  through cooperative efforts  with  the State
as well as through inputs from environmental groups, mining concerns,  and
any other parties who have collected new data through professionally
                                     2-94

-------
acceptable techniques.  EPA urges  all  parties  to  submit  new  information to
EPA whenever possible.  Parties planning  to  submit  new information  to  EPA
should review data collection  techniques  with  EPA to  guarantee  that they
will be acceptable.  It is possible that  the submission  of new  information
will result in re-classification  (e.g.,  from a BIA  Category  I to  a  BIA
Category II and vice versa; from a BIA Category I  to  a non-sensitive area
and vice versa, etc.).
                                    2-95

-------
2-96

-------
2.3  Terrestrial Biota

-------
                                                                      Page

2.3.   Terrestrial Biota                                               2-97

      2.3.1.  Ecological Setting                                      2-97
              2.3.1.1.   Land Use/Land Cover                           2-98
              2.3.1.2.   Ecological Regions                             2-98

      2.3.2.  Vegetation and Flora                                    2-100
              2.3.2.1.   Historical Perspective                        2-100
              2.3.2.2.   Present-day Vegetation                        2-100
              2.3.2.3.   Vegetation Classification Systems             2-100
              2.3.2.4.   Features of Special Interest                   2-103
              2.3.2.5.   Floristic Resources                           2-106
              2.3.2.6.   Heath Barrens                                 2-107
              2.3.2.7.   Sparsely Vegetated  Knobs                      2-107

      2.3.3.  Wildlife  Resources                                      2-107
              2.3.3.1.   Animal Communities  by Habitat Type            2-107
              2.3.3.2.   Distribution of Wildlife                      2-113
                        2.3.3.2.1.  Amphibians                        2-113
                        2.3.3.2.2.  Reptiles                          2-113
                        2.3.3.2.3.  Birds                             2-113
                        2.3.3.2.4.  Mammals                           2-115
              2.3.3.3.   Game Resources                                2-115
              2.3.3.4.   Values of Nongame Wildlife Resources           2-116

      2.3.4.  Significant Species and Features                        2-116
              2.3.4.1.   Endangered and Threatened Species             2-119
                        2.3.4.1.1.  Plants                             2-119
                        2.3.4.1.2.  Animals                           2-119
              2.3.4.2.   Animal Species of Special Interest            2-119

      2.3.5.  Data Gaps                                               2-120
              2.3.5.1.   Wetlands                                      2-120
              2.3.5.2.   Significant Species and Features               2-120

-------
2.3.  TERRESTRIAL BIOTA

2.3.1.  Ecological Setting

     The Monongahela River Basin  is  located  west  of  the ridge line of the
Allegheny Mountains in an area that  is physiographic ally a part  of the
Appalachian Plateau (Fortney  1978).   Its  terrain  varies from mountainous to
hilly, with a very small percentage  of essentially  flat river valleys and
mountaintops.  The slopes and contours of  the  mountains are rounded and
eroded (Core 1966).  The tree cover  of the Basin,  except where it  has been
removed by human activity, is now almost  complete.   There are a few
naturally treeless areas, but most of the non-forested  land is used for
residential communities, highways, industry, mining,  or agriculture.

     Surface mining has removed the  forest cover  in  a few areas,  and  current
reclamation practices result  in the  replacement of  the  forest with large
areas of grassland and shrubland.  Forest regrowth,  especially of  endemic
species (native local species that now have  a  restricted distribution) is
unlikely to occur during the  foreseeable  future in  surface-mined  areas in
most of the State for the following  reasons:

     •  The loss of soil and  the  consequent  lack  of  moisture in
        the root zone

     •  The sterilization of  seeds and destruction  of soil
        organisms through handling and storage  of  topsoil before
        regrading

     •  The lack of a soil and rock  substructure  capable of
        holding tree roots firmly on  slopes

     •  Unsuitable pH conditions  in  the subsoil that  prohibit
        penetration of tree roots to  appropriate  depths

     •  The planting of nonnative or  nonendemic species of
        grasses, shrubs, and  trees because they are  readily
        available from suppliers.

     Many years are required  for  an  area  to  return  to native forest through
natural succession.  The process  may  not be  completed for more than a
century in areas that have been surface mined  unless  reclamation  and
revegetation have been designed to speed reforestation.   The decrease in
forest acreage partially is compensated for  by  the  reversion of  farmland to
forest.

     The elevation, slope, and land  cover variations  within the  Basin result
in many different habitat conditions, and thus many  species of wildlife are
present.  The diversity in fauna  also is  due in part  to the geographic
position of the State between the northern and  southern faunal regions of
the tmited States.  The majority  of  the species are  forest animals.  Species
                                    2-97

-------
associated with agricultural areas also  are present  throughout  most  of  the
Basin.  Species associated with "edges"  or interfaces between habitats  and
shrubland or successional conditions may be located  in  areas where
conditions such as abandoned farmland and abandoned  or  reclaimed  surface
mines are present.

     2^.3.1.1.  Land Use/Land Cover

     USGS produced computer-plotted  land use/land cover overlays  to  the
standard 1:250,000-scale topographic quadrangle maps  for  the State of West
Virginia.  The maps were based on high-altitude aerial  photographs.  The map
for the section of West Virginia in  which the Basin  is  located  is shown in
the maps (included in the front pocket of this binder).   Data on  the number
of acres of each land use/land cover type for all of  the  Basin  counties are
presented in Table 2-18 (see Section 2.6. for additional  discussion  on  the
USGS categorization scheme).

     Agricultural lands are scattered throughout the  Basin.  Less than  25%
of the land in the Basin is used for agriculture.

     Forested land covers approximately  66% of the Basin.   Most of the
Basin's land area is covered with deciduous or mixed  forest  (deciduous  and
coniferous).  Up to a third of the cover in areas delineated as deciduous
forest actually may be evergreens.   Conversely, the  apparent presence of
evergreen trees in many parts of the Basin is a result  of the presence  of
evergreen rhododendron thickets below the deciduous  trees.  These thickets
cannot be distinguished easily from  evergreen trees  in  high-altitude aerial
photographs.  Approximately 30% to 70% of the cover  of  areas delineated as
mixed forest land may consist of evergreen trees.  Wetland  areas  are
scattered throughout the Basin.

     Both land used for surface mining and transitional land (land in a
state of incomplete revegetation after mining) are scattered throughout the
Basin.  Less than 1% of the land cover in the Basin  is  known to be included
in each of these two categories on the basis of the  mapped  information,  but
the percentage actually may be higher because many mines  and reclaimed  areas
are too small to be identified on the high-altitude  photographs.

     2.3.1.2.  Ecological Regions

     Two Statewide ecological region classification  systems have  been
developed for West Virginia.  These  systems are the  ecoregions  system
developed by Bailey (1976) and the ecological regions system used by WVDNR-
Wildlife Resources based on Wilson et al. (1951).  The  ecoregions system
developed by Bailey is based on physical and biological components which
include climate, vegetation type, physiography, and  soil.   In the Bailey
ecoregions system, the general vegetation of the majority of the  Mononga-
hela River Basin is typed as Appalachian oak forest.  The WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources classification system consists of six ecological  regions used as a
                                     2-98

-------




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framework for the preparation of wildlife habitats  and occurrences
descriptions.  Both systems are described in greater detail in Appendix B.

2.3.2.  Vegetation and Flora

     2.3.2.1.  Historical Perspective

     The forests of West Virginia have been altered substantially  since the
arrival of the first settlers from Europe.  Early farmers chose  land  in the
flat, forested river valleys for their homesteads.  Most of the  forests in
these floodplains contained the best timber in the State and were destroyed
by cutting and burning (Clarkson 1964).  Commercial logging began with the
development of steam-powered sawmills in the early 1800's and increased
rapidly after techniques for clearcutting were developed.  The construction
of railroads and the introduction of large-band sawmills in the  late  1800's
accelerated the deforestation.  By 1911, less than 10% of the State remained
in virgin forest (Brooks 1911).

     Much of the land that had been logged was burned and used briefly for
agricultural purposes.  The forest soils, which often were steeply sloping
and highly erodible, were left without a significant humus layer as a
consequence of the fires, and subsequently were lost in many areas through
erosion.  From about 1910 on, large supplies of inexpensive grains from the
Midwest became available on the National market (Core 1980).  This factor,
coupled with the low-quality, eroded condition of the farmland in  the State,
initiated a gradual decline in agricultural production that has  continued to
the present.

     2.3.2.2.  Present-day Vegetation

     The report prepared by Wilson et al. (1951) constituted the final
report of a wildlife habitat mapping project conducted jointly by the West
Virginia Conservation Commission (now WVDNR-Wildlife Resources)  and USFS.
This study included the first detailed forest mapping of the entire State.
A generalized map of the vegetation of the State in 1950, prepared from the
more detailed 1:62,500-scale cover maps produced during the study, is
presented in Figure 2-18.

     The 1:62,500-scale cover maps still are valid today for areas that have
not been logged or mined since the early part of this century.   The maps
also provide the most precise available information on the earlier vegeta-
tion of areas that have been disturbed since 1950.  The accuracy of the maps
was confirmed by a comparison of observed forest types in the Kanawha State
Forest (located in the Coal/Kanawha River Basin) in 1910 and 1977  (Sturm
1977).

     2.3.2.3  Vegetation Classification Systems

     The vegetation of the Basin has been characterized variously over the
past three decades.  Braun (1950) classified the typical upland  native
                                     2-100

-------

-------
vegetation of the entire Basin as a mixed mesophytic  forest.  The  mixed
mesophytic forest is a complex association with many  species  of  trees, but
no single tree or mix of trees attains  a level of dominance.  Typical
species present in this association are:         ,

beech                            sweet  buckeye           black cherry
tulip tree                       oaks                    cucumber  tree
basswood                         hemlock                 white ash
sugar maple                      birches                 red  maple
chestnut (prior to chestnut      sour gum                hickories
  blight of the early 1900's)    black  walnut

     The US Forest Service  (1960), in mapping the general  forest cover in
the United States, categorized most of  the Monongahela Basin  as  central
hardwood forest; the easternmost section was labeled  northern forest
(Figure B-6 in Appendix B).  Both types were described as having diverse  and
overlapping species composition.  The predominant species  of  the central
hardwood forest were oaks, hickories, ashes, and elms, whereas the
predominant species in the northern forests were spruces,  balsam fir,  pines,
and hemlock.

     In a study of potential natural vegetation in the United States,
Kuchler (1964) identified  four vegetation types within the Monongahela Basin
(Figure B-4 in Appendix B).  The predominant type in  the Basin was the mixed
mesophytic forest, which potentially could cover 60%  of the Basin.  This
type includes a variable mixture of sugar maple, buckeye,  beech,  tuliptree,
white oak, northern red oak, and basswood as important species.  A northern
hardwood forest type which  includes sugar raaple, beech birch, and  hemlock
potentially occupies about 30% of the Basin along its sourthern  and eastern
edges.  Several areas of northeastern spruce-fir forest characterized  by
balsam fir and red spruce  potentially occur at higher elevaitons  and cover
less than 10% of the Basin.  The northwestern tip (less than  5%)  of the
Basin, potentially is occupied by the Appalachian oak forest  type,  which
contains primarily white oak and northern red oak along with  many  other
species as minor components.

     Core's (1966) analysis of West Virginia vegetation divided  the
Monongahela River Basin into two vegetation types on  the basis of
physiography (Figure B-5 in Appendix B).  He described the eastern two
thirds of the Basin (the Allegheny Mountain and Upland Physiographic
section) as characterized  by a northern hardwood forest.  The most abundant
tree species here are sugar maple, beech, and yellow  birch.   Associated
species include red maple, white ash, black cherry, sweet  birch,  and
American elm.

     Core described the western third of the Monongahela River Basin  (the
Western Hills Physiographic section) as a central hardwood forest.  This
type in turn was subdivided locally on  the basis of moisture  content of  the
forest soils.   The dry (xeric) subdivision includes predominent  oak forests
and typically is found on  ridgetops and upper slopes.  The moderately  moist
                                       2-102

-------
 (mesic)  subdivision  exists  on northfacing slopes  and in coves.   The species
 composition  of  the mesic  subdivision  of  Core  (1966)  is  similar  to that
 described  by Braun  (1950)  for the  mixed  mesophytic  forest.   The wet (hydric)
 subdivision  exists  in  floodplains,  in bottomlands,  and  along streams.   Its
 prominent  trees  include willows,  sweetgum,  sycamore, silver maple, and river
 birch.   The  hydric type occurs  infrequently in  the Monongahela  River Basin
 because  the  valley bottoms  and  floodplains  are  limited  to narrow bands along
 streams  and  rivers.  Granville  Island at  Morgantown, a  part of  the Aboretum
 of West  Virginia University,  is the most  notable  example of hydric forest in
 the Monongahela  River  Basin.

     When  its personnel mapped  the  major  forest regions of  the  noretheastern
 United States,  the US  Forest  Service  (1968) typed most  of the Monongahela
 River Basin  as  an oak-yellow  poplar association (Figure B-7 in  Appendix B).
 The remaining 15% of the  Basin,  in  the southeastern  section where the
 mountain elevations  are generally  the highest,  was  delineated  as a
 beechbirch-maple association.

     In  a  map of forest cover types of the Monongahela  River Basin, the West
 Virginia Department  of Natural  Resources  (1976) delineated  four forest types
 (Figure  B-9  in Appendix B).   The Appalachian  mixed hardwood forests which
 cover approximately 30% of  the  Basin,  are bands that generally  follow the
 courses  of the major rivers.  The  oak-hickory forest covers approximately
 40% of the Basin at the higher  elevations along the  river courses.   A
 cherry-maple  forest type  covers  approximately 20% of the Basin, and exists
 as five  distinct patches, the largest  of  which  is in the mountains of Tucker
 and Randolph Counties.  Less  than  10% of  the  Basin  is covered by spruce-fir
 forest.  This forest type exists in two  locations, one  on Cheat Mountain and
 the other  near  the Allegheny  Front  in easternmost Tucker and Randolph
 Counties.

     The Monongahela River  Basin was  mapped by  the Appalachian  Regional
 Commission (1977) as having four forest  types (Figure B-8 in Appendix B).
 The oak-hickory  forest covers approximately 50% of  the  Basin.   The
 maplebeech-birch forest covers  approximately  20% of  the Basin and exists
 along the  southeast side.   Spruce-fir forest  accounts for approximately 10%
 of the Basin, and occurs  in one  area  on Cheat Mountain  and  a second along
 the Tucker County-Randolph  County boundary.   Approximately  20%  of the  Basin
 was delineated as lacking significant  forest  cover.  The largest non-forest
 area exists  in the area of  Clarksburg, Buckannon, and Tygart Lake.

     2.3.2.4.  Features of  Special  Interest

     2.3.2.4.1.   Wetlands.  Wetlands  in West  Virginia are scarce and
 generally  small because of  the mountainous topography.   The few sizeable
wetlands that exist in the  State are  within either the  Gauley River Basin or
 the Monongahela River Basin.  The USFWS  (1955) mapped wetlands  in West
Virginia and identified the Cranesville Swamp (Preston  County)  and the
 Canaan Valley (Tucker County) within  the  Monongahela River  Basin.   The four
 local vegetation types that are  included  in wetlands of these areas are
 fresh meadow, shrub, swamp, wooded  swamp, and bog.
                                      2-103

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     In an evaluation of inland wetlands for potential registration  as
natural landmarks, ten wetland areas in the Basin were considered  (Goodwin
and Niering 1975) and are included in Figure 2-19.  In Tucker County, the
Big Run Bog, Fisher Spring Run Bog, Cold Run wetland, Dobbin Slashing Bog,
and the Canaan Valley wetland system were reviewed.  In Randolph County,  the
Moore Run Bog, Blister Run wetland, Yellow Creek Glade, and the wetlands  at
the Sinks of Gandy were reported.  Cranesville Swamp in Preston County  also
was examined.

     The bog communities are made up primarily of sphagnum moss and  sedges;
craneberries, sundews, pitcher plants, orchids, and ferns are common asso-
ciates.  The shrub thickets commonly consist of speckled alder, elderberry,
rhododendron, and wild raisin.  Bog forests have a typical flora of  inter-
mixed red spruce, hemlock, larch, tamarack, yellow birch, and black  ash.
Swamp areas include species of all the above mentioned types, plus broadleaf
and narrowleaf cattail.  The bog and bog forest wetlands at the Sinks of
Gandy support twinflower, goldthread, skunk current, dwarf cornel, and
snowberry, which are typical of bogs in the far northern United States  and
Canada.

     Cranesville Swamp, partly in Preston County and partly  Ln Maryland,
covers approximately 560 acres and is a Registered Natural Landmark.  It
contains the southernmost known stands of American larch or tamarack.

     The Canaan Valley contains approximately 20,500 acres of wetlands
including all of the previously mentioned types.  Dense stands of  great
laurel cover extensive areas.  Glades and bogs within the Canaan Valley are
as much a 2 miles in length.

     Figure 2-19 shows wetland areas plotted by the WVDNR-HTP (1978b) and
the US Geological Survey.  The largest concentration of wetlands in  the
Basin is in the Blackwater River Watershed in Tucker and Randolph  Counties.
Another series of wetlands appears in the Tygart Valley between Elkins  and
Mill Creek.  These areas have not been described floristically.  Several
wetlands occur near Cranesville in Preston County and near Cheat Bridge in
Randolph County.  A single wetland area occurs near Spelter in Harrison
County, and is the only mapped wetland in the northwestern half of the
Basin.  Small wetlands in the Monongahela River Basin that were not  mapped
by USGS at the 1:24,000 topographic scale do not appear in this inventory.

     2.3.2.4.2.  Virgin Forest.  Prior to settlement by American colonists
in the eighteenth century, West Virginia almost totally was covered  by
forest.  The majority of the State's land cover still is forest; however,
current forests differ vastly from the forests of the precolonial  period.
The almost complete deforestation of the State by logging, burning,  destruc-
tive effects of agricultural practices, and surface mining have changed
tree, shrub, and herbaceous conditions throughout the State.  It is
                                      2-104

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Figure 2-19

LOCATION OF SIGNIFICANT SPECIES IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (WVDNR  1977)
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGICAL
FEATURE

WETLAND
                                                    \
                                                  MILES
                                            0        10
                                               WAPOfU, INC.
                             2-105

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estimated that only 200 acres of virgin  forest have survived  to  the  present
(WVDNR-HTP 1980).  No tracts of virgin forest are known to exist  in  the
Monongahela River Basin, but small amounts of virgin  forest cover may  be
present in some areas.

     2.3.2.5.  Floristic Resources
     The published flora of West Virginia  includes approximately  2,200
species native to the State (Strausbaugh and Core 1978).  A  list  for  the
Monongahela River Basin is not available.  An examination of  range
information in the principal compilation of silvicultural information for
the United States (Fowells 1965) has shown that  at least 60  species of
significant trees occur in West Virginia, where  significant  is defined  as
those species having relatively high value for silvicultural  purposes.

     Within the State of West Virginia, including the Monongahela River
Basin, there are no plants that are considered threatened or  endangered
under any State or Federal designation.  The Secretary of the Interior
(USFWS 1976) has proposed a list of vascular plant species to be  considered
for the national status of endangered by extinction.  None of these species
occurs in West Virginia.  A proposed list by the Smithsonian  Institution
included five species that are found in the Monongahela River Basin as  part
of their range:  rough heuchera, Fraser's  sedge, small green  orchid,  purple
fringeless orchid, and dwarf anemone (Fortney 1978).

     The Heritage Trust Program of the WVDNR is  a repository  for  information
concerning the location and nature of significant biological  and  related
resources within the State of West Virginia (WVDNR-HTP 1978b).  No  legal
protection or status is associated with the listings in the Heritage  Trust
Program inventory, although certain of the listed biota may  be protected by
Federal regulations or by another State agency.  The Heritage Trust Program
resource categories include scientific interest  plants, threatened  or
endangered plants, special interest plant communities, champion or
outstanding individual trees, and wetland areas, as mapped in Figure  2-19.
The WVDNR compiled additional data on resource features (especially
wetlands) after EPA completed this inventory (By letter, Ronald Fortney,
WVDNR, February 6, 1979, 1 p.).  The mapped data represent only the
available, reported resource features;  they do not reflect a  systematic,
Basin-wide inventory.

     The concentration of floristic data in the  vicinity of Morgantown
reflects the history of relatively intensive floristic reconnaissance by
numerous investigators associated with West Virginia University.  The
concentration of floristic data in the Blackwater River watershed also
reflects an area that has been studied intensively.
                                      2-106

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      2.3.2.6.  Heath  Barrens

      The heath barrens  are mountaintop  scrub  communities that  occur in flat
or gently rolling tops  of mountains  above  3,800 feet  in elevation.   The main
constituents  of  these areas  are  various  species of  blueberry and
huckleberry,  which are  abundant  enough to  make  berry  harvesting of  some
economic value to local  residents.   Great  laurel, mountain laurel,  mountain
azalea, and flame azalea are  other conspicuous  shrubs in the heath  family
tViat  occur  in these barrens.   Chokeberry,  wild  holly, speckled alder,
gooseberry, mountain  holly, wild raisin, red  elderberry,  and smooth
serviceberry  may be associated with  heath  barrens.   Several  areas of heath
barrens exist on the  higher mountain ridges of  the  southeastern Basin
Randolph County.

      2.3.2.7.  Sparsely Vegetated Knobs

      In the Monongahela River Basin  bare rock outcrops have  a  very  limited
amount of vegetation.  These  outcrops and  their peculiar associated flora
represent remnants of a  period when  the mountains were younger and  there was
a much larger expanse of bare rock.   The plants that  exist in  such  places
are specialized  so that  they  can tolerate  physically  severe  growing
conditions.   Lichens, mosses,  and ferns, in that order,  are  the first  to
pioneer an  existence  on  bare  rock.   A variety of vascular plants can survive
in tiny crevices and  catch-places where the incipient soil made of  rock
granules and  decayed  lichens  collected.  A few  species have  their only
locations in  West Virginia on the bare sandstone outcrops at the tops  of
mountain ridges, or where rivers have cut  valleys through the  sandstone.
These include stiff aster, Barbara's  buttons, and riverbank  goldenrod  (Core
1966).

2.3.3.  Wildlife Resources
     The Monongahela River Basin  contains  both  game  and  nongame wildlife
resources, although populations of  some  desirable  species  are  low in
comparison to those in the rest of  the State.   The economic  benefits
associated with the consumptive and nonconsumptive use  of  such resources,
through hunting and wildlife  observation experiences,  constitute a major
component of the economy of the State.

     The most important factor in the possible  improvement of  the diversity
and abundance of wildlife in  the  Basin is  the amount  of  suitable habitat
available for fulfillment of  the  food, cover, and  reproduction requirements
of each species.  A continuation  of the  present  land  use trends combined
with anticipated increases in surface mining  and timber  harvest, could
reduce the availability and quality of certain  habitat  types in the Basin
over the next few decades.

     2.3.3.1.  Animal Communities by Habitat  Type

     West Virginia has one of the most diverse  assemblages of  wildlife and
wildlife habitats in the eastern United  States  (Smith  1966).   This diversity
is due to the wide altitudinal gradient  in the  State,  its  geographical


                                    2-107

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position between northern  and  southern biological  communities,  and  its
complex topography.  Many  authors have developed schemes  for classification
of the vegetation of West Virginia,  and  the organization  of  the  information
and the names of the plant communities differ  from  source  to source
(Core 1966, Society of American Foresters 1967, Strausbaugh  and'  Core  1970,
Wilson et al. 1951).  The habitats described herein  generally are consistent
with the major cover types in  these  publications.

     Northern Deciduous and Evergreen Forests

     The northern forest types are usually  found in  the cool, moist
environments of the mountains  above  3,000 ft in elevation.   In the
Monongahela River Basin these  forest types  are found  in and  near the  Canaan
Valley, Dolly Sods Scenic Area, and  Otter Creek Wilderness Area.  Habitat
conditions are typical of more northern  areas  such  as  northwestern
Pennsylvania .or southern Canada.

     The presence of these northern  habitats is the  prime  reason why  many
northern wildlife species  extend south into the Monongahela  River Basin.
Mammals which are near the southernmost  limit  of their range in  the Basin
include the snowshoe hare, yellow nose vole, red squirrel, and northern
flying squirrel.  Birds associated with  these  northern habitat  types  include
the Nashville warbler, Canada warbler, Swainson's  thrush, hermit thrush,
northern water thrush, saw-whet owl, golden-crowned  kinglet, olive-sided
flycatcher, red-breasted nuthatch, and dark-eyed junco.  The wetland  areas
associated with northern forests are habitats  for  uncommon species  such as
the Cheat Mountain salamander.  The  northern forests  also  support sizeable
populations of whitetailed deer, black bear, wild  turkey,  and ruffed  grouse
(Core 1966; WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973; WVDNR 1976h).

     The black bear is one of  the outstanding  inhabitants  of the forests of
the Basin.  It has specific requirements with  respect  to  food, cover,
seclusion, and territory.  By  comparison to other  animals  in West Virginia,
black bear habitat must include extensive undisturbed  areas.  Breeding
habitats should encompass not  less than 32,000 acres  of inaccessible  forest
with little or no human activity.  This type of habitat is limited  in West
Virginia.  Areas suitable  for  black  bears are  being  lost  annually to
activities such as highway construction, resource  removal, and recreational
development.

     At present the State black bear population is  dependent on  five
breeding areas of suitable size and habitat.   All  of  these are within or
close proximity to the authorized boundary  of  the Monongahela National
Forest.  Three of these areas  are in the Monongahela River Basin:   Otter
Creek, Northern Cheat Mountain, and  Southern Cheat Mountain  (Figure 2-20).
The Otter Creek and Northern Cheat Mountain areas  are  presently  near  the
minimum size suitable for breeding (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973,  1977;
WVDNR 1976h).
                                      2-108

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Figure 2-20

APPROXIMATE  LOCATIONS OF BLACK BEAR BREEDING AREAS IN
THE MONONGAHELA  RIVER BASIN (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
1974 and 1980)
                                      Northern
                                      Cheat
                                     Mountain
                                 Southern
                                 Cheat
                                Mountaip
                                             WAPOM, INC.
                                                   10
                            2-109

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     As a game species, black bears are managed by the State  as  a renewable
resource which can provide opportunity for big game hunting with firearms
approximately three weeks each year.  Bow hunting for bears is  open  from mid~
October until the end of December.  It is legal to hunt black bears  in  10
counties in the eastern part of the State.  These counties  include the  five
black bear breeding areas, where an adult bear is considered'legal game only
if it is not accompanied by a cub bear.  In the Monongahela River Basin
black bears may be hunted in Pocahontas, Randolph, and Tucker counties
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1976, 1978).

     Wetlands and Riparian Habitats

     Wetland areas include marshes, swamps, bogs, wet meadows,  sloughs,
overflow areas adjacent to stream or rivers, and shallow  water  areas  with
emsEgent vegetation.  Wetlands generally are situated in  lowlying areas and
usually are characterized by the presence of vegetation that  is  tolerant of
aquatic or wet soil conditions.  It has been estimated by the West Virginia
Department of Natural Resources that there are at least 28,600  acres  of
major wetlands in the Basin that are of National significance.   These
include the Canaan Valley, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog,  and  Fisher Spring
Run Bog.  Additional wetland areas of  smaller size but of great  local
biological significance probably will be identified through the  Statewide
wetland and riparian habitat inventory which is currently being  conducted  by
the Wildlife Resources Division (WVDNR 1976h).

     Riparian habitat represents the ecotone between  aquatic  and terrestrial
habitats.  It is the area immediately  adjacent to a stream  or other
perennial or intermittent watercourse.  This habitat  can  vary  in width  from
one meter to several hundred meters.  Riparian habitat in the Monongahela
River Basin is limited because of the mountain and valley topography (WVDNR
1976h).  The value of any given riparian habitat is dependent on the quality
and quantity of the vegetation on its  landward side and the size and quality
of the open water area.  Steep gradient streams adjoined  solely  by forest
habitats may be less valuable to some  classes of wildlife than  mixtures of
herbaceous and woody vegetation adjacent to pools and slow-moving
ba'ckwaters .

     Wetlands and riparian habitats provide living space  and  food sources
for a greater variety of wildlife than any other habitat  in the  State (WVDNR
1976h).  Most amphibians and many reptiles need areas of  open,  unpolluted
water in order to complete their reproductive cycles.  The  quiet and shallow
waters of wetland areas are ideally suited as breeding sites  for frogs,
toads, and some salamanders.  Birds, especially shore birds and  wading  birds
such as the great blue heron, green heron, and sandpipers are able to find
food and shelter in wetland and riparian habitats during  their  annual
migratory flights.  Some aspects of waterfowl, such as wood ducks, mallards,
and black ducks, breed in wetland areas of the Monongahela  River Basin
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973).  Other birds which use wetland  and  riparian
habitats for feeding and resting include:  kingfisher, turkey vulture,
red-winged blackbird, song sparrow, robin, cardinal,  and  yellow warbler
                                    2-110

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(WVDNR 1976h).  The variety  of  food  sources  in  these  habitats  attracts game
species such  as whitetailed  deer, cottontails,  squirrels,  quail,  grouse,
mourning dove, and woodcock.  Widely ranging  predatory  and omnivorous
species such  as osprey, marsh hawk,  mink, weasel,  foxes,  raccoon,  and bobcat
find varied prey  in such habitats.   These habitats  also are the most
productive areas  for almost  all  forms  of furbearers in  the Basin (WVDNR
1976h; WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  1977b).

     Open Land

     The open land category  includes cropland,  pastures,  oldfields,
hayfiel-ds, and orchards.  Wildlife diversity  is highest where  there  is a
mixture of open land, scrub,  and  forest.  As  a  general  rule for most
wildlife, good habitat conditions are  represented by  a  ratio of about 40%
open land to 60%  forest and  scrub (WVDNR 1976h).

     The most valuable types  of  open land to  wildlife are  those used  for  or
associated with agricultural  operations.  These  areas provide  varied  food
and cover which are favorable to wildlife.  This is in  contrast to closed
canopy forest or  single species  stands which  provide  uniform food  or  cover.
During the period between 1949  and 1961, more than  1.5  million acres  of open
land in West Virginia were abandoned.  During this  period  there was  a 54%
decrease in the number of active farms.  Farmland not used for urban
purposes typically reverts to oldfield,  scrub,  and  forest  after cultivation
ceases.

     Forest presently comprises  about  66% of  the Monongahela River Basin.
It has been estimated that the  proportion of  forest will  increase  to  68%  by
the year 2000.  A decrease in the amount of  agricultural  and open  land with
the subsequent increases in  forest or  developed  land  locally will  alter the
present wildlife  diversity and  populations.   Maintenance  of open habitats
together with edge habitats  adjacent to  forest  and  scrub  stands is a  primary
need for wildlife management  efforts in  the Monongahela River  Basin
(WVDNR-1976h).

     Many species benefit from  open  habitats, especially  when  they are in
close proximity to forest, wetland,  riparian  habitat, or  scrub.   Small
mammals such  as mice, voles,  shrews,  opossum, skunk,  and  cottontails  utilize
open land for food, nesting,  and shelter.  The  variety  of  seeds produced  on
open and agricultural land attracts  song birds  and  game birds  such as robin,
catbird, mockingbird, red-winged blackbird, meadowlark,  sparrows,  mourning
dove, quail, grouse, and pheasant.   Whitetailed  deer, squirrels,  and
occasionally wild turkey move into open  lands to feed on  the forbs,  fruits,
and seeds present in these habitats.   Predators, omnivores,  and furbearers
also benefit  from open habitats.  Abundant small prey provide  hunting
opportunities for snakes, hawks, owls, foxes, weasel, raccoon,  and skunk
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973,  1977b).
                                     2-111

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Caves

     Caves in the Monongahela River Basin are critical habitats  for  some
forms of wildlife.  The cave environment offers a near constant  year-round
temperature, full protection from the elements, and the  concealment  of
darkness.

     Four salamanders are known to inhabit caves:  the cave  salamander,  the
longtailed salamander, the spring salamander, and the northern  two-lined
salamander.  The dusky salamander also can be found near  cave entrances
occasionally (Conant 1975; Davies 1965).  All of these salamanders are known
to occur in the Basin (Green 1978).

     Most of the bats which are known to occur in the Basin  also  utilize
caves during at least part of the year (Burt and Grossenheider  1976;
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977a).  Included among the bats which  utilize
caves is the Indiana bat, which is considered endangered with extinction.

Reclaimed Surface Mines

     Reclaimed mines often are planted with  grasses and  legumes,  thus
establishing a grassland habitat.  When woody plants such as shrubs, decid-
uous trees, or conifers are used, they typically are planted in  regular  rows
or blocks of a single species.  Thus the areas have a low species  diversity.
Reclaimed mine areas also may contain sediment ponds, which  can  be very
valuable for wildlife, particularly reptiles and amphibians  (Turner  and
Fowler 1980).  The ponds also can be used extensively by migratory waterfowl
and other species that require open water (Riley 1977) and can  provide
recreational opportunities if stocked with fish (Turner  and  Fowler 1980).

     The types of cultivated vegetation on reclaimed mines vary  greatly  in
utility to wildlife, depending on the food,  land cover,  and  diversity  of
plant species selected for reclamation.  The continuous  grass-legume meadows
are used by the horned lark, eastern meadowlark, savannah sparrow, grass-
hopper sparrow, vesper sparrow, and bobolink (Allaire 1978,  Whitmore and
Hall 1978).  Game birds such as the mourning dove and quail  may  be present
before a thick layer of litter accumulates (Samuel and Whitmore  1979).  Wet
depressions on reclaimed mine sites are used by red-winged blackbirds
(Allaire 1978).  The populations of small mammals in newly (3-  to 5-year-
old) revegetated areas may be low in comparison with populations  in  adjacent
naturally vegetated areas (Kirkland 1976).  Revegetation  techniques  are
described in Appendix C.

     Woody plants added within the grassland can provide  song perches  for
species such as the indigo bunting, prairie warbler, rufous-sided towhee,
and song sparrow.  Ruffed grouse also can use such areas  because  of  the
availability of cover (Samuel and Whitmore 1979).  White-tailed  deer use the
browse provided on revegetated mine sites (USDI-BOR 1975).
                                     2-112

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Abandoned  Surface Mines

     Orphaned mines  can  support  diverse successional communities that can
range  in structure between  bare  ground and forest,  depending on the fertil-
ity  of the spoil  (Bramble  and  Ashley 1955, Riley 1977).   The process of
natural revegetation  of  abandoned  mine spoil  can take more than ten years to
provide over 50% ground  cover,  even  on favorable sites (Bramble and Ashley
1955).

     Orphaned mines  that  support a naturally  well-developed growth of vege-
tation are considered to  provide excellent wildlife habitat (Haigh 1976,
members of the Wildlife  Committee  of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency
Evaluation Tour, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).   Some researchers have reported
that,  after decades  of natural  succession, abandoned mines can support popu-
lations of small mammals, cottontail rabbits,  woodchucks,  reptiles, white-
tailed deer,, and many open-land  species of birds that equal or exceed in
number and diversity  their  respective populations  in adjacent undisturbed
areas  (DeCapita and  Bookhout  1975, Jones 1978,  Riley 1977).

     2.3.3.2.  Distribution of Wildlife

     The species of  vertebrates  known or likely to  be present in the
Monongahela River Basin  are listed in taxonomic order by  group (amphibians,
reptiles,  birds, and  mammals)  in Appendix B.   All  data in Appendix B were
obtained from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1978a)  unless otherwise noted.
Because at least 277  species of  birds may be  present, only the number of
species present in each  family  is  indicated for this group.  Species of
vertebrates that are  considered  to be endangered,  threatened, or of special
interest in West Virginia are  discussed in Section  2.3.4.1.

     2.3.3.2.1.  Amphibians.  Thirty-two of the 41  species of amphibians
within the State are  known  or  likely to be present  in the  Basin (see
Appendix B; Green 1978, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b).   Four species in
the Basin  are considered by WVDNR-HTP to be of  special or  scientific
interest or are on the proposed  State threatened and endangerd species list
(WVDNR-HTP 1980) and  are  listed  in Table 2-19.

     2.3.3.2.2.  Reptiles.  Twenty-eight of the 41  species of reptiles known
to be  present in West Virginia have  been collected  or may  be present within
the Basin  (see Appendix B;  Green 1978,  WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1978).   Four
species of reptiles are considered to be of scientific interest by WVDNR-HTP
(Table 2-19):  the wood  turtle,  the  map turtle,  the Eastern ribbon snake,
and the Mountain earth snake.

     2.3.3.2.3.  Birds.  Two hundred and seventy-seven of  the 263  species of
birds  are  known or are expected  to occur in the  Monongahela River  Basin
(HalL  1971; Appendix  B, Table B-5).   This  total  includes  the wild  turkey  and
the ringnecked pheasant.   Most of  the species breed in, migrate through,  or
are present in all counties during some period  of  the year.  Most  of the
species with restricted distributions  are  associated with  open water or
wetlands.
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Table 2-19.   Animal species considered  to be special  animals  of  scientific
  interest by the WVDNR-Heritage Trust  Program  and  are species for a  pre-
  liminary proposed State  threatened and endangered list  (WVDNR-HTP 1978b).
  The numbers following  these  species indicate  the  number of'entries  in  the
  Heritage Trust  Program for the Basin.
                  Common Name
                                                         Scientific Name
        Amphibians
            Cheat Mountain salamander
            Green salamander
            Cave salamander
            Northern cricket frog
Plethodon netting!   -9
Aneides aeneus   -]0
Eurycea  lucifuga
Acris crepitans
        Reptiles
            Wood turtle
            Map turtle
            Eastern ribbon snake
            Mountain earth snake
Clemmys  insculpta
Graptemys geographica   -2
Thamnophis sauritus   -2
Virginia valeriae  pulchra   -4
        Mammals
            Longtail shrew
            Northern water shrew
            Starnose mole
            Little brown bat
            Keen Myotis
            Indiana Myotis (endangered Federal)
            Small-footed Myotis
            Eastern pipistrel
            Western big-eared bat
            Black bear
            Fisher
            Least weasel
            River otter
            Spotted skunk
            Northern flying squirrel
            Eastern fox squirrel
            Southern bog lemming
            Yellownose vole
            Porcupine
            Meadow jumping mouse
            New England cottontail
Sorex dispar   -2
Sorex palustris
Condylura cristata   -5
Myotis  lucifugus   -34
Myotis  keeni   -3
Myot1s  s o d a 1i s  -1
Myotis  subulatus   -5
Pipistrellus sqbflavus   -20
Plecotus townsendi   -3
Ursus americanus   -4
Martes  pennanti  -2
Mustela rixosa  -2
Lutra canadensis   -1
Glaucomys sabrinus   -3
Sciurus niger   -4
Synap toniys cooperi   - 7
Microtus chrotorrhinus   -11
Erethizon dorsatum   -2
Zapus hudsonliis   -2
Sy] vilagus Jrransitiona] is  -3
                                            2-114

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     Three species,  the  passenger  pigeon,  Carolina  paroquet  (parakeet),  and
black-billed magpie,  formerly occurred  in  the Monongahela  River  Basin but
are now either extinct or  extirpated.   The  passenger  pigeon  formerly
occurred throughout  the  entire State, but  it is now extinct.  The  former
status of the now-extinct  Carolina  paroquet  in  the  Basin and  the State is
uncertain.  Approximately  18 years  ago  the black-billed magpie was
introduced into the  Canaan Valley  section  of the  Basin.  This species is now
believed to be extirpated  from the  region  (WVDNR-Wildlife  Resources  1973;
Hall 1971).

     Twenty-four other species have been recorded in  the State,  but  are  not
included in the total of 277 species because their  occurrence is considered
accidental.  An accidental species  is defined as  one  for which there  have
been fewer than five  observations  ever  recorded in  the State  (Hall  1971).

     The bald eagle  and  the peregrine falcon may  be present  in any  county  in
the Basin during migration.  Both  of these  species  are classified as  endan-
gered in the entire United States  on the Federal  list of endangered  and
threatened species (50 CFR 17.11).

     2.3.3.2.4.  Mammals.  Fifty-nine species of  mammals are  known  or
reasonably expected to occur in the Monongahela River Basin  (Table B-4,
Appendix B).  This total includes  game, furbearers, and other mammals.
Mammals considered to be special animals of  scientific interest  appear in
Table 2-19.

     The coyote, the  cougar or mountain lion, and the porcupine  possibly may
occur in the Monongahela River Basin.   Although the coyote has been reported
in West Virginia, these  records are sporadic and  more probably represent
escaped or released individuals rather  than establishment  of  a naturalized
population.  The cougar  has not been verified in  West Virginia during recent
years,  although the Appalachian Mountains  are part  of its  former range.
This species may possibly  occur in  the  mountains  of the eastern  part  of  the
Basin (Burt and Grossenheider 1976; WVDNR-Wildlife  Resources  1973,  1977a).
The northeastern part of the State  represents the southernmost extent of the
natural range of the  porcupine in the eastern United States  (Burt and
Grossenheider 1976).

     2.3.3.3.   Game Resources
     Game animals are an important economic resource  in West Virginia.
State revenues from the sale of hunting and fishing licenses are collected
from almost a quarter of West Virginia residents each year.  They  spent more
than $79 million annually for wildlife-oriented recreation, and marketed
$3.1 million in furs during the 1979 trapping season  (Grimes 1980).   In an
economic survey of wildlife-oriented recreation in the southeastern United
States (Georgia State University 1974), the following values were  allocated
for each day of participation,  for evaluation purposes:
                                      2-115

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          Activity                                Value Per Day

          Freshwater fishing                         $10.00
          Small game hunting                         $10.00
          Big game hunting                           $25.00
          Waterfowl hunting                          $20.00
          Watching or photographing birds
            or other animals                         $10.00

     The most popular species in a survey of West Virginia hunters  (Riffe
1971) were ranked as follows, in order of preference:  squirrels, deer,
ruffed grouse, wild turkey, raccoon, bear, woodcock, and snowshoe hare.
(Game animals in the Monongahela River Basin are listed in Table 2-20.)
Trout and other aquatic game species are discussed in Section 2.2.

     In 1970, approximately 76% of the total acreage in the Basin was  open
to hunting (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1970).  This included lands on  which
hunting was restricted in some manner  (to certain species, seasons,  persons,
etc.).  Posting of private land to prohibit hunting has increased since
1970, particularly near urban areas and areas where  the hunting pressure  is
high and landowner-hunter difficulties are likely to occur.

     2.3.3.4.  Values of Nongame Wildlife Resources

     Allaire  (1979a, 1979b) and Whitmore (1978) have shown that man-altered
environments  such as reclaimed surface mines can provide valuable recreation
areas for observation, photography, and other nonconsumptive use of  nongame
birds.  Nearly 25% of the wildlife-oriented use-days in National Forests may
be spent on observation of birds and nature photography (Hooper and  Crawford
1969), and nonconsumptive use of such  resources is common in West Virginia.

     Legislation has been introduced in Congress and in many states  to pro-
vide funds for the protection and management of nongame resources.   Similar
legislation has been introduced in West Virginia, but has not yet been
enacted.  The funds thus obtained would be used to collect information on
populations of nongame species and to  plan and conduct population and
habitat enhancement programs that could be coordinated with impact  assess-
ment and mitigation activities.

2.3.4.  Significant Species and Features

     WVDNR-HTP maintains and continuously updates a computerized data  bank
on the significant natural features and rare species in the State.   The
current information on the nature of the feature or species and its  loca-
tion^) or distribution in the State has been obtained from several  sources,
principally university or private researchers, museum records, published
literature, and theses.  A limited number of field investigations also have
been performed by WVDNR-HTP personnel, and more will be undertaken  during
the next few  years.
                                       2-116

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Table 2-20. Game mammals, furbearers,  and game birds of the Monongahela River
  Basin, West Virginia (Rieffenberger  et al.  1976;  Sanderson 1977;  WVWRD 1977b)
       GAME MAMMALS AND FURBEARERS
       Whitetail deer
       Black bear
       Gray squirrel
       Raccoon
       Eastern cottontail

       New England cottontail
       Snowshoe hare
       Mink
       Muskrat
       Fisher

       Beaver
       Striped Skunk
       Spotted Skunk
       Opossum
       Woodchuck

       Longtail weasel
       Least weasel
       Red fox
       Gray fox
       Bobcat
       GAME BIRDS

       Wild turkey                      Canada  goose
       Ruffed grouse                    Snow  goose
       Ringneck pheasant                Blue  goose
       English sparrow                  Virginia  rail
       Starling                         Sora  rail

       Crow                             Common  gallinule
       Mallard                          American  coot
       Black duck                       Common  snipe
       Wood duck                        Mourning  dove
       Canvasback                       Woodcock

       Redhead
       Scamp
       Blue-winged teal
       Hooded merganser
       Common merganser
                                   2-117

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     The terrestrial biological resource categories  included  in  the  system
are:

     •  Species of plants and animals that have been designated  as
        endangered or threatened at the Federal level

     •  Species of plants and animals of special or  scientific
        interest in West Virginia

     •  Plant communities of special or scientific interest in
        West Virginia

     •  Champion or outstanding individual trees

     •  Wetland areas.

     An occurrence index is developed for each species or  feature  (element)
in the system.  The index is the ratio of the number of recorded occurrences
of that element in the Basin to the number of recorded occurrences of  the
element in the State. Presently, these indexes are based on a limited  amount
of data.  The indexes will change periodically as more information is  devel-
oped by WVDNR-HTP, and the data are included in this assessment only as  an
approximation of the currently known distribution and rarity  of  the  species.
If the number of occurrences for a species becomes large enough, that
species is dropped from the WVDNR-HTP inventory.

     The locations at which terrestrial biological features have been
recorded by WVDNR-HTP are shown in Figure 2-19 and the elements  that consti-
tute each category within the Basin are described in the following sections.
The data mapped in Figure 2-19 represent only some of the  significant
natural resources in the State; they do not constitute a systematic,
Statewide inventory of all possible significant terrestrial biological
resources.  Locational information obtained from the State has been mapped
on the 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 for EPA's use.

     Some of the records contained in the listing are more than 50 years
old, and the species or features indicated no longer may be present  at  those
locations.  Field checks are being made by WVDNR-HTP personnel and others  to
determine the accuracy of this information.  Many of the areas in which  the
species or features were noted have been relatively undisturbed  since  the
time of the record, and it is believed that the species or features  still
may be present.  The former occurrence of one  relatively rare species may
indicate the presence of a high-quality habitat for other  rare species.  The
locations of all occurrences are retained in the WVDNR-HTP list  until  field
verification of the present occurrence or absence of the species and
estimation of the quality of the habitat and possible presence of other  rare
species can be performed.
                                     2-118

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     2.3.4.1.  Endangered  and Threatened  Species

     2.3.4.1.1.  Plants.   No species  of plants  present  in West  Virginia have
been designated officially by either  Federal  or State  authorities  as  endan-
gered or  threatened with extinction.  The Eraser's  Sedge, pale- green  orchis,
and purple  firngeless orchid have  been included by  the  Smithsonian
Institution  in a list of plants considered  to be  endangered  or  threatened
(but not  Federally designated; Ayensu and DeFilipps 1978).   These  species
have no legal protection or status within West  Virginia, but presently  are
considered  to be of special or scientific interest  within  the State by
WVDNR-HTP.

     2.3.4.1.2.  Animals.   Two mammals in the Monongahela River Basin,  one
of known  occurrence(the Indiana bat) and the other of  unlikely occurrence
(the eastern cougar), are  considered  endangered with extinction.   The
Indiana bat  is known to occur in several  caves  in the Basin  (WVDNR-HTP
1978b).   The caves are in  a limestone area  believed to  lack  coal resources.
The eastern  cougar may still occur in the more  remote mountainous  regions of
the Basin, but this is considered  unlikely.   There  have been no verified
reports of cougars in recent years (WVDNR-Wildlife  Resources 1973).

     The  southern bald eagle and the  American peregrine falcon  both are
considered endangered species (41  FR  36420-36431, 14 July  1977).   Both  of
these birds  are known migrants through the  Basin, and  at times  are seasonal
visitors  (WVDNR-HTP 1978b;  Hall 1971).  The endangered  Kirtland's  warbler
also may  occur in the Basin.  There are records of  sightings of this  warbler
during 1937, 1944, and 1945 (WVDNR-HTP 1978b).  No  recent specimens,
recognizable photographs,  or verified sight records are available, however,
for Kirtland's warbler in  West Virginia (Hall 1971).

     2.3.4.2.  Animal Species of Special  Interest

     Those species considered to be special animals of  scientific  interest
included  species which are rare, or near  their  range limits, or not
regularly observed.  Amphibians and reptiles  (Table 2-19 and Table B-3  in
Appendix B), mammals (Table 2-19 and  Table  B-4  in Appendix B),  and birds
(Table B-6 in Appendix B)  listed by the Heritage  Trust  Program  are
indicated.   For the purposes of this  inventory, the proposed State
threatened and endangerd species and  the  special  animals of  scientific
interest  generally were considered specially  significant animals.

     The Heritage Trust Program data  were used  to assist in  the verification
and determination of occurrence of expected species with the Basin.   These
included  species at or near their natural range limit in the Monongahela
River Basin, especially those for which recent  observations  were lacking, as
well as species considered  threatened or  endangered.  This information  was
plotted on a base map of the Basin (Figure  2-19).   The  Heritage Trust
Program data represent most of the areas  within the Monongahela River Basin
where previous investigations and  studies have  been conducted.   Therefore,
some parts of the Basin show a clustering of many records of occurrence for
                                     2-119

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the special animals.  Areas with no or few records may reflect  a  lack  of
previous studies, as well as the absence of a particular animal from that
part of the Basin.  Reptiles and amphibians had not been entered  into  the
computerized inventory at the time this report was prepared.  .

2.3.5.  Data Gaps

     The regional-scale emphasis of this SID and the physical  limitations  of
the report preclude the provision of all of the detailed information known
to exist on terrestrial resources within the Basin.  The information
presented in the preceeding sections constitutes a summary  of  the  available
information on biologically and economically significant species  and
features.  During the compilation and condensation of the available informa-
tion, several deficiencies were noted in both information on particular
resources within the Basin and for geographic areas of the  Basin.

     2.3.5.1.  Wetlands
     Knowledge of the number, location,  and community  composition  of  wet-
lands in the State is in an early stage  of development.  An initial invent-
ory of these areas has been conducted by WDNR-Wildlife Resources,  and  the
locations of the majority of the vegetated wetlands  identified have been
incorporated into the WVDNR-HTP data bank.  It  is  anticipated  that
additional wetlands will be located, and that the  composition  of the  vege-
tation in these areas will be ascertained, during  the  course of  the aerial
photographic survey being conducted jointly by WVDNR-HTP and researchers at
West Virginia University.

     At present the flora and fauna of the known wetlands have not been
studied extensively because of the small size and  remote locations of these
wetlands.  Field investigations are scheduled to be  conducted  during  1980
and succeeding years.  Small mammal trapping, wildlife observation, and
botanical studies will be performed by WVDNR-HTP personnel and other
researchers to obtain information on the plant and animal communities of
these wetlands.  Studies also will be performed on nutrient cycling,  strati-
graphy and soils, water quality changes, inflow and  outflow.

     2.3.5.2.  Significant Species and Features

     Information on rare, threatened, and endangered species and biological
features of special interest or uniqueness within  the  State also is in  an
early stage of development, and additional fieldwork is required to confirm
the historical information on the occurrences of many  of these species.
Such work is underway, and a number of researchers are contributing their
knowledge to the WVDNR-HTP information bank.  Site-specific studies undoubt-
edly will be required at many proposed mine sites because of the lack of
information for those areas.  In addition, little  is known about the  habitat
requirements of many of these species, especially  those that are rarely seen
and have not been studied in detail.
                                   2-] 20

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     Large portions of the Monongahela River Basin contain  large  reserves of
coal, and it is expected that most of these reserves will be removed by
surface raining in this century.  Unless biological fieldwork is undertaken
when mine plans are developed, many terrestrial resources unknown at this
time will be lost without record.  If the significant resources become
known, however, mitigative actions can be taken to preserve significant
natural areas, to relocate individual organisms to protected areas, or to
restock areas after reclamation.  In this way, biological resources can be
preserved while coal is developed (see Section 5.3.).
                                    2-121

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2-122

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2.4  Climate, Air Quality, and Noise

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                                                                      Page

2.4.   Climate,  Air Quality,  and Noise                                 2-123

     2.4.1.   General Climatic Patterns  in West  Virginia               2-123
             2.4.1.1.   Precipitation and Humidity                     2-123
             2.4.1.2.   Temperature                                    2-124
             2.4.1.3.   Wind                                            2-124

     2.4.2.   Climatic  Patterns in the Basin                           2-124
             2.4.2.1.   Precipitation                                  2-136
             2.4.2.2.   Relative Humidity                              2-136
             2.4.2.3.   Temperature                                    2-136
             2.4.2.4.   Wind                                            2-136
             2.4.2.5.   Mixing Heights                                 2-145

     2.4.3.   Ambient Air Quality                                      2-145
             2.4.3.1.   Air Quality Control Regions  and PSD areas       2-145
             2.4.3.2.   Air Quality Data and Trends                     2-148
             2.4.3.3.   Classification of AQCR's                       2-153
             2.4.3.4.   Air Pollution Sources                          2-153

     2.4.4.   Noise                                                    2-156

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2.4.  CLIMATE, AIR QUALITY, AND NOISE

2.4.1.  General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia

     West Virginia has a continental climate characterized by distinct
seasons.  The State is in the path of prevailing westerly winds that move
across  the North American continent, bringing weather patterns that develop
in the western and southwestern states.  These winds frequently are
interrupted by cool or warm surges from the north or the  south.

     Weather in summer months is controlled by warm, moist air that sweeps
into the State from the Gulf of Mexico.  The Gulf air produces warm summer
temperatures and frequent rainstorms.  The showers and thunderstorms
generally are localized and of short duration.  Occasionally they cause
local flooding of small streams.

     Winter weather is dominated by low pressure systems  that move eastward
through the Ohio River Valley.  These systems bring cool  temperatures and
often result in long-duration precipitation events covering extensive areas.
Flooding of large rivers and streams occasionally occurs  as a result of the
winter  storms.  Thaw conditions are common during these periods, and snow
accumulations generally are light.

     The mountainous topography of West Virginia significantly influences
local weather conditions in the State.  Above 3,000 feet, temperatures
generally are cooler, winds are stronger, and precipitation heavier, than in
the valleys or plateaus at lower elevations.  Precipitation is generally
greatest on windward (west-facing) slopes where rising, moisture-laden air
cools and condenses.  Markedly less precipitation characterizes leeward
(east-facing) slopes, especially east of the Allegheny Mountains (NOAA
1977).

     2.4.1.1.  Precipitation and Humidity

     Annual precipitation in West Virginia averages 43 inches per year
Statewide and varies locally from 30 to 51 inches.  Rainfall tends to
increase in an easterly direction from the western border of the State to
the Allegheny Mountains.  Immediately east of the mountains, precipitation
values are similar to those observed in the far western sections of the
State.  Monthly average amounts are approximately equal,  but precipitation
is slightly greater during the summer months.  Autumn provides the driest
weather.  Precipitation falls on an average of 122 days per year, and
thunderstorms occur approximately 40 to 50 days per year  (NOAA 1977, Trent
and Dickerson 1976).

     Thunderstorms may bring 4 to 5 inches of rain during a 24-hour period,
and amounts greater than 10 inches in 24 hours have been  reported in all
parts of the State.  The record storm is considered to be a mid-July
thunderstorm which deposited 19 inches of rain in 2 hours at Rockport (Wood
County)  in 1889.   Values for the 10-year 24-hour design storm range from
                                2-123

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approximately 4 to 5 inches across the State.  The values  of  the  10-year
1-hour storm are about 2 inches, lower in the north, and higher in  the
southern part of the State (Horn and McGuire 1960).

     Total annual average snowfall for West Virginia ranges from  20 inches
in lower elevations to greater  than 70 inches in  the mountains.   Accumula-
tions are generally light due to frequent thaws,  except at higher elevations
where snow cover may persist for extended periods of time  (NOAA 1977, Trent
and Dickerson 1976).

     Relative humidity in the western section of  the State averages nearly
80% during night and early morning hours but generally drops  to 60% or  less
during the early afternoon.  Humidity in late summer and early autumn is
slightly higher than the annual average, and spring values are slightly
lower.  Night and early morning fog is frequent in valleys at higher eleva-
tions, where- high humidity is common.  High elevation areas generally are
more humid than areas at lower  elevations, but mild temperatures  keep the
higher humidity from causing uncomfortable living conditions  for  persons
inhabiting these areas.

     2.4.1.2.  Temperature

     Summer temperatures in West Virginia average 71.5° Fahrenheit  (°F), but
occasionally climb to highs of  100°F or more.  Winter temperatures  average
33.6°F but may drop to less than -30°F at high elevations.  Cold  spells,
with near 0°F temperatures, generally occur two or three times during the
winter season but last only a few days.  Spring and autumn temperatures in
the State average 50-60°F.   The first freeze of the autumn season normally
occurs in late October while the last spring freeze occurs during late
April.  The average length of the growing season  for the State is 160 days
(NOAA 1977, West Virginia Statistical Handbook 1965).  Locally, the frost-
free period ranges between about 130 and 170 days, depending  on exposure and
elevation.

     2.4.1.3.  Wind

     Prevailing winds are from  the west and southwest but  vary locally  in
both speed and direction due to interruption of air flow by mountain ridges
and valleys.  Strongest winds generally are associated with the passage of
frontal systems and are most common during early  spring.   Calm wind
conditions are most evident during late summer and early autumn.  Daily,
winds are usually strongest in  the late afternoon and are  least strong  prior
to dawn.  Strong winds resulting in property damage occur  infrequently
(Weedfall 1967, NOAA 1977).

2.4.2.  Climatic Patterns in the Monongahela River Basin

     The Monongahela River Basin is located almost 400 miles  from the
Atlantic Ocean.  Its climate is continental with  a marked  temperature
contrast between summer and winter.  The major river valleys  open to the
                                      2-124

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north.  The  altitudes  range  from  less  than  about  800  feet  along  the  western
limit of the State to  over 4,850  feet  in  the Allegheny Mountains.  The
region  is notable  for  naturally poor  atmospheric  dispersion  and,
consequently,  for  polluted air near concentrations  of heavy  industry, as  in
the Kanawha Valley,  southwest of  the  Basin.  There  are  five  significant
fossil-fueled  power  stations in the Basin (Figure 2-21).

     The transport and diffusion  of air pollutants  may vary  sharply  over
short distances in terrain such as that of  the  Basin, depending  on the
landscape characteristics and on  the  nature of  the  pollution sources.  On a
relatively windswept plain,  the potential for diffusive mixing in  every
direction typically  results  in low concentrations of  atmospheric  pollutants
around  the sources.  But in  a narrow,  steep-walled  valley  that experiences
frequent radiation inversions below the crest,  transport  of  pollutants may
be limited to  up- or down-valley  flows, and diffusive mixing of  air  masses
outside the valley usually is inhibited by  the  topography.

     Local conditions  of poor dispersion  are aggravated by large-scale air
stagnations  (subsidence inversions) over  Appalachia and the  eastern  United
States.  Widespread  air stagnation is  associated  with high-pressure  weather
systems (anticyclones) whose slow eastward  migration  is sometimes  blocked by
hurricanes that move northeastward along  the Atlantic Coast.  Peak pollution
episodes generally are associated with periods  of general  regional air
stagnation.

     The State of West Virginia is situated within  a  zone  of prevailing
westerly winds.  As  they approach the  Appalachian range,  the air masses must
rise to cross  the mountains.  The uplift  often  triggers precipitation or
intensifies the already falling rain  or snow.

     No temperature  data are available for  the  upper  atmosphere  of the
Monongahela Basin.  Atmospheric temperature, however, should not vary
significantly  over the region, and the data recorded  at the  Greater
Pittsburgh Airport should be reasonably representative of  the upper
atmospheric temperature throughout the Monongahela  Basin.  At Pittsburgh
surface temperature  inversions are reported 55% of  the time  at 7  am  and  13%
of the  time at 7 pm  (Table 2-21).  The surface  inversions  most frequently
are at heights between 100 and 500 m  above  the  ground.  Elevated temperature
inversions are reported 20% of the time at 7 am and 18% of the time  at 7  pm
(Table 2-22).  The base of the elevated inversions  typically ranges  from  100
to 1,000 m above ground level.

     Pittsburgh data for surface  wind  velocities  and  directions  are
presented in Table 2-23.  Prevailing winds  are  from the west.

     Data on the frequency of Pasquill Stability  Classes  indicate  the
atmospheric stability of the Basin, and hence its potential  to undergo
periods of high pollution.  The Elkins data, the  only station with available
data, are presented in Tables 2-24 through 2-30.  Classes A  and B, the least
                                      2-125

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                         t    CO
2-126

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Table 2-21.  Average annual occurrence of surface temperature inversions,
  Greater Pittsburgh Airport, Pittsburgh PA, 1966-1973.  Some data are
  missing.
Height Above Ground
Occurrence (%)
Level (m)
1-100
101-250
251-500
501-750
751-1,000
1,000-1,500
1,500-

Table 2-22. Average annual
Greater Pittsburgh Airport
missing .
Base of Inversion
Above Ground Level (m)
1-100
101-250
251-500
501-750
751-1,000

0700 hrs
1.1
23.0
21.5
4.3
1.9
2.1
1.3
TOTAL 55.1
EST 1900 hrs EST
1.6
8.0
2.0
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.2
12.9
occurence of elevated temperature inversion,
, Pittsburgh PA, 1966-1973. Some data are

0700 hrs
0.3
4.9
5.0
5.7
4.3
TOTAL 20.3
Occurrence (%)
EST 1900 hrs EST
0.1
2.4
3.4
5.9
6.3
18.1
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Table 2-23.  Annual percentage frequencies of wind direction and speed at
  the Greater Pittsburgh Airport, Pittsburgh PA, 1964-1973,  Wind speeds are
  reported as miles per hour (1 mph = 0.45 m/sec).
Wind Speed
Class
Wind
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
Calm
0-3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.1
5.2
4-7
Wind
2.1
1.3
1.6
1.3
2.5
2.0
2.2
1.7
1.7
1.4
2.0
1.7
2.5
1.7
1.4
0.7

8-12
Speed
3.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.2
1.8
3.2
3.3
4.1
2.2
2.3
2.0

13-18
Observed
1.3
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
1.1
2.7
3.3
4.7
2.6
2.0
1.3

19-23
Hourly (%)
0.0
0.0
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0.0
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0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.7
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0.6
0.3
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0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.0

Total
%
6.7
2.9
3.1
3.2
5.1
4.6
4.9
3.7
6.6
4.6
8.6
9.6
13.1
7.7
6.3
4.1
5.2
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7.7
7.4
8.0
7.5
7.8
7.8
7.4
8.0
9.6
10.8
12.1
12.2
11.7
11.2
10.8
0.0
TOTAL
10.8   27.7
34.2
22.1
3.3
1.0   100.0
9.4
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 stable  categories,  account  for  68%  of  the total.   The most frequent wind
 direction  for  all  stability  classes  is  westerly.                                    ^

     NOAA  has  tabulated  data from  four  climatological stations located in
 the Monongahela River  Basin  for the  period  1951  to 1977.   Figure 2-22
 presents names and  locations of these  stations.

     2.4.2.1.  Precipitation

     Average annual  precipitation  at  the  four  weather stations ranges from
 39.9 inches to 46.4  inches.   Average monthly  precipitation ranges from 3.3
 inches  to  3.9  inches.  Spring and  summer  months  generally have the highest
 precipitation.  The  greatest accumulation of rainfall for a 24 hour period
 ranged  from 3.31 inches  at Clarksburg,  to 5.45 inches at  Elkins.
 Precipitation  data  for the Basin are  presented in  Tables  2-31  through 2-34.

     Average annual  snowfall at the  stations varies  greatly,  depending on
 elevation.  Buckhannon has the  highest  average annual snowfall,  56.3 inches,
 while Clarksburg has the lowest, 30.2 inches.  Generally  the  first snow
 arrives in October.  Snowfalls  at  average levels of  greater than  one inch
 per month  occur from November through March.   Occasional  light snowfalls
 occur in April.  Snow cover  in  winter months may reach  several feet in the
 higher  elevations, but generally is  a  few inches or  less  at lower
 elevations.

     2.4.2.2.  Relative  Humidity

     Relative humidity data  are not  available  for  the Monongahela                  fl
 River Basin.  Humidity is greatest during daybreak.   Humidity  readings
 generally  drop during morning hours  usually reaching a  minimum value during
 early afternoon.  Maximum and minimum values of  average monthly humidity
 range from about 50% to  85%.

     2.4.2.3.  Temperature

     Average annual temperature  data collected from  the four  climatological
 stations range from 50.4°F to 52.9°F.  Warmest average  temperatures occur in
 the western sections of  the  Basin during  July  and  August,  ranging from 70°F
 to 74°F.   Recorded temperatures  of 100°F  or greater  have  occurred at all of
 the stations.  January is the coldest month of the year with  average monthly
 temperatures at all stations  ranging from 30.7°F to  32.2°F.  Record low
 temperatures of less than minus  17°F have been recorded at  all nine
 stations.   Temperature data  are  provided  in Tables 2-31 and 2-35  through
 2-37.

     2.4.2.4.  Wind

     Wind  data for the Basin are limited  to the weather station  located in
Elkins,  WV.  These data  (Table  2-31) indicate  that the  average annual wind
 speed is approximately 5.2 miles per hour.  Average  monthly wind  velocities
 range from 3.5 mph to 6.9 mph, with stronger winds generally  evident during
                                     2-136

-------
Figure 2-22

CLIMATOUOGICAL MONITORING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (adapted from NOAA 1977, WVAPCC 1978)
                                                 I
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                                            WAPORA, INC.
                           2-] 37

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winter  and early  spring.  General  air  circulation  patterns  in the Basin are
interrupted by the mountainous  terrain.   This  results  in localized
variations in wind direction  and  speed  due  to  blockage and/or channelization
of winds.  Strong damaging winds occur  infrequently  within  the Basin (NOAA
1977).

     2.4.2.5.  Mixing Heights

     Warming of air near  the  surface produces  convection currents which mix
air of  different  characteristics and disperse  air  pollutants.   On sunny
days, the mixed layer may reach a  height  of 3,000  to 6,500  feet,  above which
occurs  an inversion layer of  stable air.  The  distance between the bottom of
the inversion layer and the ground is  called the mixing height.   The depth
of this layer of  turbulent air  affects  the  volume  of air in which pollutants
are diluted, and  therefore their ground-level  concentrations.   An inverse
relationship exists between the depth of  the mixed layer and pollutant con-
centrations; greater mixing heights are associated with lower pollutant con-
centrations.  Mixing heights  are generally  greatest  in the  afternoon,  when
surface temperatures are  likely to be highest.

     Low-level inversions occur in the Appalachian Region 30 to 45% of the
time (NAPCC and WVAPCC 1970).   During these inversion  episodes, pollutants
become concentrated near the  surface and  potentially can violate  air quality
standards.

2.4.3.  Ambient Air Quality

     An Air Quality Control Region is the functional unit for which the air
pollution control regulations are  designed  pursuant  to the  Clean  Air Act.
The US is subdivided into approximately 250 AQCR's,  each of which consists
of five to twenty counties.  These AQCR's originally were established to
represent geographical areas  that  include similar  sources of air  pollution
in an urbanized area as well  as the receptors  that were  affected
significantly by  them.   In later reorganization, some  of these AQCR's were
altered for administrative convenience.   Some  AQCR's,  however,  continued to
reflect similar air pollution concentrations and problems.

     2.4.3.1.  Air Quality Control Regions  and PSD Areas

     There are ten AQCR's in West  Virginia,  four of  which are  interstate and
six of which are intrastate.   The  intrastate AQCR's  in West Virginia were
designated on the basis of similarity of  topography  and/or  land use, and on
the basis of political or natural  boundaries (Figure 2-23).   Federal
interstate AQCR's were established  to help  simplify  the  problem of
controlling excessive pollution in the individual States (WVAPCC  1978).

     The Monongahela River Basin includes parts of three Air Quality Control
Regions (AQCR's) that have been established  by EPA in  accordance  with the
Clean Air Act (Figure 2-23).   These regions, whose boundaries  generally
follow county lines,  are described in the following  paragraphs.   There are
                                      2-145

-------
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-------
4  ambient  air  quality  monitoring  stations  in the  Basin that report standard
temperature, precipitation,  and related  surface meteorological  data.
The AQCR's  that  are wholly  or  partially  within the  Monongahela  River  Basin
follow.

Allegheny Region  (AQCR 231)

     The Basin section of Region  231  includes  Tucker  County,  most  of
Randolph County,  and part of Pocahontas  County.   The  climatology  of the
Region  is  typified by  cold  to  moderately cold  winters,  cool (mountains) to
warm (lower elevations)  summers,  stormy  springs,  and  fair  autumns.
Precipitation  averages as much as 67  inches  per year  on the windward  side of
the ridges  in  the higher mountains  and 30  inches  per  year  on the  leeward
slopes  and  valleys.  Prevailing winds  are  from west through southwest.   Wind
speeds  are  greater over  the  higher  mountain  areas than in  the intermountain
valleys in  the eastern section of the Region.

     Stagnation conditions with poor  dispersion that  last  4 days  or more
occur once  or  twice each year.  About once in  7 years  a 7-day stagnation
occurs.  The City of Elkins, for  which extensive  information was  just
presented,  is  located  near  the geographical  center  of  the  Region.   There are
no ambient  air quality monitoring stations in  the AQCR,  but some  information
is available from Clarksburg in Harrison County and Weston in Lewis County,
the nearest stations to Region 231.

Central West Virginia  (AQCR  232)

     The Basin section of Region  232  includes  sections  of  Lewis  and Upshur
Counties.   The climatology of  the Region is  typified  by  moderately  cold to
cold winters,  warm and humid summers, stormy springs,  and  fair  autumns.
Precipitation  averages 42 to 60 inches per year and is  fairly evenly  spread
throughout  the years.  Winds are  most  frequent  from the  west  through  south.
The highest speeds occur during the colder months.  Dense  fog is  frequent in
the valleys.   Stagnating conditions with poor  dispersion lasting  four  days
or more occur  about twice per  year.  About once in  5 years  a 7-day
stagnation  occurs.

     The nearest appropriate local  meteorological data  are  available  from
Parkersburg, Elkins,  and Charleston.  Ambient  air quality  is  monitored  at
Weston within  the Region and at Montgomery and Smithers  in  Fayette  County,
Fallsview and Clarksburg in Harrison County, and Parkersburg  in Wood County.

North Central West Virginia  (AQCR 235)

     The northern half of the  Basin consists of Region 235.   It  includes
Barbour, Harrison, Marion,  Monongalia, Preston, and Taylor  counties.  The
climatology of the region is typified by moderately cold to cold winters,
warm summers,  stormy springs,  and fair autumns.  Annual  precipitation
avera -   40 to 54 inches and is rather evenly  distributed  throughout  the
year.   Winds are most  frequent from the  southwest to west,  with the higher
                                      2-147

-------
wind speeds during the colder months.  Winds  are  channeled  and  speeds
reduced in protected valley locations; temperature  inversions are  frequent           m
in the deep valleys.  Stagnation conditions with  poor  dispersion  lasting  4
days or more occur once or twice each year.   About  once  in  6 years  a 7-day
stagnation occurs.

     Meteorological data  are not collected  in the AQCR.  The nearest
stations are at Elkins (Randolph County), Parkersburg  (Wood County), and
Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania).  Air quality  is monitored in  the AQCR  at
Morgantown, Fairmont, and Clarksburg, as well  as nearby  in Weston  (Lewis
County).

     Air discharge permits are administered by WVAPCC  (see  Section 4.1.),
except for PSD reviews.  The latter are  performed by EPA Region III  (see
Section 4.2.) .

     2.4.3.2.  Air Quality Data and Trends

     The major pollutants in West Virginia ate total suspended  particulates
(TSP) and sulfur oxides (SOX).  Particulates  include airborne liquid and
solid matter (i.e., smoke, acid mists, and fumes).  The  combustion  of  fuels
containing sulfur and other processes release  sulfur dioxide (SC>2)  into
the atmosphere.  The major emitters of TSP and S02  are electric generating
facilities, metallurgical furnaces, and  other  fossil fuel burning  processes
(WVAPCC 1978).

     WVAPCC"s stations monitor concentrations  of  only  total suspended                M
particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (SC-2).   Carbon monoxide (CO),                  ™
oxidants (03), nitrogen dioxide (NC>2), and hydrocarbon concentrations
(HC) currently are not monitored.  On the basis of  previous monitoring,  it
has been assumed that the airborne concentrations of these  pollutants  within
the Basin do not violate  the secondary standards  and are considered  to have
air quality better than the National standards.  Ambient air quality data
are presented in Tables 2-38 through 2-40 and  station  locations, are  depicted
in Figure 2-24.

     TSP concentrations have decreased in the  Basin during  the  past  decade,
but Fairmont, Weston, Piedmont, Morgantown, and Clarksburg  reported
occasional concentrations during 1976 that exceeded the  secondary  standard
(150 ug/m3) during 1976 (Table 2-38).  Weston reported two  occasions on
which the primary TSP standard (260 ug/m3) was exceeded  among its 67
sampling dates during 1976.

     Settleable particulates are monitored at  several  stations, but  no
standards for dustfall have been established.  These data also  reflect
improving conditions (Table 2-39).

     Sulfur dioxide concentrations within the  Basin did  not exceed  standards
during 1976 (Table 2-40).  The primary S02 standard (365 ug/m3) was
exceeded once in Parkersburg out of 58 samples during  n976.
                                      2-1.48

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Figure 2-24
AMBIENT AIR  MONITORING  STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (WVAPCC 1977). Numbers relate to stations listed in tables
                                                  I
                                             WAPORA.INC.
                             2-152

-------
     Fossil  fuel burning  power  plants  are  one  of  the major  sources  of
particulates and sulfur oxides  in West Virginia.  There  are  five  generating
stations  located in  the Monongahela River  Basin.  These  plants  definitely
contribute to the TSP non-attainment status  of  the  area.  They  also probably
exacerbate the S02 concentrations in the area,

     2.4.3.3.  Classification of AQCR's

     An AQCR further is classified according to monitored or estimated  air
pollution concentrations  within the AQCR as  Priority I,  Priority  II, or
Priority  III.  The most heavily polluted regions  are Priority I;  regions
with less pollution are Priority II; those with pollution levels  below  or
only slightly above  standard levels are Priority  III.  A given  AQCR may have
different classifications  for different pollutants.  For example,  an AQCR
can be classified as Priority I for SOX and  Priority III for CO.

     The  State air monitoring system provides  a general  overview  of the
monitored air pollution concentrations in  the  AQCR1s in  summary form.   AQCR
classifications are based  upon  measured air  quality where known,  or, where
not known, on the maximum estimated pollutant  concentration  (WVAPCC 1978).
Each AQCR is classified separately with respect to  sulfur oxides,
particulate matter,  and other such pollutants  as  may have standards and
priority  levels.

     The most restrictive  classification characterizes an AQCR  wherever
there is a difference between the values for different parameters.   For
example,  if an AQCR  is Priority I with respect  to an annual  average and
Priority II with respect  to a 24-hour maximum  value, the classification will
be Priority I.  The  ambient concentration  limits  that define this
classification system are  presented in Table 2-41.

     There is one air quality non-attainment area within the Basin. An air
quality non-attainment area is  an area within  an  AQCR that  is in
non-compliance with  the NAAQS's.  The non-attainment areas  in West  Virginia
and in the Basin are presented  in Figure 2-25.  In West  Virginia  the
secondary NAAQS's (see Section  4.O., Table 4-4) are used in  determining
non-attainment areas.

     The one air quality  non-attainment area within the  Monongahela River
Basin is located in Marion County.  It is  comprised of the City of  Fairmont
and portions of Union and Winfield Magisterial  Districts west of  1-90
(Figure 2-25).  It has been assigned such  a  status  due to its high  levels of
ambient total suspended particulate concentrations.

     2.4.3.4.  Air Pollution Sources

     The  largest producers of particulates and  sulfur oxides in West
Virginia are electric generating facilities, metallurgical  furnaces, and
                                      2-153

-------
Table 2-41.  Ambient concentration limits that define the AQCR classification
  system (g/nrj or ppm; State of West Virginia 1978).                                4


                             	Priority	
Pollutant	I	      II  	III
                             Greater Than        From-To         Less Than
Sulfur Dioxides (S02)
  Annual arithmetic mean      100 (0.04)    60-100  (0.02-0.04)     60  (0.02)
  24-hour maximum             455 (0.17)   260-455  (0.10-0.17)   260  (0.10)

Particulate matter (TSP)
  Annual arithmetic mean       95           60- 95                 60
  24-hour maximum             325          150-325               150
                                      2-154

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fossil fuel burning units.  There are also three major industrial  sources  in
the State:

     •  Charleston - chemical industries

     •  Huntington - chemical industries

     •  Wheeling-Weirton - coal-related industries.

The locations of the principal fossil fuel power plants in West Virginia,
eastern Ohio, and eastern Kentucky,  are presented  in Figure 2-21.

     Coal mining and coal processing operations may affect air quality  by
generating fugitive dust.  Fugitive  dust may exacerbate existing TSP
concentrations in both attainment and non-attainment areas.  Winds may  carry
fugitive dust as far as  12.5 miles from the mine site in  the arid  regions  of
the western US, where wind speeds tend to be high.  In the eastern States
most fugitive dust settles close to  its source.  High humidity and  low  wind
speeds favor the settling of particles.

     2.4.4.  Noise

     West Virginia has neither State nor regional  noise monitoring programs,
and it lacks noise regulations.  Thus, specific information regarding noise
levels in the Basin is not available.  Ambient monitored  noise data  for West
Virginia are presented in Table 2-42.

     One recent study regarding noise levels in Appalachia (WAPORA  1980)
provides some insight into typical noise levels found in  the region.  This
study found that the mean daytime noise level of all reported  sites was
calculated to be 59.1 decibels (dBA) with a standard deviation of  7.4 dBA.
Mean nighttime levels were found to  be 5.5 dBA lower than the  daytime
levels.   Noise levels did not differ significantly between different
land-use classes within  the cities studied.

     A Nationwide EPA program began  in May 1977 pursuant  to the Noise
Control Act of 1972.  This program seeks to reduce 24-hour average noise
levels initially to no more than 75  decibels and eventually to 55  decibels
(EPA 1977) in order to reduce hearing loss resulting from noise exposure.
West Virginia has not yet availed itself of EPA assistance through the  Quiet
Communities Program, which provides  technical aid  in developing noise
control ordinances and monitoring existing noise sources.
                                      2-156

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Table 2-42.  Ambient noise levels in West Virginia  (dBA; WVDH 1979).
     LOCATION
                                                                  Leq
Large Metropolitan Center


Small Metropolitan Center


Rural Area
69
68
59
59
58
51
65
62
55
X:
          That noise level which is exceeded  10% of  the  time, based  on
          statistical calculations using monitored data.


          The average or mean of all the noise  levels  recorded  during a
          defined time period.
jeq       The equivalent steady-state sound level which  during  a  stated
          period of time would contain the same acoustic energy as the
          time-varying sound level actually recorded during  the same  time
          period.
                                      2-157

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2.5  Cultural and Visual Resources

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                                                                     Page

2.5.   Cultural and Visual Resources                                   2-159

     2.5.1.   Prehistory                                              2-160

     2.5.2.   Archaeological Resources                                 2-169

     2.5.3.   History                                                 2-170

     2.5.4.   Identified Historic  Sites                                2-186

     2.5.5.   Visual Resources                                         2-186
             2.5.5.1.   Resource Values                                2-188
             2.5.5.2.   Primary Visual Resources                       2-188
             2.5.5.3.   Basin Landscapes  -  Secondary Visual
                       Resources                                      2-199
             2.5.5.4.   Visual  Resource Degradation                    2-199

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2.5.  CULTURAL AND VISUAL RESOURCES

     Archaeological and historic sites  (cultural resources) which  are  listed
on or are determined eligible for the National Register of Historic  Places
are protected by several Federal regulations.  Significant cultural
resources are considered to be valuable non-renewable manifestations of
cultural history.  Cultural resources are considered eligible  for  the
National Register of Historic Places according to the following criteria:

     •  If they are associated with events  that have made a
        significant contribution to the broad patterns of our
        history; or

     •  If they are associated with the lives of people
        significant in our past; or

     •  If they embody the distinctive  characteristics of a type,
        period, or method of construction,  or represent the work
        of a master, or possess high artistic values, or represent
        a significant and distinguishable entity whose components
        may lack individual distinction; or

     •  If they have yielded, or may be likely to yield,
        information important in prehistory or history (36 CFR
        800 as amended).

     The following sites ordinarily are not considered eligible for  the
National Register:   cemeteries, birthplaces, or graves of historical
figures; properties owned by religious  institutions or used for religious
purposes; structures that have been moved from their original  locations;
reconstructed historic buildings; properties primarily commemorative in
nature; and properties that have achieved significance within  the  past 50
years.  However, such properties will qualify if they are integral parts of
districts that do meet the criteria or  if they fall within the following
categories:

     •  A religious property deriving primary significance from
        architectural or artistic distinction or historical
        importance

     •  A building or structure removed from its original location
        but which is significant primarily  for architectural
        value, or which is the surviving structure most
        importantly associated with an historic person or event

     •  A birthplace or grave of a historical figure of
        outstanding importance if there is  no appropriate site or
        building directly associated with the person's productive
        life
                                      2-159

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     •  A cemetery which derives its primary significance from
        graves of people of transcendent importance, from age,
        from distinctive design features, or from association with
        historic events

     •  A reconstructed building when accurately executed in a
        suitable environment and presented in a dignified manner
        as part of a restoration master plan, and when no other
        building or structure with the same association has
        survived

     •  A property primarily commemorative in intent if design,
        age, tradition, or symbolic value has invested it with its
        own historical significance

     •  A property achieving significance within the past 50 years
        if it is of exceptional importance (36 CFR 800 as amended).

     Mandates and appropriate procedures for identification and protection
of significant cultural resources which may be affected by Federally  funded,
licensed,  permitted,  or sponsored projects are contained in the National
Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-665 as amended); Executive Order
11593; the Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of Historic and
Cultural Properties (36 CFR 800 as amended); the Archaeological and Historic
Preservation Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-291); and the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190).  Compliance with Federal regulations
concerning consideration and protection of significant cultural resources is
required when a Federal agency conducts any administrative task whether or
not a NEPA review is  indicated and whether or not an EIS is prepared  for a
specific Federally-funded or endorsed undertaking.

2.5.1.  Prehistory

     Table 2-43 presents the prehistoric cultural groups which
archaeologists identify with West Virginia.  It is with reference to these
groups, their associated technological assemblages, and a generally accepted
chronology that the incompletely known prehistory of the Monongahela River
Basin can be understood.  This review relies primarily on the works of
JMA (1978),  McMichael (1968), and Wilkins (1977).

     The first evidence of human habitation in the Monongahela River Basin
relates to the Paleo-Indian period,  perhaps as far back as 13,000 B.C.
However, no specific  habitation sites or butchering stations attributable to
Paleo-Indians have been discovered in the Monongahela River Basin or in the
State of West Virginia.  Such sites have been investigated in Pennsylvania
and Virginia.  Gardner has investigated the earliest known structure in the
New World at the Thunderbird site in Virginia (1974) and has associated it
with a Paleo-Indian occupation.  A nearby butchering station also has been
associated with a Paleo-Indian occupation.  Both sites date to about  11,000
B.C.
                                     2-160

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     Radiocarbon dates of 11,300 B.C. and 13,170 B.C. have been  recovered
from Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania.  This site in the  Upper Ohio
Valley may also be attributable to Paleo-Indian occupation (Adavasio et  al.        m
1975; Wilkins 1977).  While no camp sites or butchering stations
attributable to Paleo-Indians have been discovered in West Virginia,
isolated artifacts have been recorded in the lower Monongahela River Basin.

     Paleo-Indian sites are frequently characterized by the presence of  a
distinctive type of fluted, lanceolate projectile point.  In West Virginia,
fluted points have been found on terraces of the Ohio River and  the Kanawha
River and on Blennerhassett Island in the Ohio River near Parkersburg.
Fluted points have been found elsewhere associated with mammoth  and mastodon
remains, and it is postulated that the Paleo-Indians lived in migratory
bands and subsisted by hunting large game.  At the time of the Valders
maximum of the Wisconsin glaciation during the Pleistocene Epoch, the
continental ice sheet advanced to within several hundred miles of the
Monongahela River Valley.  Game such as mammoth and mastodon grazed in open
areas not covered by ice or meltwater.  The large herbivores followed
natural game trails along the watercourses to reach the level grazing areas.
It is believed that the Paleo-Indians utilized the game trails and ambushed
the large mammals at strategic passes and stream fords and at other areas of
game concentration, such as salt springs.

     Typical artifact assemblages found at known Paleo-Indian sites include:
fluted, lanceolate projectile points; uniface, blade-like, snub-nosed
scrapers; uniface side blades; gravers; and other blade and flake tools.
Evidence from known occupation sites indicates that individual sites were
occupied temporarily or seasonally over a long period of time.                     M

     Paleo-Indian occupation sites have been found on sandy alluvial hill-
ocks at elevations of about 100 feet above major river valleys as well as on
upland flats.  Ridge tops, being presumed routes of travel for people as
well as game, have potential for Paleo-Indian sites.  Saline springs and
salt licks on terraces attracted large herbivores, serving to draw in the
big game hunting Paleo-Indians.  In historic times salt licks have been
associated with coal formations (Cunningham 1973).  Additional Basin
Paleo-Indian sites have a high probability of being discovered in areas  with
topography and environment similar to that described above.

     By about 6000 B.C. the gradually changing climatic conditions resulted
in ecological changes that brought about the extinction of large herbivores
in West Virginia.  Evidence from archaeological sites occupied after about
6000 B.C. indicates that a concurrent change occurred in human foodgathering
practices and settlement patterns.  The several distinct modes of human
adaptation to changing conditions at this time are manifested in various
cultural assemblages at separate locations in West Virginia.  It is likely
that the original inhabitants supplemented their diets with whatever small
game, vegetables, grains, and fruits they could gather.  As the  large game
became scarce, however, human populations became more and more dependent
                                      2-162

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upon the  full variety of  food  resources  that  could  be  collected  in a given
area.

     Habitation sites of  Archaic  cultural  groups  have  been  identified
following the Paleo-Indian period  in West  Virginia.  Archaic  sites have  been
found on  the lower terraces  of  the Ohio  and Kanawha Rivers.   Large mounds  of
clam shells, fish bones,  and other refuse  were  found on  the east  bank of the
Ohio River.  Typical artifacts  recovered  from the  shell  middens  included
broad stemmed and lanceolate spear points, grooved  adzes, atlatl  weights,
bone awls,  and harpoon  points.  It is  believed  that because of  their more
constant  food supply, the Archaic  peoples  were  able to live in  larger, more
settled groups than  the Paleo-hunters.   They  may  have  changed their
campsites seasonally.

     Remains of Archaic cultural  groups  have  been  found  at  the  St.  Albans
site within the city of St. Albans, Kanawha County.  This site was occupied
intermittently between 7500 B.C.  and 6000  B.C.  Seasonal  flooding of the
river sealed each occupation.   The site has been excavated  to 18  feet below
the surface.  Six different types  of projectile points were uncovered, each
in a separate zone.  In addition  to projectile  points, chipped  flint hoes,
flint scrapers, drills, and  fragments  of  faceted hematite were  recovered.
Two Kanawha stemmed  projectile  points  were found in the  Cheat River Valley
during a  1969-1970 survey of the Rowlesburg Reservoir  (Jensen 1970).   These
are the earliest evidences of man known  from  the Monongahela  River Basin.

     Evidence of an  Archaic tradition, known  as the Montane Archaic
Tradition, occurs in the eastern extremity of West  Virginia.  Spearheads and
other tools ordinarily manufactured from  flint  elsewhere  in the  State were
shaped by the Montane groups from quartz,  quartzite, hematite, and
sandstone.  This tradition, the northern  extension  of  a  way of  life more
widespread in the central and  southern Appalachian  Mountains, may have
extended  into the eastern section  of the Monongahela River Basin.

     Remains of late Archaic cultural  groups have been found  at  the East
Steubenville Site (46 BR  31) on the east bank of  the Ohio River  opposite
Steubenville Ohio in Brooke County.  This  site was  occupied between 3000
B.C. and 2000 B.C.   The most conspicuous  feature here  is  the  shell-midden
which contained one human and  two dog  burials and two  different  types of
projectile points.   This  site  appears  to have been  occupied during Archaic
times by a small band of people.

     The  later Archaic sites contained evidence of  increasing dependence on
grain and vegetables as food sources.  Pigweed and  goosefoot  may  have been
cultivated.  Bowls of the mineral  steatite were made prior  to the intro-
duction of vessels  made of clay.  Grave offerings and red ochre  often
accompany burials.

     The Archaic culture evolved into  several cultural forms  collectively
referred to as Woodland culture.  Pottery making and mound building were
associated with most of the Woodland sites.  During the  period between 1000
                                     2-] 63

-------
B.C. and 1 A.D., several groups of mound builders occupied the State  of West
Virginia.  These diverse groups developed from and elaborated upon the late
Archaic  cultural traits, such as plant cultivation and burial ceremonialism,
to  form  distinct cultural configurations.  Early Adena groups occupied the
Ohio and Kanawha River Valleys between 1000 B.C. and 500 B.C. These were
essentially Middle Woodland groups who constructed mounds with such
artifacts as stemmed projectile points, plain tubular pipes, cord-marked
pottery  tempered with grit, and whetstones.  Settlements consisted of groups
of  circular houses of pole and bark construction.

     Late Adena sites contained evidence of cultural influences  from  groups
to  the north and west, known as Hopewell cultural groups.  Mounds covered
log tombs in which one or more burials had been placed, and many tombs were
destroyed during the later construction of a mound.  Grave goods included
ornamental offerings such as effigy pipes, pendants, gorgets, copper
bracelets and rings, and grooved stone tablets.  Late Adena houses were of
double-post side wall construction.

     In  the Kanawha Valley, cultural remains from the period between  1 A.D.
and 500 A.D. which contained a mixture of Adena and Hopewell elements have
been identified as the Armstrong Culture (McMichael 1968).  Small earthen
mounds contained cremations.  Scattered villages were composed of circular
houses,  simple agriculture was practiced, and the tools included small flake
knives and corner and side-notched projectile points made of flint that came
from Flint Ridge, Ohio.  In central West Virginia the Buck Garden Culture
succeeded the earlier mixed Adena-Hopewell-Armstrong culture.  Burials of
the Buck Garden cultural group were found in rock shelters and overhangs  in
central West Virginia.  The Buck Garden people also built stone  mounds and
introduced the cultivation of corn, beans, and squash.  This new food
resource base permitted the Buck Garden people to live in compact villages.
By  1200 A.D. these people had been driven from the Kanawha Valley, but they
persisted in the hills to the north and south of the Kanawha River for some
time.

     While the Armstrong people inhabited the Kanawha River Valley and
central West Virginia, another Middle Woodland group, known as the Wilhelm
Stone Cist Mound Builders lived in the Ohio River Valley section of northern
West Virginia.   These people constructed earth mounds over a number of
individual stone-lined graves.  Platform pipes, Flint Ridge  flint knives,
and notched points were among the remains of the Wilhelm groups.  Succeeding
the Wilhelm Stone Cist Mound Builders in the northern panhandle  of West
Virginia were the Watson Farm  Stone Mound Builders, who built stone mounds
with multiple burials.  Individual graves or grave chambers  (cists) were
absent from the Watson Farm remains.  The mounds contained both  flexed and
extended corpses, cremations, and secondary burials.  Thes people lived in
compact villages and utilized pottery that was tempered for strength using
crushed  linestone.  Subsistence was based on corn-bean-squash agriculture.
There is abundant evidence of occupation by Watson Farm Mound Builders in
the Cheat River Valley of the Monongahela River Basin (Jensen 1970).
                                    2-164

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     During  the Early  and Middle Woodland  periods,  the mountainous sections
 of  the eastern part  of West Virginia were  inhabited by cultural  groups  whose
 remains  contain evidence of Hopewellian influences, and who built numerous
 small mounds.  Such  mounds occur in the Tygart Valley  of Randolph County.
 The Romney Cemetery, the Hyre Mound,  and the Don  Bosco Mounds  were built by
 the Montane  Mound Builders.

     Hopewell influences occurred  in  the Ohio Valley by about  100 A.D.   The
 resultant mixture of Adena and Hopewell cultural  elements  has  been
 identified as the Wilhelm Culture  (McMichael  1963). Scattered villages were
 composed of  circular houses.  Simple  agriculture  was practiced,  and the
 tools included small flake knives  and  corner  and  side-notched  projectile
 points made  of flint.

     In  the  Monongahela River Basin of West Virginia,  the Watson Farm
 Culture  succeeded the earlier mixed Adena-Hopewe11-Wilhelm culture
 (Figure  2-26).  Artifacts discovered  at the Watson  Farm Site (46 HK 34), and
 the Fairchance Mount (46 MR 13) indicate influences stemming from Classic
Hopewell in  Ohio, especially in such  artifacts as banded slate gorgets  and
 pendants, bone awls  and beamers, side  and  corner-notched projectile points,
 and some mica and copper ornaments (McMichael 1968).   At this  time the
 first compact villages with associated stone mounds appeared in  the area.
Burial styles were highly varied and  included grave goods.

     In  the  Kanawha  River and Ohio River valleys  the final  prehistoric
period of occupation between 900 and  1700  A.D. is represented  by remains of
groups known as Fort Ancient people.   Influences  from  the Mississippian
 culture  near St. Louis affected these  cultures in West Virginia.   The Fort
Ancient people lived in large, compact  villages surrounded  by  stockades,
with rows of rectangular houses.  The  villagers farmed corn, beans, and
squash.   There were  open plazas in the  centers of the  villages,  and as  many
as  1,500 persons lived within the  stockades.  Burials  were  no  longer made  in
mounds.   The dead were placed in pits  inside the  villages  or inside house
walls.  Artifacts included small,  triangular projectile points,  drills,
scrapers, blades,  hoes, celts, awls, fish  hooks,  bird  bone  flutes,  shell
beads, ear plugs,  and pottery vessels  and  pipes.  Some late Fort Ancient
sites contained European trade goods.   Variations of the Fort  Ancient
culture occurred at Parkersburg and in the New River-Bluestone River area.

     Stockaded villages of Fort Ancient  groups were constructed  in the
northern and western sections of the State between  1000 and 1700 A.D.  At
this time the Buck Garden people continued to manifest  their separate
cultural identity in remote sections of central West Virginia.   In the
eastern mountains  Middle Woodland cultures, unaffected  by Mississippian
traits,  persisted much later than  1000  A.D.  The Monongahela Culture
developed in the Monongahela River Valley  of northern  West  Virginia (Figure
2-27).  Villages of  these cultural groups  consisted of  stockaded settlements
which contained circular huts of pole  and  bark construction.   Burials were
in pits.   Settlements of the Monongahela cultural groups were  considerably
smaller than Fort  Ancient villages.
                                    2-165

-------
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                       2-166

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2-167

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                              2-168

-------
     European  goods were  found  in  some Fort Ancient  and Monongahela  sites.
As  there was only one recorded  incident  of European  contact with  a Fort
Ancient village, it is believed  that most European goods were  obtained
through trade.  By 1700,  Fort Ancient and Monongahela villages were
abandoned  (Figure 2-28).  The fate  of the former village occupants and  their
historic tribal connections is  unknown.  There is some indirect evidence
that Fort Ancient villages were  built by western Shawnee Indians, remnant
populations of which were discovered by  Europeans in the Cumberland  River
sections of Tennessee and Kentucky.  It  is also possible that  eastern
Shawnees occupied the Monongahela villages of late prehistoric times.   (The
Eastern Shawnees inhabited sections of the Carolinas at the time  of  earliest
European contact.)  During historic times Susquehannocks from western
Pennsylvania entered West Virginia, and  there is evidence  of their presence
in  the Eastern Panhandle between 1630 and 1677.  Their sites occur on the
valley of  the South Branch River in Hampshire County.  Susquehannocks had no
apparent connection, however, with  the indigenous prehistoric  groups of West
Virginia.  By  1700 A.D.,  except  for the  Eastern panhandle  area where a  few
aboriginal Algonkian-speaking tribes remained, West  Virginia was  devoid of
its indigenous Indian populations,  and the State was utilized  only as a
hunting ground.  Later, Indian  groups returned to or moved into West
Virginia.  Many of these  were vassals or subgroups of the  Iroquois.
Shawnees and displaced Delawares were the primary groups to occupy sections
of West Virginia during historic times.

     Thus, of the known prehistoric cultural groups  which  occupied West
Virginia between about 12000 B.C. and 1700 A.D., those identified in the
Monongahela River Basin included:  Early Archaic peoples; Montane Archaic
groups present between 4000 and 2000 B.C.; Watson Farm Stone Mound Builders
who occupied the western  section of the  Basin between 1 A.D. and 500 A.D.;
Hopewellian-influenced Montane Mound Builders who occupied the eastern
section of the Basin  during the same time period; and Monongahela cultural
groups which occupied the Basin  between  900 and 1700 A.D.

2.5.2.  Archaeological Resources

     Archaeological remains of  one  or more groups of prehistoric  inhabitants
may be found in virtually every  type of  environmental setting in the Monon-
gahela River Basin.  Sites have been discovered in river valleys, on river
terraces, on hills and mountaintops, in  rock shelters on mountainsides, and
on cliffs.  Many archaeological  sites remain to be discovered, because with
the exception of the Rowlsburg Reservoir surveyed by the Archaeology Section
of the West Virginia Geological  and Economic Survey  (WVGES) , the Monongahela
River Basin has not been subjected  to professional reconnaissance.   The
presenty recorded 318 archaeological sites in the Monongahela River  Basin do
not reflect accurately the number of sites which probably  are present.  The
Archaeology Section of the WVGES presently is preparing a  Cultural Resource
Overview of the Monongahela River Basin  (Orally, Dr.  Daniel Fowler,  Archaeo-
logical Administrator, WVGES, October 5, 1977).  Records of the known or
reported prehistoric archaeological sites are maintained by the Archaeology
Section.                                         •
                                   2-169

-------
     During October 1977, Dr. Daniel Fowler, Archaeological Administrator,
WVGES (a position now replaced by the State Archeaologist, Mr. Roger Wise),
was consulted in order to obtain access to the State-maintained  list of           m
known archaeological resources of the Monongahela River Basin; the site
files of the Archaeological Section were not made available.  Dr. Fowler
indicated that no archaeological resources known to be of sufficient import-
ance to be eligible for the National Register of Historic Places  are listed
in the files of the Archaeology Section.  Many of the sites reported to the
Archaeology Section have not been tested or evaluated, so their  significance
currently is unknown.  The Archaeology Section at present has no  capability
or plans to undertake a comprehensive, basinwide inventory with  field
reconnaissance, testing,  and evaluation of known sites and reconnaissance of
potentially sensitive areas, although the agency has performed surveys of
specific areas on a contract basis.   Because there are many gaps  in the
record of prehistoric site distributions and culture types in the
Monongahela River Basin,  it is virtually certain that many significant
resources remain to be discovered.  Those prehistoric archaeological sites
in the Monongahela River Basin that are listed on the National Register of
Historic Places are included in Table 2-44.

     In addition to prehistoric archaeological sites, many historic archaeo-
logical sites have been identified in the Monongahela River Basin, the
majority of which have not been mapped accurately or evaluted.  Records of
historic archaeological sites, which are maintained at the Department of
Culture and History, Historic Preservation Unit, Charleston, West Virginia,
include the sites of Civil War battles,  frontier forts, and early iron
furnaces.  These sites are included in Table 2-44.  Many more such sites are
likely to be found throughout the Basin, if detailed professional investiga-      ^j
tions are undertaken.                                                             ™

     Archaeological resources are highly susceptible to damage by the mining
of coal, and particularly by surface mining that entails a drastic modifica-
tion of surface deposits.  Because the distribution of archaeological
resources is so poorly known, because professional expertise is necessary to
locate these resources and estimate their significance, and because these
resources are irreplaceable, routine professional archaeological  reconnais-
sances of individual mine sites may be appropriate throughout the Basin
wherever past documentary research and field reconnaissance have  not demon-
strated a lack of archaeological potential.

2.5.3.  History

     Until 1863 the present State of West Virginia was a part of  the
Dominion of Virginia.  During 1776 the Virginia General Assembly  formed
Monongalia County by dividing the District of West Augusta.  The  District
formerly had included the territory that is presently the southeastern
section of Washington County, the eastern section of Greene County, and the
southwestern part of Fayette County, Pennsylvania; and in West Virginia, all
of the present areas of Monongalia,  Preston, Marion, Harrison, Taylor,
Barbour Counties, the western half of Tucker County, all of Randolph County
                                    2-170

-------
Table 2-44.  Recorded National Register and West Virginia State  Inventory
  historic and archaeological sites in the Monongahela River Basin,  West
  Virginia (FR Files of the West Virginia Department of Culture and  His-
  tory, Charleston WV, 1977).  National Register sites are also on the
  State Inventory.
Number          Name

  1          Fort Martin

  2          Fort Harrison

  3          Fort Dinwiddie

  4          Forks of Cheat
             Baptist Church

  5          J. J. Easton Mill

  6          Fort Pierpont

  7          Mason and Dixon
             Survey Terminal
             Point

  8          Henry Clay
             Furnace

  9          Anna Furnace

 10          Ice's Ferry

 11          Moore Log House

 12          Tenant Cemetery

 13          Shriver Cemetery

 14          Statler Stockade
             Fort

 15          Price's Cemetery

 16          Baldwin Block-
             house

 17          Dean's House,
             WV University

 18          Ogleby Hall,
             WV University
      Status

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

National Register
of Historic Places


National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory
  USGS 7.5'
  Quadrangle

Morgantown North

Morgantown North

Morgantown North


Morgantown North

Morgantown North

Morgantown North

Osage



Lake Lynn


Lake Lynn

Lake Lynn

Blacksville

Blacksville

Blacksville

Blacksville


Blacksville

Blacksville


Morgantown North


Morgantown North
                                   2-171

-------
Table 2-44.  Recorded known historic  and archaeological  sites  (continued).
Number          Name

  19        Seneca Glass
            Company

  20        Stalnaker Hall,
            WV  University

  21        Stewart Hall
            WV  University

  22        Purinton Hall
            WV  University

  23        B&O Railroad
            Depot

  24        Monongalia County
            Court House

  25        Foulke's Pottery

  26        Kern's Fort

  27        South Morgantown
            Bridge

  28        Old Stone House
  29        Woodburn Circle
            WV  University

  30        Alexander Wade
            House

  31        Rock Forge Coke
            Ovens

  32        Sarver School

  33        Carl Arnett House

  34        Liming Log House

  35        Catawba House

  36        Price Log House
            (vicinity of)
      Status

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places

National Register of
Historic Places

National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
   USGS 7.5'
   Quadrangle

Morgantown North
Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown North

Morgantown North

Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown North


Morgantown South


Masontown

Rivesville

Wadestown

Rivesville

Rivesville
                                   2-172

-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological  sites  (continued).
Number          Name

  37        Burris Fort

  38        Octagonal Barn

  39        Cobun Stockade
            Fort

  40        Hamilton Petro-
            glyphs

  41        Dent's Run
            Covered Bridge

  42        Bruceton Mills
            Country Store

  43        Brandonville
            Tavern

  44        Brandonville
            Academy

  45        Hazelton Buck-
            wheat Mill

  46        Harrison Hagan's
            Furnace

  47        Muddy Creek Mill

  48        Fort Butler

  49        Reckart Grist
            Mill

  50        Cranesville Swamp

  51        Irondale Furnace

  52        Arthurdale

  53        Ellis Hotel

  54        Newburg Fire
            Department
      Status

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
  USGS  7.5'
  Quadrangle

Morgantown North

Rivesville

Morgantown South


Morgantown South


Rivesville


Bruceton Mills


Brandonville


Brandonville


Brandonville


Valley Point


Valley Point

Valley Point

Cuzzart


Sang Run

Gladesville

Newburg

Newburg

Newburg
                                  2-173

-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and  archaeological  sites  (continued)

Number
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64

Name
First National
Bank
Kingwood Railroad
Tunnel
The Kingwood Inn
Kingwood Elementary
School
Dunkard Bottom
Stage Coach Inn
Troy Run Viaduct
Buckeye Run
Viaduct
Rowlesburg Bridge
Howard Commercial

WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV

Status
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Newburg
Newburg
Kingwood
Kingwood
Kingwood
Fellowsville
Rowlesburg
Rowlesburg
Rowlesburg
Rowlesburg
  65


  66


  67

  68


  69


  70


  71


  72
Hotel

Cathedral State
Park

Red Horse Tavern
(Old Stone House)

Carl Beatty House

Paw Paw Creek
Covered Bridge

Barracksville
Covered Bridge

Montana Mines
Coke Ovens

Jacob Prickett
Jr. Cabin

Prickett's Fort
WV  State Inventory


National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
Aurora


Aurora


Mannington

Grant Town


Grant Town


Rivesville


Rivesville


Rivesville
                                    2-174

-------
Table 2-44.   Recorded  known  historic  and  archaeological sites  (continued)
   Number         Name

     73       Marion County
              Court  House

     74       Pierpont  and
              Watson Mine
              Remnants

     75       Monongahela  River
              Bridge

     76       Sonnencroft

     77       Western Maryland
              Railroad  Terminal
              and Turntable

     78       James  Edwin
              Watson House
              (Highgate)

     79       Watson Log
              Cabin

     80       Fairmont  Farms-
              LaGrange

     81       Fairmont  Railroad
              Bridge

     82       Rector College

     83       Warder Chapel

     84       Andrews Methodist
              Church

     85       Grafton Railroad
              Station and  McGraw
              Hotel

     86       Grafton Machine
              Shop and  Foundary

     87       Grafton Railroad
              Bridge
      Status

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory



WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory



WV  State Inventory



WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory



WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory
  USGS  7.5'
  Quadrangle

Fairmont
Fairmont



Fairmont West


Fairmont West

Fairmont West



Fairmont West



Fairmont West


Fairmont West


Fairmont West


Grafton

Grafton

Grafton


Grafton



Grafton


Grafton
                                      2-175

-------
Table 2-44.   Recorded known historic  and archaeological sites  (continued)
Number
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
Name
Harbert Block-
house
Levi Shinn House
Salem College
Salem Block
House
Ten Mile Creek
Bridge
Corbin L. Dixon
Residence
B&O Railroad
Depot
Fourth Street
Bridge
House at 804
Locust Street
House at 529
W. Pike Street
Elk's Building
Davisson Block-
house
Waldomere
Waldo Building
Nathan Groff
Status
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WVA State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Shinnston
Shinns ton
Salem
Salem
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
             House

   103       Historical
             Society Head-
             quarters
Historic Places
WV  State Inventory
Clarksburg
                                     2-176

-------
Table 2-44.    Recorded  known historic  and archaeological sites  (continued)
  Number           Name

    104       Amy Roberts  Vance
              House

    105       John W.  Davis
              House

    106       Broaddus

    107       Lowndes  Hill
              Civil War
              Entrenchments

    108       Water treatment
              plant

    109       Goff Mound

    110       Nutter's Fort

    111       Powder's Stockade

    112       Bowstring Bridge

    113       Paris Manor

    114       Good Hope Indian
              Cave Petroglyphs

    115       Richard's Fort

    116       Watters  Smith
              Farm

    117       Rooting  Creek
              Covered  Bridge

    118       Randolph Mason

    119       Templemoor

    120       Alderson Civil
              War Battle Site

    121       B&O Railroad
              Station
      Status

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory

National Register of
Historic Places

National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory
  USGS  7.5'
  Quadrangle

Clarksburg


Clarksburg


Clarksburg


Clarksburg


Clarksburg


Clarksburg

Clarksburg

Clarksburg

Clarksburg

Rosemont

West Milford


West Milford

West Milford


Mount Claire


Mount Claire

Mount Claire

Philippi


Philippi
                                     2-177

-------
Table 2-44.    Recorded known historic  and  archaeological sites  (continued)
  Number           Name

    122       Philippi Covered
              Bridge

    123       Barbour County
              Court House

    124       Pitts Residence
              Site

    125       Old Mill at
              Nestorville

    126       Valley Iron
              Furnace

    127       Buckhannon River
              Covered Bridge

    128       St.  George Log
              House

    129       Fort Minear

    130       Court House Site

    131       Broad Run Baptist
              Church

    132       Sycamore Methodist
              Church

    133       Jackson's Mill
    134       McWorter Cabin

    135       Butcher Cemetery

    136       Weston Citizen's
              Bank

    137       Lewis County
              Court House

    138       Louis Bennett
              Library
      Status

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory
  USGS 7.5'
  Quadrangle

Philippi


Philippi


Philippi


Nestorville


Colebank


Audra


St. Georges


St. Georges

St. Georges

West Milford


West Milford


Weston


Weston

Weston

Weston


Weston


Weston
                                       2-178

-------
Table 2-44.    Recorded known historic and archaeological  sites  (continued).
  Number           Name

    139       Gertrude Louise
              Edwards House

    140       Old Hill
              Cemetery

    141       B&O Railroad
              Station

    142       West Stockade

    143       Harmony Church

    144       Stone Coal
              Creek

    145       Cozad Lawson
              House

    146       Conrad Log
              House

    147       Covered Bridge

    148       Blackwater Falls
              Area

    149       French Creek
              Presbyterian
              Church

    149a      Buckhannon
              Settlement

    149b      Carpenter Family
              Cemetery

    150    v   Dean Cabin-Ev  Un
              Breth Acres

    151       Bush Fort

    152       Buckhannon Fort

    153       Thornhill's Cabin
      Status

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
  USGS 7.5'
  Quadrangle

Weston
Weston


Weston


Weston

Weston

Weston


Berlin


Roanoke


Walkersville

Blackwater Falls


Adrian



Century


Sago


Century


Century

Berlin

Blackwater Falls
                                      2-179

-------
Table 2-44.   Recorded known historic  and archaeological  sites  (continued)
Number
154
155
Name
Upshur County
Court House
Indian Camp
Community
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Sago
Sago
   156       Graceland (Henry
             Gassaway Davis
             Home)

   157       Davis  Memorial
             Hospital

   158       Western Maryland
             Railroad Station

   159       Randolph County
             Court  House and
             Jail

   160       Elkins Machine
             Shop

          * 161-180 = Beverly
            Historic District

   161       Logan  House

   162       Aggie  Cursip Home

   163       David  Goff Home

   164       1841 Randolph
             County Jail

   165       Judson Blackman
             Home

   166       1808 Randolph
             County Court
             House

   167       Bushrod Crawford
             Home
National Register of
Historic Places
WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory



WV  State Inventory
Elkins
Elkins
Elkins
Elkins
Elkins
Beverly East

Beverly East

Beverly East

Beverly East


Beverly East


Beverly East



Beverly East
                                     2-180

-------
Table 2-44.   Recorded known historic  and  archaeological  sites  (continued)
 Number           Name

   168       Beverly Public
             Square

   169       Blackman Bosworth
             Store

   170       1813 Randolph
             County Jail

   171       William Rowan
             House

   172       Adam Crowford
             House

   173       Lemuel Chenoweth
             House

   174       Jonathan Arnold
             Home

   175       Randolph Female
             Seminary

   176       Home of "The
             Enterprise"

   177       Peter Buckey Home
             and Hotel

   178       Andrew J. Collett
             Home

   179       Beverly Pres-
             byterian Church

   180       Edward Hart House

   181       Rich Mountain
             Battlefield

   182       Town of Pickens

   183       Elkwater Civil
             War Site
      Status
WV  State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory


WV  State Inventory

WV  State Inventory
  USGS  7.5'
  Quadrangle

Beverly East


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West


Beverly West

Beverly West


Pickens

Pickens
                                    2-181

-------
Table 2-44.  Recorded known historic  and archaeological  sites  (concluded)
 Number

   184


   185

   186


   187


   188


   189

   190
     Name

Hyer Mound and
Cabin

The Old Mill

E , Button House
Fort Milroy Cheat
Summit Camp

Hezekiah Bukey
Marshall House
      Status
WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory

National Register of
Historic Places

WV  State Inventory
WV  State Inventory
   USGS 7.5'
   Quadrangle
Lee's Headquarters  WV  State Inventory
Cass Scenic Rail-
road
National Register of
Historic Places
 Pickens


Harman

 Durbin


 Durbin


 Mingo


 Mingo

 Cass
                                    2-182

-------
except  for  a  small strip  along  the  southwestern  edge,  and  the  eastern
two-thirds  of Lewis County.   In all,  this was  an area  of  approximately
5,000 square miles.  Harrison County  was  the  first  to  become  separated from
Monongalia  County in 1784.  The remaining counties  of  the  Monongahela River
Basin were  formed between  1787  and  1856.  By  1932 Monongalia  County
contained about 369 square miles  that  is, about  7%  of  its  original area.

     An Act of the Virginia Assembly  in  1782 made the  home of  Zackwell
Morgan  (son of Morgan Morgan, the first  permanent European settler in West
Virginia) the seat of justice for the  County.  A frame courthouse was
erected, and the town of Morgantown was  established  by law at  a  session of
The Assembly  in 1785.  The State  College  of Agriculture,  established  in
1867, resulted from the public  purchase  and consolidation  of  the Monongalia
Academy, the Morgantown Female  Academy,  and the  Woodburn  Female  Seminary.
In 1868 the name of the college was changed to West  Virignia  State
University.  Several buildings  at the  university are listed on the historic
sites inventory maintained by the West Virginia  Department of  Culture and
History in  Charleston.  The first pottery in West Virginia was established
during  1785 on the site of the  present Courthouse Square  in Morgantown.

     Under President Lincoln's  proclamation in 1863, West  Virginia was
separated from Virginia and became the thirty-fifth  state.  The  first
governor of the new state was inaugurated on June 20,  1863.

     During the third quarter of  the  eighteenth  century, many  forts were
constructed in the Monongahela  River  Basin.  Nutter's  Fort in  Harrison
County was built by Thomas Nutter in  1772, after a settlement  had been
established in 1770.  Nutter, a Captain  in the continental Army, was  buried
at the Fort.  Other forts were  constructed by James  Powers on  Simpson's
Creek (1771) and by Arnold Richards on the west  bank of the West Fork of  the
Monongahela River (1774).  In Lewis County, members  of  the West  family
erected a stockade to defend  the  settlement at Hacker's Creek  from Indians.
The fort was destroyed in  1779; when  it was rebuilt  nearby in  1790, it was
known as Beech Fort.  In  1774 John Minear built  a log  house in the Horseshoe
Bend in Preston County, but Indian raids  forced  him  to  abandon it.  Two
years later, Minear returned  and built a more  substantial  fort where  the
village of St. George now stands.  During subsequent Indian attacks in 1780
and 1781,  John Minear and a number of  settlers were  killed.

     The present town of Buckhannon in Upshur County is the site of a late
eighteenth  century settlement,  first  established by  John  and Samuel Pringle,
who deserted the Royal Army in  Fort Pitt and lived in  the  hollow trunk of a
sycamore tree.  The town of Salem in Harrison County was  chartered during
1794 by families from New Jersey.  Here a blockhouse was erected to protect
the settlement from Indian attack.

     Several early log houses are still extant in the  Monongahela River
Basin.   The Conrad Log House,  constructed at Buck's Mill in Lewis County
about 1834 and used as a frontier post-office, has been restored by the West
                                     2-183

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Virginia Department of Highways.  At Ev Un Breth Acres in Upshur  County,  a
cabin constructed during 1828 stands on the site of a former cabin used  as  a
fort during the late eighteenth century.

     The historic town of Beverly in Randolph County was laid out on  lands
of Jacob Westfall and was named Edmonton.  This town was a place  of defense
against the Indians during the days of early settlement, and it was occupied
by both Union and Confederate forces at several periods during the Civil
War.  In 1790, the town of Beverly was established legally, and its name  was
changed to Beverly.  The town today contains an historic district of  twenty
structures constructed during the late eighteenth century arid the early  part
of the nineteenth century.  It became the County seat and a major town along
the Stanton-Parkersburg Turnpike.  In 1900, the courthouse was moved  to
Elkins.

     Civil War forts in the Monongahela River Basin include Fort Pickens,
located on Route 50 2 miles east of Route 19 in Lewis County.  Fort Pickens
was built by Company A of the Tenth West Virginia Infantry.  The  two-story
log barracks, which were 30 feet by 40 feet in dimension and surrounded  by  a
ditch, were burned during 1864.  Along the Stanton-Parkersburg Turnpike  on
White Top Mountain in Randolph County, Civil War Fort Milroy was erected.
Gun emplacements, trenches, and foundations of the fort are visible on the
site, which was occupied by US Army troops during 1861 and 1862.  From its
elevation of 4,000 feet the fort commanded the Stanton-Parkersburg Trnpike
and effectively blocked General Lee's Confederate Army.  South of Elkwater
at the confluence of Hamilton Run and Tygart Valley River, another Union
stronghold was established by General Reynolds during 1861.  Nearby were  the
Haddan Indian Forts, the scene of the eighteenth century Stewart  and  Kinnan
massacres.

     On level ground near a pass on the Stanton-Parkersburg Turnpike  at  the
summit of Rich Mountain, General W. S. Rosecrans made a surprise attack  on
Confederate troops to win a decisive victory during McClellan's Northwest
Virginia campaign.

     After the Civil War, the Virginia Legislature tried to reunite the
State, but the West Virginia Legislature refused.  An election to decide  the
permanent site of the capital was held in 1877.  Charleston won,  so the
capital was moved from Morgantown in 1885 to that city.

     It was the railroad that brought Western Virginia to life agricultural-
ly and industrially.  The town of Pickens in Randolph County is presently
recognized as an historic railroad town.  The Cass Railroad, a former
logging railroad, is operated as a scenic railroad in Cass State Park and is
listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

     There are several technological sites in the Monongahela River Basin.
The Valley Iron Furnace was constructed during 1848 by Isaac Marsh near
Nestorville in Barbour County.  The furnace airblast initially was powered
by water power, but it was replaced by a charcoal-fueled steam engine during
                                     2-184

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the  1850's.  The 4.5  short  tons  of  iron  produced  daily were transported by
mule team and by barges on  the Monongahela River.

     The Irondale Furnace,  near  Victoria in Preston County, was  the largest
and  one  of  the most recently  operated  of pre-Civil  War furnaces  in Preston
County.  The furnace  was  constructed by  George  Hardman shortly before the
Civil War,  and after  improvements were added  by Felix Denemengi,  Irondale
became a boom town.   A  spur of  the  B&O Railroad was constructed  from
Independence to Irondale.   Following extensive  renovations  and a strike in
1890, the furnace was  forced  to  shut down permanently.   Kingswood Tunnel of
the  B&O Railroad, a 0.8 mile  long tunnel constructed west  of Tunnelton on
State Route 26, represented a major engineering feat for the mid-nineteenth
century.  Constructed between 1848  and 1857 the tunnel required  the
development of innovative techniques,  including the use of  prefabricated
iron and segments.  The tunnel remained  in use  until the 1950's,  when it was
abandoned and sealed.

     The Troy Run Viaduct of  the B&O Railroad,  located northwest  of
Rowlesburg, was a cast  and  wrought  iron  trestle with a 90  foot high mansonry
embankment.  The original viaduct,  which was  replaced by a  wrought iron
trestle in  1887,  was  a major work of Albert Fink  and a prototype  for later
cast and wrought iron construction.

     The Seneca Glass Company in Morgantown is  an exmaple  of one  of West
Virginia's early industries.  It was founded  after  the discovery  of
petroleum deposits attracted  glass  manufacturers  to the area,  where they
produced lead crystal.  The original furnace  and  the factory of  the Seneca
Glass Company still stand with  some additions.  The machinery and processes
used for blowing and  cutting  the lead crystal stemware are  the same as those
used during 1897, when  the  Company  was founded.

     On State Route 20  in Arlington, Upshur County,  the Fidler Mill ground
corn and wheat and carded wool until 1940.  The original mill  was
constructed by Daniel Peck  on the site during 1821.   It was later replaced
by the existing mill, erected by William Fidler.

     Jackson's Mill was built about  1786 in Lewis County.   It  has been
standing in its present location and form since 1837.   The  three-story
building retains  original poplar beams and studs, and oak  floors.   On the
Jackson homestead the first boys' and girls'  4-H  Camp in West  Virginia was
established.

     Between 1836 and 1840  Professor William Bacton Rogers  visited nearly
all  of the mines  in Western Virginia (presently West Virginia).   His account
of mines in the territory which  is  not Monongalia County,  provides the
earliest record of coal mining in the County.   The  Boyer Mine  near the mouth
of Scott's Run was probably the  first mine to produce Pittsburgh  Coal in
Monongalia County.  About 1856,  J.  0. Watson  formed the American  Coal
Company with a mine located on the  land  of Governor Fancis  Pierpont on
                                     2-185

-------
Washington Street  in Fairmont, Marion County.  Miners used  picks  and  shovels
and loaded the ore onto a two-ton car pulled by a horse.                            A

     The State changed markedly  during  the  1890's from  the  self-sufficient
economy of the local community to dependence on labor wages  in  the  awakening
industrial era.  Of recent historical interest  is Arthurdale,  an  innovative
modern homesteading project, one of one hundred such projects  initiated
throughout the county.  The community,  established  during 1933-34,  had  the
interest and support of Eleanor Roosevelt, who made several  visits  to the
c ommun i t y.

2.5.4.  Identified Historic Sites

     At present 20 historically  and culturally  significant:  structures,
districts, sites,  properties, or objects  in the Monongahela  River Basin have
been listed on or  judged eligible for listing on the National Register  of
Historic Places (Table 2-44).  Additional historic resources are  expected to
be nominated to the National Register as  they are identified in accordance
with Executive Order 11593 and the National Historic Preservation Act of
1966 (P.L. 89-665).

     The State of West Virginia  also maintains  an ongoing survey  to identify
historically significant resources.  An additional  172 historic cultural
resources in the Monongahela River Basin  are listed on  the West Virginia
State Inventory of Historic Places maintained by the Department of  Culture
and History, Historic Preservation Unit,  in Charleston, West Virginia (Table
2-44).  The historic and architectural merits of about 60 of the resources          ^
listed on the State Inventory had not been substantiated by  field                   ^
observations as of mid 1978, according  to the State personnel.  It  is likely
that many additional, presently unidentified, cultural  resources  of historic
importance are extant in the Monongahela River Basin.  Expected additional
cultural resources include such resources as settler's  cabin sites,
Revolutionary War  and Civil War  forts, nineteenth century industrial sites
and historic or architecturally  significant residences  and other buildings.

     Archaeological and historical resources listed on the National Register
as discussed in Section 2.5.2. also appear in Figure 2-29.  All resources
are mapped on Overlay 1.  Site-specific identifications are not presented in
the SID because of the disclosure constraints imposed by the agency
providing the information.

2.5.5.  Visual Resources

     Visual resources in the Monongahela River Basin generally consist  of
natural landscapes where development has not disturbed vegetation,
topography, and other landscape features.  Visual resources  are valuable for
their relationship to the overall quality of life for Basin residents, and
because of their special relationship to tourism, an important industry in
the Basin.   Although current State and Federal mining regulations
                                     2-186

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Figure 2-29
HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES (45FR525I, Cohen
1976, WAPORA 1980)
                                         0       10
                                           WAPORA, INC.
                            2-187

-------
effectively have reduced  adverse  effects  of mining  activity on these
resources to a large extent, unavoidable  impacts  during  and after mining
operations may result.  Evaluation  of  potential  adverse  effects on visual
resources is an appropriate NEPA  concern  which,  therefore,  must be
incorporated into  the New Source  permit process  for mining  activity.

     Limited field  investigations were undertaken by WAPORA,  Inc.  to
identify additional primary visual  resources  for  an assessment of the
overall visual quality of  the Basin and its landscapes and  the effects  of
currently regulated mining activity on visual  resource types.   Field
investigations were conducted from  primary and secondary roadways throughout
the Basin, concentrating  on views from the roadways and  major  access
points.

     2.5.5.1.  Resource Values

     Visual resources include landforms,  waterways,  vegetation, and other
features that are visible  in the  landscape and to which  scenic values can be
ascribed (USBLM 1980).  In rural  areas, generally,  scenic values increase
with naturalness, with land use diversity, and with landform irregularity
(Zube  1973).  Rugged, diverse topography  typically  is  assigned high scenic
value, and agricultural areas also  produce favorable visual impressions
because of their variety  of land  uses  (Linton  1968).  The USFS (1974) has
developed a system which  classifies  landscapes distinguished by features of
unusual and exceptional quality.  USFS applies the  term  distinctive to  this
highest order of visual resources.   Distinctive visual resources by
definition are not  commonplace and  exhibit a variety in  form,  line, color,
and texture through land  forms, vegetation, water courses,  rock formations
and the like.  Potential  for adverse effects resulting from new mining
activities is most  serious when dealing with these  primary  visual
resources.

     Other types of visual resources also are  valuable.   Naturally forested
and mountainous landscapes, for example,  offer impressive vistas and
contribute to the  tourism potential  of the Monongahela River Basin (see
Section 2.6.).  These visual resources are quite  common.  They can be
affected adversely  by new mining  activity but  because  of their extent,  they
are of secondary importance.

     2.5.5.2.  Primary Visual Resources

     Primary visual resources in  the Basin are based on  existing lists  of
public lands and other features of  recognized  scenic value  as  provided  by
WVDNR-HTP and others.  These resources are listed in Table  2-45, and
indicated on Figure 2-30.  Significant visual  resources  in  the Monongahela
River Basin include:

     •  Waterfalls

     •  Unusual geological features
                                     2-188

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Figure 2-30

PRIMARY VISUAL RESOURCES IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR - Parks and Recreation 1980, WVDNR-HTP 1980, WAPORA 1980)
                   64
                      IS7
                                          WAPORA, INC.
                          2-198

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      •   Scenic  overlooks  within State Parks and along roadways,
         providing major vistas  throughout  the Basin

      •   Recreational  lakes  and  areas

      •   State Parks,  Forests, and  Public Hunting and Fishing Areas
         providing protection  for the  naturalness of the Basin as
         well as  offering  a  variety of recreational opportunities.

      All primary visual resources  are mapped  on the 1:24,000-scale Overlay
1.  Figure 2-31  illustrates  the types of visual resources considered to be
primary.

      P.L. 93-87  also  authorized the  development of the Highland  Scenic
Highway.  The project  currently is in the  planning phase; the Draft EIS is
expected in Spring  1981,  at which  time alternative route locations will be
evaluated.  Final route selection  probably will not occur until  1982.   Both
the Monongahela  and Gauley  River Basins may be affected.  EPA will
incorporate Draft EIS  findings  into the New Source permit reviewing process
as  soon  as these findings are available.

      2.5.5.3.  Basin  Landscapes-Secondary  Visual Resources

      Although Basin landscapes  are secondary  in importance when  compared to
primary  (usually site-specific)  visual resources,  landscapes  are notable and
diverse.  Much of the  Basin,  as seen  from  roadways, appears to be
undisturbed by mining  or  other  development activity.   The Basin  is dominated
by  rugged topography  and  dense  vegetation  with a mixture of agricultural
lands (see Sections 2.7.1.  and  2.3.3.).  Figure 2-32 illustrates the types
of  visual resources considered  to  be  secondary.

      2.5.5.4.  Visual  Resource  Degradation

     Development activities already have affected  adversely both primary and
secondary visual resources  in the  Basin.   In  the northern portion  of the
Basin agricultural activities offer relatively pleasant visual experiences
that  contrast with stands of  forest.   In the  southern  portion of the Basin,
however,  coal mining  activities  are more extensive and  visible.  The
residential areas which line the valleys range  from relatively attractive
rows  and  clusters of  single family dwellings  (including mobile homes)  to
ill-kept  settlements where no effort  to maintain surroundings litter-free or
cleanly  is in evidence.   In some places, well kept and  run-down  habitations
alternate over short distances.   Visible industrial activities in  the  Basin
include  coal mines and preparation plants,  electrical  generating stations,
factories, and railroad facilities.   The coal industry  buildings generally
are strictly utilitarian  and have  no  intrinsic  aesthetic interest.
Preparation plants are sited in  valley bottoms,  and typically are  sites for
the transfer of coal  from trucks to rail cars.   The surface facilities
associated with some active and  abandoned  underground mines also can be seen
along Basin roadways  (see Section  2.5.4. for  additional information on
development patterns).
                                    2-199

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 Figure 2-31  EXAMPLES  OF PRIMARY VISUAL RESOURCES
Dramatic panoramas  as seen from State Parks  and other facilities
and scenic turnouts along public roads are of  special value visually,
These primary visual resources contribute to the  tourism potential
of the Basin.
Primary visual  resources may consist of  landscapes of exceptional
quality such as this picturesque grist mill situated on a rugged
mountain stream.  If these resources are not publicly owned, coal
mine-related impacts may be substantial.
                             2-200

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Figure 2-32 EXAMPLES  OF SECONDARY VISUAL RESOURCES
Basin landscapes such as this  river and naturally vegetated bluffs
are common but, nevertheless,  important to the overall visual quality
of the Basin.
This brook  flowing through stands of laurel,  rhododendron, and other
indigenous  species is typical  of upper reaches  of watersheds through-
out the Basin.
                            2-201

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     Road scars are characteristic  features  of  the  forests  in the Basin and
generally detract from the natural  appearance.  These  scars  appear to result
chiefly from timbering activities and  from  the  installation  and maintenance        ^
of oil and gas wells, pipelines, and electrical transmission lines.   Except        fl
for roads on regulated coal mining  permit areas,  there are  no controls on
the proliferation of roads through  private  lands  in  the  Basin.

     In summary, Basin visual resources may  be  degraded  by  any of the
following:

     •  Past and current coal mining operations,  predominantly
        surface mining

     •  Manufacturing and industrial districts

     •  Clearcuts by the lumbering  industry

     •  Clearcuts and structures for utilities

     •  Inadequately disposed solid waste

     •  Unplanned growth and poorly coordinated development

     •  Dilapidated housing

     •  Rusted and dilapidated  structures from  past  oil  and  gas
        well operations

     •  Streams and water quality rendered unattractive  by  litter
        and  wastes.

Figure 2-33 provides examples of visual resource  degradation.
                                      2-202

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Figure 2-33 EXAMPLES OF VISUAL RESOURCE DEGRADATION
Even modern mining  reclamation practices  as  currently required have
an impact on Basin  landscapes through the temporary and permanent
alteration of land  forms and vegetation.
Visual degradation occurs  in the Basin when coal preparation plants,
as shown here, are constructed in otherwise natural settings with no
buffering or special siting considerations  taken.
                             2-203

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4
              2.6  Human Resources and Land Use

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                                                                      Page
2.6.   Human Resources  and Land Use
     2.6.1.  Human Resources
             2.6.1.1,
     2.6.2,
             2.6.1.2.
             2.6.1.3.
          Population
          2.6.1.1.1.
           .6.1.1.2.
           .6.1.1.3.
                       2,
                       2,
          Economy
          2.6.1.2.
          2.6.1.2.

          Housing
          2.6.1.3.
                       2.6,
                       2.6.
                             3.5,
Population Size and Distribution
Social Characteristics
Trends in Population Size and
 Migration
Projected Population Size
Relationships Between Population
 Size and Mining Activity

General Characteristics
Special Economic Issues -
 Tourism and Travel

Problems of Housing, Provision
General Housing Characteristics
Size, Age, and Crowding
Housing Value
Presence of Complete Plumbing
 Facilities
Vacancy Rates
Owner-Occupancy Rates
2.6.1.4.   Transportation
          2.6.1.4.1.   Special Needs of the Coal Mining
                       Industry and Availability of
                       Modes
          2.6.1.4.2.   Public Roads
          2.6.1.4.3.   Railroads
          2.6.1.4.4.   Waterways
          2.6.1.4.5.   Pipelines
2.6.1.5.   Government  and Public Services
          2.6.1.5.1.   Institutional Framework
          2.6.1.5.2.   Governmental Revenues and
                       Expenditures
          2.6.1.5.3.   Health Care
          2.6.1.5.4.   Education
          2.6.1.5.5.   Recreational Facilities
          2.6.1.5.6.   Availability of Water and
                       Sewer Services
          2.6.1.5.7.   Solid Waste
          2.6.1.5.8.   Planning Capabilities
          2.6.1.5.9.   Local Planning in the Basin
Land Use and Land Availability
2.6.2.1.   Classification System
2.6.2.2.   Land Use Patterns
2.6.2.3.   Steep Slopes
2.6.2.4.   Flooding and Flood Insurance
2.6.2.5.   Forms and Concentration of Land Ownership
2.6.2.6.   General Patterns of Land Use and Land
           Availability Conflicts
2-205
2-207
2-208
2-208
2-208

2-208
2-214

2-214
2-226
2-226

2-227
2-230
2-230
2-230
2-234
2-235

2-235
2-236
2-236
2-236
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                                   2-293

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2.6.  HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE

     Coal raining and related  activities have  a  tremendous  impact  not  only on
the natural environment, but  also on the human  environment.  The  human
environmental impacts of coal mining have  been  the  subject  of  study,  and of
National concern, for over half a century  (President's  Commission on  Coal
1980).  During the 1960s, concern over the plight of  Appalachia,  and
especially of coal miners in  this region,  led to the  creation  of  the
Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC; Caudill 1962).  The Monongahela
River Basin is located within the ARC region.

     This section describes those aspects  of  the human  environment that  are
of particular importance in determining the impact  of coal  mining and relat-
ed activities.  For the purposes of this study, the human environment is
defined broadly and includes  population characteristics, economic condi-
tions, housing, transportation, governmental  services,  and  the intensive
uses of land for urban development.  The relationships  between coal mining
and the various aspects of the human environment are  complex and  interactive
(Figure 2-34).

     The baseline inventory presented in this section is designed to  form
the basis for analysis of the following types of impacts of proposed  mining
activities:

     •  Impacts on local population size and  structure:
        - Induced population  growth
        - Reduced out-migration
        - Changes in the size and composition of the  labor  force

     •  Impacts on local economic conditions:
        - Mining employment in excess of local  labor  supply
        - Additional commuting and fuel consumption for
          transportation of workers to the mine site
        - Reduction of chronic local unemployment or
          underemployment
        - Diversification or  concentration in the local economy
        - Secondary impacts on local employment and income
        - Impact on poverty level population  and welfare
          expenditures
        - Short-term versus long-term economic  benefits

     •  Impacts on local housing supply:
        - Availability of standard quality housing  in the existing
          supply
        - Availability and cost of new housing

     •  Impacts on transportation facilities:
        - Availability of roads, railroads, and waterways with
          coal haul capacity
                                     2-205

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        New  Mining
          Activity
  Primary
Employment
  Impact
                                                            I
                                                          Secondary
                                                          Employment
                                                            Impact
                       Demand for
                       Additional
                       Developed
                         Land
                                                            1
                                                         Population
                                                          Growth
             U    I
        Demand for
         Additional
        Infrastructure
         Facilities
   I
Demand for
 Additional
  Public
 Services
                      Demand for
                       Additional
                        Housing
  i
                                                           Financial
                                                            Impact
                                                             on
                                                         Government
  NOTE: All components also have local welfare impact.  Feedback
        effects are not specified  here.
Figure  2-34 HUMAN RESOURCES  AND LAND  USE IMPACTS  OF
              NEW MINING  ACTIVITIES  (WAPORA 1980)
                                 2-206

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        - Deterioration of  local  roadways  and  governmental
          expenditures for  roads

     •  Impacts on governmental  facilities  and public  services:
        - Potential direct  and secondary revenue  generation for
          local governments versus  potential direct  and  indirect
          costs to local governments
        - Availability of emergency medical care  in  close
          proximity to mining activity  sites
        - Availability of long-term medical care  and physicians
          for treatment of mining related  accidents  and  illness
        - Availability of public  safety services
        - Availability of sewer, water  and  solid  waste disposal
          services for additional population

     •  Compatibility with  State, regional,  and local
        plans and ordinances:
        - Capital improvements programs
        - Zoning ordinances
        - Housing plans and programs
        - Comprehensive development plans

     •  Impacts on developed land uses:
        - Direct adverse impacts  on adjacent areas
        - Availability of land with suitable site characteristics,
          especially slope, for  additional  mine-related  population
        - Availability of land for  purchase on the open  market  for
          additional mine-related population

     •  Compatibility of proposed mitigative measures with  the
        character and social mores  of  the  local population.

     Most of the data used  in this  section  were compiled on the  basis  of
entire counties with land in the Basin.  County lines  do not follow the
hydrology of the Basin.  Therefore, unless  data in this  section  are
specified as being for the hydrologic Basin, they apply  to  a. 10-county area
that includes all of the counties wholly within the  hydrologic Basin and
that have a substantial portion of  the  county  within the hydrologic Basin.
The counties included in the Monongahela River Basin are Barbour, Harrison,
Lewis, Marion, Monongalia, Preston, Randolph,  Taylor, Tucker,  and Upshur.

2.6.1.  Human Resources

     The human resources of the Basin  are mentioned  in five sections.
First, population size and distribution are  summarized.   Then employment and
income are addressed.  Housing conditions  are  presented, and the transporta-
tion network is described.  Finally, government and  public  services are
noted.
                                     2-207

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     2.6.1.1.  Population

     Population and overall demographic  information  for the Basin have  been
taken from a variety of sources.  Preliminary 1980 census counts have been
included, although in most cases data  for detailed characteristics  have not
been available beyond the 1970 US Census.

     2.6.1.1.1.  Population Size and Distribution.   The population  of  the
Monongahela River Basin was approximately 362,000 in 1980.  This represented
18% of the total population of the State of West Virginia.  The  population
distribution of the Basin is shown on  Figure 2-35.   The northwestern section
of the Basin is relatively densely populated as  it contains the  largest
urban areas.  The southeastern section of the Basin  is sparsely  populated,
largely  the result of few employment opportunities and relatively rugged
terrain.

     The average population density in the Basin was approximately  39
persons  per square mile in 1980.  The  population densities in the Basin
ranged from 12 persons per square mile in Tucker County to 122 persons  per
square mile in Marion County (Figure 2-36).

     2.6.1.1.2.  Social Characteristics.  The demographic profile of the
Monongahela River Basin is similar to  the general profiles of West  Virginia
and Appalachia (USDOC 1973; Table 2-46).  Comparison of 1970 census data for
the ten  counties in the Basin to data  for all of West Virginia reveals  that
the population of the Basin was slightly less rural, contained fewer racial
minorities, had similar overall levels of education  and age and, in most
cases, had a larger proportion of persons below  the  poverty level than  the
State (Table 2-46).  The Basin was more  similar  to West Virginia than  it was
to the US, which is far less rural, is decidedly more non-white, and has
considerably higher educational attainment ratings.  There was, however,
considerable variation among the counties in the Basin.  This variation
reflects a difference in underlying physical and economic conditions.

     The dependency ratio is a rough indicator of the level of economic
strength in a community.  A low ratio  suggests a strong community because
the number of dependents is low relative to the working-age population. The
ratio for the Monongahela River Basin  is slightly lower than that for  the
State (0.428 versus 0.444),  The fertility ratio in  the counties of the
Basin is generally higher than in the  State, with the exception  of  Barbour,
Harrison, Marion, Monongalia and Upshur  Counties.  The relatively high
fertility ratio in West Virginia has been offset by  out-migration in the
past.

     2.6.1.1.3.  Trends in Population  Sji^ze and Migration.

     During the 1950-1975 period, West Virginia  lost 10% of its  population;
the Monongahela River Basin, 9%.  The  decline during the 1950's  and 1960's
was replaced by an upturn during the 1970's (Tables  2-47 and 2-48).  The
decline  in West Virginia's population  was related to the decline of the
State's  coal mining industry.  The industry began a  rapid decline during the
late 1940's and has had a major impact on the State's economic and
                                      2-208

-------
Figure 2-35
1970 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WVDH
1972) Scale not compatible with other basin maps because of source information
constraints.


      ^-il^iiiS^^
      £^.\f;;c;;4;«                  •-. ...j
        MXB
  •   DOT • 50 PEOPLE
 Q  CIRCLES • ALL IKCORPORATED PLACES, AND ALL
         UDIICORPORATED PLACES OF 1,000 OR
         MORE POPULATE (SEE SCALE)
nnrmrnm  CORPORATIOI LIMITS OF LARCE KCTROPOLITAI AREAS
	  STATE  LIKE
	  COUITT LIK
	  KAtlSTERUl WSTRJCT UK
                         2-209

-------
Figure 2-36
POPULATION DENSITY PER SQUARE MILE BY COUNTY AND MAJOR
POPULATION CENTERS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN

         GREATER THAN 25,000

     O   5,000-25,000

     •   LESS THAN 5.OOO
                           2-210

-------
           Table  2-46.    Demographic  profile of  the Monongahela River  Basin  and its  counties,
              West Virginia,  1970  (USDOC  1973).
             Charac teris tic
Population
Total
Percent  In:
  Places of 10,000-50,000
  Places of  2,500-10,000
  Rural  Areas*-
Percent  N'on-whites
Dependency Rat 10^
Ferti 11 ty Rat u^
Percenc  Male 18 years and older
Median Age

E^plcnment, 16 \ears and older
  Total
  Mining
  Ma 1 e
  Mm ins, ns yercent of total
  Male as netcent of total
Employment/Population Ratio
Civilian Labor Force - Percent Unemployed
Earnings - 1969 Median
  Male  16 yeais and older
  Female 16 years and older
  Male/Female Ratio
Tamilies
  Income - I9t>9 Median
  Percent with 1969 income below poverty level
Percent  of all workers who worked in
  County of Residence
Percent  of Population 5 years and older
  who resided in same County in 1965
Median school years completed - 25 years
  and older
                                             22.5
                                             12.5
                                               .442
                                             28.1

State
1,744,237
17.5
10.0
61.0
4.1
.444
336.0
47.1
30.0
533,372.0
48,426.0
371,974.0
8.8
67.2
.317
5.1
$6,995
$3,225
2.2
$7,415
18.0
Mononpahela
Basin
320,443
28.2
16.4
58.5
1.9
.428
	
47.5
—
104,740.0
10,257.0
68,521.0
9.8
65.4
.327
r

	
—
	
—

Barbour
14,030
0
21.4
78.6
1.3
.456
315.0
47.5
28.6
4,147.0
742.0
2,692.0
17.9
64.9
.296
7.0
$5,020
$2,522
2.0
$5,324
25.9

Harr ison
73,028
34.0
13.6
52.4
1.6
.440
323.0
46.4
33.7
24,604.0
2,092.0
16,549.0
8.5
67.3
.337
4.8
$7,005
$3,318
2.1
$7,717
13.2

Lewis
17,847
0
41.0
59.0
0.7
.453
337.0
46.0
37.2
5,260.0
332.0
3,267.0
6.3
62.1
.295
5.0
$5,333
$3,308
1.6
$5,919
22.4

Marlon
61,356
42.5
4.5
53.0
3.9
.425
318.0
46.0
33.5
21,129.0
2,992.0
13,721.0
14.2
64.9
. 344
3.7
$7.264
$3,482
2.1
$7,807
i:.6
                                             12.1
                                                              76.6

                                                              83.0

                                                              10.6
82.8

80.2
66.9

81.3

 8.9
87.5

84.1

12.0
82.0

83.9

 8.9
87.2

87.0

11.7
Monongalia
Population
Total
Percent In:
' Places of 10,000-50,000
Places of 2,500-10,000
Rural Area -5^
Percent Non-whites
Dependency Ratio
Fertility Ratio3
Percent Male 18 years and older
Median AKe
Enplovnent, 16 years and older
Total
Mm ing
Ma 1 e
Mininp, as percent of total
Male as percent of total
Emp lovmcnt /Populat ion Ratio
Civilian labor Force - Percent I'nemployed
Earnings - 19'59 Median
Mate 16 years and older
Female 16 years and older
Male/Female Ratio
Fami lies
Income - 1969 Median
Percent with 1969 income below poverty level
Percent of all workers who worked in
County of Residence
Percent of Population 5 years and older
wiio resided in same County in 1965
Median school years completed - 25 years
and older

63,714

46.
8.
45
2,

266.
49.
24,

21,941
1,998
13,834
9
63

4

$6,325
$3,176
2

$7,758
13

87

65

12



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.9
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Preston

24,455

0
10.
90.
0.

397.
48.
29.

7,535.
994.
5,177.
13,
68.

4

$5,449
$3,160
1,

$5,626
26,

68.

87

9




0
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4
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0
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Randolph

24,596

0
33.
66.
1.

352.
48.
29.

7,694.
405.
5,113.
5.
66.

5

$5,232
$2,775
1.

$5,870
24,

82.

81.

10.




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0
5
8

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13,878

0
46.
53.
1.

364.
46.
33.

4,320.
178.
2,797.
4,
64.

6

$6,392
$2,976
2.

$6,644
18.

67.

81.

10.




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6
2
474
0
4
6

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Tucker

7,447

0
0
100.
0.

413.
48.
32.

2,309
82
1,563,
3
67

4

$4,706
$2,944
1.

$5,243
24

78.

81.

9.





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3
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Upshur

19,092

0
38.
62
0.

305.
47.
27.

5,801.
442.
3,808,
7,
65,

5

$5,875
$2,632
2.

$6,228
23.

80.

74.

10.




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 Incorporated and  ['n incorporated Pl.ucs  of  1,000 to  2,500; other rural areas
2
 Population a^ed under 18 and over 65 divided bv total population
 Children under  5  years per 1,000 women  aged 15-49 years
                                                             2-211

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                           2-213

-------
population  growth rates.  The moderate  population  growth  rate  in individual
Basin counties  (Monongalia) is indicative of a more  diverse  economy  not
solely dependent upon  the coal industry.                                            4

     Post-1970  population data from the US Bureau  of  the  Census  indicate
that the population of  the Monongahela River Basin counties  generally has
been increasing, in most cases contrasting sharply to the declines occurring
during the  1960 to 1970 period (Table 2-47).  According  to preliminary 1980
figures, the Basin population continues to increase,  moving  up 7.3%  between
1975 and 1980  (the State increased by 7% during  this  same period).   All
Basin counties  increased in population between 1975  and  1980,  except for
Lewis County which had  a decrease of 6.3%.  The  largest  increase was in
Tucker County  (14.2%).  The US Bureau of the Census  data  also  indicate that
the increase in the State's population between 1970  and  L980 had almost
replaced the number of  persons lost between 1960 and  1970.   The  State's
recent population growth is related directly to  the  resurgence of the West
Virginia coal  industry  during this period.  This resurgence  can  be expected
to trigger  increased rates of in-migration as well as increased  birth rates,
although to a  lesser extent.  Data on the components  of  population change
for the 1970 to 1978 period indicate that population  growth  in the Basin was
the result  of natural increases (excesses of births  over  deaths)  and
in-migration.

     2.6.1.1.4,^ Projected Population Size.  Official population projections
by county for  the State of West Virginia are prepared by  WVGOEDC.  The most
recent series  of projections for the Basin was compiled  in 1980
(Table 2-49).  These projections were prepared for 5-year increments through
1995.  They are much higher than many previous projection series because           M
they take into  account  post-1970 population estimates which  indicate a             ™
reversal of previous trends of population decline.   The  official State
projections are not tied to any National projection  series developed by  the
US Bureau of the Census (Verbally, Mr. Thomas E. Holder,  WVGOECD to  Dr.
Phillip Phillips, February 21, 1980).  The total population  of Monongahela
River Basin counties is projected to increase by 8.6% between  1980 and 1995.
Given the rather abrupt reversals in demographic trends  experienced  in the
recent past and the sensitivity of critical growth determinants  such as
in-migration to fluctuating factors such as the coal  industry, all
population  projections  must be used cautiously.

     2.6.1.1.5.  Relationships Between Population  Size and Mining Activity.
To understand  the dynamics of population change, it  is necessary to
understand the manner in which population is affected by  employment  and
overall economic trends.  US Census data, USBEA data,  WVDM data,  and WVDES
data on employment are  shown for the State, the Basin, and its counties  for
1950, 1960, and up to 1979 in some cases in Tables 2-50  through  2-55.
Several preliminary notes of explanation are in order.  The  major reason for
the difference  between  the US Census and the WVDES data  in 1950  is that
WVDES does not  include  self-employed or unpaid workers,  but  only covered
employees.  In  1950, such mining workers were relatively  more  numerous than
subsequently.
                                      2-214

-------
Table 2-49.  Population projections for the Monongahela River Basin  (WVGOEDC
  1980).  Figures for 1970-1980 are derived from US Census data and  are not
  projections.
County
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
14,030
72,038
17,847
61,356
63,714
25,455
24,596
13,878
7,447
19,092
15,402
75,103
20,166
62,805
67,116
26,844
25,934
15,188
7,578
21,006
16,623
77,488
18,894
65,525
75,240
30,468
28,784
16,616
8,657
23,541
18,630
78,200
17,951
67,619
71,663
30,997
28,370
16,391
8,436
24,996
20,179
79,942
18,001
69,732
74,433
32,917
29,662
17,234
8,765
27,033
21,752
81,708
18,041
71,875
77,289
34,893
30,983
18,087
9,098
29,124
Basin Total   320,433    337,142    361,836    363,253    377,898    392,850
                                    2-215

-------
     •  In addition, the US Census reports  the  responses  as  of
        April, but the WVDES figure  is an annual  average,  and
        employment declined during 1950  (Verbally, Mr.  Ralph
        Halstead, West Virginia Department  of Employment  Security,
        Charleston WV, March 23,  1978).

     •  Census data were compared with USBEA data  for  1970.  The
        main reason for the difference between  the US  Census and
        the USBEA data is that the US Census reports employment by
        place of residence, whereas USBEA reports  it by place  of
        work.

     •  In some cases, USBEA deleted mining employment  statistics
        to avoid disclosure.  In  such cases, mining employment
        data from the West Virginia Department  of Mines were used
        instead for this analysis.

     Between 1950 and 1975, reported mining employment  in West Virginia fell
by almost half as it did in the Basin.  As  a result, the  Basin accounted  for
19% of the State total in 1950 and for 20%  in 1975.  In both the State and
the Basin, a pronounced drop in mining employment occurred during the  1950's
and continued into the 1960's.  An upturn began during  the late 1960's,  and
continued through 1975, although  erratically.   In  1975  a  sharp increase  in
mining occurred for the State as  a whole which  also was reflected  in  the
Basin.

     Mining employment from year  to year for the  individual  counties  of  the
Basin is erratic.  The county having the largest number of mining employees
in 1950 was Marion, which accounted  for 26% of mining  employment in the
Basin, a pattern reflected also in the trends in coal  production.   Marion
County registered a decline in mining employment  over  the period from 6,747
in 1950 to 2,565 in 1979.

     Tables 2-50 and 2-51 show that  the State and  the  Basin  gain and  lose
mining employment together, although often  to different degrees.  The  swings
in Marion and Monongalia Counties — the counties  that  produce the  most  coal
— were relatively modest.  Individual counties show somewhat  similar
long-run trends, but often quite  different  short-run trends.  The counties'
somewhat similar long-run trends  in mining employment  reflect  their common
response to changes originating from the National  economy in the demand  for
coal.  Their often quite different short-run responses  (across counties
comparing two consecutive years)  reflect a host of local  circumstances.

     Given the long-run changes originating in  the National  economy,  the
changing position over time of counties vis a vis  each  other in terms  of
mining employment is explained partly by different rates  in  production of
coal and partly by different rates at which the mines  increase productivity
by adopting more efficient technologies.  Such technologies  include the
shift from underground to surface mining and to continuous belt from  hand
loading in underground mines.  Thus,  a county that had  a  constant level  of


                                     2-216

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coal  production  over  time  would lose  employment because of increasing
productivity  in  each  of  the  two methods  (underground,  surface),  even if the
proportion  of the  total  output  accounted for by the two methods  remained the
same  over time.  The  loss  of  employment  will be even greater if  an
increasing  proportion of the  constant level of output  is accounted for by
surface mining,  for which  output per  employee is higher than for underground
mining.

      According to  1970 US  Census figures (Tables 2-52  and 2-53,  and 2-47 and
2~48), the  employment/population ratio  is  higher in the Monongahela River
Basin (0.329)  than in the  State as  a  whole (0.315). Also, mining employment
accounts for  a much greater  proportion  of  total employment in the Basin
(9.7%) than in the State as  a whole  (8.8%),  although its importance varies
locally.  Because  mining employment is mostly male, the proportion of female
to  total employment is lowered,  in  turn  lowering the overall
employment/population ratio.

      At the same time, the inter-industry  multiplier effect of the mining
sector is limited  in  its effect  on  the  local economy.   Purchases by the
mining sector  for  purposes of producing  coal in general are made outside the
area  (except  for labor).   The coal  is not  primarily destined as  a factor of
production  for other  industries  in  the  area, hence  there is a leakage out of
the local economy  that is  higher than in other economic sectors  such  as the
recreation  sector.  To the extent that  such leakage occurs, employment in
the sectors providing the  mining industry  with goods and services is
reduced.  This phenomenon  thus  to some  extent offsets  the stimulus provided
the local economy  by  the mining  sector,  in which earnings are relatively
high.

      In 1975  the mining  sector  wae  the  fifth largest employment  sector and
the second  largest  income  generating  sector  in the  Basin (Tables 2-54, 2-55,
and 2-56).  The  importance of mining  activity within the economy of Basin
counties and  the impact  of mining on  overall population trends can be
described in  terms  of location  quotients and economic  base analysis,
discussed below.

     Location Quotients.   A location  quotient is a  numeric indicator  that
shows the degree to which  an  area is  specialized in, and thus dependent
upon, a particular  industry in  comparison  to a larger  area.   In  the case of
the present analysis  the larger  area  is  the  Nation.  The location quotient
is derived  by dividing the percentage of total employment in a selected
sector within the  local  area  by  the percentage of total employment in the
selected sector  in  the Nation.   Thus, if 8.0% of local  employment is  in
mining and  only 0.8%  of national employment  is in mining the location
quotient is 10.  A  location quotient  of  more than 1.0  for a particular
economic sector indicates  a greater concentration in the local area than in
the US.  A  location quotient  of  less  than  1.0 indicates a lesser concentra-
tion  in the local  area than in  the Nation.
                                      2-219

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     All  counties  in  the Monongahela  River  Basin have location quotients
greater than  1.0 for  coal mining  (except  for  Taylor  County  which  had no
employment  in coal mining in  1975).   This  indicates  a greater concentration
in coal mining  employment within  the  Basin  than  in the Nation.  The location
quotient  for  the Basin  (1975) was  33.3.   This figure indicates that the
Basin was economically  dependent  on coal mining  to a significant  extent.
Location  quotients for  Basin  counties are  as  follows:   Barbour 87.3,
Harrison  22.0;  Lewis  6.0; Marion  47.7; Monongalia 42.3;  Preston 34.3;
Randolph  16.7;  Taylor 0; Tucker 10.0;  and Upshur 29.7.

     Economic Base Analysis.  The  most common method used  to  describe quant-
itatively the relationship between population size and economic activity is
economic  base analysis.  Economic  base analysis  involves the  delineation of
basic and non-basic employment sectors for  a  given area and the calculation
of a set  of ratios known as multipliers.  The basic  sector,  sometimes termed
the export  sector, is comprised of employment that produces goods and
services  to be  used outside the local  area, thus bringing money into the
local economy.  Income  generated  by the basic sector circulates within the
local economy and supports non-basic  sector industries,  often referred to as
service industries, that provide  goods and  services  for local use.

     Exact  determination of basic  and non-basic  employment  is extremely
difficult.  For the purposes  of this  study  basic employment is  considered to
be comprised  of all persons employed  in mining and manufacturing; all farm
proprietors and farm  wage and salary  employment;  and 50% of all employment
in agricultural services, forestry, and fishing.  Non-basic employment
includes  all  other employment.  Employment  in mining accounted  for  39.7% of
all basic employment  in the Basin  in  1975.  Manufacturing,  however,
accounted for 58.5% of  the Basin's basic  employment  (USDOC  1977).

     Multiplier ratios describe quantitatively the amount of  non-basic
employment, total employment, and  total population growth  that  will be
generated by  additional basic employment.  The 1975  multiplier  ratios and
their value for the Monongahela River  Basin (calculated  as  described above)
are:

     •  Basic to non-basic employment  ratio (B/N ratio)  - 1:2.46

     •  Basic to total employment  ratio (B/T  ratio)  -  1:3.46

     •  Total employment to population ratio  (T/P ratio) -  1:3.02

     •  Basic employment to population ratio  (B/P ratio) -  1:10.44

These ratios  indicate that, overall,  each basic  job  in the  Basin  generates
2.46 additional non-basic (service) jobs.  The combination  of basic  and non-
basic employment results in a total of 3.46 jobs  for each basic job.   Each
employed person in the Basin supports  a total  of 3.02  persons because of
non-working dependents  supported by the employed person.  The combination of
basic to non-basic (B/N) and total employment  to  population (T/P) ratios
                                      2-225

-------
produces an overall basic employment to population  (B/P) ratio of  10.44.
Thus, each basic sector job supports, directly and  indirectly, almost ten
people.

     A number of factors may exert a "dampening" effect on employment and
population changes based on the multipliers calculated here.  These dampen-
ing effects include the availability of additional  workers who are currently
unemployed, commuting, changes in other basic employment sectors,  availab-
ility of government welfare, and the limited life span of coal mines.
Because of these factors, an increase or decrease in mining employment will
not necessarily produce the changes in overall employment or population
indicated by the multiplier ratios, especially on a short-term basis  (less
than five years).   Increases in mining employment may be offset by declines
in employment in other basic sectors, and, likewise, decreases in mining
employment may be offset by increases in employment in other basic sectors.
Because of the life span of most mines, typically 20 years for an
underground mine and five years for a surface mine, coal miners frequently
commute long distances to work rather than moving closer to their  current
places of employment (President's Commission on Coal 1980, see Section
5.6.4.).  Thus employment and population increases  associated with! an
individual mine may be diffused over a large area.

     An important  factor in the impact of increased mining activity on an
area is the availability of unemployed or partially employed miners in the
area.  The coal industry is subject to pronounced cyclical phases  of growth
and decline.  As a result, many unemployed or underemployed miners may be
available during "slack" periods.  Likewise, a decline in mining employment
will not necessarily produce a short-term population decline.  Rather, most
of the miners and  their families will remain in the area and will  seek
alternative employment, accept welfare benefits, dip into savings, and/or
reduce expenditures while awaiting new mining employment opportunities.
This is especially the case with coal mining because of the specialized
skills required of miners and the relatively high wages paid to miners.

     Areas of Greatest Mining Employment Impact.  This analysis indicates
that long-term (five years or longer) changes in mining employment will have
the greatest impacts on counties most heavily dependent upon mining.
In the case of the Monongahela River Basin, Marion  and Monongalia Counties
would be greatly impacted by changes in mining employment.  Each new mining
job, in addition to those jobs needed to take up the slack of current high
unemplovment rates among miners, will generate approximately two new
non-mining jobs and a total population increase of  about ten.  Thus,
long-term cumulative effects of changes in mining employment: will have
significant impacts on those sections of the Basin  in which mining is
currently or potentially a significant portion of the economic base.

     2.6.1.2.  Economy

     2.6.1.2.1.  General Characteristics.  The Monongahela River Basin is
generally rural in nature and shares many of the economic characteristics
                                     2-226

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generally associated with  rural areas.  Per  capita  income  in  the  Basin  is
well below National levels and the proportion  of the  population falling
below the Federal poverty  level is above  that  found  in  the US.  Per  capita
income and employment increased rapidly in the Basin  from  1970 to  1975,
however, reflecting the growth of the coal industry.

     Tables 2-54 and 2-55  present a breakdown  of jobs by industrial  sector.
As stated previously, the  most notable characteristic of the  Basin and most
Basin counties is the significance of mining (excepting Lewis, Taylor, and
Tucker Counties).  Sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, contract
construction, trade, and services are not notable,  although the small number
of finance, insurance and  real estate jobs is  indicative of the
non-urbanized nature of the Basin economic structure.   Government  is
particularly significant in Monongalia and Lewis Counties.  As in  most areas
manufacturing is an important component of the economic base.  Unlike most
areas, mining rivals manufacturing in importance.

     Given the breakdown between proprietors on the one hand, and  wage and
salary earners on the other, the sectoral structure of  employment
particularly among wage and salary earners,  typically is an important factor
explaining differences in  income per employee  (Table  2-56).   One  anomaly is
that: Tucker County, which  as the highest  proportion of  its wage and  salary
employees engaged in the manufacturing sector  (which  is relatively well-paid
and a rough indicator of economic strength), is also the county having the
lowest income per employee in the Basin.  This is true  even when  employment
and income refer only to wage and salary  employment and income; that is,
when proprietors and their earnings are excluded.  The  explanation appears
to be that Tucker County has a lower proportion of its  employees engaged in
the three sectors that are higher-paid than  the manufacturing sector
(mining, construction, and transportation) than is true of the Basin as a
whole .

     A major issue in the  State in 1979 and  1980 has been  the reduction of
the coal mining labor force because of reduced demand for  coal.  The West
Virginia Coal Association  estimated that  10,500 jobs were  eliminated in the
State in 1979 and 1980 as  a result of mine closings and work  force reduct-
ions.  Ralph Halstead, Chief of Labor and Economic Research for WVDES,
estimated that 7,400 of these miners remained  unemployed as of March 1980
(Douthat 1980).  Many additional miners also are working less than full
time.  As a result, a large pool of skilled  coal mining labor is currently
available in the State.  It is anticipated that these employment reductions
are relatively short term  and that mining employment will  begin to increase
again when the demand for  coal rises.  Specific data pertaining to the
number of unemployed miners in the Monongahela River Basin are not
available .

     2.6.1.2.2.  Special Economic Issues  -  Tourism and Travel.  The tourism
and travel industry represents a major component in the economy of West
Virginia.  As an industry, tourism encompasses a wide range of other employ-
ment and industrial sectors as mentioned  above such as  wholesale and retail
                                     2-227

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trade, services, amusement, and recreation.  Tourism and travel businesses
directly include public and private campgrounds, hotels, motels, restaur-
ants, gift shops, service stations, amusements, and other recreation facili-
ties.  The indirect impact of the tourism industry has a positive effect on
virtually all economic sectors of the Basin and State.  These positive tour-
ism impacts result from recreational activities of West Virginians
themselves as well as the recreational activities of non-State residents.

     The effect of tourism and travel on income, employment, and State
revenues is significant (Table 2-57).  The Bureau of Business Research at
West Virginia University (1977) estimated that tourism and travel in 1977:

     •  produced $715 million in total sales in the State

     •  employed 38,000 people Statewide

     •  generated $46 million in State tax revenues.

     WVGOECn emphasizes that money spent on tourism and travel has propor-
tionately greater local economic impacts than expenditures in other
industries in West Virginia.  Approximately 83% of tourism and travel
industry sales dollars remains in the State, compared with only 66% of total
coal mining receipts and 63% of chemical industry receipts.  Tourism
dollars, therefore, tend to provide greater local economic benefit since
more of these dollars remain in the State (WVGOECD 1980).

     In addition, a significant amount of the tourism industry receipts in
West Virginia is generated by non-resident travellers.  Of the estimated 8.1
million visitors to West Virignia State Parks and State Forests in 1978,
over 2.9 million (36%) were non-State residents.  There has been a signific-
ant increase in the total number of visitors in recent years.  Between 1971
and 1978, visitation at State Parks increased from 4 million to 6.9 million,
while that at State Forests increased from less than 1 million to 1.2
million.  Resident and non-resident tourists travel to Basin and State
recreational centers for camping, hunting, fishing, swimming, canoeing,
boating, hiking, and generally experiencing the visual, cultural, and
natural resources of the Basin and State.  If these "outstanding opportuni-
ties for a primitive and unconfined type of recreation" and other recrea-
tional attractions are maintained, the tourism and travel industry is
expected to grow significantly and become an even more important part of the
overall economy (WVGOECD 1980).

     Those counties which have the greatest tourist attraction in the Basin
(Tucker and Randolph) also have the least coal mining.  Monongalia County
has extensive tourism also, together with substantial mining (chiefly
underground mining) of coal.  There is relatively little tourism in the
western counties of the Allegheny Plateau in the Basin.  Both surface and
underground mining are important in those counties.
                                     2-228

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Table 2-57. Travel sales, wages and salaries, and employment in the Monongahela
  River Basin, 1976-1977 (Rovelstad 1977).
 State

 Monongahela River Basin
   Barbour
   Harrison
   Lav is
   Marion
   Monongalia
   Preston
   Randolph
   Taylor
   Tucker
   Upshur
Total Sales
 ($1,000)

647,200

101,100
  3,200
 21,600
  2,500
 13,000
 24,700
  5,200
  8,800
  4,700
  9,300
  8,100
                                                    Wages &
                                                    Salaries
                                                    ($1,000)
185,241

 27,455
    894
  4,983!
    678
  3,691
  6,990
  1,466
  2,488
  1,331
  2,643
  2,291
Employment

36,425

 5,891
   184
 1,253 2
   146
   760
 1,439
   302
   512
  '274
   544
   472
1
 Not provided by source; estimated by multiplying 146 employees (see Footnote 2)
   by the wages and salaries per employee for all other Monongahela River Basin
   counties combined.
     provided by source; estimated by multiplying $2,500,000 total sales by
   the employment/total sales ratio for all other Monongahela River Basin
   counties combined.
                                    2-229

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     Specific Basin recreational facilities and tourist attractions  are
discussed in great detail in Section 2.6.1.5.5.  Given the impressive array
of facilities in the Basin, recreational activity assumes special economic
importance.  For those counties where Federal land forms a high proportion
of the Basin total, the common measures of the level of economic activity
(population, employment, median income) indicate that these counties have a
lower level of activity than the Basin as a whole.  The Monongahela National
Forest,  for example, may constitute an increasingly important factor in the
level of economic activity in the future by attracting increasing
recreational visitor use, visitor expenditures, and revenues for the
counties.

     Annual use data for the period 1969-1973 for the Monongahela National
Forest,  for the State Forests and State Parks systems, and for Tygart Lake
are presented in Table 2-58.   Visitor use grew over the period by 43% for
those areas combined.  Use of the Tygart Lake grew more rapidly than use of
the National Forest.  Visitors to the National Forest may be represented
more heavily by out-of-state visitors than is true of the State facilities.
If so, the economic slowdown and the energy problems of the early 1970's may
be an important contributing factor in explaining the differential growth in
visitor use comparing Federal and State areas.  The drop in visitor  use
during 1972 for the National Forest and for Tygart Lake may have been caused
in part by Hurricane Agnes, which also may have kept the (slight) increase
in State visitor use at the State forests below what it would otherwise have
been.  The Hurricane does not appear to have  inhibited increasing visitor
use in the State Parks.

     2.6.1.3.  Housing

     2.6.1.3.1.  Problems of Housing Provision.  The provision of adequate
housing is one of the most important problems facing the residents of West
Virginia and the Monongahela River Basin today.  The Basin and the State
currently are experiencing a severe housing shortage, which is reflected in
a high proportion of residents that are housed in deteriorated or crowded
dwellings.  Housing production in the Basin has lagged substantially behind
demand in recent years because of:

     •  Lack of developable sites as a result of the high
        proportion of land with steep slopes  and in flood-prone
        valleys

     •  Lack of financing, especially for housing for low-income
        persons

     »  High land and construction costs, particularly because of
        the slope and flooding limitations.

     2.6.1.3.2.  General Housing Characteristics.  Data comparing the hous-
ing characteristics of the Basin, the State,  and the US are presented in
Table 2-59.  Recent (post-1970) increases in  population and personal income
                                     2-230

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have resulted in construction of significant, though not  sufficient,  numbers
of new dwelling units.  The majority of these new units are owner-occupied,
single-family, detached structures (including mobile homes).  A  large             m
proportion of these new dwellings have been built outside any incorporated
city or village.

     Mobile homes constituted 60% of all new home sales in West  Virginia,
and an even higher proportion of new homes in non-metropolitan areas,  in
1976.  The reliance on mobile homes has resulted from current conditions of
the housing market, as mobile homes often represent the most readily  avail-
able and affordable form of new housing.  Regulation of mobile homes  is
generally minimal.  They are sometimes placed in mobile home parks, but they
often appear in conventional housing neighborhoods (commonly on  substandard
lots), in unplanned mobile home villages, and scattered in rural areas.
West Virginia does not have State safety regulations or construction  stand-
ards governing mobile homes.  As a result, mobile homes are struck relative-
ly frequently by fire, often with injury or loss of life, and are frequently
damaged by windstorms because of the lack of adequate tie-downs.

     Residential development in the past, whether traditional or mobile, has
occurred generally without regulation as to location, density, size,  or
construction materials.  The traditional preference for single-family,
detached homes is not likely to diminish significantly in the near future,
but existing constraints on housing production indicate that new housing
probably will include more multiple family structures, rental units,  and
subsidized housing for low- and moderate-income persons.  Recent declines in
average family size also favor multiple family units.  Higher density  hous-
ing is relatively new to the area, but is well-adapted to the steeply-            M
sloping terrain.                                                                   ™

     Existing housing conditions in the Basin vary considerably  between
urban and rural areas and among counties.  Substandard housing accounts for
21% of all units in the Basin.  Generally, lower percentages of  substandard
housing are found in urban areas, reflecting higher incomes and  more  stable
economies.  Housing quality generally has improved since  1970.   Much  of this
improvement resulted from higher family incomes and local efforts to  extend
public sewer and water systems.

     2.6.1.3.3.  Size, Age, and Crowding.  Housing unit size, age, and the
prevalence of crowded dwellings are important indicators of housing quality.
For the Monongahela River Basin these factors can be summarized  as follows:

     •  The median number of rooms per dwelling unit in the Basin
        is slightly higher than State or National averages

     •  Crowded dwelling units, generally defined as units with
        more than one person per room, represent a slightly
        smaller proportion of all units for the Basin compared to
        the State or National averages.  Crowding is an important
        measure of the adequacy of housing and an indicator of
                                     2-234

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         overall housing  quality,  as  crowded  dwellings  are
         frequently substandard  in  condition  and  tend  to
         deteriorate more  rapidly  than  non-crowded  dwellings.   A
         unit with 1.5 or  more persons  per  room is  recognized  as
         being overcrowded by  the State (WVHSA 1979).

     •   Almost 65% of the year-round dwelling units  in the  Basin
         in  1970 were over 40 years  old.  This is a considerably
         higher proportion of older dwellings  than  was  found in the
         Nation, and it  is higher  than  the  Statewide  proportion.
         The age of the housing  supply  is an  indicator  of  its
         condition and adequacy.  Older housing more  often is
         deteriorated and  may have  obsolete plumbing, electrical,
         and other facilities.   The  prevalence of a large  number of
         mobile homes in  the  Basin, which  have a shorter  economic
         life than traditional dwellings, increases the problems of
         housing deterioration.

     2.6.1.3.4.  Housing  Value.  The value of individual  owner-pccupied
dwelling units and the monthly  rental  for  non-owner-occupied  dwellings  are
important indicators of housing quality  and  of the ability  of the local
population  to pay for available housing.   The ability  of  an occupant  to
maintain a  structure in  sound condition  is also  closely  related to the  value
of the structure.  Only one county had a median  value  of  owner-occupied
dwellings that was above  the State median, but every Basin  county in  1970
had median values that were below  the  National median.

     Unofficial figures  indicate that  the  Basin  is relatively an inexpensive
housing market, though no local statistics on the  price  of  newly-constructed
homes are available.  The low housing  prices  could reflect  the fact that
proportionately more houses in  the Basin are  substandard  or older than  the
National average.  In addition, the Basin  traditionally  has been character-
ized by  extremely low median contract  rents  (Table 2-59).   While  no defini-
tive information on recent median  rental rates was found,  it  appears  that
rents have  increased substantially since 1970, especially  in  areas that have
experienced population growth.  The rental market  generally has risen
commensurately with inflation (Luttermoser 1980).

     2.6.1.3.5.  Presence of Complete  Plumbing Facilites.   The presence or
absence  of complete plumbing facilities  is a  major factor  in  housing
adequacy and value.   The  proportion of units  in  the Basin  lacking some  or
all plumbing facilities was substantially  higher than  the National average
and the  Statewide average (Table 2-59).  Significant variation existed  among
individual counties  in the Basin, however.  The  three  measures of complete
plumbing facilities, as defined by  the US  Census,  include:

     •  hot and cold piped water

     •   flush toilets
                                     2-235

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     •  inside bath or shower facilities for exclusive use of the
        dwelling occupants.                                                        j

     2 .6 . 1.3.6.  Vacancy Rates.  The housing vacancy rate is defined  as  the
ratio of all vacant units available for occupany to the total number  of
units in the housing stock.  Excessively low vacancy rates hinder mobility
and are often associated with housing shortages.  The following vacancy
percentages reflect a sufficient supply of available, vacant dwellings
(RPDC IV 1978):

     •  1.0-1.5% for single-family dwellings

     •  5.0% for rental units

     •  3.0% for the overall housing stock.

     The overall housing vacancy rate in the Monongahela River Basin  was
4.4% in 1970, and is indicative of a sufficient housing supply throughout
the Basin in general (Table 2-59).  Post-1970 population increases may have
reduced the vacancy rate somewhat.

     2.6.1.3.7.  Owner-Occupany Rates.  Levels of owner-occupancy were lower
in the Basin in 1970 than those for the State (Table 2-59).  The relatively
high level of owner-occupancy in the Basin reflects both the traditional
preference for single-family homes and the rural nature of much of the area.
In recent years, the high price of traditional single-family, owner-occupied
housing has forced many persons to utilize mobile homes rather than
traditional housing.                                                               M

     2.6.1.4.  Transportation

     2.6.1.4.1.  Special Needs of the Coal Mining Industry and Availability
of Modes.  The conveyance of coal from mines or preparation plants to con-
sumption sites, principally electric power and steel industries, requires
transportation modes that are suitable for hauling high volumes of material
at low per ton-mile cost.  Within these constraints three transportation
modes, rail, truck, and waterborne barge, currently are competitive and  in
use.  A fourth mode, pipeline, is potentially competitive and may be  used in
hauling coal in the future.  This section will describe the characteristics
of rail, truck, barge, and pipeline transport of coal.  The analysis  of  road
haulage of coal presented here includes only public roads and does not
describe mine site roads built by the operator.

     The selection of a transportation mode for hauling coal from any
individual mine site to a particular consumer depends largely upon the
availability and relative cost of the competing modes.  The selection of
modes also has important consequences in terms of the magnitude and nature
of environmental and human impacts (see Section 5.6.).
                                   2-236

-------
     The  extensive nature  of  the  existing  public  road  system and  the  rela-
tively low per-mile construction  costs  of  mine  site  roads  connecting  mine
sites to  existing public roads make  truck  hauling a  widely available  form of
coal transportation.  Construction of mine site roads  and  purchase  of
trucks, however, does represent a very  large  "front  end" cost  of  coal
mining.

     Major rail lines are  located throughout  the  Basin.  These rail lines
have not  formed an extensive  transportation network.   Construction  costs  for
new rail  lines are high, and  right-of-way  acquisition  problems may  be
severe.   As a result, mines that  are not located  on  existing rail lines
generally rely on truck transportation  to  haul  coal  to the nearest  rail
loading facility.

     Within the Monongahela River Basin, the  entire  length (37 miles) of the
Monongahela River is utilized for barge transportation.  Because  the  length
of the waterway is not considerable, the role of  barging in the movement of
coal in the Basin is not great.   Generally, coal  is  transported from  mine
sites or  preparation plants to barge loading  facilities by truck  or rail.

     Per  ton-mile cost of  coal hauling  is  the second major factor in  select-
ion of a  transportation mode  for  coal.  Cost  advantages in coal hauling
generally reflect limits on route availability  and flexibility.   Barge haul-
ing of coal generally is the  least expensive  mode per  ton-mile, but is also
the least flexible in terms of route availability.   Truck  hauling,  while
most flexible, is much more expensive per  ton-mile than rail or barge
hauling.  Extra rail tariffs  are  imposed when trains are switched from one
rail carrier to another.   Therefore, coal  generally  is moved by a single
rail carrier once it enters the rail system.

     2.6.1.4.2.  Public Roads.  The  rugged terrain of  much of  the Basin has
imposed great limitations  on  the  development  of the  road system.  Both
valley and ridge top roads are found within the Basin.  As of  1976, West
Virginia had almost 33,000 miles  of highway (WVDOC 1976).   The total
included  6,000 miles of expressway,  trunkline,  and feeder  routes  and  27,000
miles of  local service roads.  Interstate  Highway 79 bisects the Monongahela
River Basin, running northeast-southwest from Morgantown to Charleston
(Figure 2-37).  Appalachian Route E  runs east-west from Morgantown; Route D
runs east-west from Clarksburg; and Route  H runs  east-west from Lewis County
through Upshur County into Randolph County (Elkins).

     Local roads account for  79%  of  the total road length  in the  Basin, with
a low of  69% (Tucker County)  and  a high of 83%  (Lewis  and  Marion  Counties).
Principal arterial roads (the Interstate and  Appalachian Route systems)
account for 4% of the mileage in  the Basin; Tucker County  has  none; in
Harrison  County local roads account  for 10% (Table 2-6Q).   Most road
maintenance in the State is performed by the  West Virginia Department  of
Highways.
                                     2-237

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Figure 2-37
MAJOR HIGHWAYS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WVDH 1977)
                                        0       10
                                          WAPORA, INC.
                           2-238

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     The initial transport of coal from mines to coal  preparation  plants,
railroads, or barges usually is accomplished by truck.  The  State  has
established maximum tonnage limits for coal trucks,  and has  the  authority  to
shut down mines served by trucks which carry overweight loads  (Hittman
Associates, Inc. 1976).

     Coal haul trucks  in West Virginia are regulated on the  basis  of  length,
height, and weight limitations that vary with public road classification.
On the principal primary roads, the maximum vehicle  allowances are 55 feet
in length, 13 feet 6 inches in height, and 80,000 pounds in  gross  weight.
On many primary roads, however, height is limited to 12 feet 6 inches and
weight is limited to 73,500 pounds.  On secondary roads, the maximum  allow-
ances are 50 feet in length, 12 feet 6 inches in height, and 65,000 pounds
in gross weight.  Special, posted weight and height restrictions are  also
found on many roads .

     Coal is the primary commodity transported by highway in West  Virginia.
Intrastate coal traffic is not subject to economic regulation by either  the
IISIGC or the WVPSC.  Very little coal is hauled interstate by  trucks.  Coal
trucks may be operated either directly by the mining company or by a  separ-
ate motor carrier under contractual agreement.  In most cases, coal is moved
by truck for only a few miles from the mine site to the nearest rail  trans-
fer point or to a nearby final consumer (e.g. power plant).

     Existing public roads used as coal haul roads in  the Basin were
identified in the 1979 Coal Haul Road Study, prepared  by WVDH  in cooperation
with the USDOT (Figure 2-38).  Coal haul roads were  identified in  this study
on the basis of known  locations of surface and underground mines,  and known
location of customers, rail transfer points, barge transfer  points, and
preparation plants serving each mine.  The most direct haul  roads  between
these origins and destinations were designated as coal haul roads  (WVDH
1979).  Because of the short distance that coal is usually hauled  by  truck
and the terrain limitations on roads in the coalfield  areas, only  one
feasible route from mine to consumer generally exists.  Data on origins,
destinations, and haul routes summarized in the 1979 Coal Haul Road Study
also were plotted on county highway maps (Scale 1:63,560).

     The existence and nature of deficiencies in current coal haul roads of
West Virginia and the cost to remedy these deficiencies also were  calculated
in the Coal Haul Road Study.  A total of 2,562 miles (95%) of  all  coal haul
road mileage was found to have one or more deficiencies based  on USFHA
standards.  Major deficiency categories,  in order of the number of miles of
deficient roadway, were lane or roadway width, shoulder width  or type, and
alignment for safe speed.  The deficiency data were used to determine types
and costs of needed improvements (Table 2-61).  All construction and
maintenance costs for roads in West Virginia are paid  for by the State.

     An initial estimate of improvement needs for coal haul  roads  was calcu-
lated on the basis of criteria and standards established by the USFHA.   This
produced a total cost estimate of approximately $2.7 billion of which 73.1%
                                     2-240

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Figure 2-38

COAL HAULROADS IN THE  MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN  (adapted
from  WVDH 1979)
                                                \
                                         0       10
                                           WAPORA, INC.
                           2-241

-------
Table 2-61.  Alternative cost  estimates  for  improving  coal  haul  roads in
  West Virginia (WVDH 1979).

A.  Federal Highway Administration methodology

Improvement Type
Reconstruct roadway
Minor widening
Major widening
Reconstruct alignment
Construct on new location
Spot Improvements
Railroad protection and
other structures
TOTAL
B. West Virginia Highway Department
Improvement Type
Widen and pave unpaved roads
Stabilize or pave unpaved roads
to existing width
Widen and rebuild light or
medium duty paved roads
Rebuild light or medium duty
paved roads to existing width
Widen and resurface paved roads
Resurface paved roads to
existing width
Railroad protection and
other structures
TOTAL

Miles
134.5
256.5
60.8
1,812.7
86.4
115.3

212.0
2,678.45a
methodology
Miles
5.4
567.9
48.7
1,650.5
15.1
7.4
— b
2,295.0

Cost ($000)
54,000
100,000
131,000
1,976,000
299,000
54,000

88,000
2,702,000

Cost ($000)
1,737
81,054
42,357
524,569
7,682
340
496,710
1,154,499
% of
Total Cost
2.0
3.7
4.8
73.1
11.1
2.0

3.3
100.0









aDoes not add to total due to rounding error.
t>No mileage indicated.
                                     2-242

-------
 (nearly $2.0 billion) was  for  reconstruction of  roads  to  improve  alignment
 for safe speed  (Table 2-61). An  alternative  calculation of  needed  improve-
ments  and  costs  also was made  by WVDH.   This alternative  estimate  was  based
on the assumption that  all of  the reconstruction  of  roadway alignments for
higher than currently posted safe operating  speeds  required to  meet  USFHA
standards  was not necessary.   Rather,  the WVDH alternative  was  based on the
assumption that  the most necessary  and  economical  improvements  were  in
strengthening and reconstruction of  pavement sections  to  withstand coal
truck  load weight.  The total  cost  of  improvements  using  the WVDH  alterna-
tive methods of  calculation was  $1.15  billion, or 42.7% of  the  cost  using
USFHA  standards  (Table  2-61).

     2.6.1.A.3.  Railroads.  Coal is  the major commodity  transported by rail
in West Virginia.  Approximately 74%  of  the  coal  transported in the  State is
hauled by  rail  (WVRMA 1978).   Two major  types of  rail  freight traffic  are
found  in West Virginia.  One major  source of traffic is coal originating at
mines  within the State  and terminating  at consumption  sites and transloading
facilities within the State.   The second major source  of  traffic is  the
interstate hauling of industrial commodities including coal.

     Most  rail  lines with  the  highest  traffic density  (over 30  million tons
per year)  run through West Virginia  in  a general  east-west  direction.   The
State  is served by 5 Class I railroads  (annual gross receipts $10  million or
more)  and  9 Class II railroads (annual  gross receipts  less  than $10
million).  A total of 3,931 miles of rail lines are  found in West  Virginia.
The density of  rail branch lines is  greatest in the  coalfield areas  of the
State.  The pattern of rail lines generally  follows  drainage patterns,
especially in the central  and  southern  sections of  the State.

     Of the seven railroads in West Virginia in service during  1976, six are
Class  I (the exception being the Nicholas, Fayette,  and Greenbrier
Railroad).  Only three have track within the Monongahela  River  Basin
(Figure 2-39).  The Baltimore  &  Ohio  is  of greatest  importance  for the
Basin, with track in eight of  ten counties (Table 2-62).  The Western
Maryland Railroad is important in the  eastern section  of  the Basin (Randolph
and Tucker Counties).  The Monongahela Railway track parallels  that  of the
B&O in Monongalia County and has a  spur  in Marion County.

     Some  rail  lines in West Virginia,  as elsewhere  in the  United  States,
are experiencing economic  difficulties  and are being proposed  for  discontin-
uation of  service by their operators.  Because rail  line  access is an
important  factor in the transportation  and marketing of coal,  the  potential
future use for coal hauling is an important  aspect of  West  Virginia  State
policy in  determining whether  a  line  should  remain  in  active service,  be
placed in  a "rail banking" plan,  or be completely abandoned.  The  1978 State
Rail Plan  stated that its major  goals  are to maintain  a viable  State rail
system through adequate return on investment  for the railroads  and to  main-
tain essential rail services that will benefit economic development  within
the State  (WVRMA 1978).
                                      2-243

-------
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-------
Figure 2-39

RAILROADS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (adapted from
WVRMA 1978)
                                                \
                                         0        10
                                           WAPORA, INC.
                           2-245

-------
     Adequate maintenance of rail access to coal reserves is one  of  eight
major policy guidelines formulated by WVRMA.  The Authority stated that  it
would "plan to insure that railroad lines serving these  [coalfield]  areas
will not be abandoned if potential future use for movement of this resource
[coal] is indicated."  In accordance with this policy, little rail mileage
has been abandoned recently.

     Federal assistance funds (matched by State funds) are available  to
retain the rights-of-way of abandoned rail lines ("rail banking") in  West
Virginia.  These funds are provided through Title VIII of the Federal Rail-
road Revitalization Regulatory and Reform Act of 1976.

     2.6.1.4.4.  Waterways.  The Monongahela River is the only navigable
waterway within the Basin.  The navigable section of the River extends 981
miles, from Pittsburgh PA to Fairmont WV.  Channel depth is maintained from
seven to nine feet for the entire length and channel width is variable.
Three major locks are located along the  river section within the  Basin,  each
with an annual capacity of 25 million tons.  These locks include  (RPDC VI
1978):

     •  Morgantown Lock:  Located near downtown Morgantown with
        current usage of 1.7 million tons per year (6.8% of
        capacity).

     •  Hildebrand Lock:  Located north  of Lowesville with current
        usage of 1.1 million tons per year (4.4% of capacity).

     •  Opekiska Lock:  Located north of Fairmont with current
        usage of .25 million tons per year (1.0% of capacity).

     One rail-water terminal is located  along the Monongahela River  and  is
involved in coal handling exclusively.   It is located in Rivesville,  WV  and
is owned by the Monongahela River Co.

     Total freight tonnage on the Monongahela River in 1975 was 37.2  million
tons.  Of this tonnage, 30 million tons  (80%) was coal.  Current  use  of  the
waterway is not great.  To date, the waterway's potential has not been
exploited.  If coal haulage were to increase significantly, capacity
problems could develop.  Although overall water transportation needs  will be
addressed by the National Waterway Study to be completed by the US Army
Institute for Water Resources in 1981, some specific needs can be identified
at the present time.  For example, lock  facilities must be
replaced/modernized if tonnage projected after 1985 is to be accommodated
efficiently and economically.  Other potential traffic bottlenecks possibly
would be identified if comprehensive study of the waterways were  to  be
undertaken (this study is recommended in the 1981 State Development  Plan;
WVGOECD 1980).

     2.6.1.4.5.  Pipelines.  There are no coal slurry pipelines known to be
presently operating in the Monongahela River Basin.  Currently, West
                                    2-246

-------
Virginia is one of seven  states that have  granted  the  right  of  eminent
domain specifically for the construction of coal slurry pipelines.  The
right of eminent domain allows potential pipelines  to  cross  railroad  rights-
of-way.  Without the right of eminent domain, railroads could block the
construction of slurry pipelines, which serve as a competing transportation
mode.

     2.6.1.5.  Government and Public Services

     This section is designed to provide an overall description  of State and
local government in West Virginia, with particular  emphasis  on  those  aspects
of government structure and function that  could be  most significantly
impacted by new coal mining or processing  facilities.  Four major  areas are
covered:  the structure of State and local government  in West Virginia;
local governmental revenues and expenditures; health care, education,
recreation, water and sewer, and solid waste disposal  services  and
facilities in the Basin; and planning capabilities  in  the Basin.

     2.6.1.5.1.  Institutional Framework.  Five levels of government  are
significant in assessing human resource and land use impacts in West
Virginia.  These are:

     •  The State government

     •  Regional Planning and Development  Councils  (RPDC's)

     •  Counties

     •  Special districts and school districts

     •  Municipalities.

There are no general sub-county units of government in West Virginia  similar
to the towns or townships found in other states.   As a result,  county
governments perform a wider range of functions  in  West Virginia than  in many
other states.  The general rural nature of most areas  of the State and the
limited extent of incorporated municipalities also  increase  the  importance
of counties as governmental units.  Education is provided by county-unit
school districts, but these are separate from county government.   Services
such as airports and public health facilities also  can be provided by
special districts under the auspices of the county  commissioners of the area
for which services are provided.  All roads are financed at the  State rather
than county level.  Each county is further subdivided  into magisterial
districts; however, powers of the districts are modest, in most  cases being
limited to tax collection and other administrative  tasks.

     2.6.1.5.2.  Governmental Revenues and Expenditures.   Data  on general
revenues and expenditures for the county units  of  government in the State
and the Basin for 1971-1972 (year ending 30 June 1972) are listed  in
Table 2-63 and 2-64-  These are not the same as local  public revenues and
                                      2-247

-------
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expenditures within  counties  as  geographical  areas.   For  that,  the revenues
and expenditures of  local  governments within  the  counties  must  be  added.
Such  data  are  not  readily  available.

      The counties  of the State as  a whole have  general  revenues
approximating  general  expenditures in the Basin (Table  2-63).   Expenditures
by the counties slightly exceed  their revenues.   The  counties  of  the  Basin
account for  18% of the  general revenues  and  19% of  the  general  expenditures
of all counties of the  State  combined.   In contrast,  the  counties  of  the
Basin accounted for  12% of  all county capital outlay,  and  for  only 3% of  all
county debt outstanding in  1971-1972.  Only two of  the  ten counties had debt
outstanding.

      Until 1976 the US  Forest Service transferred 25% of  the net  receipts of
the Monongahela National Forest  to the State  for  redistribution to the
counties for school  support and  other public  expenses.  New legislation
during 1976 changed  the formulas  for calculating  the  funds transferred to
local governments  (USFS 1977b).

      Revenues  and  expenditures of  counties in the Basin do not  correlate
directly with  the  population  indicated in Table 2-63.   For example, Harrison
County had 16% of  the  general county revenue  of the Monongahela River Basin,
but 23% of its population; Monongalia County had  34%  of the county revenues
of the Basin,  but  20% of its  population.

      Intergovernmental  revenues  account  for 10% or  less of total  revenues
for all but three  counties  (Marion, 18%; Upshur,  25%; and  Tucker  27%;
Table 2-64).   In general,  property taxes form a higher  percentage  of  total
revenues in the more populous counties,  although  Monongalia and Preston
Counties are notable exceptions  to this  generalization.  Conversely,  charges
and miscellaneous  revenues  form  a  higher percentage of  total revenues in  the
less  populous  counties.  Programmatic expenditures  as a proportion of total
expenditures range from a high of  78% (Monongalia County)  to a  low of 22%
(Upshur County).   There is no clear relationship  between this percentage  on
the one hand and the relative populousness or level of  economic activity  on
the other.   It should be noted that highway expenditure, which  frequently is
the single largest item of expenditure,  is zero for these  counties (except
for $1,000 each in Randolph and Tucker Counties).  This is because the cost
of highway construction and maintenance  is borne  by the State  (or  Federal)
government  and not by the counties in West Virginia.

      General revenues  and expenditures per capita in  the counties  of  the
Basin are higher for the smaller counties than  for  the  larger counties, with
the notable exception of Harrison  County (Table 2-66).  For example,
Monongalia County  ranks first in per capita revenues  and expenditures, and
second in population.   Harrison County ranks  eight  in per  capita  revenues
and expenditures and first in population.  The  Basin  as a  whole has county
revenue per capita almost equivalent to  the Statewide average.  Monongalia
and Preston Counties have per capita revenues substantially in  excess of  the
                                      2-251

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State  average;  the  other  counties  have  revenues  lower than the State average
(Table 2-66  and Figure  2-40).

     Per  capita programmatic  expenditures  range  from a high of $41
(Mcmongalia  County)  to  a  low  of  $5  (Harrison  County).   For eight  of the ten
counties  it  amounts  to  less  than $10  per  person  per year (as compared with
$13  for all  counties  in the  State).   Because  programmatic expenditures form
the  bulk  of  total expenditures,  the  relationship noted above for  total
expenditures holds  true also  for programmatic expenditures:   on a per capita
basis, the fewer  the  people,  the higher the  expenditures.  This relationship
may  result because  if a program  is  to be made available,  a certain minimum
expenditure  is  required for  it to  function.

     Prior to 1975  (when  the  State business  and  occupation coal severance
tax  was passed  into  law)  revenues  from  coal  did  not form part of  the
revenues  of  the counties,  except that the  counties  themselves levied
property  taxes  on land  and on other  property  owned  by coal-producing
companies.   Since 1975, the  State has levied  a coal severance tax at the
rate of $3.85 per $100  of gross  sales of  coal.   Of  this,  $3.50 is retained
by the State as general revenue, and  the  remaining  35^ is distributed to
units of  local  government.  The  State Tax  Commission returns 75%  of the 35
-------
   Figure 2-40

   COUNTY GENERAL REVENUES PER CAPITA FOR THE MONONGAHELA
   RIVER BASIN 1971 TO 1972
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                               2-254

-------
paid  for by  the State) but  also  opportunity  costs  (for  example,  the
agricultural,  forestry, and tourist  activity  and earnings  forgone because  of
coal  production activity).  Such data  are  not  readily  available  in a
compiled form.

      The low level of  tax revenues  in  the  counties  and  municipalities  of the
Basin, and the generally  limited amount  of taxable  wealth  present in the
Basin, will  increase the  difficulties  faced  by local governments  in
supplying the needed facilities  and  services  required by coal mining-induced
growth (see  Section 5.6.).  In many  cases, however, counties have not
utilized all  of the tax resources currently  available to them.  A program  of
real  estate  tax reappraisal,  especially  for  lands  owned by coal mining
interests, was begun by the Internal Operations Group of WVDT's Division of
Local Government Relations  in 1974.  This  reappraisal was  designed to
produce more  reasonable valuations  of  coal bearing  lands on the basis  of the
value of mineral resources.   New mining  facilities, increased income
generated by mining, and  increased  residential and  commercial development
associated with mining also would increase the available tax base,
generating potential new revenue for additional services and facilities
provision.   There is, however, a generally substantial  lag-time between the
need  for new services and facilities and availability of new tax revenue
(see  Section 5.6.).

      2.6.1.5.3.  Health Care.  West Virginia  traditionally has fallen  below
National norms both in the  provision of health care facilities and personnel
and in health status indicators.  Deficiencies in health care found  in West
Virginia and the Monongahela  River Basin are  typical of Appalachia and
reflect the  rural nature of much of  the  area,  as well as low levels  of
income and educational achievement.  Problems  of inadequate health care
facilities and personnel  are  compounded  in many areas by rugged topography
and poor roads that hinder access to those medical  services that are
available.

     Recent measures designed to improve the  level  of health care in West
Virginia have been instituted as a result of the creation  of the WVHSA,
formed to implement P.L. Law  95-641, the National Health Planning and
Resource Development Act of 1974.  The mandate of the WVHSA is to plan a
health-care  system that will  improve the quality,  accessibility, and
continuity of health care in  West Virginia.  To do  this, the Agency  gathers
information on State health care  needs,  financial barriers  to meeting  those
needs, and economic alternatives to achieve  improved health care.

     WVHSA issues a Health Systems Plan  and Annual  Implementation Plan in
order to help achieve its goals.  This document describes  the characterist-
ics of the existing health care  system, determines  goals for improvement of
the existing system, and describes alternatives and selected actions to
achieve improvement goals.  Unless otherwise noted, the most recent  (1980)
edition of the Plan serves as the basis  for the following  presentation.  The
aspects of health care in West Virginia described are:  general levels  of
health service and status indicators;  general  deficiencies  in the existing
                                    2-255

-------
health care delivery system; and issues especially relevant to  the  coal
industry, particularly the availability of emergency care and the incidence
of coal workers pneumonoconiosis (black lung).

     Health Status Indicators.  Infant mortality, heart disease  death  rate,
and cancer death rate indicate that health care performance in  West Virginia
generally falls below National norms.  In 1975, the infant mortality rate
for West Virginia was 11.2% higher than the infant mortality rate for  the
Nation.

     Diseases of the heart are the leading cause of death in West Virginia,
accounting for approximately 40% of all deaths in 1976, more than twice  the
proportion of the second leading cause of death, cancer.  Heart  diseases are
also the leading cause of death in the Nation, although the National death
rate (339 per 100,000 population) in 1975 was  significantly lower than the
West Virginia rate (437 per 100,000 population).  Cancer is the  second lead-
ing cause of death in both West Virginia and the Nation.  The cancer death
rate in West Virginia in 1975 (198 per 100,000 population) was  considerably
higher than the cancer death rate for the Nation (174 per 100,000 popula-
tion).  Health data specific to the Monongahela River Basin are  not
av a i 1 ab 1 e .

     Lung diseases were the seventh leading cause of death in West Virginia
in 1975, but were not among the ten leading causes of death in  the Nation
for that year.  Of the lung disease deaths in West Virginia in  1975, 69  were
due to pneumonoconiosis (black lung).  Available information on  disability
caused by lung disease is provided by the Workman's Compensation Fund.   The
data for insured workers indicate that West Virginia has the highest dis-
ability rate for lung disease of any state, nearly twice that of the second
ranking state (Kentucky).  The standards for receiving Workman's Compensa-
tion in West Virginia, however, are considered to be much more  lenient than
in most other states, however, making interstate comparisons difficult.

     Availability of Health Care Facilities and Personnel.  The  deficiencies
in the health care system are analyzed in several ways.  The Health Systems
Plan annually compiles data on hospital beds available, current  usage, and
other issues vital to demonstrations of facility shortages,.  Manpower
(available doctors and dentists, for example)  information also  is
published.  Health manpower shortage areas for primary care physician,
dental, pharmacy, and vision care, have been designated for West Virginia
under Sections 329(b) and 332 of the Public Health Service Act.  Areas
requiring more than 30 minutes travel to reach a primary care physician  also
have been designated by WVHSA.  Basin counties differ substantially as to
the availability of these health care facilities and personnel
(Table 2-67).  Clearly, counties such as Taylor, Preston, and Tucker appear
to have substantial deficits in their health care systems.

     Availability of emergency medical care is especially important to the
coal mining industry because of the large number of accidental  injuries  and
deaths associated with coal mining.  In 1977 there were 29 fatalities, 5,450
                                    2-256

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non-fatal disabling injuries, and 3,415 non-disabling injuries  at coal mines
in West Virginia.  These incidences of death and injury, although high,
represent a significant improvement over historic death and injury  rates.
The total number of injuries at coal mines declined from 11,197 in  1972 to
8,894 in 1977.  During this same period fatal injuries declined from 48 to
29.  Earlier in the State's history, coal mining was far more dangerous.
During 1908, when the total number of coal miners in the State was  roughly
equal to 1977, 625 miners were fatally injured, as compared to  29 in 1977.
The objective of 0.30 deaths per million employee hours in coal mining,
established by the USMSHA, was achieved in West Virginia in 1977.   West
Virginia's fatality rate of 0.30 deaths per million employee hours  was
slightly below the US average (0.33) and substantially below the averages in
Kentucky (0.61) and Virginia (0.54).

     2.6.1.5.4.  Education.  Education in West Virginia is divided  into
three administrative categories.  These are:  kindergarten through  grade 12
public schools (K-12), vocational education, and higher education (college
and university).

     K-12 Public Schools.  K-12 public schools are organized and operated by
separate county boards of education and are financed by local property tax
revenues.  WVDE influences the quality of education by establishing
standards and by setting goals.  West Virginia students scored at or above
the National median in all achievement areas measured by the "Comprehensive
Test of Basic Skills" at both the 3rd and 6th grade levels.  In 5 out of 6
subject areas at the 9th grade level West Virginia students scored  at or
above the National average.  West Virginia high school students score
considerably above the National average on the Scholastic Aptitude  Test
(SAT).  SAT scores for the 1977-78 school year indicate that West Virginia
students scored well above the National average in both verbal  and
mathematical ability.  This above average performance occurred in every
school year from 1968-69 to 1977-78.  This level of testing performance was
achieved despite the fact that West Virginia ranks 40th among states in
educational expenditures (WVDE 1978).

     West Virginia had an actual increase in educational achievement test
scores from 1968-69 to 1977-78.  This was in marked contrast to general
National trends of declining test scores.  Moreover, West Virginia's above
average levels of educational achievement are in contrast to the low levels
of median years of education found among adults in the State and the
generally low educational levels found in Appalachia.  The performance of
West Virginia appears to reflect an increased emphasis on education.

     The high school dropout rate is also a significant measure of
educational achievement.  West Virginia falls below the National rate by
this measure; 23.7% of West Virginia students fail to complete high school,
as compared to 25.0% of students in the Nation (WVGOECD 1979).

     A comparison of seating capacity and net enrollment for public schools
in the Monongahela River Basin (Table 2-68) suggests that there is  an excess
                                     2-258

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seating capacity  for students  in every Basin  county.  These  data  appear  to
indicate that overall there is an adequate number of  school  facilities  to
meet the needs of existing students  as well as  reasonable  future  growth.
Within the Basin, however, localized shortages  of necessary  facilities have
occurred as  a result of  shifting population.  Such  shortages  are  indicated
by the fact  that  in most counties, few rooms  were vacated, while  additional
rooms (200) were  needed, to accomodate local  school-age  children.   The  need
for additional facilities is especially notable  in  Preston and Lewis
Counties.  Future population shifts  caused by mining  or  other  factors
potentially  could create additional  localized shortages.

     Vocational Education.  Vocational education includes  technical and
adult education.  County boards of education  are  assisted by  the  State's
Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult Education  in  the  provision  of
existing programs and the development of new  programs.   These programs  are
available at the  secondary, post-secondary, and  adult levels.  Vocational
education facilities are located strategically  throughout the State to
provide maximum program  availability.  In  1976-77,  vocational education
programs were utilized by 125,000 persons and adult basic education programs
were utilized by  an additional 16,000 persons.   The placement rate  for  voca-
tional and technical graduates into  the labor force is above  90%  (WVGOECD
1979).

     Higher Education.  Higher education in West Virginia  includes  private
colleges and public colleges and universities that  are regulated  by the West
Virginia Board of Regents.  Currently, the State  has  two public universi-
ties, fifteen public colleges, and ten private  colleges.  Both State
universities and  several of the State colleges  have developed programs  that
are oriented toward serving the needs of the  coal industry.

     2.6.1.5.5.  Recreational Facilities.  This  section  discusses recrea-
tional facilities in the Monongahela River Basin  which are administered by
Federal, State, local, and private agencies.  Table 2-69 provides a summary
of recreational land by ownership type in the Basin.  Land in the Mononga-
hela National Forest which is  available for recreational use  accounts  for
87% of the almost 32,000 acres of Federal, State, and local recreational
land in the Basin.  Two State  forests and  five  state  wildlife areas account
for 7%,  eight state parks make up 3%, the Tygart Reservoir accounts for
0.9%, and local government facilities, mainly playgrounds, playfields,  and
parks, make up the remainder.   Private facilities provide an  unknown amount
of recreational lands.  Selected private facilities add  less  than 1,850
acres of recreational land to the public recreational land.

     The Monongahela National Forest is concentrated  in  Randolph  and Tucker
Counties.  Six counties have no Federal land  and, as  a consequence,  together
account  for  only 5% of the total public land  in  the Basin.  Only  two of  the
counties have State Forest land, whereas seven have State Parks.  The  local
public land  accounts for less  than 1% of the  total  land  in the Basin.
                                     2-260

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     Thus,  the  general  pattern  is:   large  areas  of  Federally-owned forest
concentrated in two counties; one  sizable  Federal reservoir;  relatively
large blocks of State Forest  Ln  two  counties;  State Parks  in  most  counties,
with a relatively small  average  size  of  1,000  acres per  county;  a  small
number of wildlife resource  areas; a  small amount of  local  public  land for
which no county breakdown  is  available,  but  which may be assumed to  be
widely distributed throughout the  population centers  Ln  the Basin;  and a
modest amount of privately-owned recreational  land.  No  county  or  size
breakdown is available  for the  inventoried private  recreational  land,  but it
may be assumed  to be concentrated  in  a  few large blocks  of  hunting
preserve.

     Federal Faci1iti es.  Within the  Monongahela River Basin  there are one
completed and two proposed USAGE lake projects,  in  addition to  three
completed locks and dams on  the Monongahela  River (Table 2-70).  The Bowden
Federal Fish Hatchery in the Monongahela National Forest is operated by
USDI-Fish and Wildlife  Service.  The  remaining Federal recreational
facilities  in the Monongahela National Forest  are managed by  the USDA-Forest
Service.

     Tygart Lake on the Tygart Valley River  in Taylor and Barbour  Counties
was completed during 1938.  Since  that time  it has been  operated and
maintained  by the USAGE to assure  an  adequate  navigational  water supply in
the Monongahela River.  Tygart Lake  also is  one  unit of a coordinated
reservoir system for flood protection in the Tygart Valley, Monongahela
River Valley, and Ohio River Valley  (USAGE 1977:26).  The picnic area  in the
vicinity of the Tygart River Dam,  about  2  miles  upriver  from  Grafton in
Taylor County,  also is  administered  by the USAGE.  All other  recreational
areas on Federally-owned lands  of  Tygart Lake  are administered  by  the  WVDNR
under a  long-term license  agreement with the Department  of  the Army.

     Stonewall Jackson Lake  and Rowlesburg Lake were aathorized  by the Flood
Control Act of  1965 and are planned  for  the  Monongahela River Basin.
Stonewall Jackson Lake, currently  under  construction, is located on  the West
Fork River  in Lewis County.  The proposed  dam will be situated  at
Brownsville and will control  a  drainage  area of  103 square  miles.  USAGE
anticipates acquiring 19,500 acres for the  facility with related
recreational areas.  "Project  completion  is  estimated to  be  1987.   If the dam
is established, Rowlesburg Lake would be located on the Cheat River.   The
dam would be constructed at Rowlesburg  in  Preston County to impound  a
maximum winter  pool of 6,780 acres.  At  the  request of Governor  Moore  of
West Virginia and according  to  interpretation  of the 1972 amendments to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act,  a re-evaluation oi: the Rowlesburg Lake.
project was undertaken by  the USAGE.  Governor Rockefeller  requested that
the project be deferred.  Because  of  this  State  action USAGE  has classified
Rowlesburg  as inactive  (Verbally,  Mr. George Cingle, USAGE  Pittsburgh
District, to Mr. Wesley Homer, February 4,  1981).

     Three USAGE dam sites provide recreational  fishing  facilities in  the
Monongaheia River Navigation System.  These  sites include the Morgantown
Lock and Dam, completed  in 1950; the Hildebrandt Lock and Dam,  completed for
full operation  in 1960; and the Opekiska Lock  and Dam, completed in  1967
(Table 2-70).
                                      2-262

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Table 2-70.  Federal recreational facilities of the Monongahela River Basin,
  West Virginia (WVGOSFR 1975, USDA-Forest Service 1977a,  US Army Corps  of
  Engineers 1977).  Facilities appear in Figure 2-30 in section 2.5.
                     NAME

           Tygart Lake

           Morgantown Locks and Dam

           Opekiska Locks and Dam

           Hildebrandt Locks and Dam

           Dam Picnic Area

           Bowden Federal Fish Hatchery

           Rowlesburg Lake Planning Area

           Stonewall Jackson Lake Planning Area

           Spruce Knob Lake Recreation Area

           Red Creek Recreation Area

           Stuart Park Recreation Area

           Bickle Knob Recreation Area

           Bear Heaven Recreation Area

           Aldena Gap Recreation Area

           Horseshoe Recreation Area

           Laurel Fork Recreation Area

           Gaudineer Recreation Area
ADMINISTRATIVE OR
AUTHORIZING AGENCY

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USAGE

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS

     USFS
                                     2-263

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     USAGE facilities, including areas of surface and fee-simple  ownership,
are considered to be important resources in the Basin and have been
designated as PSIA's.  Exact ownership boundaries are complex, vary over
time, and have not been mapped on the 1:24,000-scale environmental inventory
map sets.  The approximate boundaries have been mapped by EPA on  Basin-scale
maps available at EPA Region III offices in Philadelphia; this mapping  is
reflected as the PSIA designations shown in Figure 2-59  (see Section 2.8).
Exact boundary information can be obtained from USAGE on a case-by-case
basis through EPA's use of coordinating procedures employed during the
permit application process.

     Clearly the most notable Federal facility in the Basin is the
Monongahela National Forest (also in the Elk and Gauley River Basins; Figure
2-41).  The authorized boundary includes one third of Tucker County and one
fourth of Randolph County.  According to the Land Management. Plan for the
National Forest (USFS 1977) the 1.9 million authorized acres of the National
Forest are to be used for flood prevention, watershed protection, recreation
(dispersed and developed areas), timber management, wilderness, and mineral
extraction.  Since 1920,  the Federal Government has acquired two  kinds  of
ownership within the authorized boundary of the Forest .  In some  areas  only
surface rights have been acquired, excluding mineral rights.  Elsewhere full
fee-simple and subsurface rights are Federally-controlled.  A substantial
part of the land within the authorized boundary of the Forest still is
partly or completely in private ownership.  The National Forest defined by
its authorized boundary has been designated a PSIA by EPA.

     The nine recreation areas managed by the US Forest Service in the
Monongahela National Forest provide public facilities for camping,
picnicking, fishing, swimming, and boating.  Recreation is one of the uses
recognized by the US Forest Service in its multiple use management of the
forest generally, outside specifically designated recreational areas.
Annual visitor use of the Monongahela National Forest as a whole  increased
24% from 1969 to a 1973 total of more than 1.2 million visitors (WVGOSFR
1975).

     The Fernow National Experimental Forest also located in the National
Forest, consists of 3,640 acres for research on deciduous forest management
and watershed relationships (Verbally, Mr. Gilbert B. Churchill,  USFS RARE
II Coordinator, Elkins WV, June 21, 1978).  Ther Fernow Forest was
established in 1934, and it maintains its own administrative station and
personnel who conduct research on cable logging and silvicultural
techniques .

     The US Secretary of the Interior established the National Natural
Landmarks Program in 1962 "...to identify and encourage the preservation of
the full range of ecological and geological features that are nationally
significant examples of the Nations natural heritage" (45 FR 232, Dec.  1,
1980).  Federal agencies are directed to consider the existence and location
of natural landmarks when a°sessing the impact of any proposed action,
although the manner in whicn National natural landmarks will be considered
                                      2-264

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Figure 2-41
LOCATION OF THE MONONGAHELA NATIONAL FOREST  IN  THE
MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
      MONONGAHELA NATIONAL
      FOREST

      FERNOW NATIONAL
      EXPERIMENTAL FOREST
                             2-2G5

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is not specified.  In the Basin,  several National Natural Landmarks  have
been identified, including the Gaudineer Scenic Area, Canaan Valley,  Shavers
Mountain Spruce-Hemlock Stand, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog,  and Fisher
Spring Run Bog, all of which are  within the Monongahela National  Forest.
The Cathedral Park, owned by the  State, also has been designated  as  has  the
Cranesville Swamp Nature Sanctuary, privately owned  (Table  2-71).  All
National Natural Landmarks receive PSIA stations (see Section 2.8.).   In
most cases, these areas have been identified as PSIA's because  of the
expense of other values as well.   It  should be noted that recently
promulgated rules and regulations (45 FR 238, December 9, 1980) dictate that
the US Secretary of the Interior  prepared a special  environmental report
when mining activity (surface) impinges upon a landmark, as authorized by
Section 9 of the Mining in National Parks Act of 1976.  This report  must be
prepared regardless of the ownership  of the landmark and is to  be submitted
to the US Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.  This  procedure  is
compatible with, and should reinforce EPA's PSIA designation.

     Two existing wilderness areas have been designated under the Wilderness
Act of 1964 in the Monongahela River Basin.  Established by Congress  on
January 3, 1975, the Otter Creek  Wilderness Area comprises  20,000 acres  in
Randolph and Tucker Counties; the Dolly Sods Wilderness Area contains  10,215
acres in Randolph, Grant, Tucker,  and Pendleton Counties.   both are  located
within the National Forest.  The  Laurel Fork area (11,656 acres)  was
proposed as a Wilderness Area.

     A wilderness area is defined by  the Wilderness  Act of  1964 as an  area
of undeveloped federal land retaining its primeval character and  influence,
without permanent improvements or human habitation,  which is protected and
managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which  1) generally
appears to have been affected primarily by forces of nature, with the
imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; 2) has outstanding
opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of  reaction;
3) has at least 5,000 acres of land or is of sufficient: size as to make
practicable its preservation and  use  in an unimpaired condition;  and 4) may
also contain ecological, geographical, or other features of scientific,
educational, scenic, or historical value.  The definition of "wilderness"
was subsequently modified in the  Eastern Wilderness Act of  1975 to include
certain eastern lands (WVGOECD 1980).

     The Otter Creek Wilderness includes most of the drainage basins  of
Otter Creek and Shavers Lick Run.  Most of the Otter Creek Wilderness  is
forested with second growth timber that developed subsequent to logging
activities of the period between  1890 and 1914.  Parts of the area were
logged between 1958 and 1972.  Impenetrable stands of rhododendron cover
large sections of the Otter Creek Wilderness.  Wildlife in  the  area  includes
black bear, white-tailed deer, turkey, grouse, snowshoe hare, cottontail,
numerous birds, snakes including  timber rattlers, salamanders,  and a  popula-
tion of brook trout.  There are more  than 40 miles of trails suitable  for
hiking.   Two shelters in the Wilderness each will accommodate six people.
Camping is permitted.
                                      2-266

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Table 2-71.  National Natural Landmarks  in  the Monongahela  River  Basin
   (45 FR 232 December 1,  1980).
1.  GAUDINEER  SCENIC AREA  (Randolph  County)  — Monongahela  National
    Forest,  five miles north  of Durbin.  The best  of  the  remaining
    virgin red  spruce  forest  in the  State.   (December 1974)
    Owner: Federal.
2.  CATHEDRAL PARK (Preston County) — Four miles west  of US  219 on US
    50.  Contains a remnant virgin hemlock  forest and dense thickets  of
    great rhododendron.  A cool,  poorly  drained  site.   (October 1965)
    Owner: State.
3.  CRANESVILLE SWAMP NATURE  SANCTUARY  (Preston County)  — Nine miles
    north of Terra Alta WV.   Occupies a natural bowl where cool, moist
    conditions are conducive  to  plant and  animal communities  of more
    common northern locations.   (October 1964)  Owner:   Private.
    BLISTER RUN SWAMP (Randolph County) — Monongahela National Forest,
    four miles northwest of Durbin.  A good, high altitude balsam  fir
    swamp, probably the southernmost extension of this type  forest,
    providing habitat for several uncommon and rare plants.   (December
    1974)  Owner: Federal.
    SHAVERS MOUNTAIN SPRUCE-HEMLOCK  STAND  (Randolph County) — Mononga-
    hela National Forest, seven miles northwest of Harman.  An old-
    growth red spruce-hemlock stand  called a "spruce  flat", a disjunct
    component of the more northern Hemlock-White Pine-Northern Hardwood
    forest region.  (December 1974)  Owner: Federal.
6.  BIG RUN BOG (Tucker County) — Seven miles east of Parsons.  The
    area contains a relict Pleistocene high altitude northern sphagnum-
    red spruce bog far south of its normal range, with large numbers of
    rare plants and animals.   (December 1974)  Owner: Federal.
    CANAAN VALLEY (Tucker County) -- Five miles east of Davis.  A
    splendid "museum" of Pleistocene habitats.  The area contains  an
    aggregation of these habitats seldom found in the eastern United
    States, and is unique as a northern boreal relict community at this
    latitude by virtue of its size, elevation and diversity.  (December
    1974)  Owner:  Private.
8.  FISHER SPRING RUN BOG (Tucker County) — Monongahela National
    Forest, 11 miles southeast of Davis.  An excellent example of a
    sphagnum-red spruce bog illustrating vegetation zonation.
    (December 1974)  Owner:  Federal.


                                    2-267

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     Dolly Sods Wilderness in the Allegheny Plateau highlands  is  located  in
Tucker and Randolph Counties.  The headwaters area of Red Creek,  a  tributary
of the Dry Fork River, was named for the pioneer Dahle  ("Dolly")  family,  who
formerly owned a section of the Wilderness which they cleared  for
pastureland ("Sod").  The rugged, mountainous area of the Dolly Sods
Wilderness includes dense stands of rhododendron scrub, deciduous forest,
spruce forest, bogs, streams, beaver ponds, and formerly cleared
pasturelands.  Many of the plants are indigenous to the Canadian  zone,  as
well as the Arctic Circle.  The Wilderness contains about 25 miles  of  trails
suitable for hiking.  Camping is permitted, but not within 100 feet of
permanent streams or trails.

     In 1977 the US Department of Agriculture initiated a study of  existing
roadless areas within the National Forests to identify  additional land  that
should be added to the Wilderness Preservation System.  The study,  known  as
RARE II, proposed that four additional areas totalling  68,370 acres be
designated as wilderness in West Virginia:

     1.  Cranberry Backcountry — 35,550 acres (Gauley  River Basin)
     2.  Seneca Creek — 20,780 acres (South Branch Potomac River Basin)
     3.  Laurel Fork North — 6,120 acres  (Monongahela  River Basin)
     4.  Laurel Fork South — 5,920 acres  (Monongahela  River Basin)

Cheat Mountain (7,720 acres in Randolph County) also was recommended for
study and possible designation as a Wilderness Area.  Following the EIS
process, President Carter approved study recommendations and sent the bill
to the US House of Representatives where it was passed  (November  1980)  and
sent to the Senate.  Action there is pending (Verbally, Mr, Gill  Churchill,
USDA-Forest Service, to Mr. Wesley Horner, February 4,  1981).  Wilderness
Areas are mapped as PSIA's by EPA.

     In 1968 the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System was instituted
(P.L. 90-542).  The purpose of the legislation was "...to preserve  and
protect rivers..., with their immediate environments, (which) possess
outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife,
historic, cultural, or other similar values...".  As of 1980, no  river  or
river segment in the Basin or the State had been designated officially  under
the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act.  However, several rivers (none in
this Basin) have been designated by Congress as Study Rivers (16  USC 1276,
Sec. 5a), preliminary to their incorporation into the Wild and Scenic Rivers
System.  These rivers are being studied by the US National Park Service
regarding permanent Wild and Scenic status.  During Study River status,
these rivers have been protected by Congress under the  Wild and Scenic
Rivers Act (the Draft EIS on the Greenbrier River proposed designation  is
expected in March 1981).

     The US Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service conducts a program
which is ancillary to the USNPS Wild and Scenic Rivers  System.  USHCRS  is
one of the agencies authorized by P.L. 90-542 to investigate rivers for
potential inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.  Such
rivers ultimately are placed on a National Inventory by USHCRS.   In
accordance with the President's Environmental Message of August 2,  1979,
"all Federal agencies shall avoid or mitigate adverse effects on  rivers

                                     2-268

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identified in the National Inventory."  Further  supporting  this Presidential
directive, the US Office of Environmental Project Review  issued an August
15, 1980 memorandum to  all heads of government bureaus  and  offices,  stating
that inter-agency cooperation shall be extended  whenever  appropriate  so  that
adverse effects in National Inventory rivers will be mitigated.  No  river
segments in the Monongahela River Basin were included in  the National
Inventory following the completion of Phase One  of  the USHCRS  program
(USHCRS 1979).

     On August 15, 1980, the Office of Environmental Project Review  issued
Memorandum No. ES80-2 stating how this interagency  coordination could best
be  accomplished.

     The second, and final phase of the USHCRS program was  completed as  of
August 1980.  A final list of potential rivers being considered for
inclusion in the National Inventory under this phase of the program  includes
the following rivers in the Monongahela River Basin (USHCRS 1980):

     •  Cheat River, from Headwaters to Lake Lynn to Albright

     •  Dry Fork of Cheat River, from Blackwater River to Gladwin

     •  Glady Fork of Cheat River, Dry Fork of Cheat River  to
        headwaters above Glady

     •  Middle Fork River, from Tygart Valley River to Lantz

     •  Shavers Fork at Cheat River, Faulkner to headwaters above
        Spruce

     •  Tygart Valley River, from Monongahela River to Tygart
        Junction

     •  Tygart Valley River, from Tygart Junction to Bellington.

These rivers possess no special Federal protection  until  such  time as they
are officially placed on the National Rivers Inventory List.

     The West Virginia Legislature enacted the Natural Streams Preservation
Act during 1969 (West Virginia Code 20-5B).  This Act established the
preservation and protection in their natural condition of streams that
possess outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, fish  and wildlife,
botanical,  historical,  archaeological, or other  scientific or  cultural
values as a public policy of the State.  The Act also established a  permit
procedure for the impounding, diverting,  or flooding of any streams within
the natural stream preservation system.  In the Monongahela River Basin,
no streams were protected under this Act  as of mid-1978.  The  West Virginia
Governor's Office of State-Federal Relations and the WVDNR have established
preliminary criteria and currently are evaluating other streams for  possible
inclusion in a new system of State wild,  scenic, and recreational rivers
                                     2-269

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(WVGOSFR 1975).  Several streams in the Basin have potential for inclusion
in this State system:  Cheat River, Blackwater River, Shaver's Fork of Cheat
River, Blackfork River, Dry Fork River, Glady Fork of Dry Fork River, Laurel
Fork of Dry Fork River, Red Creek, and Gandy Creek.

     According to a  study conducted by the Ohio River Basin Commission
(1975:57) which utilized information from the 1970-1975 State Comprehensive
Outdoor Recreation Plans of Maryland and West Virginia, the Monongahela
River Basin is expected to have a deficit of 7,041 boatable acres and 1,500
fishing acres by 1985.  Demand for canoeing sites and Whitewater streams was
not computed separately from general boating and was considered difficult to
define.  The USBOR (now USHCRS) estimated a need on the
Monongahela-Youghiogheny River Basin for 2,600 to 2,800 miles of stream
suitable for canoeing by the year 2000.  At present, of the 11,000 miles of
streams and rivers in the Basin, about 500 miles are rated as canoeable.
The Ohio River Basin Commission identified high quality canoeing,
Whitewater, and fishing streams for future reference for planning and
detailed study (ORBC 1975):  Cheat River, Shaver's Fork of Cheat River,
Muddle Fork River (from Gandy to confluence with Tygart Valley River), and
the Monongahela River from Fairmont to Pittsburgh PA.

     State Facilities.  There are two State Forests in the Monongahela River
Basin (Table 2-72).  Coopers Rock State Forest is near the commercial and
cultural center of Morgantown.  It contains 12,698 acres with facilities for
camping, picnicking, hiking, playground recreation, and winter sports.
Public hunting and fishing areas also are provided.  Out-of-state visitors
to Coopers Rock State Forest constituted 58% of the total of nearly 2.5
million visitors from 1973 to 1977 (WVDNR 1978).                  "

     The Kumbrabow State Forest contains 9,431 acres near the western
boundary of the Monongahela National Forest.  It was named for three
families who contributed to establishment of the Forest:  The Kump, Brady,
and Bowers families.  The Forest contains five rustic cabins, twelve tent or
trailer campsites, and facilities for picnicking, hiking, and playground
recreation.  Hunting and fishing areas also are available.  Out-of-state
visitors to Kumbrabow State Forest accounted for 19% of the total 99,000
visitors between 1 January 1973 and 31 December 1977.  The distance to the
more densely populated areas of West Virginia and major highways partly
explains the relatively low visitation at Kumbrabow.  The relative lack of
facilities is an additional factor (Tablff 2-72).

     There are twenty State Parks and related facilities in the Monongahela
River Basin.  Facilities provided at State Parks may include cabins, lodge
rooms, campsites, restaurants, refreshment stands, hiking trails, picnicking
sites, playgrounds,  horseback riding facilities, hiking trails, ski areas,
tennis courts, hunting areas, fishing areas, facilities for swimming and
boating, golf courses, and places of historic interest.  Although none of
the State Parks provides all of the above facilities, Canaan Valley,
Blackwater Falls, and Tygart Lake State Parks offer most of them.  These are
the most popular State Parks, and each has more than 300 thousand visitors
                                     2-270

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annually.  They also have the greatest appeal to out-of-state  visitors,  who
account  for more than 40% of total attendance (Table 2-72).

     The Canaan Valley Scenic Area and Blackwater Falls  Scenic Area  are
located  in the Monongahela National Forest near the State Parks  of the same
name (see Section 2.5.).  They are administered by the West Virginia
Department of Natural Resources.  Canaan Valley, a mountain valley situated
at an elevation of 3,400 feet, supports a diverse flora  and fauna, some  of
which are uncommon in the region.  Blackwater Falls descends a distance  of
57 feet  from a resistant limestone ledge to Blackwater Canyon.   This scenic
area is  partially on private land, partially on State land, and  partially
within the Cheat Ranger District of the Monongahela National Forest.  It
contains a narrow, 525 foot deep gorge strewn with massive boulders.  The
waters of the Blackwater River descend at a rate of 136  feet per mile
through  the Canyon.  There are several scenic overlooks  in the Monongahela
National Forest that are managed by the US Forest Service.

     This scenic area is partially on private land,  partially on State land,
and partially within the Cheat Ranger District of the Monongahela National
Forest.  It contains a narrow, 525 foot deep gorge strewn with massive
boulders.  The waters of the Blackwater River descend at a rate  of 136 feet
per mile through the Canyon.  There are several scenic overlooks in  the
Monongahela National Forest that are managed by the US Forest  Service.

Local Facilities.   Counties and municipalities in West Virginia  actively are
involved in the provision of outdoor recreation areas and facilities for
public use.  State legislation enables both county and municipal governments
to provide recreational services (West Virginia Code 10-2).  Those in the
Monongahela River Basin, which have an established park  and recreation
commission, are listed in Table 2-73.

     Additional public and semi-public recreation facilities exist in almost
every county of the Monongahela River Basin (Table 2-74).  Most  are  located
in Randolph and Tucker County.

Private  Facilities.  Privately-operated facilities provide a significant
portion  of the recreational resources of West Virginia.  Their importance is
highlighted in the State Recreation Plan (WVGOECD 1979)  as follows:

     The State recognizes the necessity and desirability for
     private enterprise to complement and supplement public
     outdoor recreation services and areas.  Private investments
     not only increase the opportunity for participation in
     outdoor recreation experiences but also have the secondary
     benefit of broadening the economic base of the State through
     the development of a tourist industry.

     Specific data on private facilities are not available for every county.
Available information suggests that there is a wide variance in  the
distribution of privately-owned recreation facilities in the Monongahela
                                        2-272

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                                   2-273

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Table 2-74.  Counties and municipalities  in the  Monongahela River Basin
  which have established a Park and Recreation Commission (WVGOECD 1975)
                              Counties

                               Barbour
                              Harrison
                               Marion
                             Monongalia
                               Taylor
                               Upshur
                           Municipalities

                             Clarksburg
                               Elkins
                              Kingwood
                                    2-274

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River Basin.  Private facilities  in the Basin  include  camps,  campgrounds,
golf clubs, hunting and fishing clubs, swimming  pools,  tennis  clubs,  and
trails.

     2.6.1.5.6.  Availability of Water and Sewer Services.   Studies  and
plans made by Federal, State, and local governmental agencies  have consist-
ently identified improved water and sewage systems  as  a basic  necessity for
furthering economic development in West Virginia.   Nearly  all  of  the  State's
priority needs, such as improved housing, industrial/  commercial  expansion,
and economic diversification, are contingent on  provision  of  adequate water
and sewer  service.

     The rural portions of  the Monongahela River Basin are  faced  with a
two-pronged problem:  existing systems are inadequate  to accommodate  future
growth, and a large proportion of the population is unserved  by existing
facilities.  In the more urbanized sections of the  Basin such  as  Morgantown,
a higher proportion of the  population is  served  by  existing water and sewer
facilities, but these facilities are often obsolete and inadequate to
support the demands imposed by population growth and industrial expansion.

     Several factors contribute to the problems  of  wastewater  treatment and
water supply availability in the Basin, including:

     •  Limitations on the use of septic tank  systems.
        Excessive slopes of mountains and hillsides, shallow  soils
        in many areas, prevalence of clay soils,  and minimal
        alluvial deposits in valleys make a high percentage of the
        land unsuitable for septic tank systems.  Despite  this,
        approximately 50% of the State's  population presently  is
        served by septic tank systems, by sanitary  pit  privies, or
        by discharge directly into streams.  In  an  effort  to
        overcome the problems associated with  unsewered areas,  the
        West Virginia Board of Health instituted a  major revision
        in its requirements for small sewage disposal  systems  in
        1971.  Included was a requirement that all  new
        subdivisions be served by a sewer system, unless the West
        Virginia Department of Health determines that  such  systems
        are not feasible because of rugged topography,  low
        population density, geographical barriers,  or  other
        overriding factors.  This requirement has resulted  in  a
        shift by real estate developers in West  Virginia to the
        use of package treatment plants (WVGOECD 1979).

     •  Water supply needs of additional  and high-density  housing
        developments.   Most existing piped water systems in the
        Basin are small, with little capacity  for additional
        loading.   Many persons obtain water from private wells.
        Coal mining activity has aggravated water supply problems
        locally by degrading both surface and  groundwater quality,
        and, in some cases, by greatly reducing  groundwater
                                       2-275

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        quantity.  Reduction in groundwater quantity occurs  also
        as a result of the disruption of aquifers and the lowering
        of the water table as a result of underground mining.

     •  Lack of funding.  The rugged topography of much of the
        Basin often requires elaborate pumping systems which, in
        turn, increase the cost of such systems.  EPA has
        estimated  that the cost of facilities construction  in
        West Virginia is twice the National average (WVGOECD
        1979).  Also, multiple sources of funding, including
        USHUD, USFMHA, USEDA, EPA, and ARC, each with its own
        criteria and priorities, have caused delays and  cost
        increases in facilities provision. Specific problems in
        dealing with multiple agency requirements include
        differences in funding requirements, differences in
        regulations, and lack of synchronization in the timing of
        applications.

     •  Low population densities in many sections of the Basin.
        The rural nature of many communities often prevents
        development of cost-effective service.  Regional systems
        designed to serve clusters of communities often encounter
        geographical barriers that make such alternatives
        prohibitively expensive.

     •  Lack of management and maintenance personnel.  Although
        package treatment plants often are a viable solution to
        service the needs of small communities or subdivisions,
        inadequate maintenance of these facilities frequently
        reduces their operating life and effectiveness.  Small
        towns often have difficulty in finding and supporting a
        trained operator to maintain technologically sophisticated
        systems adequately.  In some areas, these problems have
        been alleviated by the implementation of regional
        management systems with costs shared among several
        jurisdictions.  In other areas, countywide public service
        districts have been established.

     In those areas where water and wastewater treatment service is  not
provided and where substantial additional induced growth can be expected  as
the result of proposed large-scale New Source mining, water  and wastewater
treatment needs can be a serious issue.

     2.6.1.5.7.  Solid Waste.  There is solid waste collection service  for
approximately 55% of the residents of West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979).   This
includes approximately 110 towns that provide refuse collection, as  well  as
nearly 180 private haulers that offer services in both urban and rural
areas.  Additional services and technical assistance are supplied  by a
variety of other agencies and institutions including WVDH, WVDNR, WVGES,
boards of education, hospitals, and universities.
                                      2-276

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     Much  of  the  State  has  no  solid  waste  collection service at present.  In
these unserviced  areas, waste  accumulates  in  backyards  and vacant lots or is
deposited  at  informal dumps along  roadways.   In addition to a lack of
collection facilities,  disposal  practices  for solid  waste that is collected
are often  inadequate.   The  West  Virginia Department  of  Health estimated that
75 permitted  landfills  and  over  150  other  authorized landfills serve only a
small portion of  the State's need.   Consequently,  much  of the solid waste is
disposed of on other lands,  often  in an  unsatisfactory  manner.  Open dumps
and burning contribute  to  air  and  water  pollution  and provide havens for
insects, rodents, and other disease-carriers.   Moreover, these illegal dumps
are noisome and unsightly,  and very  often  reduce neighboring property
values.

     Several  constraints exist to  the development  of effective measures to
address solid waste problems.  One major constraint  is  the incomplete and
fragmented levels of authority and responsibility  among State and local
authorities.  Another institutional  constraint  is  public opposition to
treatment,  recovery, and disposal  facility siting.   Concern about illegal
dumping seems  largely limited  to only those who are  directly affected.
Also, because  of  the implementation  of environmental control requirements,
land disposal costs will increase  in the future.   The willingness and
ability to pay for these additional  costs  may be an  additional constraint to
the development of an effective  management system.   Finally, because of the
rugged terrain, weather conditions,  and  low population  density throughout
much of the State, transportation  of solid waste is  complicated and time
consuming.  This  creates a  barrier to an efficient solid waste disposal
system and to the operational  resource recovery systems which are cost
effective  only when large  amounts  of refuse are delivered to a central
facility for  processing into useful  commodities.

     Legislation  has been  passed at  the  Federal and  State levels to aid in
the development of satisfactory  disposal practices and  to plan for all
aspects of solid  waste  management.   The  Federal Solid Waste Disposal Act, as
amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery  Act,  and the West Virginia
Resource Recovery and Solid Waste Disposal Authority Act, are two major
stimuli to improve solid waste management  in  the State.   These laws provide
guidelines  and financial assistance  for  development  and implementation of
State and  regional comprehensive solid waste  plans and  for developing
criteria for  identification of unacceptable disposal facilities.  The Solid
Waste Authority,  as mandated by  the  State  Act,  designated interim solid
waste sheds in June 1978.   Under this  designation, solid waste planning
areas follow  the  administrative  boundaries of RPDC's.   These sheds will
serve as the  base for all Statewide  planning  and management activities, with
emphasis to be placed on coordination  of existing  systems and programs.

     Land  for solid waste disposal in sanitary  landfills generally is avail-
able in the Basin.  The use of abandoned surface mines  for disposal is  a
common practice.  Private ownership  of solid  waste disposal operations  is
encouraged by State and local  governments.  The West Virginia Solid Waste
Act requires  that prior to  the opening of  a sanitary landfill, a plan for a
                                      2-277

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solid waste site, including a site survey  and operating  plan, must  be
prepared under the supervision of a registered professional engineer and
approved by the Sanitary Engineering Division of  the West Virginia  Depart-
ment of Health.  Not all currently operating disposal  facilities  comply  with
this regulation, and enforcement of the regulation  is  sometimes  inadequate
(Regional Intergovernmental Council 1977).  In rural areas, open  dumping is
a common practice, and open dumps are used and tolerated by many  residents.
Open dumps are difficult to control because of the  remoteness of  many  rural
areas and because of the lack of practical disposal alternatives.

     2.6.1.5.8.  P1anning Capabi1ities.  The planning  function in West
Virginia has usually been carried out by ad hoc boards and commissions which
are not integrated into local policy development  or decision making.   Their
members are typically private citizens who have earned a reputation in the
local business community, and who usually  act on  the premise that planning
and development essentially means increased business growth.  Elected  city
officials traditionally are only peripherally involved as ex-officio members
on these planning boards (Brown 1974).

     Planning has not been internalized as a central policy or program
concern of local government.  There is, in fact,  little  orientation toward
institutional or social change among the traditional planning organizations.
Community concern usually is manifested only when highly sensitive  issues
are involved, such as zoning, land use regulations, and annexation
referenda.  Sectionalism is encouraged, and an overall planning  strategy is
neglected.  This lack of objectivity results in haphazard development  and
piecemeal projects.  Consequently, it is important  for each community  to
formulate and adopt a plan which reflects  the goals and objectives  of  the
local residents.

     The Department of Planning and Development consists of two  divisions,
State Planning and Community Affairs.  State Planning  provides technical
advisory services to local and RPDC personnel in  the preparation  of their
respective development plans.  Also, it assists in  the establishment of
Statewide planning practices and programs.  Community  Affairs functions  as
the liaison between the RPDC's and the State.  Also, it performs  research
functions, providing the RPDC's with materials in the  preparation of their
programs.

     The Regional Planning and Development Act (RPDA) was passed  in 1971 and
represented the first regional effort by the West Virginia Legislature for
Statewide planning and development.  The Act may  be analyzed on  the basis
of the:

     •  Responsibilities of the Governor

     •  Establishment of regional councils (RPDC's)

     •  Functions, powers, and responsibilities of  the councils.
                                      2-278

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     The Legislature designated  the Governor  as  having  overall
responsibility for planning  and  development.  He  delineates  the  boundaries
of RPDC's and provides  for their  organization.   By  law,  he  is  charged with
the responsibilities of  preparing an Annual State Plan  (submitted  to the
Legislature), providing  technical assistance  to  RPDC's,  and  coordinating  the
State's participation in Federal  programs.  The  most  significant event
following the enactment  of the RPDA was  the defining  of  the  regional
boundaries and RPDC's,  and the attendant  public  hearings.  These hearings
provided the first opportunity for public feedback  on the  regional program
in West Virginia.  Reactions ranged from  enthusiastic support  to passive
acceptance to high opposition  (Brown  1974).   Parts  of the Monongahela River
Basin are located within RPDC Regions VI  and  VII.

     2.6.1.5.9.  Local Planning  in the Monongahela  River Basin..  Local
planning generally is lacking in  the Basin.   A summary  of the  status of
planning in the counties and major cities within the  Basin  is  presented  in
Table 2-75.

2.6.2.  Land Use and Land Availability

     Potentially serious conflicts exist  between mining  land uses  and urban
land uses in the Monongahela River Basin  due  to  competition  for  the  limited
amounts of developable  land  and  also  from induced population growth
resulting from mining activity.  These indirect  impacts  are  made more severe
by steep slopes and floodprone areas  found in many  parts of  the  Basin.
These two factors intensify  the  competition for  available, developable land.
This section describes  the distribution  of land  uses,  land  use  constraints,
and potential conflicts  within the Basin  and  indicates where problems are
likely to be most severe.

     2.6.2.1.  Classification System.

     Mapping (see front  pocket,  Land Use/Land Cover Map  and  Table  2-18 in
Section 2.3.) of land use-land cover patterns in  the  Monongahela River Basin
in this report are based on  a 12-category classification system.   The system
used here is a modification  of the Level  II land  use-land cover
classification system developed  by USGS  (Anderson 1976).  The USGS system
has been simplified in  two ways  in order  to facilitate the interpretation of
coal mining and related  impacts.  First,  categories of  land  use  that do not
occur in the Basin (e.g., glaciers and dry salt  flats) have  been eliminated.
Second, the 22 Level II  categories that  do occur  within  the  Basin  have been
combined into 12 more general categories.

     The land use categories used in this study,  the  USGS category or
categories to which they are equivalent,  and  brief  definitions  of  these
categories are presented below.  A more  detailed  description of  the  Level II
classification system and its uses is provided by Anderson  (1976).

     Residential (USGS category  11, Residential).   Uses  within  this  category
range from high density  urban core areas  to low  density  suburban areas.
                                      2-279

-------
Table 2-75.  Status of planning in the counties and cities in the Monongahela River
  Basin, West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979).

Key:
Status of Planning Commission — x-None  «-Yes, staff  o-Yes, no staff.

Status of Comprehensive Plan, Zoning Ordinance, and Subdivision Regulation —
x-None  o-Not adopted/under review  ^-Adopted  p-Partially adopted.

Status of Capital Improvements Program — x-None  o-Yes,  prepared  «-Yes, adopted
p-Yes, not adhered to.

Status of Housing Authority — x-None  »-Yes
                                                                  Capital
Counties/         Planning  Comprehensive   Zoning  Subdivision Improvements  Housing
 Cities          Commission     PlanOrdinance Regulation    Program    Authority
Barbour County

Harrison County
  Anmoore
  Bridgeport
  Clarksburg
  Lost Creek
  Lumberport
  Nutter Fort
  Salem
  Shinnston
  Stonewood

Lewis County
  Weston

Marion County
  Fairmont
  West Milford

Monongalia County
  Morgantown
  Westover

Preston County
  Kingwood
  Terra Alta

Randolph County
  Elkins

Taylor County
  Grafton

Tucker County
Upshur County
  Buckhannon
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                                          2-280

-------
Linear  residential  developments  along  transportation routes,  commonly found
in the  Basin, are included  in  this  classification.   Rural  recreational  and
residential  subdivisions  also  are  included.

     Commercial  (USGS category 12,  Commercial  and  Services).   These  areas
are  devoted  primarily to  the  sale  of products  and/or services.   Included  are
central business districts, shopping centers,  and  commercial  "strip" devel-
opments along highways.   Educational,  religious, health,  correctional,  and
military  facilities  also  are  included  in  this  category.

     Industrial, Transportation, Communications, and Utilities  (USGS
categories:  13,  Industrial  Land; 14, Transportation,  Communication,  and
Utilities; and 15,  Industrial  and  Commercial Complexes).

     •  Industrial Land includes both  light  and heavy industry.
        Surface  structures  associated  with mining  operations  are
        assigned to  this  category.  These  include  access  roads,
        processing  facilities, stockpiles, and storage  sheds.

     •  Transportation, Communication,  and Utilities uses  include
        highways, railways, airports,  pipelines, and electric
        transmission lines.  These  uses are  often  linear  in nature
        and  are  of  such a small  scale  that they are  included with
        other urban  and non-urban  uses with which  they  are
        associated.

     •  Industrial  and Commercial  complexes  include  industrial
        parks and closely associated warehousing and wholesaling
        facilities.

     Mixed and Other Developed Areas (USGS categories:  16, Mixed Urban  or
Built-up Land and 17, Other Urban  or Built-up Land).

     •  Mixed Urban  or Built-up Land includes  other  developed  uses
        (described above) where the pattern of individual  uses is
        too  complex  to be portrayed at the mapping scale

     •  Other Urban or Built-up Land includes urban  parks,
        cemeteries, golf  courses,  and  waste dumps.

     Agricultural (USGS categories: 21, Cropland and Pasture; 22, Orchards,
Groves, Etc.; 23, Confined Feeding Operations; and 24,  Other Agricultural
Land).

     •  Cropland and Pasture includes  harvested cropland,  idle
        cropland, land on which crop failure has occurred, pasture
        land, and land in pasture-crop rotation

     •  Orchards, Groves,  Etc., includes fruit and nut  crop areas,
        vineyards,  and nurseries
                                     2-281

-------
     •  Confined Feeding Operations  are  large,  specialized
        livestock production enterprises

     •  Other Agricultural Land  includes  farmsteads,  farm roads
        and ditches, corrals, small  ponds,  and  similar uses.

     Deciduous Forest  (USGS category 41, Deciduous Forest Land)  includes
forested areas with a  crown closure  of 10%  or more in which most  of  the
trees lose their leaves during winter.

     Evergreen Forest  (USGS category 42, Evergreen Forest Land)  includes  all
forested areas in which trees are predominantly those that retain their
leaves all year.  This includes  both needleleaf evergreens (e.g.,  pines  and
spruce) and broadleaf  evergreen  shrubs (e.g., rhododendron).

     Mixed Forest (USGS category 43, Mixed  Forest Land)  includes  areas where
more than a one-third  intermixture of either evergreen or deciduous  trees
occurs within a given  forested area  (see  Section 2.3.).

     Water (USGS categories: 51, Streams and Canals; 52, Lakes;  and  53,
Reservoirs).  Included are all persistently water-covered areas  at least
600 feet wide and 40 acres in area.

     Wetlands (USGS categories:  61,  Forested Wetlands and 62, Nonforested
Wetlands) includes areas where the water table  is at, near, or above the
land surface for a significant part  of most years.  Aquatic or hydrophytic
vegetation is usually established (see Section  2.3.).

     Surface Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits (USGS category 75,  Strip              ^
Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits)includesactive strip  mines.

     Transitional Areas (USGS category 76,  Transitional  Areas) includes  all
areas in transition from one use to another.  This transition phase  includes
clearance of forest lands for agriculture or urban development.   This
category also includes surface mines after mining activity has ceased and
before revegetation has been accomplished.

     USGS utilized aerial photographs and other remote sensing data  as the
primary source in compilation of the land use-land cover maps and  acreage
tabulations.  The maps were prepared at a scale of 1:250,000.  The minimum
parcel size that could be interpreted for inclusion in these maps  was  10
acres in developed areas (residential; commercial; industrial; transporta-
tion, communication, and utilities; mixed and other developed) and in
surface mined areas.  The minimum parcel that could be interpreted in other
areas was 40 acres (USGS 1978).  As  a result of this  scale of resolution,
the land use maps presented in the Land Use/Land Cover Map should  be
considered to be generalized.  Many  small scale features, especially those
representing urban development and water areas, are not  included.
Consequently, the data in Table  2-18 probably underrepresent the  extent  of
urban uses and water area in the Basin to some  extent.
                                     2-282

-------
      2.6.2.2.   Land  Use Patterns

      This  section describes land use patterns associated with intensive
human occupance.   These uses  include residential;  commercial; industrial,
transportation,  communication,  and utilities; and  mixed and other land uses
in  urban areas.   Also  discussed in this  section are surface mining use and
transitional  uses.   Transitional uses generally represent an intermediate
phase in the  development of urban or surface mine  uses.  All land use
patterns not  associated with intensive human occupance (woodlands, wetlands,
water areas,  etc.) are described in Section 2.3.   These non-intensive uses
often are  termed  land  cover.  The county-specific  data presented in Table
2-18,  and  referred to  below,  represent the  entirety of the 10 Basin counties
which are  wholly  or  primarily within the boundary  of the Monongahela River
Basin.

      A total  of  approximately 83 square  miles (53,022 acres) of the Basin
is  classified  as  having urban land uses  (Table 2-18).  This represents only
1.9%  of the Basin area.   Residential uses are the  predominant developed land
use.   Most of  the urbanized areas are located in the central portion of the
Basin,  in  and  around the Morgantown-Fairmont area.   Urban uses include 14.5
square  miles  (9,281  acres)  of industrial, transportation, communication,  and
utilities  area.   An  unknown proportion of this area is coal mine access
roads,  processing facilities, material stockpiles,  and storage warehouses.

      Surface mining  use occupies 25,788  acres of the Basin (approximately 40
square  miles,  or  0.9%  of the  total area.  The majority of surface mine uses
are located in Preston,  Lewis,  Harrison,  Barbour,  and Upshur Counties.  The
measurements of surface mined area do not include  mines with areas of under
10  acres or mine  areas  that have been revegetated.   Revegetated mine areas
are included in the  appropriate  category  describing current use (e.g.,
deciduous  forest).   Transitional uses represent a  small portion (7,553
acres)  of  the  Basin  area.

      2.6.2.3.  Steep Slopes

     Potential negative impacts  of mining on urban land uses and urban popu-
lations are increased  in some areas  of the  Monongahela River Basin by the
predominance of steep  slopes.   Steep slopes not only limit the amount of
land  available  for urban development,  but also increase the potential for
negative impacts  of  mining  activity  upslope from urban development.   Among
those negative impacts  that become more  severe are  those  resulting from
downslope  runoff  (flooding  and  sedimentation),  blasting,  and landslides.

     The potential of various classes  of  slopes in  the Monongahela River
Basin  for urban development have been described as  follows (RPT3C VII 1978):

Level Land (0  to  8%  slope)  can  accommodate  any type of development with a
minimum amount of earth  moving.   This  slope class  is necessary for typical
industrial or manufacturing methods  using one-story,  single-line production
                                      2-283

-------
methods.  Periodic flooding and poor  drainage  are  problems  associated  with
this slope class in the Basin.

Rolling Land (9 to 16% slope) can be  developed  for  residential  and,  in some
cases, commercial use without severe  difficulty.  This  slope class  also is
suited generally to pasture,  forage crops,  and  some  grain plantings.

Hilly Land (17 to 24% slope)  is land  suited  for residential uses  if  careful
site planning is used to  fit  the development to the  topography.   This  slope
class is generally uneconomical for high density development because of the
high costs of providing basic public  services  and utilities.

Steeply Sloping Land (greater than 25% slope)  generally  is  considered
unsuitable for any type of urban development or for  cultivation.  Permanent
tree cover should be established or maintained  to prevent erosion.   Optimum
uses of this slope class  are  outdoor  recreation, wildlife management,  and
watershed protection.  This slope class is valued  for its scenic  quality.

     General slope class  data (Table  2-76)  do  indicate  that seven of the ten
counties within the Monongahela River Basin have at  least one-half  of  their
land area with more than  a 20% slope, thereby  constraining  future land
development.  Monongalia, Lewis, Marion, and Harrison Counties  appear  to
have extremely large proportions of land in  steep  slopes.

     Much of the gently sloping land  in the Basin is  found  in valley floors.
As a result, most of the  settlement is concentrated  in  valley  floors.   Also,
much of this gently sloping land that is available  is highly prone  to
flooding.

     2.6.2.4.  Flooding and Flood Insurance

     The scarcity of buildable land in many  sections  of  the Monongahela
River Basin has resulted  in development on  the  floodplains  of  the
Monongahela River and its tributaries.  Concentration of settlement  in
floodplain areas increases the potential for flood  disasters such as
occurred at Buffalo Creek (Logan County), West Virginia, in February 1972.

     The relationship of  surface mining land use to  flooding is  an  issue
that has been debated heatedly.  Those who believe  that  surface mining does
promote flooding state "rapid runoff  and sedimentation  generated  by  strip
mining operations have been the cause of numerous  floods in the Appalachian
Region.  ...areas of the  Country which are  floodprone should be  permanently
protected against the practice of strip mining  for  coal" (Statement  of Jack
Spadaro, representing the Appalachian Alliance, to  hearings of  the  Committee
on Government Operations, US  House of Representatives,  1977).

     Representatives of the coal industry disagree.   They contend that
increased surface infiltration allowed by surface mining, especially in
steeply sloping areas with thin soils, reduces  runoff.   They conclude  that
"surface mining substantially reduces, rather  than  aggravates,  water runoff
                                    2-284

-------
Table 2-76.  Percentage of land by slope class in the Monongahela River
  Basin (Cardi 1979).
COUNTY
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
SLOPE CLASS
0-10%
13.6
5.9
2.9
7.4
7.5
19.0
8.5
10.1
29.0
11.0
10-20%
41.9
22.1
11.6
22.3
27.6
35.6
28.7
28.1
22.0
36.7
20-30%
27.9
39.6
34.6
28.5
34.4
24.8
34.0
42.5
21.9
33.9
>30%
16.6
32.4
50.9
41.8
30.5
20.6
28.8
19.3
27.1
18.4
                                      2-285

-------
during heavy rainfalls"  (statement of Michael T. Heenan,  on  behalf  of the
National Independent Coal Operator's Association,  to hearings  of  the                ^
Committee on Government Operations, US House of Representatives,  1977).             fl
Empirical studies have indicated that surface mining does  result  in
increased storm runoff peaks  (Curtis 1977).

     Construction of houses,  commercial, industrial, and  other facilities in
floodplain areas is discouraged by Executive Order  11988,  "Floodplain
"Management."  As a result of  this order, all Federal agencies  are mandated
to work to reduce flood losses and minimize the impacts of flooding on human
safety, health, and welfare (42 FR 101, May 25, 1977).  Guidelines  for
implementing Executive Order  11988 have been promulgated  by  the US  Water
Resources Council (43 FR 29,  February 10,  1978).  The basic  thrust  of these
guidelines is to require all  Federal agencies to avoid construction within
at least the 100 year floodplain unless there is no other  practicable
alternative.

     Insurance for flooding losses is provided by  the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP).  This Program was administered  by  the Federal
Insurance Administration of USHUD until 1979.  Since 1979,  it  has been
administered by the Federal Insurance Administration of FEMA.

     Participation in the NFIP is voluntary.  All  counties in  the
Monongahela River Basin participate, providing coverage for  unincorporated
areas.  Incorporated communities within the Basin  that participate  in the
NFIP are listed in Table 2-77.  Participation is divided  into  two phases,
"emergency" and "regular."  Under the emergency program,  limited  flood
insurance protection is available to local property owners.  After  a                mk
community applies for flood insurance, FEMA compiles and  publishes  a  Flood         ^
Hazard Boundary Map.   Residents of the flood hazard areas  delineated  on  this
map are eligible for flood insurance.

     A community also must adopt and enforce floodplain management  measures
designed to reduce flood hazards in order  to maintain insurance eligibility
for local property owners under the emergency program.  Floodplain  manage-
ment measures typically include:

     •  Zoning, subdivision,  or building requirements, or  a
        special floodplain ordinance to assure that construction
        sites are reasonably  free from flooding

     •  Proper anchoring of structures

     •  Use of construction materials and  methods  designed to
        minimize flood damage

     •  Provision of adequate drainage for new subdivisions.

     When a community moves from the emergency to the regular  flood insur-
ance program, additional insurance coverage becomes available.  The basis
                                      2-286

-------
Table 2-77.  Communities in the Monongahela River Basin which are
  participants in the National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA 1979)
County

Barbour



Harrison
LewLs
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Community

Belington
Junior
Philippi

Anmoore
Bridgeport
Clarksburg
Nutter Fort
Salem
Shinnston
Stonewood
West Milford

Jane Lew
Weston

Baurackville
Fairmont
Fairview
Farmington
Grant
Mannington
Monongah
Riversville
Worthington

Blacksville
Granville
Morgantown
Osage
Star City
Westover

Albright
Bruceton Mills
Kingwood
Newburg
Reedsville
Rowlesburg
Terra Alta
                                      2-287

-------
Table 2-77.  Communities in the Monongahela River Basin which are
  participants in the National Flood Insurance Program (concluded)
County                             Community

Randolph                           Beverly
                                   Coalton
                                   Elkins
                                   Barman
                                   Huttonsville
                                   Mill Creek
                                   Montrose

Taylor                             Flemington
                                   Graf ton

Tucker                             Davis
                                   Hambleton
                                   Hendricks
                                   Parsons
                                   Thomas

Upshur                             Buckhannon
                                        2-288

-------
for entry into the regular  program  is  the  preparation  by FEMA of  a Flood
Insurance Rate Map (FIRM).  The FIRM shows  flood  elevations  and outlines
flood risk zones.  The regular program also requires more comprehensive
floodplain management measures than the emergency program.   These include
elevation or  floodproofing  of structures  in the  floodplain and measures
designed to prevent obstruction of  the floodway  (FEMA  1980).

     2.6.2.5.  Forms and Concentration of Land Ownership

     The separation of surface and  subsurface land  ownership in many
sections of the Monongahela River Basin could have  a significant  impact upon
urban development and settlement patterns.   Information  regarding ownership
(fee-simple,  surface, mineral, etc.) can be obtained at  the  respective
county tax assesor's office.  Three forms  of land ownership  are found in
West Virginia:

     •  Fee simple (absolute) ownership, which  includes  all  legal
        rights to surface use, subsurface use, subsurface
        activities, and timber

     o  Surface ownership,  which applies  to surface uses such as
        housing, agriculture, etc.

     •  Mineral or timber rights, which can include one  owner for
        all resources, or separate owners  for each  of  a  variety
        of resources.

     In many  coal producing areas,  the surface and  subsurface ownership
rights are held by different individuals and/or corporations.  This
characteristic of "overlapping ownership" has caused numerous conflicts as
to the right  of use for property.  Before  1960, surface  mining was  uncommon
in West Virginia.  Coal rights that were sold or  leased  were assumed to be
intended for  underground mining.  Since 1960, surface  mining has  become
common in many areas, leading to conflict between surface and subsurface
owners because removal of coal and other minerals entailed destruction of
surface uses  and structures.  The Federal Surface Mining Control  and Reclam-
ation Act definitively has  established that  the permission of the surface
owner must be obtained as a prerequisite to  the processing of a surface mine
permit application by USOSM (see Section 4.0).

     Statewide concentration of land ownership is a significant issue Figure
2-42J.  It also is a problem in some parts  of the Monongahela River Basin
(Figure 2-42).  In seven counties (Barbour, Harrison,  Marion,  Monongalia,
Taylor,  Tucker, and Upshur) over 50% of the  land  is owned by  fewer  than 20
companies or  individuals.   In Harrison County, six  companies  own  91% of all
land  (Table 2-78).

     Two important factors  in the issue of  concentration of  land  ownership
are the scarcity of developable land in some sections  of the  Basin  and the
dominance of  coal mining interests  in  ownership of  land  that  is developable.
                                      2-289

-------
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                                                                       2-292

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It  is  in  the  interest  of  coal  mining  concerns  to  own or control large blocks
of  land in order  to justify  future  large  scale  investments  for mining.
Also,  in  most  cases the value  of  underlying  coal  is  greater than the
possible  return from surface development  of  land  for industrial, commercial,
or  residential uses (Miller  1974).  Thus,  companies  or individuals owning
mineral rights to a parcel of  land  frequently will  seek to  prevent surface
development.

     Conflicts between coal  companies  wishing  to  preserve subsurface rights
and residents  of  areas with highly  concentrated land ownership have become
very intense  in many areas of  West  Virginia.   In  Mingo County, the State of
West Virginia has sued the Cotiga Land Company  in order to  develop a housing
project.  The  State has won  initial court  judgements in this case, which has
been appealed  to Federal  District Court.   A  bill  was introduced by Governor
Rockefeller in the 1980 session of  the State Legislature to give WVHDF  the
right  of  eminent domain for development of housing  projects (Grimes 1980).

     2.6.2.6.  General Patterns of  Land Use  and Land Availability Conflicts

     As described above,  various  areas  of  the Monongahela River Basin are
subject to land use and availability  constraints.  The major constraints
described are:

     •  extent of current surface mining  activity

     •  extent of current urban development

     •  extent of steeply sloping land

     •  extent of concentrated land ownership

     •  concentration  of  buildable  land in floodplain areas.

     Of the five constraints listed above, all  except  concentration of
buildable land in floodplain areas  can be  summarized in numerical form.
Table 2-79 indicates how the counties  in the Basin compare  in terms of
percentage of  land devoted to  surface  mining, urban  development, steep
slopes, and concentrated ownership.  Of the  Basin counties,  Harrison and
Taylor Counties ranks  highly in four  of the  four  constraints.   Marion and
Monongalia Counties rank highly in  terms of  three of the four constraints.
Six of the counties rank highly in  half of the  constraints  listed.
                                      2-293

-------
     Table 2-79,  Summary  of  land  development  characteristics in  the Monongahela
       River Basin.   See text for  explanation  of characteristics.
                                      Proportion  of Area
               >1% active
County       surface mining
 >3% urban
development
>20% steeply
  sloping*
>25% in concen-
trated ownership
  Barbour

  Harrison

  L ewi s

  Marion

  Monongalia

  Preston

  Randolph

  Taylor

  Tucker

  Upshur
  *Defined as >20% slope
                                       2-294

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2.7   Earth Resources

-------
                                                                      Page

2.7  Earth Resources                                                  2-295

     2.7.1.  Physiography, Topography,  and Drainage                   2-295

     2.7.2.  Steep Slopes and Slope Stability                         2-298
             2.7.2.1.  Steep Slopes                                   2-298
             2.7.2.2.  Unstable Slopes             .                    2-298

     2.7.3.  Floodprone Areas                                         2-305

     2.7.4.  Soils                                                    2-305

     2.7.5.  Prime Farmland                                           2-311

     2.7.6.  Geology                                                  2-312
             2.7.6.1.  Geology of the Basin                           2-320
             2.7.6.2.  Structural Features of the Basin               2-325
             2.7.6.3   Stratigraphy                                   2-325
             2.7.6.4.  Coal Measures                                  2-329
             2.7.6.5.  Toxic Overburden                               2-332

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2.7.  EARTH RESOURCES

     This  section  first describes  the  physiography  and  topography of  the
Monongahela River Basin.  The most recent  available  information  on
landslides and unstable slope areas,  floodprone  areas,  prime  agricultural
land, and  soils is presented in the  following  sections.   Finally,  the
general geology of the Basin is discussed  with special  attention to  coal
resources  and their occurrence and distribution  within  the Basin.  The  areal
extent of  toxic or potentially toxic  overburden  associated with  minable coal
seams in the Basin also is discussed.

2.7.1.  Physiography, Topography,  and  Drainage

     The Monongahela River Basin is  located  in the Appalachian Plateaus
Province of the Appalachian Highlands.   In West  Virginia,  the Appalachian
Plateaus Province includes the Allegheny Mountain section  to the east and
the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau  section  to the west.  The boundary  between
these two  sections in the Basin is approximately coincident with the
ridgelines of Rich Mountain, Laurel Mountain,  and Briery  Mountain (Figure
2-43).

     The highest elevation in the  Basin  occurs near  Mace  in Pocahontas
County (4,850 feet above mean sea  level).  The lowest elevation  in the  Basin
in West Virginia occurs where the  Monongahela  River  flows  across the  State
boundary (800 feet; Figure 2-44).

     The Allegheny Mountain section  includes parts  of the  drainage basins of
the Tygart Valley River, the Cheat River,  and  the Youghiogheny River.   This
section includes most of the higher  altitude land of the  Basin,  as well as
most of the Monongahela National Forest  within the Basin.

     Ridgelines in the Mountain section  generally trend northeastward and
decrease in altitude toward the north  and  west.  They also broaden to
rolling plateaus in Preston, Tucker,  and northeastern Randolph Counties,
especially along Backbone Mountain and Allegheny Mountain.  Stream valleys
throughout the section generally are  broad.  Steeply sloping valley walls
locally flatten to more gently sloping terraces  that are  elevated  above
valley bottoms, especially along Shavers Fork  and Glady Fork.

     The Unglaciated Allegheny Plateaus  section  of the Basin generally
contains less steeply sloping land at  lower  elevations  than is common in the
Mountain section.   Drainage divides  (ridgelines) in  the Plateau  section,
including  the western boundary of  the  Monongahela River Basin, are broader
and flatter than drainage divides  in  the Mountain section.

     Steep slopes in the Mountain  section  are  likely to consist  of resistant
rock strata that erode to abrupt escarpments and cliffs.  Gentle slopes in
the Plateau section generally consist  of poorly  consolidated soil  and
colluvium,  and no bedrock generally is exposed at the surface under natural
conditions.
                                     2-295

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Figure 2-43

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER  BASIN
Quadrangles are those in which landslide-prone areas have been identified
(Lessing et al. 1976). Spot elevations are in feet above sea level (USGS1956).
I
                            4350
                                2-296

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Figure 2-44

GENERALIZED TOPOGRAPHY OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
  ALTITUDE IN FEET ABOVE
      SEA LEVEL
       OVER 4,000



       3,000 TO  4,000



       2,000 TO  3,000



       1,000 TO 2,000



  I   I  UNDER 1,000
                               2-297

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2.7.2.  Steep Slopes and Slope Stability

     2.7.2.1.  Steep Slopes

     Steep slopes are the places where the mass movement  of  earth  material
is most likely to occur following mining or other disturbances.  Landslides
along West Virginia highways are most common where  slopes range between  20%
and 35% (Hall 1974, Lessing et al. 1976).  In many  areas, more severe  slopes
already have been stabilized through slides and other earth  movements,
whereas these lesser slopes (20% to 35%) remain unstable  and  sensitive to
mine-related disturbances.  Furthermore, a steep slope has been defined  by
EPA as an area where the average slope is greater than 25% (14°).l

     In the Monongahela River Basin, nearly 25% of  the land  surface  exceeds
25% slope.  Most of the steep slopes in the Basin are located  in its  eastern
half.  The largest concentrations of steep slopes occur in Tucker  County
where about 30% of the county is comprised of steep  slopes.   Also, 20-25% of
Randolph County and 15-20% of Preston County are comprised of  steep  slopes.
On Figure 2-45 slopes of 25% or greater are identified where  they  extend
over a distance of at least 160 feet (on maps with  a 20 foot  contour
interval) or 320 feet (on maps with a 40 foot contour interval).

     2.7.2.2.  Unstable Slopes

     In West Virginia, most slope failures are confined to the thin  layer of
soil and weathered rock (colluvium) that develops on the  steep valley
slopes.  Rockfalls usually are associated with excavation activities,  but
they also may occur on natural cliff faces where meandering  streams  erode
soft rocks which underlie more resistant sandstone  bluffs.   Any construction
activity that involves:

     •  removal of vegetation

     •  increased loading on a slope

     •  undercutting the slope, or

     •  alteration of the hydrologic balance (surface water  and
        groundwater)
J-As defined in "Best Practices for New Source Surface  and Underground  Coal
Mines," issued in a September 1, 1977 Memorandum to Regional Administrators
that provides interim guidelines on the application of NEPA to New  Source
coal mines.  These guidelines are expected to be updated in the near future
and made compatible with USOSM regulations.
                                      2-298

-------
Figure 2-45
STEEP SLOPES OF 25% AND OVER IN THE MONONGAHELA  RIVER
BASIN (WAPORA I960)
                                             \
                                       0       10
                                         WAPORA, INC.
                          2-299

-------
may induce slope failure.  Coal raining and its related  activities  commonly
involve all of these.  Other factors which increase the potential  for  slope
failure are (Lessing et al. 1976):

     •  Bedrock Factors - The red shales of the Monongahela  and
        Conetnaugh Groups are naturally weak and incompetent
        (see Section 2.7.6.).  These red shales weather rapidly,
        especially when exposed, and are the rock type most
        commonly associated with landslides in West Virginia.

     •  Soil Factors - Easily erodible soils are thin, clayey
        soils weathered from shales.  These soils are usually  on
        steep inclines, impede groundwater infiltration, and are
        easily erodible.

     •  Slope Configuration - Naturally occurring or artificial
        concave slope configurations concentrate water, which
        lubricates joints to cause  slope failure.  Of the
        landslides studied in Virginia, 69% occurred on concave
        slopes .

     •  Climate - West Virginia typically experiences numerous
        heavy precipitation events  of limited duration during  the
        winter and spring.  High soil moisture content, frozen
        ground, and steep slopes add to surface runoff  problems by
        reducing the infiltration rate.

     •  Groundwater saturation as a result of precipitation  events
        increases the load on the slope, increases water pressure,
        and lowers soil cohesion.

     Rockfalls (Figure. 2-46), recent landslides (Figure 2-46),  old
landslides, slide-prone areas, and relatively stable ground  have been  mapped
(scale 1:24,000) on nine USGS topographic quadrangles in the Monongahela
River Basin by the West Virginia Geologic and Economic  Survey  (Figure  2-43).
Landslide-prone areas were mapped in and near urban centers  where  the
potential future losses from landslides are greatest.  The maps were
prepared to convey an appraisal of  land stability at the regional  scale.

     The plateau landforms of the northern and western  partt: of t le Basin
generally are more susceptible to landslides than the mountainous  eastern
and southern sections (Figure 2-47).  The numbers of landslides recorded
over a 16-year period along highways illustrate this general tendency
(Figure 2-48).  Most landslides occur along slopes between  17% and 33%.
Nearly two thirds of the mapped land area in the nine quadrangles  are
classified as landslide-prone (61%; Table 2-80).

     Long, continuous precipitation events or sudden heavy  rains may  reduce
the shear strength of soils and colluvium and load these materials
sufficiently to produce landslides  on steep dip and talus  slopes  in the
                                      2-300

-------
      DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL ROCKFALL (Lessing et al. 1976)
                                          B
Figure 2-46

DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL LANDSLIDE WITH A SLUMP AT THE HEAD AND AN
EARTHFLOW AT THE TOE (Lessing et al. 1976)

                              2-301

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Basin  (Springfield  and Smith  1956).   Future New Source coal mining activity
is  likely  to occur  on steep  slope  areas  (see  Section 3.3.).  During coal
mining on  25% to 36% slopes,  spoil placed  on  the downs lope, even
temporarily, is highly susceptible to slope  failure,  especially during the
spring rainy season (Lessing  et  al.  1976).

     WVDNR-Reclamation (1975)  reported that  the uncontrolled placement of
spoil  on mine sites historically produced  slopes ranging from 65% to 100%.
In  tVie Coal River Basin  the maximum stable  (uncontrolled)  spoil outslopes
were about 66% on sandstone  and 50% on shale.   As  discussed at length in
subsequent sections, current  regulations do not allow the  uncontrolled
placement  of spoil.

2.7.3.  Floodprone  Areas

     Floodprone areas are  the  lands bordering a stream that are expected to
be  inundated during a flood  at least  once  every hundred years.   The major
streams in the Basin have  floodplains of  limited areal extent.   In general,
floodplains comprise less  than 10% of the  total area  in the Basin and narrow
valley floors less  than 600  feet wide are  typical  (Cardi et al. 1979).   The
occurrence of flash floods in  the  Basin  is  likely  in  areas  of steep slopes
with thin  and erodible soils,  narrow valley  floors,  development on the
floodplain, and timbering  and  coal  mining  activity (Cross  and Schemel 1956,
Tug Valley Recovery Center 1979).   The lower  or mainstem areas of the
Basin's streams generally  experience  a more gradual  rise in flood water
levels rather than  the flash  flooding which occurs in the  narrow tributary
valleys (Cardi et al. 1979).

     The Federal Emergency Management Administration  has contracted with the
USGS to map the floodprone areas of West Virginia  on  1:24,000-scale
topographic quadrangles  for use  in administering the  Federal Flood Insurance
Program.   Pursuant  to the Flood Disaster Protection Act  of  1973,  USAGE and
other  private and public agencies  also have delineated special flood hazard
areas  in many communities that participate in the  Federal  Flood Insurance
Program (see Section 2.6., Table 2-77).  Quadrangles  in which floodplains
have been mapped are listed in Table  2-81.

2.7.4.  Soils
     Throughout West Virginia,  soils have  developed  on  the  land  surface as  a
result of the interactions between climate,  vegetation,  bedrock  type,  and
slopes.  A summary table of  the major  soils  series mapped by  USDA-SCS  for
the Monongahela River Basin  is  included in Table  2-82.   The status  of  the
soil survey publications for each county  in  the Basin is listed  in  Table
2-83.

     Soils and soil associations vary  in  different areas of the  Basin.   The
major soils on the gently sloping to steep uplands in the western half  of
the Basin aie the Allegheny, Clarksburg,  Culleoka, Linside, Monongahela,
Upshur, Vandalia, Westmoreland, and Zoar  Series.  Westmoreland and  Gilpin
                                      2-305

-------
Table 2-81. USGS 7.5 minute quadrangles in the Monongahela River Basin,
  West Virginia, for which flood prone areas have been mapped,  15 October
  1977.
               Audra

               Belington

               Beverly East

               Beverly West

               Bowden

               Brucetown Mills

               Century

               Davis

               Elkins

               Fairmont East

               Fairmont West

               Glady

               Harman

               Hopeville

               Junior

               Kingwool
Morgantown North

Morgantown South

Mount Clare

Mozark Mountain

Nestorville

Orlando

Parsons

Philippi

Riversville

Roanoke

Rowlesburg

Shinnston

St. George

West Milford

Weston

Whitmer
                                  2-306

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-------
Table 2-83.  Status of soil survey publications for the Monongahela River
  Basin, West Virginia (as of January 1977).
County
Complete,       Complete,       In Progress,      Areas Surveyed
Published     Not Published     Not Complete        By Request
Barbour

Harrison

Lewis

Marion

Monongalia

Pocahontas

Preston

Randolph

Taylor

Tucker

Upshur
X (partial)
    X
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                   X

                   X
X

X
                                    2-310

-------
soils  are  characterized  by  coal  seams  in the Basin.   In the eastern portion
of the Basin where  the steeper  slopes  occur, the  dominant soils are the
Barhour, Berks, Buckhannan,  Calvin,  Dekalb,  Ernest,  Meckesville and Weikert
Series.  The bottomland  or  gentle  slope  areas include numerous remnant
stream terraces and floodplain  areas.  The dissected stream terraces are
dominated  by the Allegheny,  Monongahela  and  Westmoreland Series.

2.7.5.  Prime Farmland

     USDA-SCS defines  prime  farmland as  agricultural land on gentle slopes
with textural, chemical,  and organic characteristics such that, given a
proper growing season  and moisture  supply, sustained high yields  of economic
crops can  be produced.   Prime farmland is  best  suited for producing food,
feed,  fiber, oilseed,  and forage.   EPA deems this land worthy of  protection
from long-term conversion to non-farmland  uses  (EPA  1979).

     According to the  1979 WVDNR Surface Mining and  Reclamation Regulations
(Section 20-6.11.),  land  is  not  to  be  considered  prime farmland with respect
to topsoil management  and post-mining  land use  requirements if the New
Source permit applicant  can  show that  at least  one of the following
conditions exists:

     •  Cultivated  crop  production  on  the  land  has occurred during
        fewer than  five  of  the  last  20 years preceding the  date of
        the application

     •  The slope of the  land is greater than or  equal to 10%

     •  The land is not  irrigated or naturally  sub-irrigated or
        lacks a developed water  supply of  suitable and dependable
        quality and  the  average  annual rainfall is 14 inches or
        less

     •  The land is  rocky,  is frequently flooded,  or has other
        conditions  that  exclude  it  as  a  prime agricultural
        resource

     •  Soil analysis  or  USDA-SCS Soil Survey information shows
        that the land  does  not  qualify as  prime farmland.

These provisions for prime  farmland  were developed to implement the USOSM
permanent  program regulations pursuant to  SMCRA.

     Agricultural lands  are  scarce  generally in West Virginia because of the
prevalent  steep slopes.   Several categories  of  agricultural land  are
recognized by EPA as worthy  of  protection  from  conversion to non-farm land
uses.  These include prime  and  unique  farmlands of National, Statewide,  or
local significance  in  agricultural  production.  They also include farmlands
within or  contiguous to  environmentally  sensitive  areas,  farmlands that  may
be used for land treatment of organic  wastes, and  farmlands with  significant
                                      2-311

-------
capital investments that help control soil erosion  and  non-point  source
water pollution.

     A program  to define prime and unique farmlands  in  West Virginia  was
undertaken by the USDA's Soil Conservation Service.  The  125  soil  types that
physically qualify as prime or unique are listed in Table 2-84.  They were
selected in conformance with the definitions in the USDA-SCS  Important
Farmlands Inventory proposal (42 FR:42359, January 31,  1978).  Published
final soil surveys are available for Barbour, Preston,  and Tucker  Counties.
Interim soil surveys are available for Harrison, Marion, Monongalia,  and
Randolph Counties.  At the time of this assessment, soil survey maps  and
descriptions of soil types were not available for Taylor County (By letter,
Mr. Robert B. Lough,  USDA-SCS,  Grafton WV, January 29,  1978), although
modern soil mapping was completed as of January 1977  (USDA-SCS 1977f).  Soil
mapping is in progress in Upshur County.  Soils are mapped locally in Lewis
and Pocahontas  Counties at the request of landowners, but no  comprehensive
maps are available.  None of the farmlands, other than  prime  farmlands,
have been identified by any agency.

2.7.6.  Geology

     The Appalachian Basin of the eastern United States was a site of
sediment accumulation for most of the Paleozoic geologic era  (approximately
570 to 225 million years ago; Figure 2-49).  During this time, a large
accumulation of sediments was deposited in the Basin.  The coal-bearing or
carboniferous rocks of the central Appalachian Mountains  (including West
Virginia) accumulated from approximately 300 to 250 million years  ago,
during the Pennsylvanian and early Permian periods.

     These carboniferous rocks were deposited in the coastal  and nearshore
environments of an inland sea that covered sections of  the several eastern
and southern states.   The present distribution of the coalbearing  rocks is
shown in Figure 2-50.

     The carboniferous rocks include beds of coal,  limestone, shale,
sandstone and conglomerate.   The coastal and nearshore  environments
responsible for deposition of these rocks included rivers, deltas, marshes,
swamps,  backbarrier lagoons,  and barrier island sequences where large
accumulations of carbonaceous material occurred (Figure 2-51).  Each  of
these depositional environments produced a characteristic sequence of
sedimentary rocks, or facies (Table 2-85).  Figure 2-52 is a  schematic
representation  of the spatial relationships between various rock types that
are laid down in a typical modern backbarrier coastal environment.

     It  is theorized that the ancient coastline migrated in response  to
fluctuations in sea level and tectonic activity.  As  sea  level rose (or as
the Basin slowly settled), the coastal environments would migrate
southeastward (a transgression of the sea over the  land).  As sea  level
fell,  the coastal environments would migrate northwestward (a regression).
                                     2-312

-------
Table 2-84.
  (By letter
  Types are:
  cl, cobbly
  shaly silt
  silt loam;
  clay loam;
Soils considered to be indicative of prime farmland in West Virginia
Mr. William Hatfield, USDA-SCS, Morgantown WV, 17 July 1978).
 1, loam; fsl, fine sandy loam; sil, silt loam; si, sandy loam;
loam; csil, gravelly sandy loam; gsl, channery silt loam; shsil,
loam; gl, gravelly loam; gsil, gravelly silt loam; ctsil, cherty
ctfsl, cherty fine sandy loam; ctl,  cherty loam; sicl, silty
Is, loamy sand.  U indicates undifferepitiated slopes.


Series
Allegheny





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gsl
gl
csil
csil

sil
sil

shsil
sil
sil
1
1

fsl
fsl
gsl
1
sil
sil
fsl
gl
1


Slope
(%)
3-8

3-8
0-3,3-8
0-3,3-8
U
U, 0-3, 3-8
U
U, 0-3, 3-8
3-10

U
U
U
U
3-8
3-10
3-10

3-8,3-10
3-8

3-8
0-3
U
U
3-8

U
0-3,3-8
U
U
U
3-8
U, 3-8, 3-10
3-8,3-10
0-3,3-8
3-10
Other
Character-
istics
Shale
substrate










High bottom

High bottom


Neutral
substrate

Neutral
substrate




Gravelly
variant










                                                             Slope
                                          Series
                                        Type
  Other
Character-
  istics
Cookport
Cotaco

Culleoka
Culleoka-
Westmore-
land
DeKalb
Duffield


Dunmore

Franks town

Frederick



Gilpin

Gilpin-
Berks
Hackers

Hagerstown


Hagerstown
&Frederick
Hartsells
Wellston
Holston
Huntington




1
1
sil
sil


sil
fsl
gsil
sil
sil
ctsil
ctfsl
sil
shsil
gl
sil
ctsil
ctl
sil
sil

shsil
1
sil
sil
sil
sicl

ctsil
&
fsl
sil
sil
fsl
1
sil
sil
2-8
U
0-3
3-8


3-8
3-8
3-8
2-6
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
2-6,3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
0-3,3-8

3-8
0-3,3-8
0-3,3-8,3-10
0-3,2-6,3-8
3-8
3-8

2-6

3-8
2-8
U
U, 0-3, 0-5
U
0-3,3-10
U















Thick surface




Soft shale
substrate




Karst










Local alluvit
                                      2-313

-------
Table 2-84.   Soils considered to be indicative of prime farmland in
  West Virginia (conclusion).


Series
Huntington

Kanawha



Laidig
Landes
Lily
Linden
Lindside
Lobdell
Markland
Neckers-
ville

Monongahela
Monongahela
and Tilsit
Mo shannon




Murrill


Muskingum

Nolin
Philo







Type
sil
sicl
gfsl
sil
1
fsl
chl
fsl
1
fsl
sil
sil
sil

csil
sil
sil

sil
sil

sil

gsil
gsl
gl
chl
sil
csil
sil
gl
1
fsl
sil
sil

Other
Slope Character
(%) istics
U Low bottom
0-3
U
U
U
0-3,3-8
3-8
U
U.3-8
U
U
U
0-2,2-6

3-8
3-8
0-2,0-3

0-3
0-3,3-8
3-10
U Coarse
subsoil
U
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8,3-10
3-8
U
U
U
U
U
U High
bottom


Series
Pope








Pope and
Linden
Rayne
Scioto-
ville
Seneca-
ville
Sensa-
baugh
Sequatchie
Shelocta

Shouns
Summers

Teas and
Calvin


Type
fsl
fsl
gsl
si
si
1
Is
sil
gsil

fsl
sil

sil

sil

sil
sil
sil
cl
sil
1
cfsl

sil
Other
Slope Character-
(%) istics
U, 0-3, 0-6
U Sandy subsoil
U
U
U Variant
U
U
U
U-

U
3-8,3-10

U,0-3

U.0-3

u (
U
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8

3-8
Teas-Calvirv-
Litz
Westmore-
land
Wheeling


Zoar


sil

sil
fsl
si
sil
sil


3-8

3-8
0-3,3-8
0-3
0-3,3-8
0-3,2-6


                                     2-314

-------
   ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH
DURATION
IN MILLIONS
OF YEARS
(APPRQX.)
MILLIONS
   OF
YEARS AGO
(APPROX.)

CENOZOIC
o
o
M
O —
in
UJ



CJ
HH
q
LU
_)
Q-


Recent
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Tertiary Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsy 1 vani an
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Carrbrian
Precarrbrian

. 7 O
3.2 ,.
17-5 „
15.0 „
16-°
11.5
71
l "'fi
54-59
1Q0 195-
30-35 90C.
55 9Rn
40
25
50
35-45
>4 on /i /in
60-70 5Q
70
c;7n

Figure  2-49
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
                                  2-315

-------
                          O
                          LU
                          CO
                          Oc\j
                          a:
                             cc
                          co
                          LJ
                          cow

                          CD
                           i
                          h-
                           00 CC
                           D

                           cc ,
                           O co  UJ
                           CD LU  _J
                           (J -1  UO


                           LJ 2  UJ
                           <:^  uj
                           O
                           D
                                 CC
                                     
                                               O»
a
2-316

-------
              AREA INFLUENCED BY
            .MARINE TO BRACKISH WATER-
                     AREA INFLUENCED
                     BY FRESH WATER—
    BAR-1   BACK- |
    RIERI   BARRIER |
       "        I
 LOWER
DELTA PLAIN
I         I
(TRANSITIONAL)
I   LOWER  ,
DELTA PLAIN
  UPPER
DELTA PLAIN-
 FLUVIAL
                                      SCALES
    ORTHOQUARTZITE
    SANDSTONE

    GRAYWACKE
    SANDSTONE
  SHALE  30i

      METERS!
  COAL
                            0       10
                             KILOMETERS
                                    mmaHrmnf-t*j
                                              MILES
                                     10
Figure 2-51 DEPOSITIONAL MODEL FOR PEAT-FOR MING (COAL)
          ENVIRONMENTS IN WEST VIRGINIA. UPPER PART OF
          FIGURE IS PLAN VIEW SHOWING SITES OF PEAT
          FORMATION IN MODERN ENVIRONMENTS-,  LOWER
          PART IS  CROSS-SECTION SHOWING, IN RELATIVE
          TERMS,  THICKNESS AND EXTENT  OF COAL  BEDS
          AND THEIR  RELATION TO SANDSTONES AND
          SHALES  IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS (Home et
          al. 1978, after Ferm 1976)
                             2-317

-------
Table 2-85.   Criteria for  recognizing depositional environments (Perm  1974),
DEPOSITIONAL ENV IROXMENTS


CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION'
I. Coarsening upward
A. Shale and Siltstone
sequences
1. Greater than 50 feet
2. 5 to 25 feet
B. Sandstone sequences
1. Greater than 50 feet
2. 5 to 25 feet
II. Channel Deposits
A. Fine grained abandoned
fill
1. Clay and silt
2. Organic debris
B. Active sandstone fill
1. Fine grained
2. Medium and coarse
grained
3. Pebble lags
4. Coal spar
III. Contacts
A. Abrupt (scour)
B. Gradational
IV. Bedding
A. Cross beds
1. Ripples
2. Ripple drift
3. Festoon cross beds
4. Graded beds
5. Point bar accretion
6. Irregular bedding
V. Levee Deposits
VI. Mineralogy of sandstones
A. Lithic greywacke
B. Orthoqtiartzites
VII. Fossils
A. Marine
B. Brackish
C. Fresh
D. Burrow structures

FLUVIAL AND
UPPER DELTA
PLAIN'

C-R

N
C-R
R-N
N
R

R

R
R
A
C
A

A
A

A
C-R

A
C
C-A
A
R
A
A
A

A
N

N
R
C-R
R

TRANSITIONAL
LOWER DELTA
PLAIN

C

R-N
C-A
R-C
N
R-C

C-R

C-R
C-R
C
C
C-R

A
A

A
C

A
C-A
C
A-C
R
C
C
A-C

A
N

R-C
C
R-C
C


LOWER DELTA
PLAIN

A

C-A
C-A
C-A
C-A
C-A

A-C

A-C
A-C
C-R
C-R
R

C
C

C
C-A

A
A
C-R
C-A
C-A
R-N
R-C
R-C

A-C
N-R

C-A
C
R-N
A
	 	 	


BACK-BARF IER

C-A

C-A
C-A
C
R
C

C

C
C-R
C-R
C-R
R

C-R
C-R

C
C

A-C
A
R-C
C
R-C
R-N
R-C
R

R
A-C

A-C
C-R
N
A



BARRIER

R-C

R-C
R-C
C-A
C-A
C

R-C

R-C
R
C
C
C-R

R-C
R-C

C-A
C

A-C
A
R-C
C-A
R-C
R-N
R-C
N

R
A

A-C
C-R
N
A

                                 A .
                                 C .
                                 R .
. Ahuml mi
. Common
. Ran-
. Not Present
                                    2-318

-------
2-319

-------
The sediments deposited during  the migrations  of  the  shoreline were
preserved in the rock record.  They were preserved in a cyclical  sequence  of
rocks including, from oldest to youngest,  coal, siltstone,  clay,  limestone,
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, coal,  etc.  Figure 2-53  is a  generalized
vertical sequence of the water-laid rock types  found  in southern  West
Virginia.

     Large, contiguous sections of the  coastline  were subjected to varying
rates of sedimentation and subsidence,  changes  in sediment  sources,  and  sub-
sequent  folding and faulting.  Roof rock stability, concentrations of
pyritic material, and coalbed thickness and quality were affected by this
history  of deposition.  Folding of the  pre-Pennsylvanian rocks produced
northeast trending ridges.

     A northeast-southwest trending zone known  as the Hinge  Line  separates
the Dunkard and Pocahontas Geologic Basins of West Virginia.  These  Basins
are characterized by differences  in the total  thickness of  their  rocks,  as
well as  by the orientation and distribution of  their  ancient  swamps,
lacustrinemarine environments,  and alluvial deposits  (Arkle  1974).   The
Dunkard  and Pocahontas Basins approximately coincide  with the Northern and
Southern Coalfields (younger and  older  mining  districts, respectively) of
West Virginia.  The Dunkard Basin is characterized by a relatively stable
platform, in contrast to the Pocahontas Basin's relatively  rapid  subsidence.
The dashed line in Figure 2-54 indicates the location of the Hinge Line  with
respect  to the Monongahela River  Basin.

     2.7.6.1.  Geology of the Monongahela  River Basin

     The Monongahela River Basin  lies primarily in the Northern Coalfield  of
West Virginia, although a small area lies  in the  Southern Coalfield  (Figure
2-54).  The Southern Coalfield  includes the Pennsylvanian-age and younger
rocks of the Pocahontas Basin.  These rocks occur in  recognizable sequences,
called Formations and Groups (two or more  Formations  with similar lithologic
units) both of which represent discrete depositional  events  that  are
separated from one another by long periods of  time.   The rocks of the
Northern Coalfield comprise the Dunkard Basin,  which  is characterized by a
thinner  sequence of coal-bearing  formations in  comparison to  the  Pocahontas
Basin.  The combined sequence of  Formations in  the Monongahela River Basin
comprises the stratigraphic column described in Section 2.7.6.3.

     The rocks of the Basin were  folded and faulted after deposition.  The
major structural features of the  Basin  trend to the northeast and most of
the ridge and valleys bisect the  structural fold  axes (Figures 2-55  and
2-56).  Most of the younger coal-bearing rocks  (Dunkard and  Monongahela) are
present  in the Basin because of their location  in the downwarped  Dunkard
Basin.   Some older coal-bearing rocks are  exposed along the  central  portions
of the Basin due to the elliptical shape of this  geologic Basin.  Thicker
sections of younger coal bearing  strata have been preserved  in minor
down-folded synclinal troughs.
                                      2-320

-------
COAL WITH CLAY SPLIT
SEATROCK,CLAYEY

SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES,ROOTED
SANDSTONE MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED, FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
COAL WITH SEATROCK SPLITS
SEATROCK, SILTY

SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES,ROOTED
SANDSTONE MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED, FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
CONGLOMERATE LAGSIDERITE PEBBLES
SLUMPS
SUTSTONE THIN-BEDDED
COAL WITH CLAY SPLITS
      BACKSWAMP
      LEVEE
      CHANNEL


      FLOOD PLAIN
      BACKSWAMP
      LEVEE



      CHANNEL
^"T\ LAKE
                                              FLOOD PLAIN
                                              BACKSWAMP
Figure 2-53 GENERALIZED VERTICAL  SEQUENCE THROUGH
            UPPER  DELTA PLAIN AND  FLUVIAL  DEPOSITS  OF
             SOUTHERN  WEST VIRGINIA  (Ferm 1978)
                         2-321

-------
 DUNKARD/   BASIN
              r..... SOUTHERN • ••.•-•-.-•••y-:
                  COALFIELD
 POCAHONTAS    BASIN
                                                                 100
                                                        WAPORA, INC.
Figure 2-54 NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN COAL FIELDS OF WEST VIRGINIA
           (Mining Informational Services 1977)
                                   2-322

-------
  Figure  2-55
  GENERAL  GEOLOGY IN  THE MONONGAHELA  RIVER  BASIN
  (WVGES 1973)
MAJOR GEOLOGIC UNITS

I  QUATERNARY ALLUVIUM

2 DUNKARD GROUP

3 MONONGAHELA GROUP

4 CQNEMAUGH GROUP

5 ALLEGHENY FORMATION

6 POTTSVILLE GROUP

7 MISSISSIPPI SYSTEM



9  CHEMUNG GROUP

10 BRALLIER FORMATION
                               2-323

-------
Figure 2-56
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVGES 1968)
  Amity Ant.
                                                \
                                         0        10
                                           WAPORA.INC
                           2-324

-------
      2.7.6.2.   Structural  Features  of the  Monongahela River Basin

      Sedimentary  rocks  which  range  in age  from Devonian through Permian
 (Figure  2-49),  underlie all  of  the  Monongahela River Basin.  The Allegheny
 Mountain section  of  the Basin includes  rocks  of Devonian and Mississippian
 ages  which  are  exposed  on  northeast-trending  upwarps called anticlines.
 Elsewhere in  the  Basin,  rocks of  Pennsylvanian and Permian age  generally are
 covered  with  a  veneer of residual soil,  except where Mississippian rocks are
 exposed  or  covered by alluvium  in deeply incised stream valleys

      Over long  periods  of  time,  the originally horizontal strata of the
 Basin were  thrust gently upward and folded into northeast-trending anti-
 clines and  synclines  (Figure  2-56).   The intensity of the folding generally
 decreases westward and  upward through the  strata in the Basin.   The hinge
 line  fold separating  the Northern and Southern Coalfields trends
 east-northeast  through  southern Lewis, Upshur,  Barbour,  Tucker,  and Preston
 Counties.   The  intermittent  folding,  upwarping,  and downwarping affected
 rates of  erosion, sediment transport,  and  deposition,  resulting in numerous,
 small, structurally  controlled  basins of deposition containing  thinner, less
 extensive strata  of coal and  other  sedimentary rocks  more often in the
 Mountains than  in the Plateaus.   Upheaval  and  erosion of horizontal strata
 in the Plateau  Section  set the  stage  for development  of the deeply incised
 valleys  and rolling hills  of  the  modern  landscape.

      The  coal bearing rocks were  deposited  in  one  broad geologic basin  of
 minor structural  relief  which is  bounded on the  southeast by an uplifted
 region through Randolph, Tucker,  and  Preston Counties,  West Virginia, and
 Garrett  and Allegheny Counties, Maryland.   The Pennsylvanian strata display
 steplike, gentle, symmetrical folds,  of comparatively slight  disturbance.
 The coal  bearing  strata  are nearly  horizontal  except  for the flanks of  the
major folds axes.  Here, the  maximum  dip of the  strata  may  reach 20°  locally
 (Cross and Schemel 1956, Arkle  1979).

      2.7 . 6.3.  Strat igraphy

     The  various  formations of  sedimentary  rocks  of  the Monongahela River
 Basin exhibit local differences in  strata  in teponse  to  different
 depositional environments.   For example, the Allegheny  Formation and
 Conemaugh Group in the Dunkard Basin  represent  a  sequence  of marine and
 coastal environments, including deltaic, offshore,  and  alluvial  depositional
 conditions (Figure 2-57).  In the Pocahontas Basin,  these  formations
 predominantly include the  alluvial  facies  of non-marine sandstone,  shales,
 and channel  deposits that generally include only  limited  coal seams.  The
distribution, quantity,   and quality of the  coal  measures  are  directly
related to their depositional environments  and  subsequent  tectonic  history.

     The  general stratigraphy of  the  Monongahela  River  Basin may be
 addressed in terms of a unified stratigraphic  column  (Table  2-86)  keyed to
 the geologic map of the Basin (Figure 2-55).   Local  depositional
environments and regional compressive forces,  however,  typically modified
                                   2-325

-------
ULm^^
Twrr^ .
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2-326

-------
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                                                                                      2-327

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the details of local stratigraphy.  The geologic  formations  are described  in
the sections that follow, beginning with the oldest.                                 •

     Thick accumulations of sand, silt, and clay  formed the  majority  of
sedimentary rocks in the Appalachian River Basin.  Non-coal  bearing strata
may be hundreds of feet  thick near the periphery  of  the ancient swamps.  The
major water-bearing rocks in the Monongahela River Basin include thick,
continuous sandstones which are confined by impermeable shales and clay
stones.  Clay stones also are confining strata  for the coal  seams which
generally contain significant amounts of water.

     The sedimentary rocks of the Monongahela River  Basin include strata of
Permian age and younger.  Devonian and Mississippian rocks contain important
water-bearing strata locally, but are devoid of coal, which  is found  only  in
rocks of Pennsylvanian and Permian age.  The stratigraphy of  the coal
bearing rocks is described in more detail in the  subsequent  section.  The
water-bearing rocks of Devonian and Mississippian age are described in
Section 2.1.

     Pottsville Group

     The Pottsville Group occurs at the surface in the Shavers Fork Valley
(Randolph County), in western Randolph County,  and in north-central Tucker
County.  It crops out as a thin band in Preston and  Monongalia Counties
(Figure 2-55).  The Pottsville Group sediments  were  deposited on an
irregular surface of Mississippian age sediments.  Within the Monongahela
River Basin, the Pottsville Group ranges in thickness from 200 to 300 feet.          ^
It consists of a series  of conglomerates, quartzose  sandstones, including            ™
sandstones that contain  abundant clay and rock  fragments (subgraywacke),
shale, clay, and thin coal beds (Arkle 1974).    The Group probably is  mostly
non-massive and contains little carbonate where it is exposed.  Coarser
sediments predominate in the southeastern part  of the Basin  and become  finer
grained in a northwesterly direction.  Eleven minable coals  have been
identified by Lotz (1970), but of these only the  Sewell, Bradshaw, Peerless,
and Alma were mined during 1976 in the Basin (Table  2-86).

     Allegheny Formation

     The Allegheny Formation ranges in thickness  from less than 100 feet in
the southern part of the Basin to 300 feet along  the northern border  of
Monongalia County.  It crops out in two synclines (downwarps) in Tucker
County and in large areas of Upshur,  Barbour,  Monongalia, and Preston
Counties.  It generally  is composed of non-marine sandstones  and sandy
shales with a few thin limestone beds, coal seams and cherty  clay beds.  The
thick, freshwater, lacustrine, clayey limestones  occur below coal beds  that
include the Upper Kittanning, Lower Freeport,  and Upper Freeport coals.  The
coal beds of the Allegheny Formation are irregularly developed and vary in
thickness throughout the Basin.  Of the six coal  seams that  are minable,
five of them produced coal during 1976 (Table 2-86).  Typically, the
overburdens associated with these coal seams include the sandstones which
contain pyrite.
                                      2-328

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     Conemaugh Group

     The  thickness  of  the Conemaugh Group  ranges  from 500  feet  in the
southwestern part of the Basin to 800  feet  in  the northeast.  The group
generally  consists  of  sandstone, red sandy  shale, shale,  thin clayey
limestone, and coal seams.  Redbeds (shale  and  sandy  shale beds  which  are
indicative of non-marine deposition) dominate  the southwestern  part.   Marine
sandstones and limestones become more  abundant  in a northeasterly direction.
Sandstone  constitutes  15 to 38% of the  Conemaugh Group in  the Allegheny
Mountain Section, and  this percentage  decreases northwestward into  the
Monongahela Basin.  Coal production occurred from three of the  four minable
seams during 1976,  including the Mahoning,  Bakerstown,  and Elk Lick seams
(Table 2-86).

     Monongahela Group

     The Monongahela Group varies in thickness  from 350 feet to  450 feet in
the Basin.  The Group  includes red and  gray shale, sandstones with  clay and
rock fragments (Graywackes), coal, shale,  and  lacustrine  limestones.
Sandstone  comprises only 29 to 15% of  the rocks.  Lacustrine sandstones,
which contain significant proportions  of clay,  are thick,  and they  occur
over the minable coals.  Locally, three coal beds have been  identified in
the Group, all of which produced significant quantities of coal  during 1976
(Table 2-86).

     Dunkard Group

     The Dunkard Group crops out along  the  northeastern part of  the Basin  in
Lewis,  Harrison,  Marion, and Monongalia Counties, where it reaches  a
thickness  of 1,180  feet.  The lower 300 feet of the Dunkard Group are
similar to the underlying Monongahela Group and contain gray shale,
limestones, and minable coals (Waynesburg  and Washington  seams;  Table  2-86).
The upper 800 feet  of  the Dunkard Group contain beds  of red  shale,  clayey
sandstones, some of which are massive,  and  impure coal beds.

     2.7.6.4.  Coal Measures

     Coal  seams were formed by the accumulation and burial of dying plant
material to form peat.  The physical and chemical properties of  the coals
and surrounding sedimentary rocks are  related directly  to  the depositional
environment in which peat beds accumulated, and to the structural stresses
exerted on the peat beds during and after  their deposition and burial.

     Numerous swamps, river deltas,  tidal deltas, and  backbarrier marshes
existed in the coastal area of the ancient  inland sea.  The  thickness  and
lateral extent of the  swamp was partially dependent on the topographic
surface on which the swamp developed (Home et  al. 1978).  The extent  and
duration of each swamp determined the regional  extent  and thickness of
individual coal seams  (EPA 1978).  Discrete depositional events  lasting
millions of years, coupled with local and regional uplift, folding, and
                                      2-329

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erosion, produced numerous discontinuous  seams.  Influxes  of  clastic
sediments formed the shaly partings, impure coals, and want areas  commonly            •
found in the Basin coal seams.  Stream channel migration within  the  shifting
fluvial and deltaic drainage systems eroded part of the swamp  deposits.
Other ancient stream channels were  filled with fine- to coarse-grained
clastic sediments.  These ancient areas of erosion and deposition  in  the
swamp are represented by local thinning and interruption of the  coal  seams
laterally.  Differential compaction and slumping of the newly  deposited
clastic sediments also formed irregularities  in the underlying swamp
deposits.  Such irregularities in coal seams  often determine the mining
methods used at a location and also are associated with unstable mine roof
conditions.

     The heating and compaction produced  by the depth and  duration of burial
of the swamp deposits also affected the quality of the coal seam and
overlying material.  The acid-forming, iron disulfide minerals known  as
pyrite and marcasite and various trace elements occur chiefly  in
depositional environments which were associated with slowly subsiding delta
plains and back bays.  Most of the coal seams and overburden in the Northern
Coalfield of the Monongahela River Basin were deposited under  these
conditions and frequently are associated with acid forming overburden (Table
2-86).

     The Northern Coalfield seams in West Virginia are generally thin,
medium to high sulfur (>1.5%), medium to high ash (>6%), and medium  to high
volatile coals (ASTM values for volatility, Btu content, and  fixed carbon
ratings appear in Table 2-87).  Some of these coals may occur  locally as low          ^k
sulfur, low volatile coals.  Coal seams in the Southern Coalfield  of  West              ™
Virginia generally are thicker and of higher  quality (low  sulfur and  low
ash) and frequently are podshaped and less regular than the Northern
Coalfield seams.

     Localized areas of low to medium sulfur  coals are an  exception  in the
Basin.  The principal coal seams that have had localized areas of  low sulfur
coal mined within the Basin are the Lower Kittanning, Upper Freeport,
Bakerstown, Pittsburgh,  and Redstone (West Virginia University, College of
Agriculture and Forestry 1971).  The irregular occurrence  of  the Lower and
Upper Kittanning, Lower and Upper Freeport, Mahoning, and Bakerstown  Coals
in the Basin has hindered mining activity in  the past.

     Some Basin coals are of metallurgical grade and can be used as coking
coals.  These high-rank coals are most abundant in the Allegheny and
Conemaugh Formations (Table 2-86).  Byproducts such as fly ash and clinker
coal also are associated with these coals.

     The underlying Kanawha Formation, the youngest formation  of the
Pottsville Group, contains more coal seams than any other  coal-bearing
geologic formation in West Virginia.  However, many of these coals are
considered unminable in the Basin (Table 2-86).  In the Allegheny  Formation
the Lower Kittanning and Upper Freeport Coals are extensively  mined  (surface
                                       2-330

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Table 2-87.  ASTM classification of coal by rank (WVGES 1973).
Fixed
Carbon %
Volatile
Matter %
Btu
> < > < > <
Class
Anthracitic      Semianthracite     86     92      8     14

Bituminous       Low vol.           78     86     14     22
                 Med. vol.          69     78     22     31
                 High vol. A        --     69     31     —   14,000
                 High vol. B        —     —     —     —   13,000   14,000
                 High vol. C        —     —     —     —   11,500   13,000
                                                              10,500   11,500
                                   2-331

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and underground) in the Basin  (Arkle  1979).  The mined  portions  are  usually
more than eight feet thick in  the Basin.  These seams commonly are separated        m
into benches by shaly partings of irregular  thickness.   In  the Basin,  they
are blocky, bright, high volatile (greater than 29%), high  sulfur  (greater
than 2%) and have  a thermal rating of  14,000+ Btu.

     The Conemaugh Group coals also have been extensively mined  in the
Basin.  Like the underlying Allegheny  coals, they  show  differential  contents
of volatile matter (Arkle 1979).  The  Mahoning and Bakerstown coals  which
normally are less  than 6 feet  thick have been mined  underground,  and the
Mahoning, Bakerstown, and Elk  Lick coals have been surface  rained  in  the
Basin.  Conemaugh Group coals  of northern West Virginia are characterized  as
blocky, bright and dull banded, high volatile (greater  than 35%  volatile
matter), medium to high sulfur (greater than 2%) and rated  at 14,000 Btu
(Lotz 1970, Arkle  1979).  Elsewhere in the Basin the sulfur content:
generally is medium to high with local areas of low  sulfur  coal  (Lotz  1970,
Cross and Schemel  1956).

     In the Basin, the Monongahela Group coals are characterized  as  blocky,
bright, and dull banded.  The  Pittsburgh and Redstone coals are  usually  high
volatile and high  sulfur (greater than 2%) coals rated  at 14,000+ Btu.   In
the Monongahela River Basin, both seams plus the Sewickley  and Waynesburg
coals are widespread in the northern part of the Basin.  The Pittsburgh  coal
is thick and uniform in the Dunkard Basin (Arkle 1979).  The younger and
similar Sewickly coal generally has a  high sulfur  content (greater than  3%).
The Waynesburg coal tends toward high  ash (>8.0%)  and high  sulfur  (>2.0%)
content in the Basin.                                                                ^

     2.7.6.5.  Toxic Overburden

     Toxic overburden is earth material situated above  a coal seam that  has
the potential to produce adverse chemical and biological conditions  in the
soil, surface water, or groundwater if it is disturbed  by mining.  Toxic
overburden has a deficiency of five tons CaC03 equivalents  or more for
each 1,000 tons of material or has a pH of 4 or less (West  Virginia  Code
20-6).  Toxic overburden also  may contain elements that  are poisonous  to
plants and animals, acid-producing,  or both.  Excessive  amounts  of sodium,
salt, sulfur, copper, nickel and other trace elements in the water or  the
soil derived from mined overburden have a detrimental effect on  aquatic
organisms or plants and may hinder revegetation (Torrey  1978).   Arsenic,
boron, and selenium are other  elements that  may be present  in overburden.
If they enter the  food chain in low concentrations,  these elements may be
concentrated to toxic levels in the tissues  of animals  at higher  levels  of
the food chain.  Extremely acidic material or material  with the  potential  of
becoming acidic upon oxidation (pH 4.0 or less; chiefly  the minerals pyrite
and marcasite) have the capability to  cause  water  pollution by chemical
reactions resulting in increased acidity, low pH,  and the presence of
dissolved iron and other metals.
                                     2-332

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     Iron disulfides  (FeS2)  occurring  as  marcasite  or  pyrite in the coal
and associated strata are  exposed  to the  atmosphere  during mining opera-
tions.  These iron compounds  readily oxidize  to  form a series of
water-soluble hydrous iron sulfates.   Only  framboidal  pyrite, one of several
forms  in which the mineral is found, oxidizes and  decomposes rapidly enough
to produce severe acid mine  drainage problems (Caruccio 1970).   The other
types  of pyrite dissolve  at  a slower rate.  Relatively small amounts of
calcium carbonate in  the  overlying strata generally  can neutralize the
amount of acidity produced by the  non-framboidal  types of pyrite.

     Coal itself has  the  potential for producing  acid  water independent of
the overburden material  (Table 2-88).   Acid-producing  coal seams are
especially troublesome when  they function as  aquifers,  and this condition is
fairly common in the  Basin.   The problem  is compounded if the strata
underlying the coal are relatively impermeable or  toxic or both.   Any one of
these  conditions either  separately or  in  combination may require special
mining and drainage control  practices.  They  also may  require special
handling, placement,  or blending of overburden during  surface mining, back-
filling, and reclamation  operations.   Most  of the  severe acid mine drainage
problems associated with  these coals occur  in the Ohio, Elk,  Monongahela,
and North Branch Potomac River Basin in West  Virginia.

     An example of the variability in  the potential  toxicity of a coal seam
and associated overburden  is  the Pittsburgh Coal.  Wherever bone coal
underlies the Pittsburgh  Coal and  the  overlying massive Redstone Limestone
is absent or thin, there  are  serious acid drainage  problems when the
underlying bone coal  is disturbed  by mining,  especially by underground
mining.  Where the Pittsburgh Coal is  surface mined, and the massive
Redstone Limestone is present, however, there rarely are acid mine drainage
problems, provided that the  operator employs  overburden blending techniques
and appropriate drainage  control.

     The knowledge and experience  of the  WVDNR-Reclamation, West Virginia
University Department of Agronomy  Staff,  West Virginia Surface  Mining and
WVSMRA, and the WVDNR-Reclamation/Acid Mine Drainage Task Force were relied
upon to identify which of  the 14 coal  seams associated with toxic overburden
are known to have toxic overburden in  the Monongahela  River Basin.
Information also was  supplied on the variability and trend of the toxic
overburden in the Basin.   Other essential data were  supplied by USGS and
WVGES published reports and  maps.

     Acid mine drainage is a  potential problem anywhere in the  Basin,
because alkaline overburden  with high  buffering capacity is scarce and
discontinuous, and unweathered zones in the massive  sandstones  overlying the
coal seams appear to have  a  high potential  for acid  production  (Smith et al.
1976).  In the Basin, mining  practices as well as  local variability of the
thickness and lateral extent  of limestones  and other carbonate  rich
materials affect mine drainage quality.   The  variability in acid drainage
problems may be compounded when
                                     2-333

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Table 2-88.  West Virginia coal seams commonly associated with acid-
  producing overburden, listed youngest to oldest (WVDNR Surface Mining
  Regulations, 2.04, 1978).
               Geological Unit

               Dunkard Group

               Monongahela Group
              *Conemaugh Group

               Allegheny Formation
               Kanawha Formation
   Coal Seams

Washington Coal

Waynesburg
Sewickley
Redstone
Pittsburgh

Elk Lick

Freeport Coals
Upper Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Lower Kittanning (No. 5 Block)

Stockton-Lewis ton
Peerless
Campbell Creek (No. 2 Gas)
Upper Eagle
*Conemaugh Group - The Bakerstown Coal Seam is a potentially acid-producing
coal seam, especially in the Northern Coalfield (Renton et al.  1973).
                                       2-334

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     •  More than one coal  seam  is mined

     *  T'ue coal seam splits into two or more benches  locally

     •  The material separating  the  two  splits  or  seams  may  be
        toxic, whereas the material  overlying the  upper  coal  is
        neutral or alkaline

     •  Concentrations of  sulfur  including  the  framboidal  form  of
        pyrite may occur even if  the parting or  interval  is  20
        feet thick (Smith  et al.  1976).  This probably occurs
        because the parting material includes the  roof of  the
        lower coal, which  was the dying  swamp,  and the root  zone
        of the upper coal  swamp.  Both of these  environments  were
        places where sulfur became concentrated  as the coal  seams
        and associated rocks were laid down.

     The Monongahela River Basin  lies mostly in  the mining province of the
Northern Coalfield and partially  in  the  province of the  Southern Coalfield.
In the Northern Coalfield  potentially toxic overburden is  widespread (Figure
2-58).  However, sufficient occurrences  of  alkaline material  may be
sufficient to neutralize potentially acid-producing seams  and overburden
caused by pyritic materials, if blended  properly.   The minable coal in the
Basin is considered to be  discontinuous.  Water  quality  and  other
reclamation problems sometimes occur in  the Allegheny  Formation and basal
sections of the Conemaugh  and Monongahela Groups in the  Basin.  The
overburden usually contains medium sulfur (pyrite)  concentrations  and the
minable coals in the Basin  should be regarded as potentially acid-producing
seams and overburden (Smith et al. 1976).   Severity of AMD problems,
however, decreases moving  west across the Basin.

     The potentially acid-producing  coal seams  in  the  Northern Coalfield, in
order of decreasing acid potential,  appear  to be:   the Pittsburgh  Coal,
Upper Freeport Coal, and Bakerstown  Coal.   The  acid-producing poter"--'r;l  of
the Upper Freeport Coal is more  variable in the  Northern Coalfield than that
of the other seams.  Therefore, acid drainage problems associated  with this
coal are especially difficult to  predict (Renton et al .  1973, Table 2-88).
In the Northern Coalfield  of West Virginia, the  proportions  of carbonate,
pyrite, and alkaline materials generally increase  where  the  sandstone beds
and size of the sand grains decrease, the limestone deposits  incre-;--e,  and
the carbonate content of the more numerous  shale and mudstone units
increases.   In the Basin,  calcareous shales and  limestones generally
increase to the west and northwest.

     Toxic overburden distribution in the Southern Coalfield  of  the
Monongahela River Basin is laterally discontinuous,  highly irregular in
toxicity, and concentrated  in the Kanawha and Allegheny  Formations.  The
coal facies of the Kanawha Formation in  the Basin  commonly are low in
sulfur.  Pyrite is not a ubiquitous  mineral in  this formation, but
                                      2-335

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Figure 2-58
GREATEST POTENTIAL FOR TOXIC  OVERBURDEN IN THE
MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
                                         WAPORA, INC.
                          2-336

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concentrations  of  fratnboidal  pyrite  in the  coal  and associated rocks occur
locally.

     In the experience  of WVDNR-Reclamation,  acid  mine drainage problems
associated with Freeport coals  are ubiquitous  in West Virginia, including
parts of  the Monongahela River  Basin.   Where  the Redstone coal is mined
underground, acid mine  drainage  problems  occur  in  many locations, regardless
of mining techniques used.  Bakerstown and  Sewickley coals  also may be
associated with AMD in  underground mining.

     The  potential problems of  acid  mine  drainage  in the Basin are usually
in the areas where the  coal seams are  overlain  by  medium to coarse grained,
weakly cemented, pyritic sandstones  (e.g.,  Mahoning and Homewood Sandstone).
The weathered zones of  these  pyritic  sandstones  usually are devoid of
significant amounts of  acid-producing  pyritic minerals.   It is the
unweathered zones of these sandstones  that  pose  a  serious problem of acid
mine drainage (Smith et al. 1976).

     In the case of non acid-producing calcareous  sandstones,  the alkaline
cement or grain countings generally  are insufficient to neutralize any
significant amount of acid material.   WVDNR's experience has been that
typical acid-base counts which  show  alkaline  sandstones as  having sufficient
neutralizing potential  are misleading.  Apparently,  the alkaline material in
sandstone either 1) reacts too  quickly and  quickly dissipates  its
usefulness, 2)  does not react with acid solutions,  or 3) reacts too slowly.
In any case, the calcareous sandstones  with potentially high alkaline
neutralizing capabilities, do not function  as neutralizing  agents under
actual reclamation conditions.  WVDNR  does  not consider calcareous
sandstones as suitable  neutralizing  overburden  in  the Northern Coalfield of
West Virginia (Verbally Ms. Joanne Erwin, WVDNR-Reclamation,  to Mr.  John
Urban, August 7, 1980).

     Other environmental and  mining  conditions  in  the Basin which add to the
occurrence of acid drainage are:

     •  Insufficient alkaline overburden  (e.g.,  calcareous  sand-
        stone)  available to blend in order  to neutralize the acid
        or toxic material

     •  Excessively large volumes of  potentially toxic material
        that must be blended, isolated  and  buried,  or disposed of
        as excess spoil

     •  Interception of old abandoned  underground  mine by new
        surface mining activity, exposing acid  producing materials
        to air  and water and  creating  portals for  untreated AMD to
        flow from the site

     •  Long exposure of potentially toxic  materials to air and
        water due to delays in reclamation
                                     2-337

-------
     •  Interception of old  abandoned  underground  mines  by new
        surface mining activity, exposing  acid  producing materials
        to air and water  and  creating  portals  for  untreated AMD to
        flow from the site.

     •  Where surface and underground  mining occurs  below seasonal
        high water or interrupts a perched water table,  the sand-
        stone or other potentially toxic overburden  .acts either as
        an aquifer or a confining layer for groundwater.

     In the Monongahela River Basin, coal  has been mined by many small
underground mines and some old shoot and shove  surface mines  which have
ceased operations and left numerous piles  of spoil,  including toxic
overburden, exposed to the air, surface water,  and groundwater.   The
drainage from these mine  operations was not controlled or treated to avoid
the production of acid mine water.  Many old, abandoned,  acid-producing mine
sites still contribute to the poor water quality in  parts of  the Basin.
However, it is difficult  to ascertain  the  present  or potential toxicity of
surface and underground mining of the  coal seams and overburden under
current regulations and mining methods.  Site specific information must be
available  for each permit application  in the Basin.
                                     2-338

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2.8  Potentially Significant Impact Areas

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                                                                      Page




2.8  Potentially Significant Impact Areas                             2-339         4

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2.8.  POTENTIALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT AREAS

     Based on the available inventory information, EPA has  identified
Potentially Significant Impact Areas (PSIA's)  in  the Monongahela River
Basin.  These are the areas where there is the greatest  potential  for
adverse impacts as a result of New Source coal mining activity, taking  into
account the mining methods used  (see Section 3.O.), the  current regulatory
controls on new mining  (see Section 4.O.), and the likely remaining  impacts
(see Section 5.0.) on Basin resources (see Section 2.O.).   Consequently
these are the areas where EPA expects to conduct  the most detailed NEPA
review of permit applications (see Sections 1.0.  and 6.0).  The decision
whether a full EIS is necessary  prior to permit issuance will be made on  a
case-by-case basis.  EIS's are expected to be needed most frequently on
applications from PSIA's.

     Various resources  in the Basin have given rise to PSIA designations
(Figure 2-59).  Federal land holdings dedicated to multiple or recreational
use such as the Monongahela National Forest, the  Tygart  Lake Recreation
Area, and other Federal land holdings and interests in fee-simple or surface
ownership have been assigned PSIA status.  Included in the  National  Forest
are the Otter Creek and Dolly Sods Wilderness Areas, the Fernow National
Experimental Forest, the Bowden  Federal Fish Hatchery, the  Sinks of  Gandy,
the Blackwater Falls Scenic Area, and other resources.   Several National
Natural Landmarks (the Gaudineer Scenic Area, Canaan Valley, Shavers
Mountain Spruce-Hemlock Stand, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher
Spring Run Bog) also are included in the National Forest.   The Cranesville
Swamp Nature Sanctuary, a National Natural Landmark not  located within the
Forest, also has been designated a PSIA.  EPA  in  all cases  intends to
maximize input from the respective Federal managing agencies (US Forest
Service for the National Forest  and US Army Corps of Engineers for the
Tygart Valley Recreation Area, for example) when  issues  regarding New Source
mining impacts arise.  Regardless of other agency involvement and
coordination,  however,  EPA will  assure that detailed site-specific
evaluations are conducted when New Source mining  is proposed in or adjacent
to these special Federal land holdings and interests.

     PSIA's also are based on BIA Category II zones which,  in turn,  reflect
the existence of a wide variety  of significant and sensitive aquatic and
water resources (Figure 5-2 and Table 5-5 in Section 5.2.).  In many areas,
BIA Category II designations overlap with other PSIA criteria.
                                      2-339

-------
Figure 2-59
POTENTIALLY  SIGNIFICANT IMPACT AREAS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
                                               I
                                        0       10
                                          WAPORA, INC.
                           2-340

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Chapter 3
Current and Projected Mining Activity

-------
                 3.0.   CURRENT  AND  PROJECTED MINING ACTIVITY

3.1.  PAST AND CURRENT MINING  ACTIVITY  IN  THE  BASIN

     As  stated in  Section  2.7.,  the  Monongahela River Basin is located
primarily in the Northern  Coalfield  of  West Virginia.   Its  reserve base is
characterized by higher  sulfur,  ash,  and volatility ratings in contrast to
those of the Southern  Coalfield.   The Northern Coalfield coals are more
continuous and thicker than  those  in the Southern Coalfield,  characteristics
which are related  to the depositional environmental and tectonic setting
explained in Section 2.7.  An  example of this  is the Pittsburgh coal which
is very  continuous  and ranges  between 7 and 9  feet in thickness over large
areas in northern  West Virginia.   Sulfur ranges are between 2.4% and 3.8%
and ash  content  is  above 6%  whereas  coals  in the Southern Coalfield
generally have less than 1.5%  sulfur  and less  than 6% ash.  Even though
these seams are not as high  quality,  their continuity makes it possible to
plan large underground mines with  very  high annual production.  Most
production in the  Basin is from  the  Pittsburgh coal,  where  average
production per mine is higher  than in the  Southern Coalfield,  especially for
underground mines.  Historically there  has been significant mining of the
Pittsburgh coal  seam in  the  Basin.   Furthermore, it is believed that this
coal seam, even though heavily mined  in the past,  will continue to be the
major seam mined in the  future.

     Recent coal production  data have been tabulated by quadrangle, permit
number,  coal seam, and seam  thickness (underground only)  to provide an
indication of where mining and mine-related effects have  been  substantial in
the Basin.  Also,  mine and preparation  plant locations have been plotted on
the 1:24,000-scale Base Maps,  and  other more generalized  Basin maps.  This
mapping was performed  to delineate areas currently disturbed by mining as
well as  the mining method  used in  each  area.   Current  mining has been used
as an indicator of where coal  seams  occur  in sufficient quality and quantity
to be mined economically.  These areas, if extrapolated on  the basis of
quantity and quality of remaining  reserves,  also can provide an indication
of where future mining will  occur.  A discussion of the variations in coal
quality and quantity is presented  in  Section 2.7.6.4.   Coal reserve base
data have been compiled by county, mining  method,  and  sulfur content to
determine areas with large amounts of high quality reserve  bases.

     Data on mining activity are available from several sources,  including
WVDM,  WVDNR,  WVGES, WVHD, USBM, USDOE,  and USMSHA.   These data vary in
quality, quantity, and currency.   To  maximize  the  utility of these data, the
most current data were used, provided that all of  the  necessary data were of
comparable quality.
                                      3-1

-------
     Table 3-1 lists the data sources  and  types  of  data  available  for the
analysis of mining activity in the Basin.  The data marked  with  an asterisk
were used for analysis in this section.  USMSHA  data  on  location of surface
and deep mines were found to be incorrect  too often to be useful,  and the
number of mines and locations reported by  USMSHA were less  than  the number
which had been reported by WVDNR.  Some  of the WVHD data were  compared to
other available data but were found to provide no additional  information.
However, the types of loading and transportation facilities at preparation
plants was determined from WVHD maps.  Production data  from USDOE  were
tabulated but were not used because these  data were in a preliminary form
and were not available for publication.

     Trends in West Virginia and in the  Basin have moved together:   a drop
between 1950 and 1960 (which continued through the early sixties),  an upturn
during the late 1960's which caused the  1970 total  to approximate  the level
of production in 1950, and severe declines in the early  1970"s followed by a
sharp increase in 1975.  By 1975 the production  level in the  State and in
the Basin was about 75% of the production  level  in  1950  (Figure  3-1).   The
level of coal production is volatile from  year to year,  and its  short- and
long-term trends reflect events in the National  economy.

     Comparing counties, the three largest producers  in  1950 were
Monongalia, Harrison, and Marion, which  together accounted  for about three
quarters of the total produced in the Basin.  In 1975, the  same  three
producers still accounted for about two-thirds of the total (Table 3-2).
Monongalia County increased its share  of the Basin  total to about  one-third,
but production in the other two leading  counties declined both relatively
and absolutely (Table 3-3).

     Generally, surface mining production  in the Basin has  accounted for  a
larger proportion of total production than is true of the State  (Table 3-4).
Over the period, surface production has  accounted for a  growing  percentage
of total production in the State (9% in  1950, 19% in  1975)  and in  the Basin
(20% and 30% in those years, respectively).  Within the  period,  the relative
importance of surface mining declined during the 1950's, but  increased
significantly during the 1960's.

     In general, surface mining production is a  larger proportion  of total
production in the counties that produce  least coal, and  conversely.   For
example, surface mining production accounted for over 50% of  total
production in three counties whose total production was  the least  (Taylor,
Lewis, and Tucker).  In Taylor and Tucker  Counties  there was  no  underground
coal production in 1975.  By contrast, surface mining accounted  for a much
smaller percentage in the counties having  the largest production:
Monongalia, 5%; Harrison, 34%, and Marion, 0.5%  (Table 3-4).

     Both the tonnage and the number of  surface  mines increased  from 1971 to
1975 by 14.3% and 40.8%, respectively  (Table 3-5).  On the  county  level
during this time period, large increases were reported  in Monongalia,
Preston, Randolph, and Upshur Counties;  decreases were reported  in Barbour,
                                      3-2

-------
Table 3-1.  Sources  of  data  used  to  analyze  mining activity in the Basin.
Type of Data                                    Source
                                                       USDA-
                         WVDM  WVDNR WVGES  WVHD  USGS  SCS  USBM  USDOE USMSHA
Location of:

      surface mines         *             *      +     *

      deep mines            *             *      +     *

      preparation plants    +                   *     *

      refuse piles          *                        *

Production and permitting:

      surface mines         *      *

      deep mines            *

Reserve Base:

      surface mines

      deep mines
+ available but not used

* data used in analysis.
                                      3-3

-------
Figure  3-1

COAL PRODUCTION IN MILLION OF SHORT TONS IN MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN 1950-1975 (WVDOM 1951-1976)
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Harrison, Marion, Taylor,  and Tucker  Counties.   There  appeared to be a very
strong correlation between  changes  in production levels  and  the  number of
mines in operation.

     During  1976, the  combined  coal production  of all  counties in the Basin
reached 27 million MT  (30 million short  tons; Table  3-6).  The data in Table
3-6 were reported by county  and  not by river  basin,  so the allocations to
counties only partly in the Monongahela  River Basin  are  approximate.   Except
for Taylor,  Tucker, and the  parts of  Lewis  and  Randolph  Counties that occur
within the Basin, production in  each  county of  the Basin exceeded one
million MT.  Three-quarters  of  the  total coal produced in the  Basin was from
underground  mines, but surface mine production  exceeded  underground
production in Preston, Taylor,  Barbour,  Tucker,  Lewis,  and Randolph
Counties.  All of the  production in Tucker  and  Taylor  Counties was from
surface mines.

     Two-thirds  of the coal  produced  in  the Basin was  from the Pittsburgh
seam.  Most  of this coal was mined underground  in Monongalia,  Marion,  and
Harrison Counties.  The Pittsburgh  and Redstone  coals  accounted  for 51% of
the coal produced from 17 seams  mined by surface  methods in  the  Basin.
Surface mine production from the Lower Kittanning, Upper Kittanning,  Lower
Freeport, Mahoning, Bakerstown,  and Waynesburg  seams approached  7 million MT
in the Basin.

     An evaluation of  the coal reserves  of West  Virginia has been underway
recently by  the  USGS.  The  extent of  past mining in  individual coal seams is
being determined from maps,  cross sections, and  field  mapping  (Verbally,  Mr.
Thomas Arkle, USGS, Morgantown WV, November 1,  1977).  The estimated
original Statewide coal reserve  totalled greater than  106 billion MT  (117
billion short tons), about  one-fifth  of  which was located in the Pittsburgh
and Lower Kittanning (No. 5 Block) coal  seams (Mining  Informational Services
1977).  These two coal seams have been mined  extensively, and  the Pittsburgh
seam is considered to be exhausted  in several parts  of the Basin.

     Trends  in mining previously were discussed  in the context of economic
relationships.  This discussion  identifies  the  most  recent conditions in  the
industry.  Coal mining activities include surface mines,  underground  mines,
and coal preparation plants.  Surface and underground  coal mines both are
divided into two categories:  (l) classified mines for which WVDNR permit
numbers and  other mine-specific  data  are available;  and  (2)  unclassified
mines for which WVDNR permit numbers  are not  available.   Coal  preparation
plants are divided into two  categories:   (1) mine-linked operations that  are
integrated with  permitted mining activity and therefore  do not require
individual NPDES or other permits; and (2)  freestanding  preparation plants
that operate apart from specific mines,  and therefore  probably require  their
own NPDES permits.
                                     3-S

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3.1.1.  Surface Mining

     Data on the  location  and production  of  surface  mines  are  available from
WVDNR and WVGES.  The location of surface mines  permitted  since  1971  are
plotted on the  1:24,000-scale Base Maps based  on data  that were  updated to
1977 by the WVGES.  WVDNR-Reclamation  permit numbers are used  to identify
lands currently or previously mined.   Mines  not  permitted  but  shown as
surface mines on  USGS topographic maps also have been  outlined on the Base
Maps.  Surface mines locations have been  generalized in Figure 3-2.

     There were 487 surface mines in the Monongahela River Basin for  which
WVDNR permit numbers and locational data were  available (Figure  3-2 and
Table 3-7).  These mines are listed individually in Table  3-8.   Fewer than
half of these surface mines were active during the third quarter (July
through September) of 1977.  The remainder either are  undergoing reclamation
or have been reclaimed.  For this report  compilation of classified surface
mine data, the outline of each surface mine was  traced onto  a  7.5-minute
USGS topographic  quadrangle from similar maps  on file  at the Morgantown
office of the WVGES (WVGES 1977a).  The file maps show outlines  and permit
numbers of active and inactive surface mines,  and are  based  on the
individual maps submitted  to WVDNR with permit applications.   Surface mine
permit numbers  thus traced were reconciled with  the October  1, 1977 index of
surface mining activity  (Dugolinski and Cole 1977).  The mines are shown in
Figure 3-2.

     Those surface mines with permit numbers listed  in the index were active
during the third  quarter of 1977, and  thus were  listed as  active in Tables
3-7 and 3-8.   Reclaimed  surface mines  are those  for which  final  bonds have
been released.  Bond data  are on file  at the Beckley and Philippi offices of
WVDNR (Staten 1978, Beymer 1978).  Inactive  surface mines  have permit
numbers that are  not otherwise listed  as active  or reclaimed,  These  mines
did not report coal production during  the third  quarter of 1977,  and  may or
may not have been undergoing reclamation during  that period.

     These surface mine  data were supplemented from  the surface  mining
library of the WVGES (1977b).  The additional  surface  mines were located by
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates as points  on maps  instead of  as
outlined areas at the 1:24,000 scale.  The status of each  mine was confirmed
as previously described.  Production data for  calendar year  L976 were
obtained from the Directory of Mines (WVDM 1976).

     Many surface mined  areas of the Basin cannot be identified  readily by
permit number (Figure 3-3).  Unclassified mines  are  shown  on USGS 7.5-minute
topographic maps  as stippled areas, and usually  are  labeled  thereon as  strip
mines.  Such mines may or may not be partly covered by vegetation and may or
may not be important sources of water  pollution.  No specific  data other
than the locations of these mines were compiled  for  this inventory.
                                    3-12

-------
Figure 3-2
SURFACE MINE LOCATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from WVGES 1979)
                                         0        10
                                           WAPORA, INC.
                           3-13

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-------
Table 3-8.   Surface mines of the Monongahela River  Basin,  West  Virginia (WVGES
  1977a).   Status data (A-Active;  I-Inactive;  R-Reclaimed)  are  current  through
  1 October 1977 (Dugolinsky and Cole 1977;  Letter,  Miss  Carrol Staten, WVDNR,
  Beckley  WV,  8 January 1978,  11 p.;  Letter, Mr.  Joe L. Meymer, WVDNR,  Philippi
  WV.  13  January 1978, 6 p.).   Seam  and production data  are  for calendar  year
  1976.

Quadrangle
Adrian

Audra


Belington










Berlin




















WVDNR
Permit No.
198-74
200-74
3-77

219-73
65-74
169-73
257-76
141-77
444-70
P-170-74
194-74
233-74
146-76
92-76 & 1-77
82-77
198-74
226-74
179-75
194-75

78-76
265-76
21-77

91-77
133-71
171-71
302-71
49-73
140-73
185-74
193-74
8-75
111-75
186-75
242-75
Production
Status
A
I
A

I
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A

A
A
A

A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
County
Upshur
Lewis
Upshur

Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Lewis
Lewis
Harrison &
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis

Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Upshur
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Harrison
Lewis
Harrison
Seam
Redstone

U. Freeport &
U. Kittanning

Redstone
Bakerstown
U. Freeport
U. Freeport


Bakerstown

U. Freeport
Bakerstown
U. Freeport
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone

Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone.





Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Short Tons
29,936




17,190





13,292

23,409


29,936
47,457
24,280
17,565

10,523




4,547





1,420


29,150
22,115
                                   3-18

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).

Quadrangle
Berlin
(continued)



Beverly W.













Black Water
Falls


Brandonville















Brownton





WVDNR

Permit No. Status
50-76
105-74
171-74
201-74
252-75
79-76,
142-71, 73-73
97-73
224-73
17-74
98-74
109-74
136-74
226-75
172-72
109-73
97-74
85-75
36-72
129-74
79-76
48-76
138-72
87-75
93-75
158-75
215-75
206-76
214-76

231-76
31-77
210-73
139-74
221-74
98-75
181-75
157-76
100-75
314-71
321-71
54-72
188-73
205-73
65-74
I
R
R
R
R

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
R
A
A
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A

County
Lewis
Lewis
Upshur
Lewis
Upshur

Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston

Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Production

Seam Short Tons
Redstone



Pittsburgh

Lower Kittanning
Lower Kittanning

Sewell



Sewell





Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport

Lower Kittanning
Upper Freeport
Lower Freeport
Lower Freeport
Upper Freeport
Ben's Creek, Upper
& Lower Kittanning
Mahoning
Upper Freeport



Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Mahoning
Upper Kittanning
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh





7,402














26,324
14,137
6,649

9,566
25,837
73,987
64,910



20,894





10,043
6,014
18,842
20,246
57,635
19,455
116,649
184,652

                                          3-19

-------
Table 3-8.  Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).

Quadrangle
Browntown
(continued)



































Bruceton
Mills



WVDNR
Permit No.
114-74
144-74

146-76 &
248-74
246-75

112-76
131-76

136-76
173-76
227-76
255-76

51-72
146-72

169-72

141-76
102-74
213-74
130-74
37-74
192-74
75-75

9-75
199-75
221-75
235-75
214-73
166-76
10-74
168-72
47-76
18-74
114-75
236-75
18-76
214-76

Status
A
A


A
A

A
A

A
A
A
A

I
I

I

I
I
I
1
I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
A
A

County
Barbour
Barbour


Barbour
Barbour

Barbour
Barbour

Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour

Barbour
Harrison &
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour

Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour

Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Barbour
Ba rbo ur
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Production

Seam Short Tons

Redstone &
Pittsburgh

Upper Freeport
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburg
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone


Pittsburgh

Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone

Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh

Upper Freeport
Lower Freeport
Bakerstown
Ben's Creek, Upper




23,409


2,886


11,732
4,219
18,730


106,512


297,330

8,200
24,462
9,897
171,514

6,560


58,748
124,123
32,047
7,921
167,114
44,956

38,797


2,061



and Lower Freeport





201-73
304-71
18-73
143-74
240-74
I
R
R
R
R
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston










                                            3-20

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela  River  Basin  (continued).
Quadrangle

Camden
Century
 WVDNR
Permit No.

28-76

202-76
169-72
91-73
188-73
57-74
248-74
45-75
129-75
41-76
171-76

173-76
227-76
239-76

12-77

222-71
257-71
116-72
6-73
63-73
117-73
120-73
11-74
 5-74
53-74
57-74
95-74
140-74
241-74

56-75

60-75
62-75
192-75
199-75

223-75
244-75
25-76
10-77
                                                             Production
Status

   A

   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A

   A
   A
   A
                              I
                              I
                              I
                              I

                              I
                              I
                              I
                              I
County

Lewis

Lewis
Barb our
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur

Barbour
Barbour
Upshur

Upshur
Seam
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Preston
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
          Upshur

          Upshur
          Barbour
          Harrison
          Barbour

          Harrison
          Upshur
          Barbour
          Barbour
Second Little
  Pittsburgh
Redstone &
  Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh

Redstone
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Elklick
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone &
  Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
  Pittsburgh
Redstone &
  Pittsburgh
                                                    Redstone
                                                    Pittsburgh
                                                    Upper Freeport
                Pittsburgh

                Pittsburgh

                Redstone &
                  Pittsburgh
                Redstone
                Redstone
                Pittsburgh
                Redstone

                Pittsburgh
                Redstone
                Pittsburgh
                Redstone &
                  Pittsburgh
Short Tons
     3,009
   297,330

   116,649

    23,409
     1,110
     1,212
                                                                          4,219
                                                                         18,730
                                               68,911
                                                  787
                                               4,734
                                                                          2,885

                                                                         22,564
                     28,820
                    264,711

                    124,123

                    113,359
                     32,417
                     19,848
                                         3-21

-------
   Table 3-8.  Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
 WVDNR
Permit
                                                                    Production
Status  County
Clarksburg
Cuzzart
341-71
 58-72
 86-73
 43-74
120-74
131-74
 21-75

258-75
 62-76
207-76
262-76

 49-77
R
R
R
R
R
R
R

A
A
A
A
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur

Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison

Harrison
               Seam
                                                     Pittsburgh
Redstone

Elklick
Redstone

Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
  Pittsburgh
Redstone &

78-77
85-77
99-77
124-77
138-77

124-74
65-75
122-75
170-75
182-75
71-76
91-76
55-76
4-75
148-75
191-76
65-72
87-73
211-73
35-74
127-74
205-74
249-74
20-75
103-75
106-75
158-75
4-76
56-76
110-77


A
A
A
A
A

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A


Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison

Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston

Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh

Redstone

Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh


Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Kittanning
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Mahoning
Upper Freeport
Lower Freeport
Mahoning
Upper Kittanning
Mahoning; Upper &
Lower Freeport
                     Short Tons
                       30,416
                                                                            21,457
 24,448

133,327
 49,361
  1,341
                                                                            44,477

                                                                             5,437
                                                                            22,945
                                                                             2,068
                                                                               390
                                                                             3,383
                                                                            66,244
                                                                            96,779
                                                                            22,572
                                                                            31,700

                                                                             5,552
                                                                            50,552
                                                                            73,987
                                                                            88,287
                                                                             8,389
                 337-71
                     Preston
                                          3-22

-------
Table  3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).

                                                              Production
Quadrangle

Cuzzart
(continued)
Davis
Durbin SW
Fairmont W.
 WVDNR
Permit No.   Status    County

187-71          R      Preston
 15-71          R      Preston
134-74          R      Preston

284-71          A      Tucker
25-72           A      Tucker
129-74          A      Tucker
169-74          A      Tucker
96-75           A      Tucker
74-76           A      Tucker
110-76          A      Tucker
175-76          A      Tucker
146-77          A      Tucker

24-72           I      Tucker
72-73           I      Tucker
63-74           I      Tucker
110-74          I      Grant & Tucker
48-76           I      Tucker

2-76            A      Randolph
                Seam
                 Short Tons
3-76
28-77
SMA-977
214-71
270-75
SMA-1208
A
A
A
I
I
I
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
225-74

142-75
140-76
168-76
243-76
                Bakerstown
                Bakerstown
                Upper Freeport
                Bakerstown
                Bakerstown
                Upper Freeport
                Bakerstown
                Bakerstown
                Ben's Creek &
                  Upper Freeport

                Upper Freeport
                Upper Freeport
                Elklick
                Upper Freeport

                Eagle, Gilbert,
                  laeger, Castle
                Eagle
                Sewell
                Sewell
                Bradshaw
                Gilbert
                Gilbert & laeger
A

A
A
A
A
Harrison &
Marion
Harrison
Harrison
Marion
Marion


Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
                     93,270
                     73,761
                     26,324
                      4,966

                     14,137
                                                                          26,409
                                                                          44,766
                                                                             157
                                                                           6,649
                                                                          22,948

                                                                          12,350
              39-75
              143-75
              169-75

              195-75
              216-75
              100-76
              46-72
                I
                I
                I

                I
                I
                I
                R
Marion
Marion
Marion

Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Waynesburg &
  Waynesburg
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
"A"
         6,541
        41,737
        24,128
                                         3-23

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).

                                                                Production
Quadrangle
Fellowsville
Friendsville
Gladesville
Grafton
Junior
Kingwood
Lake Lynn
 WVDNR
Permit No.

122-74
 16-76
129-76
 22-74
268-74
 22-71

 93-75
 98-75
188-74

315-71
126-75

260-71
153-74
219075
Status  County

A       Preston
A       Preston
A       Preston
I       Nicholas
I       Preston
R       Preston

A       Preston
I       Preston
R       Preston

A       Preston
A       Monongalia

I       Monongalia
I       Monongalia
I       Monongalia &
          Preston
160-75
37-77
60-77
7-76
230-74
17-75
346-70
342-71
43-76
133-76
4-77
28-72
92-74
112-74
157-74
52-75
123-75
157-75
174-76
52-74
63-73
16-74
56-74
233-75
A
A
A
I
R
R
I
R
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
I
I
I
I
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Randolph
Randolph
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Seam
                                                       Bakerstown
                                                       Pittsburgh
                                                       Cedar Grove
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Lower Freeport &
  Upper Kittanning
Lower Kittanning

Lower Freeport
                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Pittsburgh

                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Bakerstown
                                      Bakerstown
                                      Bakerstown
                                                       Bakerstown
                                                       Bakerstown
                                                       Lower Freeport
                                                       Upper Freeport
Short Tons
                         8,771
                         3,149
                         9,251
    25,837



     6,995


    17,618

     3,825


    32,640


     7,409
                                                                                13,802
                                                               19,445
                                                       Redstone
                                                                7*289
                                          3-24

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).

                                                              Production
Quadrangle
Leadmine
Masontown
Mingo NE
Mount Clare
WVDNR
Permit No .
138-73
169-74
102-75
74-76
231-74
40-73
132-73
246-74
188-75
239-75
5-76
13-77
36-77
57-77
76-75
243-71
32-75
35-73
216-73
51-74
109-75
232-76

Status
A
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
R
A
I
I
A
A
A

County
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Pocahontas
Randolph
Randolph
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
              247-76

              32-77
              40-77
              331-71
              59-73
              126-74
              161-74
              97-75
              40-76
              272-76
Morgantown S. 64-74
236-74
171-75
42-76
245-76
17-77
48-77
13-69
                A

                A
                A
                I
                I
                I
                I
                I
                I
                I
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
       Monongalia

       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
       Monongalia
Monongalia

Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
                                       Seam
                                                     Bakerstown
                                                     Upper Freeport
                                                     Upper Freeport
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Bakerstown
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Bakerstown
                                       Upper Freeport
                                       Upper Freeport
                                        Short Tons
                                                             4,966
                                                            74,267
                                                            14,137
                                            70,411
                                               325
                                           111,984
                                            45,643
                                            17,567
                                            11,275
                                                                          42,695
                                                     Sewell
                                                            22,823
                Redstone             37,780
                Upper Kittanning     22,393
                Sewickley &
                  Redstone
                Sewickley, Redstone
                  & Pittsburgh
                Redstone & Pittsburgh
                Sewickley
                Sewickley            56,542
                Sewickley
                Redstone             18,265
                Sewickley,  Redstone
                  & Pittsburgh
Redstone             18,822
Pittsburgh            9,275
Pittsburgh           10,710
Pittsburgh            5,486
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
                                         3-25

-------
Table 3-8.  Surface mines of the Monongahela  River  Basin  (continued).
Quadrangle

Mount Clare
(continued)
 WVDNR
Permit No.

175-70
252-74
58-75
59-75
111-75
144-75
269-75
261-75
103-76
176-77
156-71
83-75
                                                             Production
Status    County
                Seam
                                                                      Short  Tons
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   R
   R
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Pittsburgh           32,426
Pittsburgh            7,781
Pittsburgh           12,476
Pittsburgh           12,889
Redstone
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh           19,460
Pittsburgh            5,896
Pittsburgh            6,066
                                                     Redstone
Mount Storm
  Lake
Mozark Mtn.

Nestorville
Newburg
Oakland
73-69
72-70
106-70

74-76

224-74
226-76

128-74
277-71

315-71

11-74
122-74
179-76
224-76
25-77
112-77
 28-72
44-74
121-75
123-75
127-76
9-73
165-73
223-73

 15-75
116-76
   I
   I
   I
   A
   A

   I
   R
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   A
   I
   I
   I
   I
   I
   R
   R
   R

   A
   A
Grant
Grant
Grant

Tucker

Harbour
Barbour

Barbour
Barbour

Preston

Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston

Preston
Preston
                          Upper Freeport
                                                     Upper & Lower
                                                       Kittanning
                                                     Bakerstown
                          Pittsburgh
                     14,317
                      5,703
                      6,995
                                                     Upper Freeport        4,734
                                                     Pittsburgh           37,092
                                                     Bakerstown
                                                     Upper Freeport
                                                     Upper Freeport
                                                     Pittsburgh & Upper Freeport
                                                     Upper Freeport
                                                     Pittsburgh
                                                     Bakerstown
                                                     Bakerstown
                       9,474
                      14,819

                       5,790
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
80,116
58,451
                                          3-26

-------
Table 3-8.  Surface Mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle

Osage
 WVDNR
Permit # Status County
                                                                     Production
Philippi
Pickens SE
Pickens NW
Pickens SE
Pickens SW
338-71
57-73
117-75
LOC//8 5607
124-73
103-74
222-75
58-76
35-75
217-72
232-72
191-75
54-76
63-76
112-76
102-70
205-72
102-74
130-74
158-74
192-74
75-75
164-75
193-75
196-75
110-71
5-72
13-73
16-73
213-73
210-74
47-76
211-74
190-75
181-74
273-74
143-75
145-76
89-77
35-73
216-73
114-75
68-76
211-74
113-75
89-77
181-74
143-75
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
I
I
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Taylor & Barbour
Taylor
Taylor
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Taylor
Barbour
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Seam

Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
                                                       Waynesburg
                                                       Waynesburg
                                                       Waynesburg
                                                       Upper Kittanning
                                                       Pittsburgh
                                                       Upper & Middle
                                                         Kittanning
                                                       Redstone & Pittsburg
                                                       Redstone

                                                       Redstone
                                                       Redstone
                                                       Redstone
                                                       Lower Kittanning
                                                       Redstone
                                                       Redstone & Pittsburgh
                                                       Pittsburg
                                                       Pittsburg
                                                       Pittsburg
Short Tons

    36,378
    38,391
    41,522
    25,546
                                   Pittsburg

                                   Sewell
                                   Peerless
                                                           175,536
                                                            42,809
                                                             2,886

                                                            35,925
                                                            24,462
                                                           171,514
                                                            36,320
                                                             6,560
                                                            23,081
                         66,900
                          4,550
                                   Filbert, Laeger & Castle
                                   Sewell & Welch

                                   Sewell

                                   Bradshaw

                                   Sewell
                                   Peerless
                                   Sewell-Welch
                         22,823

                         41,091

                         66,900
                                         3-27

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle

Rivesville
Roanoke
Rosemont
Sago NE
Sago NW
Sago SE
WVDNR
Permit No .
57-73
6-77
101-77
39-73
234-74
255-74
51-75
202-75
211-75
121-72
45-73
84-75
208-76
137-77
142-73
144-76
99-71
21-76
219-76
324-69
157-71
45-74
91-74
29-75
65-75
217-75
207-71
69-75
190-74
101-75
147-76
185-76

252-76
27-77
124-75
112-73
69-74
147-76
252-76
63-77

Production
Status
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
A

A
A
I
R
R
A
A
A

County
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Marion
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Taylor
Harrison
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Harrison
Harrison
Taylor
Taylor
Harrison
Upshur
Randolph
Upshur
Barbour

Upshur
Randolph
Upshur
Randolph
Randolph
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur

Seam
Waynesburg
Wayne sburg
Waynesburg


Sewickley
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg


Elklick
Redstone
Redstone

Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh


Redstone & Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh
Upper Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Upper &
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittannning
Upper Mercer
Upper Kittanning


Middle Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Upper, Middle &
Lower Kittanning
Short Tons
38,391




1,400
116,742

412,505






7,897
38,821

7,691

27,642



851
69,565


6,963
89,115
14,911


20,800

14,873


14,911
20,800


 97-73
109-74
101-75
 79-76
142-76
 27-77
A
A
A
A
A
A
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Lower Kittanning

Upper Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Sewell
Upper Kittanning
390,000

 89,115


 14,911
                                             3-28

-------
Table 3-8.  Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quandrangle

Sago SE
Sago SW
Shinnston
Terra Alta


Thornton

Valley Point
  WVDNR
Permit No.

 73-73
109-73
 97-74
 85-75

 23-76
163-76
254-76

 58-77

138-74
 71-75
 77-73

170-74
142-75
 60-76
 66-76
132-76
216-76
228-72
 55-74
153-76
162-76
 43-73
 26-76

 15-75
116-76

315-71

 40-73
 18-74
 75-74
246-74
178-75
 53-76
130-76
137-76
 33-77

565-70
 81-72
192-73
201-73
216-74
254-74
 94-75
183-75
 24-77
                                                                  Production
Status  County
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
I
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Marion
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Seam
                                                                         Short Tons
                     Upper Mercer

                     Lower Kittanning
                     Middle Kittanning
                     Middle &
                       Lower Kittanning
                     Middle &
                       Lower Kittanning
                     Peerless
                     Alma
                     Pittsburgh
                     Pittsburgh
                     Pittsburgh
                     Peerless
                     Pittsburgh
                     Pittsburgh
                     Pittsburgh
                     Pittsburgh

                     Pittsburgh

                     Upper Freeport
                     Upper Freeport

                     Pittsburgh

                     Upper Freeport

                     Upper Freeport
                     Upper Freeport
                     Bakerstown
                     Lower Freeport
                     Upper Freeport
                     Upper Freeport
                     Upper &
                       Lower Freeport
                        68,412
                                                                             48,600
                                                                             63,338
                         4,296
                        22,948
                        15,562
                        19,285
                         3,800

                        11,071

                        80,116
                        58,451

                         6,995

                        70,411

                         4,420
                       111,984
                        23,070
                        10,799
                        77,063
                                                     Elklick
                                                     Upper Freeport
                                              2,972
                                             25,140
                                            3-29

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela  River Basin   (continued).
Quadrangle

Valley Point
(continued)
Wallace
West Milford
Weston
Whitmer

Wolf Summit
WVDNR
Permit No.
187-71
304-71
33-72
34-72
61-72
1-73
13-74
38-74
134-74
240-74
30-75
111-71
219-71
259-71
118-75
292-70
398-70
66-72
2-73
133-73
176-74
25-75
2-76
119-75
31-76
36-76
21-77

139-77
137-73
182-74
250-74
232-75

Status
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
I
I
R
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A

A
I
I
I
I

County
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis &
Harrison
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
                                                             Production
                                      Seam
                                       Short Tons
313-70

207-75
62-76
190-76
263-76
73-77
96-77
99-77
144-73
39-74
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
Randolph

Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
                                                     Upper  Freeport
                                      Bakerstown


                                      Pittsburgh


                                      Pittsburgh


                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Pittsburgh

                                      Redstone
                                      Redstone
                                      Pittsburgh
                                      Redstone  &
                                        Pittsburgh
                                                            9,275
                                             2,968


                                            17,868


                                             4,912


                                            19,046



                                           177,482
                                             8,004
                                             4,073
                                             3,942
                                                     Redstone
Pittsburgh            2,058
Pittsburgh           49,367
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh            6,993
Redstone             25,202
                                         3-30

-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (concluded).

               WVDNR                                          Production
Quadrangle    Permit No.   Status    County          Seam             Short Tons

Wolf Summit   162-74          I      Harrison
(continued)   70-75           I      Harrison        Pittsburgh            8,410
              220-75          I      Harrison        Pittsburgh           13,297
              249-75          I      Harrison        Pittsburgh           19,734
              130-75          R      Harrison        Pittsburgh           15,452
                                        3-31

-------
Figure  3-3
UNCLASSIFIED SURFACE MINES IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (adapted from  WVGES  1979)
                                          0       10
                                             WAPORA, INC.
                            3-32

-------
 3.1.2.  Underground Mines

     There  are  188 classified  underground  coal  mines  in the Basin that are
 identifiable by permit  number  and  location from available  and  usable
 information.  Approximately  72%  of  these mines  were  active during the months
 of January  through June  1977  (Table 3-6).   Most of the  classified
 underground mines listed in  Table 3-9 were identified from the coal company
 master  file (WVDM 1977a).  The location of underground  mines is  shown on the
 1:24,000-scale Base Maps and in  Figure 3-4.

     Additional mines were identified from US Bureau  of Mines  data (USBM
 1977).  Names of operators and mines thus  identified  were  used to extract
 appropriate permit numbers from  a  preliminary updated list of  underground
 mine data  (WVDM 1977b).  The USBM  data do  not show the  locations by latitude
 and longitude for approximately  half of the  listed mines.   Location and
 status  data for unidentified mines  were retrieved from  the master file (WVDM
 1977a).  Production data listed  in  Tables  3-6 and 3-9 are  for  calendar year
 1976 (WVDM  1977a).  Unclassified underground mines are  those for which
 permit  numbers and location  data were not  available.

     Two additional sources  of underground mine data  were  identified,  but
 such data are not in readily available or  usable form.   EPA Region III
 recently compiled maps  and summary  data on discharges for  7,000  mines  in the
 Basin,  but  no results were reported  (Verbally,  Mr. Scott McFalmy,  EPA,
Wheeling WV, January 23,  1978).  The WVDM  has approximately 30,000 maps of
 abandoned underground mines  on file  at Charleston.  No  effort  is planned by
WVDM to compile these data (Verbally, Mr.  David Kessler, WVDM,  Charleston,
WV, December 12, 1977).

 3.1.3.  Preparation Plants

     This inventory identifies only  those  freestanding  coal preparation
 plants  that are not within the permit areas of  classified  mines  (Figure 3-5
 and Table 3-10).  Not all such preparation plants in  the Basin are
 identified, because the  base document (USBM 1977) from  which these
preparation plant data were  compiled does  not list locations for
approximately half of its entries.  No information was  available from  the
data source as to whether the nine  identified coal preparation plants  were
active or not.
                                      3-33

-------
Table 3-9.   Underground mines  of  the Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia
  (WVDM 1976,  1977a).   Status  is  current  through October 1977 (WVDM 1977a;
  USBM 1977; A-Active,  I-Inactive).  Coal  seam and production data are  for
  1976 (WVDM 1976).

                                                       Production
                                                       ~~~     Short Tons
                                                                   209,941
                                                                    74,052

Quadrangle
Adrian
Audra
Audra
Berlin
Beverly W
Blacksville
Blacksville
Blacksville
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Bruceton
Mills
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Cuzzart
Cuzzart
Durbin SW
Durbin SW
Durbin SW
Fairmont E
Fellowsville
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-8291
D-8959
D-5045-S
D-9519-S
D-9499
D-413
D-414
D-6159
D-6338
D-6436
D-8760
D-9721
D-9788
D-8968-S
D-9693
D-9694
D-9819
D-9820
D-10109-S

D-8554
D-505
D-7080
D-8553-S
D-8849-S
D-9471
D-8123-S
D-8178-S
D-8360
D-8989
D-8493
D-9659
D-9902
D-10032-S
D-10043
D-9437
D-9482
D-9686
D-9003
D-8185-S
D-8677
D-9525-S
D-9592
D-8507
D-8935

Status
A
A
I
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I

A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
A
A

County
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Lewis
Randolph
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour .'
Barbour
Barbour
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Barbour

Preston
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Randolph
Randolph
Randol ph
Marion
Preston

Seam
Uppe
Midd
Uppe
Reds
Lowe
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Reds
Reds
Reds
Reds
Camb
Reds
Pitt
Reds
Pitt
Pitt
Reds

Uppe
Reds
Pitt
Reds
Pitt
Lowe
Pitt
Reds
Reds
Reds
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Uppe
Uppe
Gilb
Gilb
Brad
Lowe
Uppe
                                                                       300

                                                                 1,314,618
                                                                 1,410,931
                                                                 1,045,986
                                                                    53,124
                                                                    26,380
Middle Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Redstone
Lower Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Cambell Creek &- Peerless
       ie
       argh            3,949
       ie              7,296
       irgh            1,814
       irgh            2,902
                                                                    91,128

                                                                   347,133
                                                                   650,903
                                                                    47,575

                                                                    22,341
                                                                    31,976

                                                                       939

                                                                     2,949
                                                                    32,192
                                                                       814
Lower Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Gilbert
Gilbert
Bradshaw
Lower Kittanning
                                                                     8,616
                                                                   779,676
                                                                    24,470
                                    3-34

-------
Table 3-9.  Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).

Quadrangle
Gladesville
Gladesville
Glady
Graf ton
Graf ton
Grant Town
Grant Town
Junior
Junior
Kingwood
Kingwood
Kingwood
Lake Lynn
Mannington
Mannington
Mannington
Mannington
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown jj
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-8940
D-8941
D-8060
D-9649
D-9735
D-406
D-408
D-5301
D-9527
D-609
D-8733
D-9921
D-8391
D-403
D-405
D-6368
D-404
D-460
D-4893
D-6203
D-6606
D-9052
D-9053
D-9639
D-375
D-376
D-400
D-413
D-415
D-4467
D-5927
D-6798
D-8087-S
D-8223
D-8934
D-9376
D-9494
D-9633
D-9666
D-9687
D-9753
D-4992
D-9688
D-7097
D-9647
D-9783
Production
Status
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
County
Monongalia
Monongalia
Randolph
Barbour
Harrison
Marion
Marion
Barbour
Barbour
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Seam
Upper Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Sewell
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Lower Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Upper Freeport
Bakers town
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh

Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley
Sewickley
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley
Sewickley
Sewickley
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Short Tons

301

17,222
65,207
896,113
302,455


13,790



1,989,929
431,104
364,748
108,070

43,260

31,412
218,701
72,898




1,314,618
2,054,984


73,917
72,262

37,521

96,727

7,203
7,868


161



                                        3-35

-------
Table 3-9.  Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Nestorville
Nestorville
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Osage
Osage
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Pickens NE
Pickens NE
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens SW
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-9784
D-9856
D-9866
D-8664
D-9974
D-9975
D-6200
D-9017
D-9451
D-9602
D-9777
D-5891
D-416
D-8937
D-502
D-4692
D-8827
D-1219
D-6611
D-9298
D-9478
D-8939
D-8958
D-9163
D-9383
D-9524
D-9636
D-8721
D-9209
D-9367
D-9409
D-9415
D-9508
D-9578
D-9635
D-9637
D-9644
D-9769
D-9149
D-8716
D-405
D-4277
D-4846
D-8798
D-9252
Status
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
County
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Barbour
Barbour
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Marion
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Production
Seam Short Tons
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone 87,814
Redstone
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport 28,020
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport 26,375
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport 4,370
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh 562,482
Sewickley 46,879
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittanning 223,659
Pittsburgh 1,200
Lower Kittanning 81,910
Upper Kittanning 59,198

Sewell 71,443
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Sewell 91,792
Sewell 27,060
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek &
Peerless 2,395
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek &
Peerless 570
Sewell "B"
Sewell "B" 892
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Sewell "B" 7,482
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Pittsburgh 431,104
Sewickley
Sewickley 46,391
Sewickley 92,200
Sewickley 81,106
                                       3-36

-------
Table 3-9.  Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle

Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rosemont
Rosemont
Rowlesburg
Sago SW
Sago SW
Sago NE
Sago NW
Salem
Shinnstoa
Shinnston
Shinnstoa
Shinnston
Shirmston
Shinnston
Shinnston
Shinnston
Shinnston
Thornton
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Wadestown
Wadestown
Wallace
Wallace
Wallace
Wallace
West Milford
West Milford
Weston
Weston
Wolf Summit
Wo1f S ummi t
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-9331
D-9541
D-449
D-7041
D-9009
D-9808
D-9157-S
D-8991
D-9581
D-9015
D-9764
D-9014
D-8994
D-657
D-4786-S
D-6169
D-6402
D-9500
D-9501
D-9778
D-9809
D-9894
D-2979
D-4893
D-8182
D-9288-S
D-9509
D-9733
D-9734
D-10168
D-4563
D-5744
D-671
D-4786-S
D-8838
D-9723
D-9722
D-9953
D-8947
D-9691
D-8234
D-8994
D-9305
D-9615
D-9810
D-9903
Production
Status
A
A
I
I
I
A
I
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
County
Marion
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Taylor
Preston
Upshur
Upshur
Randolph
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Marion
Marion
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Lewis
Lewis
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Seam Short Tons
Sewickley
Waynesburg
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Mahoning
Middle Kit tanning
Middle Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh

Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
1,500


12,377

7,638





28,300
78,136
508,867
2,869,470

742,100
14,299





43,260
65,120
113,551
92,027



1,030,406
1,636,238

2,869,470
79,325
415
20,360

41,193


78,136

21,061

3,222
                                         3-37

-------
Table 3-9. Underground mines of the Monongahela River  Basin (concluded).

                WVDNR                                       Production
Quadrangle    Permit No.   Status   County          Seam             Short Tons

Wolf Summit   D-9998        A      Harrison        Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit   D-10001       A      Harrison        Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit   D-10002       A      Harrison        Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit   D-670         I      Harrison        Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit   D-9665        I      Harrison        Pittsburgh            2,841
Wolf Summit   D-9669        I      Harrison        Pittsburgh            1,894
Wolf Summit   D-9670        I      Harrison        Pittsburgh
                                        3-38

-------
Figure 3-5
LOCATION OF COAL PREPARATION PLANTS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (adapted from USGS, USMSHA 1979)
                                         0       10
                                           WAPOFU, IMC.
                           3-40

-------
Table 3-10.  Selected coal preparation plants in the Monongahela River Basin,
  West Virginia (USBM 1977).
    Operator

Maidsville Coal Co.
Route 7  Box 123-H
Morgantown WV    26505

Cheyenne Sales Co.
P. 0. Box 297
Bridgeport WV    26330

Ann-Lorentz Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 695
Buckhannon.WV    26201
                    Plant
                 Maidsville Tipple
                 Colt Tipple
                 Ann-Lorentz Tipple
   USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle Name

Osage
Rosemont
Berlin
Upshur Redstone Coal Co.
Box 666
Buckhannon WV    26201
                 Electro Tipple
Sago N.W.
GHB Coals, Inc.
P. 0.  Box 630
Clarksburg WV
26301
Dexcar Queen Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 8
Buckhannon WV    26201

Ann-Lorentz Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 695
Buckhannon WV    26201
                 Kano Tipple
                 Queen Tipple
                 Ann-Lorentz #2 Tipple
Century
Century; Sago N.W
Century
Badger Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 472
Philippi WV    26416

Kingwood Mining Co.
Box 596
Kingwood WV    26537
                 Central Preparation Plant
Philippi
                 Albright Preparation Plant     Kingwood
                                    3-41

-------
3.2.  MINING METHODS IN THE BASIN

     This section briefly describes  the  predominant mining  methods  currently
used in the Basin with emphasis on environmental considerations.  Several
constraints affect the selection of  coal mining methods  and techniques  to
minimize environmental degradation.  Because coal mining  traditionally  has
been a hazardous occupation,  the primary concern in the mining  of coal  is
the health and safety of the  individual  coal miner, according to Federal law
(Federal Mine Safety and Health Act  of 1977, as amended,  Section 2  (a); P.L.
95-164, effective March 9, 1978).  Environmental effects  of the various
methods and techniques also are of major concern because  of past destructive
practices.  Other important concerns include the use  of mining  methods  and
abandonment practices which will achieve the maximum  recovery of the  coal
resource with the least expenditure  of energy and labor.

     The decision to mine coal by surface or underground  techniques gener-
ally is based on site-specific factors.  Among the most  important site  fac-
tors are the depth of cover and coal seam thickness across  the  proposed
permit area.  Development costs for  underground mines are significantly
higher than for surface mines.  This differential, together with higher
labor inputs, results in a higher cost per ton for coal mined by underground
methods as compared to surface mined coal.  To amortize  the higher  develop-
ment costs, underground mines generally  produce coal  over a longer  term than
surface mines.  Surface mining techniques are appropriate where overburden
is too fragmented and weak to form a safe roof above  underground tunnels and
the seam is at a relatively shallow  depth (generally  <150 feet).

     The following discussion of mining methodologies currently employed in
the Basin is intended to establish the connection between sensitive environ-
mental resources and mining in the Basin.  For more detailed descriptions of
surface mining methods, the reader is referred to Chironis  (1978);  Grim and
Hill (1974); and Skelly and Loy (1975, 1979).  For more detailed descrip-
tions of underground mining methods, the reader is referred to  EPA  (1976)
and NUS Corporation (1977).  The President's Commission on  Coal (1980), EPA
(1979a, 1979b), Schmidt (1979), and USOTA (1979a) also provide  general
information.

3.2.1.  Surface Mining Methods

     As described in Section 2.7., West Virginia coal frequently occurs as
more or less horizontal bands of varying thickness between  layers of  various
kinds of rock.  The coal seams may be exposed at the  surface along mountain-
sides, where they can be mined using surface methods.  To remove the  coal by
surface methods, access roads must be built to get equipment to the coal.
Then the vegetation on the surface, the  soil, and the associated rock must
be removed, before the coal itself can be transported to  a  preparation  plant
or user.  The mine site then must be placed in a suitable long-term condi-
tion by regrading and the reestablishment of vegetation.  Throughout  the
opeiat ion, environmental standards pursuant to SMCRA  and WVSCMRA must be
met .
                                    3-43

-------
     Contour surface mines typically are  long, narrow  operations  that  undu-
late through the landscape in response to topography,  often high  above the
valley bottoms.  Historically, contour mining involved the "shoot  and  shove"
technique where overburden, blasted loose by explosives, was bulldozed down-
slope from the coal outcrop.  Coal then was loaded onto dump trucks  by
shovels and bucket loaders, as the mine operation continued around the
mountain, following the outcrop along the contour.  Often the mine operation
was abandoned with little or no post-mining reclamation (EPA 1979a).

     Contour surface methods at present have grown more sophisticated  and
can be categorized by the manner in which overburden, rock, and coal are
moved about.  In the Basin several different mining methods are employed due
to the varied topography.  Haulback is the principal method for new  contour
mining in steeply sloping areas.  Augering also is practiced.  Mountaintop
removal involves cross-ridge mining and head of hollow fills.  Regardless of
the method employed, some overburden material generally must be placed down-
slope from the mine pit in a controlled manner.  Current regulations
prohibit uncontrolled downslope overburden dumping.  Because of the  import-
ance of overburden disposal, current practices are discussed separately in
Section 5.7.

     3.2.1.1.  Box Cut and Block Cut Contour Mining Methods

     Box cut and block cut methods are traditional forms of contour  surface
mining.  In a box cut operation, after the timber and soil have been
removed, an initial cut is made into the uppermost rock material with  dozers
to form a drill bench (Figure 3-6).  The consolidated overburden then  is
drilled, blasted, and removed to storage areas.  The cut is a rectangular
area that extends to the limits of the highwall (Figure 3-7).  No outcrop
barrier of coal typically is left behind in West Virginia.  After the
initial "box" has been cut, the pit can be expanded outward.

     If the coal on both sides of the pit then is mined and the spoil  is
placed in the middle, the method is labeled block cut mining (Figure 3-8).
In this case the sequence of operations is more complex (Figure 3-9).

     The final USOSM permanent program regulations, and some States  such as
Pennsylvania, require that a band of undisturbed coal be left along  the out-
crop as an aid in water retention on the bench and to reduce the potential
for downslope movement of regraded overburden after the mine is reclaimed.
Under West Virginia conditions, the weathered coal has been found to be a
poor road base for trucks and to break down under traffic.  Hence operators
frequently remove the weathered outcrop coal (the "blossom"), even though it
generally is not marketable, and replace it with controlled fill material
that provides greater stability and a superior road base.

     3.2.1.2.  Haulback Methods

     The haulback technique, also termed lateral movement or controlled
placement mining, can be adapted effectively to the steep slopes of  the
                                    3-44

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3-48

-------
 Monongahela River Basin.   Its environmental advantages include flexibility
 in meeting two critical  regulatory provisions:   1) reclaiming mined land to
 approximate original contour; and 2) eliminating the need for uncontrolled
 downslope spoil deposition (which now is prohibited).  As a replacement for
 older,  conventional contour methods, the haulback method is an adaptation
 which may use  box cut  or  modified block cut operational sequencing.
 Haulback is a  more delicate operation which handles overburden material more
 effectively and efficiently.

     The initial cut is  a small box cut or block cut at a point where the
 coal seam crops out.  Because many of these operations are located in
 previously mined areas,  old abandoned benches are frequently available for
 storage of initial cut overburden.  In virgin areas, the initial cut
 generally is located adjacent to a hollow.  In this manner, a readily
 accessible area is provided for controlled placement of the initial cut
 spoil material.  A head  of hollow fill then can be constructed with this
•initial cut spoil in accordance with State and Federal regulatory require-
 ments .

     After the exposed coal is removed from the first cut, mining proceeds
 around  the contour of  the coal outcrop.  Overburden, as the mining name
 implies, then  is hauled  laterally along the mine bench and is placed select-
 ively in the mined-out pit area.  Generally,  overburden from the second
 mined area is  used to  fill the first area, the third area fills the second,
 and so  on.  The operation ordinarily proceeds in only one direction from the
 initial cut.  Complicated logistical planning and scheduling for drilling
 and blasting,  overburden  removal, coal removal, and hauling sequences, as
 well as reclamation operations, must precede the actual mining operation, if
 costs and environmental  impacts are to be minimized while coal recovery is
 maximized.  These steps  can be illustrated in a flow diagram of unit opera-
 tions (Figure  3-10) .

     Haulback  methods  differ mainly in the equipment for overburden loading
 and haulage.  Hence haulback is distinct from conventional contour methods
 which employ direct placement or pushing of overburden.  The three basic
 types of equipment used  in haulback are:  1)  front-end loader or shovel/
 truck combinations which  are presently the most popular; 2) scrapers; and
 3)  loader (shovel)/truck  combinations in concert with scrapers.  These three
 different equipment combinations create mine pits of somewhat differing
 appearance (Figure 3-11).

     The site  preparation, coal loading, coal hauling, augering, and reclam-
 ation unit operations  of  the haulback method are similar to conventional
 contour mining practices.   Overburden preparation in the haulback method,
 however, does  involve  a  change in drilling and  blasting.  For haulback
 methods, special deck  loading and delayed blasting procedures are utilized
 to prevent outslope spoil  deposition.  The blasting is designed to lift the
 overburden upward, but not outward.  One procedure, devised by a West
 Virginia firm,  consists  of delaying the blast shots in curvilinear rows, so
 that overburden is thrown laterally back into the open pit by the blast.
                                     3-49

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 Figure  3-11   HAULBACK MINING METHODS (adapted  from Chironis 1978)
                       3-51

-------
     Overburden loading and hauling unit operations in the haulback method
also vary from conventional methods.  The front-end loader (shovel)/truck
system usually is utilized and is effective if properly managed.   Pit
congestion can become a problem due to the narrow working benches  resulting
from steep slopes.  Dozers may be utilized to construct haul roads and  ramps
and generally to push the overburden down to the loader.  In this  way,
excavation is facilitated for the loader, which then readily can segregate
and deposit spoil material with the use of trucks.  Lateral haulage by
trucks gives flexibility to the process and permits ancillary operations,
such as augering, to be conducted without interfering with other mining and
reclamation operalions.  Augers can be operated close enough to the
stripping area (active pit) so that the augered coal can be stockpiled on
the seam, thus eliminating the need for a separate haul unit to transport
the augered coal to the main stripping and loading site.

     Where geologic and topographic conditions permit, scrapers sometimes
are used in the overburden loading and hauling operation because scrapers
can offer cost advantages over truck transport on short haul distances.
With rippers and other dozers functioning as auxiliary equipment for loading
hard, blocky spoil material, the scraper system has wide-ranging flexibility
and capability to compete with the loader (shovel)/truck system.   Further-
more, because scrapers can excavate, readily transport (even over  steep
slopes with full loads), deposit, and compact spoil material, their use
offers the advantages of decreased pit congestion, greater production per
hour (at least for short haul distances), and less complicated planning and
scheduling.

     The third system sometimes used, a combination of the two previous
equipment types, also offers distinct advantages.  Scrapers can remove the
less consolidated material near the surface, while loader (shovel)/trucks
excavate the hard, blocky spoil near the coal seam.  In this manner, scra-
pers can traverse the top of the highwall and reduce pit congestion.  At the
same time, loader (shovel)/trucks can transport the blocky material along
the pit floor, minimizing truck haulage on steep grades for which  trucks are
not well suited.

     A recent fourth development in the haulback method uses conveyor
systems designed primarily to reduce the inefficient pit congestion which
results from the numerous pieces of coal removal and overburden handling
equipment necessary in the other three haulback methods.  Figures  3-12 and
3-13 illustrate a mine layout plan with a low-wall conveyor haulage system
and an artist's depiction of a low-wall conveyor haulage scheme.   There are
disadvantages to the conveyor systems, but conveyor usage probably will
increase due to advantages such as:  1) more continuous transfer and place-
ment of material; 2) reduced haulage costs per ton of overburden removed; 3)
reduction in equipment (and energy) requirements, thereby relieving conges-
tion, reducing safety hazards, and increasing production; and 4) more rapid
reclamation, thus minimizing environmental degradation.
                                     3-52

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     3.2.1.3.  Augering

     Augering  is  the  process  of  drilling or  boring horizontally into the
coal seam.  The auger  reams out  coal  to  distances  of about 200 feet by using
large  cutting  heads.   The  diameter  of the cutting  head is limited by the
thickness  of the  coal  seam and can  be as large  as  7 feet.  Because the auger
tends  to  sag into the  coal seam  and may  enter strata below the coal seam as
the mining  proceeds to greater horizontal distances,  cutting heads generally
are undersized by about  30%.  Because of this problem, as well as the fact
that coal  is left unmined  between auger  holes (which often are not parallel
due to  irregular  highwalls),  auger  mining usually  provides a poor percentage
recovery  of the total  coal reserve.   Figure  3-14 illustrates auger hole
spacing as  well as  the pie-shaped blocks of  coal left between the holes.

     Augering  is  used  following  the lateral  haulback method after the
maximum stripping ratio  has been reached. Augering recovers additional coal
resources by using  the open bench area and exposed highwall as a working
face, with  little or no  additional  excavation of overburden.  Augering also
is used by  itself to mine  coal resources in  areas  too steep to accommodate
conventional mining methods (that is,  generally >60%).  In such cases, a
roadway and a  narrow bench first must  be excavated along the hillside at the
coal seam outcrop to provide  access and  a working  bench area for the auger-
ing equipment.

     Auger mining provides relatively cheap  coal recovery and is quite use-
ful Ln obtaining  coal resources  not economically recoverable at present
through other  surface  or underground  methods.   Where augering is used,
however, the technique generally precludes the  possibility of future
recovery of coal  not mined, even as technologies are improved to mine
economically from the surface at greater distances and depths.   For this
reason, industry  leaders and  others increasingly argue against augering in
many areas.  Reclamation generally  consists  of  plugging the auger holes with
noncombustible and  impervious material and backfilling in front of the high-
wall face to approximate original contour.

     3.2.1.4.  Mountaintop Removal Mining

     This relatively new mining method was first demonstrated in 1967 in
West Virginia.  Essentially,  this method is  an  adaptation of area mining to
steep terrain.  It affects large blocks  of land, rather than sinuous bands.
Mountaintop removal mining typically  has been designed to mine an entire
mountaintop down  to the  coal  seam in  a continuous  series of cuts progress-
ively excavated toward and parallel to the ridge.   The highwall either may
parallel the long axis of  the ridge along only  one side of the mountain or
may encircle the  entire  mountain.   In  this manner, the method permits total
coal resource  recovery,  with  the exception of outcrop barriers.   Similar to
haulback methods,  the  initial cut in  a mountaintop removal operation
generally is located near  an  adjacent  hollow, which serves as the site for
construction of the head-of-hollow  fill.   The initial cut usually is
executed in a box cut manner, isolating  an undisturbed coal and overburden
barrier at the outslope.   The overburden excavated during this first cut is
transported to the head-of-hollow fill.   Mining then  proceeds in a
continuous series of cuts, parallel to the first.   Spoil material is placed
                                    3-55

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                                    Unrecoverable
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    Unrecoverable
                         AUGER  HOLE PATTERN - IRREGULAR HIGHWALL
            LONGITUDINAL  SECTION OF AN AUGER HOLE
        < Ul
          !£    HIGH

          ^    WALL
          u
                      HOLE DIAMETER = 2/3 X     COAL SEAM-

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                           SPACING OF AUGER

                 HOLES  DRILLED  FROM  THE HIGHWALL
               •X.  Note: Unmined coal is left around     -j-
               _  holes and  wasted.                   .,
                                                       X a
                        ••
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                                         APPROXIMATELY
                                              1/6 X
Figure 3-14   COAL LOSSES FROM AUGER MINING (adapted from Grim and
              Hill 1974)
                                     3-56

-------
continuous  series of cuts,  parallel  to  the  first.   Spoil  material  is  placed
on the existing solid benches of prior  cuts, or into head  of hollow fills,
with reclamation following  (Figure 3-15).   In  this  manner,  the mining opera-
tion eventually removes the entire mountaintop.

     After  final regrading, the once  rugged mountaintop  is  transformed into
level or gently rolling land offering development potential  (Figure 3-15).
The new USOSM regulations mandate a  return  to  approximate  original contour
unless the mining operator  can demonstrate  a financial commitment  to  post-
mining intensive land uses  (industrial,  commercial,  agricultural,  resident-
ial, or public facilities).  Obtaining  this type of  long-term future  commit-
ment from  banking or other institutions  traditionally has  been very  diffi-
cult, if not impossible, in most instances.  Also,  because  numerous
mountaintop mining operations may be  undertaken in  the Basin, an excessive
number of flat or rolling mountaintop plateaus not  needed  for intensive  land
use purposes eventually may result.   Regional  land-use planning authorities
should be consulted to determine the  extent and locations  of areas where
uses more intensive than timber and wildlife should  be implemented following
mountaintop removal.

     The same basic types of equipment  are  used for  mountaintop removal  as
for conventional contour methods.  Front-end loaders generally serve  as  the
primary overburden mover; occasionally  shovels, scrapers,  and draglines  are
utilized.  In addition to trucks and  scrapers, conveyor haulage is beginning
to be utilized.

     Although mountaintop removal mining has many advantages, including
being environmentally acceptable in meeting many Federal and State require-
ments and permitting total  resource recovery,  the technique has led to prac-
tical problems.  One of the major problems has been  the cash flow  associated
with this method, which occasionally  has prevented  total  resource  recovery.
Premature closing of the mining operation may  result.  As mining moves
inward toward the ridge of  the mountaintop, highwall heights and stripping
ratios constantly increase, resulting in continually escalating mining
costs.  If the operation becomes uneconomical, mining may  cease prior to
removing the entire mountaintop.  An  undesirable highwall  island or
"applecore" is the result.  This problem often occurs when  detailed topo-
graphical maps or drilling information  is not  available prior to mining, and
the operator incorrectly estimates final  spoil depths.  If  the spoil  depth
estimate proves low, the operator may attempt  to avoid leaving a highwall
island by increasing the height of the  final configuration  of the  reclaimed
land above that originally  planned.  This practice  results  in double-
handling of spoil material  and greatly  increased costs.  As the result of
these problems and other factors, a newly-developed  technique, cross-ridge
mountaintop mining, is gaining popularity in in West Virginia.

     3.2.1.5.  Cross-ridge Mountaintop  Removal

     This technique is similar in general to conventional mountaintop
removal mining, but it differs in the direction of mining.  In the cross-
                                    3-57

-------
                                  Mountaintop
            First Cut
   (Box (
   I
Highwall
Barrier
                                     Overburden
                                              J_
                                                        Original  Ground Slope
                                               First Cut

                                               (Box Cut)
      _         I       	   	   j	       .s?y-^- nignw




           ~^
                                                                   Highwall
                                                                     Barrier
      Blossom
                                                                         4   "
                                                                      Blossom
                             First cut
                                                     Original Ground Slope
               Second Cut
                                 Mountaintop
Barrier
                                                                       Blossom
                              Second  cut
                       Topsoil
                                           Flat to  Rolling Land
 Barrier
                                                             Barrier
         Diversion Ditch
                                              Diversion Ditch-
                              Final reclamation
  Figure  3-15
MOUNTAINTOP  REMOVAL  MINING  METHOD
(adapted  from  Grim  and  Hill  1974)

-------
ridge technique, mining proceeds  perpendicular  to  the  long  axis  of  the
mountaintop ridge  (Figure 3-16).  By mining  across  the  ridge,  constant
operating costs and coal production can be realized by  excavating  at  both
high overburden-to-coal ratio points (high cost coal) near  the ridge  center,
together with low  overburden-to-coal ratio points  (low  cost coal)  near  the
coal outcrops on both sides.  Consequently,  each perpendicular cut  achieves
an acceptable stripping ratio.  In this manner, several advantages  are
offered, in addition to precluding the previously  described cash  flow
problem and thereby achieving total resource recovery.   Minimization  of
surface areas disturbed by active mining and by head of hollow fills  can be
accomplished by creating an  initial cut which provides  sufficient  space for
overburden backstacking on the mine bench for the  following cut.   The second
cut mine bench then can serve as  a backstacking area for the third  cut;  and
so on.  Thus, mining and reclamation are not  only  concurrent,  but  also
create an inherently efficient operation, given proper  logistical  mine
planning and scheduling, because  equipment and manpower are concentrated in
one area.  Another advantage of cross-ridge  mountaintop removal  is  a
substantial overall reduction in mine operating costs,  primarily due  to a
reduction in the head-of-hollow fills and associated haulage requirements
necessary for overburden storage.  This reduction  in head of hollow fills is
partially due to the fact that, in cross-ridge mining,  the  top of  the head
of hollow fill is used for backstacking.  Moreover,  less storage space  is
required overall, because reclamation is more concurrent with  the
operation.

     The same basic mining and reclamation procedure as is  customary  with
conventional mountaintop removal mining is used for cross-ridge mining.
Equipment utilization in cross-ridge mining  also is similar to that of  any
mountaintop removal.  The final reclamation  product  of  cross-ridge  mountain-
top removal mining also is similar — a level or gently rolling  expanse of
land offering development potential (Figure  3-16).

     3.2.1.6.  Head of Hollow Fills

     When overburden is fractured and removed so that coal  can be  extracted,
overburden occupies a larger volume than when undisturbed.   Typically,  the
increase in volume of overburden  is greater  than the volume of coal removed.
Hence the disposal of excess overburden is a key problem for West Virginia
surface mines.  During the years when surface mines were unregulated, the
overburden simply was pushed downslope in an  uncontrolled manner.   Current
practice is to minimize the volume of fill placed  downslope and  to  place it
in a carefully controlled and stabilized manner.

     A controlled overburden storage method  known  as head of hollow fill can
be utilized in all types of surface mining methods  presently being  employed
in the steeper areas of the Basin.  Topographic and hydrologic restrictions
by the State of West Virginia include permitting head of hollow  fills only
in narrow, "V-shaped" hollows near the ridge  top which  do not  contain under-
ground mine openings or wet-weather springs.  Generally,  the proposed dimen-
sions of the fill are such that the hollow can be  filled completely to  at
                                    3-59

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 least  the  elevation  of  the mine bench.   In  addition,  the  toe  of  the hollow
 fill must  be at least 100 feet  from a permanent  stream.

     Prior to  site preparation, a  sediment  basin is  constructed  below the
 proposed toe of the  fill.  The  fill then is  initiated  at  the  toe by clearing
 the area of all vegetation.  Next, a haul road  is  constructed within the
 disposal area  to the projected  toe of the fill.  A rock core  chimney drain
 then is started at the  toe and  is  constructed progressively through the  fill
 mass,  from the original valley  floor up  to  the  top of  the fill bench,
 maintaining a  minimum width  of  16  feet.

     Actual fill construction  is concurrent  with placement of the core and
 proceeds in uniform horizontal  lifts approximately parallel with the
 proposed finished grade.  The massive rocks  of  the core,  however, extend
 well above the remainder of  the fill surface.   In  accordance  with regulatory
 requirements,  all spoil designated for the  fill  must be transported to the
 active lift, where it is placed and compacted in maximum  four-foot  thick
 layers.

     A terraced appearance is created on the fill  outslope by recessing  each
 successive 50-foot lift.  Each  resultant bench  (or terrace) is constructed
 to slope into  the fill, as well as toward the rock core in accordance  with
 West Virginia  requirements.  Upon completion, the  top  of  the  fill is graded
 to drain toward the head of  the hollow,  where a  drainage  pocket  is  located
 to intercept surface water runoff and direct it  into the  rock core.  During
 the final  outer slope grading,  dozer cleat  depressions generally are left  to
 serve as seed  traps.  In a one-step operation,  a hydroseeder  usually is used
 to apply nutrients,  seed, water, and mulch  for  revegetation (Figures 3-17
 and 3-18).

     The typical West Virginia head of hollow fill is  allowed by USOSM
 standards  without restrictions when the  fill volume is less than 250,000
 cubic yards.   For those fills greater than 250,000 cubic  yards,  however,
 USOSM requires that the crest of the fill extend to the elevation of the
 ridgeline.  In instances where  large fills  are  to  extend  only to the
 elevation  of the coal seam,  a recently defined USOSM "valley  fill"  must be
 constructed (Figures 3-19 and 3-20).  The primary  difference  between the two
methods is that an underdrain system is  utilized in the valley fill  instead
 of the rock core (chimney type) drain.   One  definite advantage of an
 underdrain system over a typical West Virginia rock core  relates  to
 post-mining land use.  The rock core that extends  several  feet above the
 surface of the center of the fill severely restricts the  land use potential
 of the completed fill site,  because horizontal movement (farm machinery,
 livestock, etc.) across the  fill virtually is precluded.   Conversely,  a
 disadvantage to the valley fill is that  underdrains create a  difficult water
handling problem for surface drainage by concentrating large  volumes of
water on the unconsolidated  spoil material.  Ultimately,  this water  drains
 over the very  steep outslope of the fill face and  along the line  of  contact
with undisturbed ground.  This can result in severe erosion and
                                    3-61

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                                         HEAD  OF HOLLOW
                            SECTION  A-A'
           FILL  SURFACE
                                 FILL  OUTSLOPE

                                  BENCH


                                         ROCK CORE DRAIN


                                                         BENCH
  NATURAL  HOLLOW SLOPE
                             SECTION  B-B'
                                       ROCK CORE DRAIN
ORIGINAL  GROUND
                    FILL MASS
                            SECTION  C-C'
Figure 3-18    CROSS SECTIONS OF  HEAD'OF-HOLLOW FILL (adapted from
              Skelly and Loy 1979)
                                 3-63

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            CROWN FILL SURFACE

         RIP-RAP DRAIN
       RIP-RAP  DRAIN


    SLOPE  3 % _ ,
                                              ORIGINAL GROUND
                   UNDERDRAIN
                           SECTION A-A'
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                                                              BB '
         BENCH
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         FILL  OUTSLOPE
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   NATURAL HOLLOW  SLOPE
                       UNDERDRAIN
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 RIP-RAP  DRAIN


SLOPE 3 % -5 %
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           ORIGINAL  GROUND


      SEE  TEXT
                           SECTION C-C
Figure 3-20  CROSS SECTIONS OF THE FEDERAL VALLEY FILL
             (adapted from Skelly and Loy I979)

-------
sedimentation, as well as a continuing maintenance problem on the  fill  face
and at the line of contact at the edges of the fill.

3.2.2.  Underground Mining Methods

     Underground mines are developed by excavating entryways into  a coal
seam.  Underground mines in the Monongahela River Basin can be classified  in
terms of the type of entryway or access to the coal seam:  drift,  slope, or
shaft (Figure 3-21).  Drift mines, the cheapest entry method, enter the coal
seam at the coal outcrop and provide nearly horizontal access to the mine
workings.  Slope mines are developed when the coal seam is located at a
distance from the land surface and at an intermediate depth.  Slope mines
are driven at a maximum angle of 17° from the surface entry point  to the
coal seam.  Shaft mines are utilized for coal seams located a substantial
distance under the ground surface or where slope lengths would be
uneconomical.  Vertical entryway shafts are driven to the coal seam from the
ground surface, and elevators provide access to the workings.

     The coal seams of West Virginia typically dip at only a slight angle
from the horizontal.  An underground mine can advance either in an up-dip  or
in a down-dip direction.  The choice between up-dip and down-dip operations
has a significant effect on considerations of water handling during and
after the mining operation, as discussed in Section 5.7.  Water management
during and after underground mining is a complex aspect of mine engineering
and has great potential for long-term as well as short-term environmental
impacts.

     The actual mining methods employed in an underground mine are not
necessarily dependent on the type of entryway in use or the dip of the coal
seam.  Rather, methods differ in the manner by which coal is removed and the
mine is laid out.  The two basic mining layouts are room and pillar, the
more popular, and longwall.  In a room and pillar mine, parallel series of
entries or main headings are driven into the coal seam.  Secondary headings
or cross-cuts connect these main tunnels in a perpendicular direction at
specified intervals.  The configuration of the cross-cuts is planned care-
fully to permit adequate ventilation, support of headings, and drainage of
the workings and to facilitate coal haulage.  Blocks of coal then  are
extracted in a systematic pattern along both sides of the headings.  Pillars
of coal remaining between the mined-out rooms act as roof supports (Figure
3-22).  About half of the coal resource typically is left in place to
support the roof during mining.

     The two predominant coal extraction techniques currently employed  in
room and pillar mines are conventional and continuous mining systems.  Both
systems can be used within a single mine under appropriate circumstances.
Conventional mining consists of a repeated series of steps used to advance a
series of rooms concurrently by blasting.  The procedure basically entails
the rotation of mining equipment from one room to another in order to keep
all pieces of equipment working with minimal idle time.  The mining opera-
tion consists of the following operations:  1) cutting the coal face (at the
                                  3-66

-------
    DO
    a
 VZ///Z
   n.
Main  Shaft
  t// / /
                                       "Sandstone*
                                                 ICoal


                   SHAFT ENTRY
                                                 Coal
                   DRIFT ENTRY
                  SLOPE ENTRY
Figure 3-21   METHODS  OF ENTRY  TO  UNDERGROUND  COAL
            MINES  (adapted  from Michael  Baker  1975)
                  3-67

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                          3-68

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bottom and sides on an  appropriate  angle) with  a  cutting  machine  having
chain-saw type cutter bars,  so that the  direction  of  the  coal movement is
controlled upon blasting;  2) horizontally drilling the  coal  face  at
predetermined intervals to permit placement  of  explosives; 3) blasting the
coal  face; 4) loading the  coal onto haulage  vehicles  or a conveyor belt; and
5) roof bolting or timbering to  support  overburden material  where the
coal  has been removed.  A  typical cut  sequence  for conventional mining in  a
five  entry heading is presented  in  Figure 3-23.

      The more popular method currently is a  continuous  mining  system which
utilizes a single mechanized unit with rotating chisels to break  or  cut  the
coal  directly from the  coal  face and  load it onto  haulage vehicles or  con-
veyor belts.  In this manner, the conventional  equipment  and operating
personnel for the cutting, drilling,  and blasting  operational  steps  are
eliminated.  A typical  cut sequence for  the  continuous  mining  system is  very
similar to that for room and pillar mining using  conventional  blasting
techniques.  The continuous  system  eliminates several of  the more hazardous
steps, and less experienced  supervision and  labor  are required.   A disad-
vantage of continuous mining is  its inability to mine effectively those
coalbeds with high hardness  ratings,  large partings,  and  undulating  roof and
floor planes.  Such coalbeds can be mined by conventional blasting methods.

      The longwall mining layout  differs  from the  room and pillar  approach  in
both  equipment usage and mining  method (Figure  3-24).   In longwall mining,
parallel headings of variable length  are driven into  the  coal with a cross-
heading subsequently driven between the  headings at their maximum length,
which may be as long as 4,000 feet.  This cross-heading serves as the  long-
wall  or working face, which usually is  between 300 and  600 feet long.  The
working face in room and pillar  mining systems usually  is limited to about
30 feet maximum.  A traveling drum  shearer or plow advances  across the coal
face  under the protection  of self-advancing, hydraulic-power roof supports.
The cut coal falls onto a  chain  conveyor beneath the  traveling cutting
mechanism and parallel  to  the coal  face.  This conveyor then transports  the
coal  to a perpendicular entry, where the coal is transferred to the  mine
haulage system.  Upon reaching the  end of the coal face,  the traveling
cutter mechanism reverses  direction and  moves back across the coal face  in
the opposite direction.  As mining  progresses, the supports  are advanced,
allowing controlled roof collapse behind the support  line.   The subsidence
is predictable, and the system can  be  used at great depths.

     The longwall system substantially  increases the recovery  of  coal,
increases labor productivity, and is  safer than room  and  pillar mining,
particularly where roof conditions  are  poor.  Longwall  is, however,  an
expensive method requiring high  capital  investment and  costly equipment
moves.  Longwall generally is limited  to large, level,  straight blocks of
coal  free from obstructions.

     Shortwall mining is essentially  a variety of  longwall mining.   A con-
tinuous mining machine  such as that used in  room and pillar  mining usually
substitutes for the shearer or plow.   The self-advancing  roof  supports
                                    3-69

-------
                                                                          f
              I—I           I—1
              II           II
      	I   I	J   1	
   r-	-]   r	1   r
              i    i

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                                                         j
|20      _      ,9	18	17 _           16 ,


|	  28  32  27 	 26 31  25 	 24  30  23  	 22  29  21 	j

I 151	J	1	1 14I	J	J	I13I	I	1	1 12 I	1	1	[ n I


I	1            1   .           	I           r  -J           '   '
I 10 I
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 5
                              8





                             I 3 I
  7 I

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6



1
Figure 3-23 CUT SEQUENCE  FOR  CONTINUOUS  MINING
           SYSTEM-FIVE  ENTRY HEADING (adapted from NUS Corp. 1977)
                                 3-70

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                             Face   length  )
               Entry take-off conveyor
                         c
                         o
             ^;^.v.:.^       a o
             ;:X Armored
               face conveyor
                                 Unmined
Shearing
Machine-
varies
 Mineral
  Self-advancing' -S^'
  powered supports '-V-'.v
                                                                 c
                                                                 LJ
Figure 3-24 TYPICAL   LONGWALL   PLAN   (adapted  from  Michael  Baker  1975)
                                     3-71

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extend over the top of the continuous raining machine as the operation  pro-
ceeds along the coal face."  The scale of the operation typically is  smaller
than in longwall operations.  The face may be 150 feet long and the  heading
may extend 1,000 feet.  Shortwall mining is a technique with  flexibility,
and it can be adapted to variations in the presence of coal,  to unsuitable
roof conditions, or to obstacles such as oil and gas wells.

3.2.3.  Coal Preparation

     Coal preparation includes the crushing and/or cleaning of coal  (EPA
1979b).  Preparation of coal which is low in impurities only  requires  crush-
ing and sizing.  When impurities in coal occur in quantity, however, clean-
ing also is required.  Impurities may include clay, shale, other rock, and
pyrite.  Coal cleaning processes vary in complexity and may produce  several
types of wastes.  The types and quantities of waste products  produced  by
coal preparation facilities depend upon the size of the facility,  the
chemical properties of the coal, and the extent and method of coal cleaning.
Depending on the amount of impurities in the raw coal, refuse volume will
range to as much as 25% of the total coal processed (USDI 1978).

     The simplest coal preparation plant utilizes crushing and screening  to
remove large refuse material (Figure 3-25).  Because this usually  is a dry
process, wastes consist of coal dust, solid waste refuse, and surface  runoff
from ancillary areas, including coal storage piles and refuse disposal
areas.  Other preparation plants are more complex and perform additional
cleansing processes.  These processes may utilize water, thermal dryers,  and
various separation procedures.  Such preparation facilities produce  waste-
water, process sludges, and additional air emissions.  The characteristics
of wastewater from coal storage, refuse storage, and coal preparation  plant
ancillary areas generally are similar to the characteristics  of raw  mine
drainage at the mine supplying the preparation plant (Table 3-11).   The
principal pollutant in coal preparation wastewater is suspended solids (coal
fines and clays) which may be removed by clarification processes (EPA
1976c).

     Typical coal preparation operations can be described as  a five  stage
process (Figure 3-26):

       Stage 1:  Plant feed preparation—Material larger than
        6 inches in diameter is screened from the raw coal on a
        grizzly (rectangular iron bar frame).  The uniform feed
        coal is ground to an initial size by one or more crushers
        and fed to the preparation plant.

       Stage 2:  Raw coal sizing—Primary sizing on a screen  or a
        scalping deck separates the coal into coarse and
        intermediate-size fractions.  The coarse fraction is
        crushed again if necessary and subsequently is re-sized
        for cycling to the raw coal separation step.  The
        intermediate fraction undergoes secondary sizing on wet or
                                    3-72

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3-73

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Table 3-11.  Raw waste characteristics of coal preparation plant process water
  (EPA 1976c).  Data are mg/1 except as indicated.
Parameters
pH (standard units)
Alkalinity
Total iron
Dissolved iron
Manganese
Aluminum
Zinc
Nickel
TDS
TSS
Hardness
Sulfates
Ammonia
  Minimum
    7.30
   62.00
    0.03
    0.00
    0.30
    0.10
    0.01
    0.01
  636.00
2,698.00
1,280.00
  979.00
    0.00
   Maximum
      8.10
    402.00
    187.00
      6.40
      4.21
     29.00
      2.60
      0.54
  2,240.00
156,400.00
  1,800.00
  1,029.00
      4.00
    Mean
     7.70
   160.00
    47.80
     0.92
     1.67
    10.62
     0.56
     0.15
 1,433.00
62,448.00
 1,540.00
 1,004.00
     2.01
Standard
Deviation
   96.07
   59.39
    2.09
    1.14
   11.17
    0.89
    0.19
  543.90
8,372.00
  260.00
   25.00
    1.53
                                    3-74

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       1.
  PLANT FEED
 PREPARATION
FiU.N OF MINE STO/1AGE
3


      2.
 RAW COAL
   SIZING
                                  INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT
  RAW COAL   r
 SEPARATION
  PRODUa WATER
 DEWATERING
       5.
    PRODUCT
    STORAGE
 AND SHIPPING
Figure 3-26 COAL  PREPARATION  PLANT  PROCESSES
           (adapted  from  Nunenkamp 1976)
                               3-75

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        dry vibrating screens to remove fines, which may undergo
        further processing.  The i
        to the raw coal separator.
further processing.   The intermediate fraction then is fed                 4
       Stage 3:  Raw coal separation—Most raw coal subject to
        separation undergoes wet processes, including dense media
        separation, hydraulic separation, and froth flotation.
        Pneumatic separation is applied to the remaining raw coal.
        The coarse, intermediate, and fine fractions are processed
        separately by equipment uniquely suited for each size.
        Refuse (generally shale and sandstone), middlings
        (carbonaceous material denser than the desired product),
        and cleaned coal are separated for the dewatering stage.

       Stage 4:  Product dewatering and/or drying—Coarse and
        intermediate coals generally are dewatered on screens.
        Fine coal may be dewatered in centrifuges and thickening
        ponds and dried in thermal dryers.

       Stage 5:  Product storage and shipping—Size fractions may
        be stored separately in silos, bins, or open air
        stockpiles.  The method of storage generally depends on
        the method of loading for transport and the type of
        carrier chosen.

     More detailed descriptions of coal preparation processing and  its
environmental consequences can be found in EPA (1979b).

3.2.4.  Abandonment of Coal Mining Operations

     Recent legislation places great emphasis on the obligation of  the coal
mine operator to conclude his activities in such a manner that the  potential
long-term adverse impacts on human safety and the environment in general are
minimized.  It is possible to reduce adverse post-mining environmental
effects from surface mines and coal preparation facilities to a large
extent.  If such operations are conducted in accordance with current laws,
adverse impacts are expected to peak during active production periods.  The
adverse impacts of underground mines, however, frequently increase  after
active mining ceases.

     Timely reclamation of surface mines and preparation plant sites in
accordance with current standards is designed to return the mine site to a
topographic condition and vegetation that bear some resemblance to  pre-
mining conditions or that are appropriate to more intensive land uses.  If
reclamation is unsuccessful, barren spoil banks, eroded refuse piles, and
neglected haul roads can generate waters laden with sediment and chemicals
toxic to aquatic organisms.  In mountainous West Virginia, haul roads
generally are maintained as permanent features following mining.  In some
cases haul roads become part of the public road network.
                                   3-76

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     As discussed in Section 4.1.,  the  State of West Virginia  relies  on
performance bonds to assure compliance  with reclamation requirements.  Part
of the bond is released  after inspection of the regraded  spoil;  the remaind-
er is not released until vegetation and runoff water quality are  judged
likely to be acceptable  in the long term based on  actual  post-mining
experience.  EPA does not require performance bonds to insure  compliance
during mining, but relies on the Federal court system as  the basic mechanism
for insuring compliance  with Federal  law.  NPDES permit jurisdiction  over
surface mining operations ends when the regrading  phase of  reclamation is
completed.

     The surface workings of underground mines currently  are treated
essentially as surface mines with respect to reclamation  requirements.
Long-term problems from  underground mines originate principally  from  surface
subsidence and from water collected by  the underground passageways.   Shallow
underground mines (depth 200 feet or  less) are likely eventually  to cause
surface subsidence as the overlying strata cave into the  voids under  the
force of gravity.  Subsidence may disrupt surface  land uses, and  it typical-
ly contributes to the increased flow  of water into mine workings.  Ground-
water resources can be reduced locally, and groundwater quality  can be
degraded.  If the underground mine water drains to the surface,  it may
create surface water quality problems.  At present the placement  of alkaline
material such as fly ash in underground mines to neutralize acid  mine drain-
age is not a common practice in the Basin.

3.2.5.  Coal Mining Economics

     Cost data pertaining to coal mining, reclamation, and  pollution  control
technology generally are drawn either from very site-specific  case histories
of actual mines or from  very general  computer modeling studies.   Neither
category can accurately  reflect the multitude of variables which  affects the
economics of mining.  Available studies are of very limited practical value
for characterizing the basic variables  of costs related to mining and pollu-
tion control.  In each real-world case, the optimization  of costs for a
proposed mine is an exercise in applied engineering.

     The following discussion summarizes some of the variables which  affect
mine economics and presents some of the documented cost ranges from the
literature on mining economics.  Generalized cost  estimates of reclamation
techniques as discussed  in Section 5.0. of this SID also  are presented.
Crude approximations for costs resulting from already required mitigative
measures as well as for  those additional measures  which EPA will  require
under the New Source NPDES program are  developed.  Actual costs  can be
expected to be extremely variable in  specific instances.

     Variables which influence surface  mining economics include  (but  are not
limited to):

     •  Pre-mining slope
                                    3-77

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Drainage area above mine (extent and characteristics)

Annual rainfall and snowfall

Amount and composition of overburden (sandstone vs. shale;
toxic vs. non-toxic; amount of colloidal material)
Coal seam thickness, stripping ratio, quality of coal
(thermal value, ash, sulfur, volatility characteristics),
and market selling price

Presence or absence of previous mining benches on permit
area

Proximity to housing and other sensitive land uses and
structures (pre-mining blast, water, and groundwater
surveys; restrictive blasting practices; special
protection of water resources)

Exploration (geologic prospecting of coal outcrop vs.
random drilling vs. concentrated pattern drilling)

Mine planning, engineering, and development (mine
operation sequencing and equipment matching; maximizing
efficiency and minimizing equipment dead time)

Mining method

Mine size

Permit costs (consultant or in-house staff; application
and bonding fees)

Equipment usage, leas ing-depreciation schedule, and
maintenance

Market or tipple distance, mode of coal haulage, and
outside contract vs. in-house haulage

Type of reclamation (approximate original contour vs.
mountaintop plateau)

Physical, chemical, and structural root-zone soil
characteristics (soil amendments for revegetation)

Seedbed preparation and type of revegetation (grasses and
legumes vs. seedling trees; outside contract vs.
in-house)

Pollution control  (erosion and sedimentation, acid mine
drainage, dust)
                           3-78

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     •  Union vs. non-union labor

     •  Equipment operator skills

     •  Amount of supervision and administration

     •  Royalty payments

     •  Payroll overhead

     •  Taxes and insurance

     •  Interest on loans

     •  Building and other facility construction and maintenance

     •  Operating supplies

     •  Power and communication costs.

     Each mine site is unique in terms of these different aspects, and
associated costs differ radically for the same unit operations, as well as
for the percentage of total mine costs these represent.  For example, over-
burden stripping costs will vary greatly depending upon the stripping ratio,
overburden composition, slope of terrain, mining method and equipment usage,
and equipment operator skills.

     In one cost study of contour surface mining and reclamation  in
Appalachia, overburden removal costs per ton of coal ranged from  $1.39 to
$4.14, which represented 28% and 53% of the total operating mine  costs,
respectively (Nephew et al. 1976).  The only variables considered in this
study were slope terrain (15°, 20°, or 25°), highwall height (60  feet or 90
feet), and mining and reclamation methods.  Backfilling and grading costs to
approximate original contour ranged from $0.80 to $4.64, which represented
18% and 38% of the total operating mine costs, respectively (1974 dollars).
Backfilling and grading costs for truck haulback mining to approximate
original contour ranged from $1.26 to $4.64, which correlated to 22% and 38%
of the total mine operating costs, respectively.

     Even for an overall minor cost operation, such as haul road construct-
ion, costs vary significantly.  For truck haulback mining with reclamation
to approximate original contour, haul road costs varied from $0.05 to $0.16
per ton of coal.  Again, the only variables were slope (15° vs. 25°,
respectively) and highwall height (90 feet vs. 60 feet, respectively).  The
total operating costs for these methods varied from $4.92 to $12.31 (Nephew
et al. 1976).

     The unit operation costs per ton of coal mined for various contour
methods reclaimed to approximate original contour were as listed below, (the
figures in parentheses represent the respective percentage of total cost per
ton of coal mined):
                                    3-79

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     •  Haul road construction - $0.05 to $0.16 (0.7% to 2%)

     •  Clearing and grubbing - $0.01 to $0.03 (0.1% to 0.3%)

     •  Topsoiling - $0.07 to $0.36 (1% to 3%)

     •  Drilling and shooting - $1.17 to $1.88 (24% to 38%)

     •  Overburden removal - $1.39 to $3.73 (28% to 35%)

     •  Loading and hauling - $0.34 (3% to 8%)

     •  Backfilling and grading - $0.80 to $4.64 (18% to 38%)

     •  Revegetation - $0.05 to $0.21 (0.7% to 2%)

     •  Auxiliary - $0.27 (2% to 6%)

     •  Excess fill storage - $0 to $1.40 (0% to 11%).

     Production, reclamation, and total costs per ton of coal mined for
contour mining to approximate original contour under various terrain slope
and stripping ratio conditions based on the Nephew et al.  (1976) data were
computed by USDI (Table 3-12).  Only a few of the total variables
encountered at actual mine sites were considered, yet the cost differences
are quite substantial under each category.  Reclamation costs contributed
from 17% to 50% of the total costs for these model mines and were sharply
higher on the 30° slope than on the 15° and 20° slopes.

     At three Appalachian mines the total costs per ton ranged from $11.50
to $15.99, and operation costs per ton of coal mined by each major unit
operation were (1974 dollars):

     •  Exploration - $0.03 to $0.39

     •  Planning and development - $0.30 to $0.53

     •  Topsoil removal and reclamation - $0.99 to $2.88

     •  Overburden stripping - $8.02 to $11.58, with annual cost
        per vertical foot of overburden ranging from $11,910 to
        $140,264

     •  Coal fragmentation and loading - $0.17 to $0.84

     •  Coal haulage - $0.90 to $2.10, with cost per mile ranging
        from $2.25 to $4.38 (Skelly and Loy 1975).
                                    3-80

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Table 3-12.  Coal mining  cost variation  per  ton of  coal mined  for  surface
  contour mining  (USDI-Office of Minerals Policy and Research  Analysis  1977)
Terrain
Slope
15°
15°
15°
15°
20°
20°
20°
20°
30°
30°
30°
30°
(27%)
(27%)
(27%)
(27%)
(36%)
(36%)
(36%)
(36%)
(58%)
(58%)
(58%)
(58%)
Stripping
Ratio
15:
20:
25:
30:
15:
20:
25:
30:
15:
20:
25:
30:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Production
Costs ($)
9
10
11
12
1
10
12
13
10
12
13
15
.10
.00
.50
.75
.60
.80
.65
.95
.90
.25
.85
.70
Reclamation*
Costs ($)
1
2
2
3
4
3
5
5
10
11
13
15
.90
.40
.50
.00
.00
.85
.45
.85
.61
.75
.58
.50
Total
Costs ($)
11
12
14
15
13
14
18
19
21
24
27
31
.00
.00
.00
.75
.60
.65
.10
.80
.51
.00
.43
.20
*Assumes return to approximate original contour.
                                  3-81

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Operating costs per ton of coal mined ranged from $12.07 to $31.09 (1975
dollars) at seven small West Virginia mines employing the same contour
mining method in similar topography (Skelly and Loy 1976).

     The following variables influence underground mine costs:

     •  Geologic conditions (acid vs. non-acid strata and coal;
        fractures, fissures, joint, and fault zones)

     •  Depth to coal seam (mine entry, coal haulage to surface)

     •  Coal seam thickness, quality, and market selling price

     •  Variability or consistency of coal seam (varying seam
        dimensions and heights; partings)

     •  Mining method (room and pillar vs. longwall; up-dip vs.
        down-dip)

     •  Roof and floor conditions (soft vs. hard floor; stable vs.
        unstable roof conditions; undulating roof and floor)

     •  Past area mining history (flooded abandoned workings above
        and adjacent to mine; abandoned workings below mine)

     •  Groundwater hydrology (aquifers; water influx)

     •  Pollution control (sediment and acid mine drainage water;
        air pollution)

     •  Gas emissions (ventilation)

     •  Surface land use (subsidence control)

     •  Mine size

     •  Mine planning, engineering, and development

     •  Permit and bond costs

     •  Exploration

     •  Surface site preparation

     •  Market or tipple distance

     •  Degree of coal preparation

     •  Equipment operator skills
                                   3-82

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     •  Amount of supervision and  administration

     •  Union vs. non-union labor

     •  Royalty payments

     •  Equipment usage, leasing depreciation  schedule,  and
        maintenance

     •  Payroll overhead

     •  Taxes and insurance

     •  Interest on loans

     •  Buildings and other facility construction  and operation

     •  Operating supplies

     •  Power and communication costs

     •  Mine closure costs (mine sealing, reclamation, and
        revegetat ion).

     Few underground mine cost studies of a comprehensive nature have been
performed.  The same basic equipment, mining method and mine plan, percent
coal recovery rate, wages, depreciation  schedules, and other factors were
used to compute costs under similar mine conditions in two analyses by
Katell et al. (1975a, b).  The significant variables were mine size and  coal
seam thickness.  Operating costs ranged  from $8.08 to $9.52, and capital
investment costs ranged from $23.83 to $36.36 per  ton.  Per-ton operating
and capital costs were higher at the mines with smaller production in
thinner seams (Table 3-13).  In underground mines  using continuous miners in
longwall mining units, operating costs per ton of  coal mined ranged from
$7.18 to $8.27, and capital investments  ranged from $31.31 to $38.51 (Duda
and Hemingway 1976a, b).

     Both surface and underground mine operators also encounter a wide range
of environmental pollution control costs.  Incremental costs per ton
expected as the result of implementing USOSM regulations range from $4.61 to
$22.51 for surface mines and from $0.52  to $3.39 for underground mines
(Table 3-14).

     The economic aspects of water pollution control technology were
documented by EPA (1976) in developing the effluent guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for surface and underground coal mines.
Treatment costs vary greatly with mine water quality and quantity.
Construction costs for acid mine drainage treatment plants decline as
capacity increases (Figure 3-27).
                                    3-83

-------
Table 3-13.  Summary of estimated operating costs and capital investment for
  underground mining methods (see text for sources).  Data are in 1975
  dollars.
Coal seam
thickness
(inches)
48
48
48
72
72
72
72
48
48
84
84
Production
per year
(million tons)
1.03
2.06
3.09
1.06
2.04
3.18
4.99
1.3
2.6
1.5
3.0
Operating costs
(dollars/ton)
$9.52
8.79
8.61
9.38
8.48
8.18
8.08
8.27
7.48
7.93
7.18
Capital
investment
(dollars/ton)
$36.36
31.16
30.10
33.34
27.23
25.48
23.83
38.51
34.91
34.87
31.31
                                    3-84

-------
Table 3-14.  Summary of reported incremental cost increases by specific
  requirements ($/ton)*.  These data were derived from a joint survey of
  65 coal operations by Skelly and Loy and the National Coal
  Association/American Mining Congress, 1979.
Requirement
Permit preparation
Blasting
Prime fr ami and
Topsoil handling
Mine closure
Runoff and stream diversions
Sedimentation ponds
Revegetation
Cover for acid and toxic materials
Coal waste embankments and impoundments
Hydrologic monitoring
Fugitive dust control
Backfilling and regrading
Stability analyses
Valley fill drainage
Valley fill construction
Road construction
Underground subsidence control and monitoring
Effluent limitations
Exploration performance standards
Overburden clearing
Total ranges
Surface
Mines
0.19
0.01-0.03
0.45
0.27-5.50
NR
NR
0.44-3.05
0.02
0.04
0.01-0.45
0.06-0.50
0.36
1.48-2.32
0.02
0.10-1.51
0.39-5.56
0.08-1.83
NR
0.04
0.15
0.50
4.61-22.51
Underground
Mines
NR
NR
NR
0.01-0.60
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
0.14-1 .26
0.37-1.53
NR
NR
NR
0.52-3.39
*Values rounded from actual estimates    NR = Not reported
                                   3-85

-------
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            TTTI 11   III
    103
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       COST/UNIT CAPACITY
DOLLARS PER CUBIC METERS  A DAY
$1,000
         Figure  3-27   CONSTRUCTION  COST  VS.  CAPACITY  FOR  ACID
                       MINE  DRAINAGE  TREATMENT PLANT
                       (adapted from  EPA  1976)
                            3-86

-------
     Information was developed for USDOE regarding the probable incremental
costs of SMCRA regulations (Table 3-14).  These data especially are of
interest in this assessment because of EPA's reliance on the SMCRA permanent
regulatory program (see Section 5.0. discussions of impacts and mitigative
measures; Section 5.1, 5.3, and 5.7 largely reflect SMCRA requirements).
Capital investment costs for water pollution control facilities are quite
variable, because specific mine site conditions dictate the type and extent
of facilities needed.  Included in the more sophisticated plants can be
holding or settling ponds; neutralization systems (usually lime) comprised
of such components as tanks, slurry mixers, and feeders (with associated
instrumentation, pumps, and appropriate housing); reverse osmosis
desalination; clarifiers; flocculant feed systems; filtration systems;
aerators; and pumps, pipes, ditching, fences, and land.  Figures 3-28
through 3-34 contain graphs developed by EPA which delineate cost range
figures (in 1974 dollars) for some of these components (EPA 1976).  The EPA
Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Coal Mining Point Source
Category (1976) presents more detailed information.  Sediment pond-related
costs for various structures or modifications, as well as coagulant costs,
are discussed by Hutchins and Ettinger (1979).  Actual sediment pond
excavation costs vary with site conditions, pond sizes, and pond types.

     Pollution control measures employed at underground mines are summarized
with associated cost data in another EPA study (Michael Baker 1975):

     •  Grouting fissures, fractures, permeable strata, and
        mine seals:   $35 to $80 per linear foot for vertical grout
        curtains and $12,000 to $20,000 per acre for horizontal
        curtains

     •  Borehole seals:  $20 to $40 per linear foot

     •  Dry seals:   $2,500 to $5,000 (masonry block) and $2,500 to
        $4,500 (clay) per seal

     •  Air seals:   $4,000 to $6,000 per seal

     •  Hydraulic seals:  $10,000 to $30,000 per seal (double
        bulkhead);  $5,000 to $10,000 per seal (single bulkhead);
        $2,000 to $4,500 per seal (clay)

     •  Hydraulic shaft seals:   $7,000 to $35,000 for backfilling
        shafts (100  to 500 feet deep); $20,000 to $25,000 per
        concrete seal.

Some of the variables which affect these mine sealing costs
include:
        Type, size, and condition of entry opening
                                   3-87

-------
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100
 90
 80
 70
 60

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 40

 30
 10
 9
 8
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 5
1.0
 .9
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 .7
 .6
 £

 .4

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DEPTH=3m
                      DEPTH-2m
             _L

             .3  .4 .5 .6.7 .8.91.0
                                 2    3  45678910

                               VOLUME (1.000 mj)
                            20
                                30  40 50007080S10
  Figure 3-30     POND  COSTS   (odoptod  from  EPA   (976)
                            3-89

-------
 100
 00
 80
 70
 60

 50

 40


 30
  3 -
                   I  I  I I  I I
                                            II  I ill
                                                                   I
                                                                     I
                                                                       I  I I I  I
                   .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
                                              6  7 S 9 10
                                                           20
                                                               30
                                                                  40 50 GO 70 8090100
Figure  3-3I   FLASH  TANK
                                   VOLUME (m3)

                                 COSTS   (adapted  from  EPA  I976)
100
90
80
70
60

50
30
20
              I
                 I
                   I  I  I I I I
                                                                  I
                                                                     I
             .3  .4  ,S .6 .7 .8.9.1.0
                                           5 6 7  3 9 10
                                                          20
                                                               30  40 50 60 708090100
                               FLOW RATE 11000 hnr/miniiu)
  Figure  3-32   CAPITAL  COSTS  OF  INSTALLED  PUMPS
                 (adapted  from  EPA  1976)

-------
  120
  no
  100
  90
I 80
  70



  60



  50



  40



  30 -



  20 -



  10 -
                         JL
                                        J_
                                            J_
                      56   78   9  10   11

                       DAILY WASTEWATER FLOW (1000 m3)
                                                12
   Figure 3-33
CAPITAL  COSTS  OF  LIME  TREATMENT
(adapted  from  EPA  1976)
 100
  90
  BO
  70

  60
  30
O 10
" 9
                 I   I  I 1  I I I
                                          I  I  I I  1 I I
                                                                    I  I  I I I I
   .01
         .02
              .03  .04 .05 OU.07 OUO'J 1
                                  .2   3  .4 .5 .C .7 .8 .9 1


                                  CLAfllFIER VOLUME (1000 m3)
                                                                    b 6  J U 9 10
   Figure 3-34   CAPITAL   COSTS  OF CLARIFIER (adapted  from EPA  1976)
                                    3-91

-------
     •  Site preparation required

     •  Expected hydraulic head

     •  Method of construction and required materials, equipment,
        and labor

     •  Grouting requirements

     •  Amount of backfilling, grading, and revegetation required.

     Perhaps the single greatest cost item which can be estimated and which
EPA will impose as the result of its New Source regulatory program is the
aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing biological monitoring
program (see Section 5.2).  Basic costs for these items have been estimated
at $9,000, although considerable local variation can be expected.

     More stringent iron limitations than the Nationwide New Source
limitations also will add to mining costs (see Section 5.7), but these
limitations will be necessary to meet the currently proposed State in-stream
criteria.  Hence, these costs are not attributable to EPA's New Source
program.  Other aspects of the EPA program, not already required by SMCRA
and WVSCMRA, may increase mining costs to some extent.

     EPA has attempted to minimize cost to operators whenever possible
through full utilization of existing information for EPA permit reviews.
The net cost effects of the New Source program requirements are not expected
to be significant in the Basin.  To the extent that timely reviews can be
expedited by interagency coordination, applicants can realize cost savings.
                                     3-92

-------
3.3.  THE NATIONAL COAL MARKET:  DEMAND  ISSUES

     The preceding sections basically have involved  coal  supply  issues:
location of seams, seam quality, location of  recent  activity, raining
methods, and so forth.  In Section 2.7., the  concept  of minable  coal
reserves was defined solely in  terms of  coal  (supply)  characteristics.   Some
Basin coals that now are considered "unminable" could  be  mined in  the
future, if market demand were to increase along with  the  relative  price  of
coal.  Clearly, if costs to obtain alternative energy  sources such as crude
oil were to increase dramatically, the market demand  for  Basin coal would be
reinforced substantially.  Therefore, issues  involving market demand are
extremely important in assessing the future of coal  in the  Basin.

     The market demand for coal in the Monongahela River  Basin and
throughout West Virginia generally is dispersed and  difficult to isolate.
Coal may be purchased locally for power  generation or  exported outside the
State to US and foreign metallurgical and steam coal  users.

     Market demand is influenced by numerous  factors,  such  as the  distance
to coal users.  Basin coal is purchased  for use in the Basin, for  use
elsewhere in the State, for use elsewhere in  the US,  and  increasingly for
foreign export.  Basin coal is  utilized  not only as  an energy source for
large coal-fired power plants and a few  individual residential units, but
also for coking and for metallurgical purposes in the  steel  industry.
Because natural gas is abundant locally, relatively  little  coal  is used
directly for home heating in West Virginia.   Cyclical  swings in  domestic
steel production produce sharp  changes in metallurgical coal demand, whereas
steam coal market demand is affected to  a greater degree  by weather and
costs of transport.

     The coal market also can be affected when Federal emission  standards
for electric utility power plants are altered under the Clean Air  Act and
when new synthetic fuel technologies are developed successfully.

     In terms of market projections,  the following factors  that  influence
the demand for coal must be taken into account:

     •  National economic growth rate

     •  Electricity demand growth rate

     •  Compliance standards for air pollution from
        coal-combusting facilities as well as adequate and
        economical technologies to meet  these standards

     •  Implementation of mandatory conversion from oil-burning
        to coal-burning power plants  and other aspects of
        National energy policy

     •  Success of domestic energy conservation programs
                                    3-93

-------
     •  Social and environmental acceptability of nuclear power

     •  Development of western US and other competing coalfields

     •  Implementation of Federal coal lands leasing programs

     •  Development of commercially viable, competitively priced
        synthetic gas and liquid fuel from coal

     •  World oil prices and other substitute energy source costs

     •  Expansion of coal transportation facilities including
        slurry pipeline technology

     •  Federal railroad rate regulation.

3.3.1.  General Trends in Market Demand

     Although the use of coal as an energy source in the US has decreased
since World War II, the industry has been characterized by boom and bust
cycles.  Currently, less than 20% of the total National energy supply comes
from coal, whereas during World War II, 50% of the US energy was produced
from coal.  Since World War II, US dependence on oil and gas for energy
production has doubled, with oil and gas imports now constituting 23% of the
US energy market (President's Commission on Coal 1980).  Coal clearly has
declined in relative importance as an energy source, forcing widespread mine
closings and creating substantial unemployment among coal miners Nationwide.
During the past several years coal demand has declined even further, causing
substantial coal inventories in many areas.  These forces have been felt in
both the State and the Basin.

     As of mid-1980, this overall declining trend in the demand for coal
appears to be changing.  A recently published World Coal Study contends that
coal demand will increase substantially during the next two decades and
suggests that the United States, with more than one quarter of world coal
resources, will become the "Saudi Arabia of coal exporters."  The Study
projects 5% annual increases in coal demand because of rapidly escalating
prices of substitute goods such as oil and nuclear energy (Wilson 1980). The
President's Commission on Coal (1980) also argues that, because of rising
oil and natural gas prices, total US production of coal will increase by 50%
from 620 million tons/year in 1977 to 1 billion tons/year in 1985 and to
nearly to 1.3 billion tons/year in 1990.  The National Coal Model similarly
supports these conclusions (USDOE 1978).  Using several energy models, the
Energy Information Administration concluded that total world consumption of
coal (including lignite) will increase by 73% to 129% by 1995 from 1976
levels (USDOE 1979).

     The potential for coal as an energy source also has been cited at
recent meetings and conferences such as the 1979 ARC Conference in
Binghamton, New York.  One of President Carter's major energy initiatives
                                    3-94

-------
has been to promote the use of domestic  coal,  in  lieu  of  imported  oil,  when-
ever possible.  At the first US-Japanese Coal  Conference  (Norfolk,  Virginia,
August 1980), Japanese spokesmen  projected  a dramatic  rise  in  Japanese  steam
coal imports during the 1980's.   The overall market  for metallurgical coals,
hard-hit by current domestic recession trends  in  the auto  and  steel indus-
tries, is being buoyed by increasing exports to foreign steelmakers.

     These many developments suggest a possible restructuring  of  the
National coal market and a potential reversal  in  recent market  declines.
The rate or ultimate extent of increased market demand in West  Virginia and
the Monongahela River Basin, cannot be assessed accurately,  given  the
multitude of factors affecting both steam  and  metallurgical  coal  demand.  An
increase in demand is presaged by very recent  permit data in the  State,
indicating an increase of 46% in  surface mine  permits  in  the period ending
April 1, 1980 over the comparable period ending April  1,  1979.  Whether  this
trend will continue is impossible to predict,  given  the influence  of so  many
exogenous factors.

3.3.2  Specific Trends in Market  Demand by  End-Use

     Electric utility power plants have been the  largest users  of  coal  in
the country, accounting for 76% of all US coal consumption  in  1976
(Figure 3-35).  Power plant coal  use is  projected to increase  from 455
million tons in 1976 to 677 million tons in 1985  (Tables 3-15  and  3-16).
Although industrial coal consumption declined  during the past  ten  years,
industry Nationwide consumes more total  energy than  any other  type  of user,
has increased its consumption most rapidly  in  the recent past,  and  is
projected to increase energy consumption more  rapidly  than  transportation,
residential, and commercial uses.  Because  of  this overall  outlook,
industrial coal consumption is projected to expand between  1976 and 1985,
especially as prices increase for oil and gas.

     Reliance on electric utility power  plant  demand is of  such a  magnitude
that a more detailed evaluation of the use  of  coal in  the electric  utilities
industry is warranted.  The future of electric utility power plant  demand is
affected by several major factors:

     •  The growth in the rate of the demand for  electricity

     •  The development of nuclear power plants

     •  Enforcement of Clean Air  Act emission  standards restricting coal use
        to low sulfur coals

     •  Federal requirements to convert  to  coal from oil and gas.

The total US demand for electricity currently  is  expected to grow  at a  rate
of 3.4 to 4.4% per year through 1985, representing a significant  decline
from the historical growth rate of 6.3%  per year.  This increase  in demand
for electricity is expected to be met by the construction of either new
                                    3-95

-------
MILLION TONS

1200 -



1000 -
                                                            1144 million tonsv
200 -
    1947  1950
                 1955     1960
                               1965     1970
                                               1975 77  1980
                                                             1985
                                                                     1990
Note:  Percentage figures represent percent shares of total consumption.
Figure 3-35 US CONSUMPTION OF COAL BY END-USE SECTOR
           (USDM 1976,  USDOT  1978)
                             3-96

-------
Table 3-15. US coal consumption by  region and  sector,  1976, in thousand tons
  (USBM 1976).
Electric
Region and State of Destination Utilities
1 NORTHEAST
n SOUTHEAST
ffl EAST NORTH
CENTRAL
IV WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL
V WEST
U.S.
GREAT
LAKES
MOVEMENT
TIDEWATER
MOVEMENT
RAILROAD
FUEL
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Me., N.H., Vt., R.I.
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
Percent of Region
Delaware and Maryland
District of Columbis
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia and Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama and Mississippi
Total
Percent of Region
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
Percent of Region
Arkansas, Louisiana,
Oklahoma and Texas
Percent of Region
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North and South Dakota
Nebraska and Kansas
Colorado
Utah
Montana and Idaho
Wyoming
New Mexico
Arizona and Nevada
Washington and Oregon
California
Alaska
Destination not revealable
Total
Percent of Region
Total
Percent of V.S.
Destinations and/or
Canadian Commercial Docks
Vessel Fuel
U.S. Dock Storage
Overseas Exports
Bunker Fuel
U.S. Dock Storage
United States Companies
Canadian Companies
COAL USED AT MINES AND
SALES TO EMPLOYEES
NET CHANGE IN INVENTORY
TOTAL
DISTRIBUTION
* Includes industrial
** Excludes railroad
storage, coal used
Source: Bituminous
4
816
5,980
2.484
37,249
46,533
57%
5,458
15
5,307
28,115
19,886
5,509
20,665
24,968
21,034
19,428
150,385
83%
50,130
29,239
35,011
21,197
10,978
146,555
73%
13,782
80%
10,448
6,547
20,768
9,808
5,148
7,570
1,805
2,452
8,796
8,089
11 ,784
4,087
254
50
97,606
85%
454,861
76%
SHIPMENTS TO
Coke and Retail
Gas Plants Dealers
5,157
23,281
28,438
35%
4,309
8
5,295
811
172
6,691
17,286
, 10%
12,505
12,450
2,735
4,493
268
32,451
16%
627
4%
647
289
1,110
1,968
1,905
62
5,981
5%
84.783
14%
Consumer Uses Not Ava
9
1
20
192
222
•• 1%
9
254
110
168
85
15
169
142
7
959
•• 1%
692
363
537
248
308
2,148
1%
2
< 1%
90
35
103
80
6
31
121
127
38
7
26
8
14
686
1%
4,017
1%
lable
All
Others*
62
15
22
2,405
13
3,870
6,387
8%
199
188
1,901
2,960
1,177
1,159
499
1,372
1,743
1,527
12,725
7%
7,637
3,785
3,172
3,867
2,017
20,478
10%
2,812
16%
1,137
1,312
1,635
472
602
490
593
596
946
7
437
823
621
444
106
10,221
9%
52,623
9%
=
III"
— _ _
_
	
	
	
Total
71
19
839
13,562
2,497
64,592
81,580
9,975
203
7,470
36,480
21,231
6,753
21,179
27,320
23,09!
27,653
181, 355
70,964
45,837
41,455
29,805
13,571
201,632
17,223
12,322
7,894
22,795
10,360
5,756
9,201
4,487
3,175
9,780
8,096
12,228
4,936
2,526
706
232
114,494
596,284**
4,
1*
351
59,406
277
1,362
- 2,113
— — — — I 659.908
fuel. Canadian Great Lakes commercial docks, U h. Great Lakes and tidewater dock
at mines and sales to employees, net change in mine inventory and overseas exports.
Coal and Lignite Distribution. Calendar Year 1976, Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry
           Survey.
                                  3-97

-------
Table 3-16.    US  coal  consumption by  region and  sector,  1985,  in thousand  tons
   (USDOT 1978).
Region and State


1 NORTHEAST












H SOUTHEAST









m EAST NORTH
CENTRAL




IV WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL











V WEST












U.S.

Massachusetts
Connecticut
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Rhode Island
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
Percent of Region
Delaware
Maryland
District of Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Total
Percent of Region
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
Percent of Region
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
Total
Percent of Region
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Colorado
Utah
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
New Mexico
Arizona
Nevada
Washington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Total
Percent of Region
Total
Percent of U.S.
Electric
Utilities
17
4
935
13
18
12,004
2,256
44,620
59,867
50%
2,508
6,572
79
3,870
30,946
2,255
5 , 564 •'
16,812
12,165
37,104
22,233
26,623
1,545
187,276
70%
64,959
41,279
43,556
24,744
20,Z66
194,804
59%
8,448
4,320
11,840
16,791
41,399
80%
20,485
13,629
26,439
4,898
3,087
6,190
16,830
18,044
10,311
7,820
_
13,393
12,290
9,800
12,476
7,044
2.000
9,000
NA
193,736
86%
677,082
68%
Coke and
Gas Plants
	
_
—
_
_
6,408
_
26,669
33,077
27%
_
4,256
—
—
5,924
I
—
—
1,621
196
7,729
—
19,726
7%
15,181
15,786
3,596
4,449
278
39,290
U%
_
_
—
1,019
1,019
2%
842
—
335
—
—
—
—
1,286
2,217
—
_
—
_

_
—
—
_
NA
7,172
3%
100.284
10%
All
Others*
277
211
182
32
—
14
7,253
488
19,459
27,916
23%
77
3,467
592
8,495
15,356
5,419
4,748
1,073
—
7,436
7,621
8,202
168
61,654
23%
40,180
16,388
15,748
15,789
8,279
96,384
29%
392
_
604
8,058
9,051
18%
3,586
4,521
5,557
1,201
33
1,096
488
1,762
2,323
198
1,268
1,677
25
39
436
941
496
124
NA
25,771
11%
220,779
22%

Total
294
215
182
967
13
32
25,665
2,744
90,748
120,860
(48%)
2,585
13,295
671
12,365
52,226
26,674
10,312
17,885
12,165
46,161
30,050
42,554
1,713
268,656
(48%)
120,320
73,453
62,900
44,982
28,823
330,478
(64%)
8,840
4,320
12,444
25,868
51,472
(99%)
24,913
18,150
32,331
6,099
3,120
7,286
17,318
21,092
14,851
8,018
1,268
15,070
12,315
9,839
12,912
10,477
2,496
9,124
NA
226,679
(98%)
998,145

           (  ) f Percent increase, 1976-1985.
           •Includes industrial, retail, residential, and commercial.
           NA  = Not available.
           Source: Department of Transportation: Rail Transportation Requirements for Coal Movement
                  m_198_5, December 1978; adapted" from FEA's National Energy Outlook. 1976, Reference
                  scenario, assuming constant oil price.
                                              3-98

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nuclear power plants or new coal-fired power  plants.   Such  new plants  will
not be operational for ten years at minimum in most cases.   Few new  oil-  and
natural gas-fired plants  are  expected to be built  because of the rising
costs of these fuels.  Furthermore, recent developments  in  the nuclear power
industry suggest that coal-fired power plants may  be  considered much more
seriously by the utility  industry as an alternative to nuclear plant
construction.  Construction of new coal-fired plants  could  affect  coal
market demand favorably in the Basin and State  (President's  Commission on
Coal. 1980), but these effects would not be felt  in the near  future.

     Conversions of existing, non-coal, fossil-fuel power plants to
coal-fired plants are not expected to be significant  in  number unless  the
Federal government makes  conversion mandatory, other  fuel costs increase
dramatically, or Clean Air Act provisions regulating  power  plant emissions
are relaxed.  The costs of conversion and the costs of compliance  with New
Source Performance Standards may discourage voluntary changeover to
coal-fired plants, unless subsidies are provided to facilitate conversion or
other direct and indirect interventions are put  forth by the Federal
government.  The costs of conversion include  the installation of scrubbers
and coal washing facilities for high-sulfur coals,  which currently cannot be
burned economically as the result of Clean Air Act  emission  standards.  If
subsidies are provided for conversion, demand for  the Basin's relatively
low-sulfur coals can be expected to increase  significantly.   If scrubbers
and other NAAQS-related technologies are subsidized,  market  demand for lower
quality coals will be stimulated as well.

     Power plant demand is particularly important  to  the Basin and State,
because Basin coalfields  are relatively close to large population  centers
and to existing and future power plants.  Coal transportation costs,
therefore,  are advantageous for mines in the Basin.   In  the  more distant
future, coal demand in the Basin may be affected positively  by the
development of new technologies such as coal  gasification and liquefaction
processes that involve the breaking or "cracking"  of  heavy hydrocarbon
molecules into lighter molecules, which then are enriched with hydrogen.
Gasification processes are categorized by reactor  configurations and
include fluidized bed, ent'rained bed, fixed bed, and  molten  salt.
Liquefaction processes include dried hydrogenation, solvent  extraction,
pyrolysis,  and indirect liquefaction.

     Experimental applications of these new technologies, several  of which
are being sponsored by USDOE and others in the State, are being undertaken
at the present time.  A new technological innovation  relates  to facilitating
coal use at the combustion site.  New flue gas desulfurization processes,
for example, will be critical to electric utility  consumption,  given current
S02 regulations by EPA.  New "scrubber" technologies  include  (President's
Commission on Coal 1980):
                                   3-99

-------
     •  A dual alkali process utilizing sodium-based  scrubbing
        solutions, disposed directly or regenerated with
        limestone

     •  A magnesium oxide slurry process, whereby magnesium
        sulfite is formed and processed further to yield sulfuric
        acid and other marketable by-products, and magnesium  is
        recycled

     •  Use of nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate  in natural mineral
        form) as a dry sorbent for S02 removal

     •  USDOE advanced, "closed loop," regenerable systems with no
        waste discharge.

These and other technologies may facilitate compliance with the SC>2,
NOX, and particulate NAAOS's and other requirements and may enable  the  use
of lesser quality (i.e., higher sulfur) coals in the  future.

     One of the most significant new technologies is  being developed
directly in the Basin.  On July 31, 1980 President Carter joined the
Japanese and West German ambassadors in signing an agreement  to build a $1.4
billion coal liquefaction plant using solvent extraction near Morgantown,
West Virginia.  This Solvent Refined Coal (SRC) II process involves
pyrolysis of powdered raw coal in the presence of hydrogen and a solvent to
obtain a liquified product.   It is one of three coal-to-liquid technologies
being developed.  From a user's standpoint,  this liquid product is  somewhat
easier to handle than solid coal-derived products being developed elsewhere.
The SRC I product contains no ash and less than half  the sulfur of  the  solid
SRC II product.  In addition to its primary product of liquid boiler  fuel,
the SRC II process also produces quantities  of a light distillate naptha,
LP-gas, and pipeline gas.  All these by-products have applications  as fuels
for sale or as refinery and chemical feedstocks.

     In July, 1978, the Pittsburgh and Midway Coal Mining Company,  a
subsidiary of Gulf Oil Corporation, was awarded a $6  million  contract to
design, build, and operate the first phase or demonstration module  of a
commercial scale SRC II plant.  During this demonstration phase, this
facility will process 6,000 tons of high sulfur coal  per day.  At a full
commercial size, the plant is designed to consume 30,000 tons per day and
produce the equivalent of a 100,000 barrel-per-day refinery.  It will be
among the first three synthetic fuel plants  in the US using commercial-sized
equipment.

     In September, 1979, Gulf delivered the initial design specifications
and preliminary environmental assessment to USDOE for review.  Gulf was  then
awarded approximately $50 million for site development and initial
construction of the demonstration phase.  A draft EIS recently has  been
completed and is being reviewed by EPA.  Construction is scheduled  to
commence in early spring 1981, and production will begin in mid-1984
(Verbally, Mr. Phillip Schimear, WVGOECD, Charleston  WV, January 27,  1981).
                                     3-100

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3.3.3.  Effects of Legislation and Regulations on the Coal Market

     As stated before, market demand directly and indirectly is influenced
by a variety of factors which ultimately  are reflected  in the  prices bid  and
asked for coal.  Health and safety costs  and reclamation costs  for
underground and surface mines were estimated to  increase the cost of
delivered coal to buyers from $0.90 to $1.00 per million Btu during 1977
(National Academy of Sciences 1977).  The Appalachian Regional  Commission
(1974) and other agencies have found substantial cost increases as the
result of pollution control requirements.  Possibly most important, market
demand has been reduced as the result of  the Clean Air  Act and  related
requirements to use low-sulfur coal to achieve the NAAQS's.

     Costs of mine-safety precautions, employee benefits, unionization of
workers, runoff control, and other reclamation efforts  negatively affect  the
coal industry in West Virginia by increasing prices to  levels higher than
those for coal produced in Kentucky, Virginia, and most other  States
(Table 3-17 and Figure 3-36).  Because of high labor costs, complex coal
seam characteristics, State reclamation requirements, and other factors,
West Virginia coal prices at the mine are much higher than prices for
Western intermountain coal for which extraction  costs can be minimized using
large-scale, state-of-the-art techniques  on thick seams in flat terrain.
West Virginia coal, however, is much closer to eastern  domestic markets and
export terminals.

     Current price data are important because the data  suggest  that the coal
market in West Virginia appears to be relatively marginal.  Increased
regulatory costs may affect the vulnerable West Virginia market more readily
than Western markets which are characterized by coal prices that are
substantially lower.  Conversely, reduction in additional regulatory costs
through subsidization or modification of  the regulations themselves might be
especially beneficial to Basin coal producers.
                                   3-101

-------
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3-104

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Chapter 4
Regulations Governing Mining Activities

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                                                                      Page

4.1.   Past and Current West Virginia Regulations                       4-1

      4.1.1.   Outline History of  State Mining                         4-1
               Regulations

      4.1.2.   Current State Permit Programs                           4-5

      4.1.3.   General Framework of State Laws and Regulations          4-7

      4.1.4.   Specific Permit Applications                            4-8
              4.1.4.1.   Prospecting Permit                           4-8
              4.1.4.2.   Procedure for Identifying Lands               4-9
                          Unsuitable for Mining Operations
              4.1.4.3.   Incidental Surface Mining Permit              4-14
              4.1.4.4.   Surface  Mining Permit                        4-15
              4.1.4.5.   Permit for Mine Facilities  Incidental         4-23
                          to Coal Removal
              4.1.4.6.   Permit for Other Mining  Activities  on         4-25
                          Active  Surface Mine
              4.1.4.7.   Drainage Handbook for Surface Mining          4-26
              4.1.4.8.   Bond Release                                 4-26
              4.1.4.9.   Underground Mining Permit                    4-27
              4.1.4.10.  Underground Mining Reclamation Plan          4-30
              4.1.4.11.  Underground Mine Drainage Water               4-31
                          Pollution Control Permit
              4.1.4.12.  Coal Preparation Plant Water Pollution       4-34
                          Control Permit
              4.1.4.13.  Air Quality Permits for  Coal                 4-34
                          Preparation Plants
              4.1.4.14.  Mineral  Wastes Dredging  Operations            4-35
                          Permit

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               4.0.  REGULATIONS GOVERNING MINING ACTIVITIES

4.1.  PAST AND CURRENT WEST VIRGINIA REGULATIONS

     This section briefly describes the history of mining regulations in
West Virginia during the past 40 years.  It then focuses on specific current
permit requirements.

     4.1.1.  Outline History of State Surface Mining Regulations

     The State of West Virginia enacted its first surface mining control
legislation in 1939.  This law recognized the disruptive environmental
effects of surface mining operations and therefore required backfilling of
spoil so as to minimize flooding, pollution of waters, accumulation of stag-
nant water, and destruction of soil for agricultural purposes.  It also
required a permit and bond of $150 per acre of coal to be mined (but the
bonding did not include all acreage disturbed).  The West Virginia
Department of Mines was given sole regulatory authority over  surface mines,
as well as underground mines.

     This initial legislation was amended and broadened in 1945, 1947, and
1959.  The 1945 legislation established a registration fee of $50 and
increased bonding to $500 per acre of coal mined with a minimum total of
$1,000 per operation.  Authority for the revocation of permits and
forfeiture of bonds also was provided, as well as for requiring specific
minimum information on the permit application.  A method for approving the
regrading of a mining site also was developed.  Specific reclamation
measures mandated were:

     •  Cover the coal face after mining

     •  Bury pyritic shales

     •  Seal breakthroughs to underground mines

     •  Drain surface water accumulation

     •  Divert runoff to natural drainageways with as little
        erosion as possible

     •  Remove all metal, lumber, and refuse from site after
        completion of mining

     •  Regrade and refill ditches, trenches, or excavations  to
        minimize flood hazard
                                   4-1

-------
     •  Plant trees, shrubs, grasses, or vines as approved by the
        regulatory authority.

     In 1947, a special fund for registration fees and forfeited bonds was
established to be used for administration and certain reclamation work.  A
waiver was provided from the mandatory covering of the coal face, if a drift
mine was proposed.  The 1959 legislation defined surface mining to exclude
auger mining as a method and created five surface mining administrative
divisions within the State, with one inspector assigned to each division.
Registration fees were raised to $100, and an annual permit renewal fee of
$50 per year was established.  Both fees were to be deposited into a General
Revenue Account.  A Bond Forfeiture Fund was established, to be used
exclusively for the reclamation of areas affected by surface mining.

     In 1961, reclamation responsibilities were assigned to the newly
established West Virginia Department of Natural Resources and subsequently
to the Division of Reclamation within the Department.  Responsibility for
bonding also was transferred to the West Virginia Department of Natural
Resources.  This resulted in a dual-agency responsibility with the West
Virginia Department of Mines, which remained as the principal enforcement
authority concerned with active operations.  The Division of Reclamation's
responsibility was broadened in 1963 legislation, and the definition of
surface mining was expanded to include auger mining operations.  Also, in
1963, a Reclamation Board of Review (an appeals council) and a Special              ^
Reclamation Fund and Program were created.  The latter was financed by the          M
industry through a $30 per disturbed acre fee.  The program's objective was         ™
the rehabilitation of abandoned surface mined areas.  During the same year,
a requirement that proof of bond deposit ($150 per acre with a minimum total
of $1,000 per operation) was initiated; this bonding was for the entire
disturbed acreage rather than for only the acres from which coal is removed.
Moreover, the 1963 legislation specifically mandated operators to regrade in
accordance with the Department of Natural Resources regulations.

     •  Regrade spoil peaks and cover the bottom of the final cut

     •  Remove all rocks which roll beyond toe of spoil pile and
        locate them at the toe

     •  Seal all underground mine openings encountered

     •  Obtain regulatory approval to retain ponds after mining is
        completed.

     Regulatory authority was consolidated in 1967, when all surface mining
enforcement responsibilities were transferred to the Division of Reclama-
tion.  At that time, the following additional measures were implemented:
                                    4-2

-------
     •  Requirement for a prospecting permit with an application
        procedure and reclamation bond ($150 per acre)

     •  Establishment of a thirty-day frequency for inspections of
        each mine site

     •  Determination of bonding rate between $100 and $500
        (The Director set the rate at $300 per acre.)

     •  Inspector's authority to close an operation in violation
        of regulations

     •  Triple damages protection to any person whose property was
        damaged by an operation

     •  All runoff to be impounded, drained, or treated so as to
        reduce erosion and pollution of streams.

     By this transfer of power, reclamation could be considered not only
after mining, but also during both the pre-planning procedure and the active
mining phase.  Consequently the complexity of permit applications
increased.

     A multi-division application review process was initiated within WVDNR
during 1971 to include the technical expertise of the Divisions of Water
Resources and Planning and Development.  Subsequently the review process was
expanded further to include other agencies in WVDNR, such as the Forestry
Division, Wildlife Resources Division, and Division of Parks and Recreation.
The Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1971 and associated regulations
also contributed to the complexity of regulatory responsibility by including
the following:

     •  Requiring that all drainage be controlled in approved
        structures installed prior to mining

     •  Mandating topsoil segregation and subsequent replacement
        after backfilling in acid-producing overburden areas

     •  Providing for control of all blasting activity

     •  Limiting bench widths for contour mining and prohibiting
        fill benches on slopes greater than 65%

     •  Requiring that all highwalls be eliminated if original
        slopes were less than 30%; for those slopes greater than
        30%, mandating highwall reduction to a maximum of 30 feet
        of exposed highwall

     •  Providing for standards to keep reclamation current with
        mining

-------
     •  Requiring that grasses as well as trees be planted on
        completed areas and stipulating minimum survival rate
        standards for revegetation

     •  Increasing inspection frequency to once every 15 days

     •  Providing for newspaper public notification, adjacent
        landowner certified mail notification, and the opportunity
        to file protests for any given application

     •  Increasing the bond range from $600 to $1,000 per acre
        (originally set administratively at $750 per acre but
        increased to $1,000 per acre during 1975)

     •  Increasing the Special Reclamation Tax from $30 to $60 per
        acre

     •  Increasing the registration fee to $500 and annual renewal
        fee to $100.

     •  Prohibiting expansion of surface mining into 22 counties,
        which essentially lacked surface mining as of 1971, and
        which were designated as "Moratorium Counties" for several
        years.

     In early 1973, an administrative policy revision was enacted in
response to the most notable problem regarding reclamation, that of fill
slope creation in terrain which exceeded an original steepness of 50% (27°).
This policy revision required that mining operations in such steeply sloping
areas propose a method of mining that would not create a fill slope.
Lateral haulback (or controlled spoil placement) methods were developed in
response to this mandate and continue to be refined in response to
environmental concerns.

     In 1976, the Reclamation Division's regulatory responsibility was
broadened to include the surface effects of underground mines.  This was
followed by State legislative changes in 1977 that provided for final
regrading to approximate original contour, with all highwalls, spoil piles,
and depressions eliminated.  Fill slopes in areas having original slopes of
20° or greater were prohibited; an exception was made for initial cut
downslope spoil placement, but only under certain conditions.  These
provisions were specifically qualified as 1) not precluding or limiting the
authority of the Director to modify these requirements in order to bring
about more desirable land uses or watershed control, and 2) permitting
mountaintop removal and valley fill techniques, provided prior written
approval of the Director is obtained.
                                     4-4

-------
     In 1978, the Director and the State Reclamation Commissionl were
given authority to implement the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclama-
tion Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87) through rule-making.  This was followed in
early 1980 by the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
(West Virginia Code, Chapter 20, Articles 6 and 6C, and Chapter 22, Articles
2, 6, and 6C), which is to bring the State statutes into conformity with
Federal guidelines.  As of August 1980 WVDNR had not yet promulgated
regulations based on this new law to form a complete regulatory package to
become the basis for USOSM delegation of the SMCRA permanent program.  The
US Secretary of the Interior was expected to issue a decision during
September 1980 on regulatory procedures submitted during March and revised
during April (Verbally, Ms. Christine Struminski, USOSM, to Dr. James
Schmid, August 25, 1980).  If approved by the Secretary of the Interior, the
West Virginia Department of Natural Resources will assume regulatory primacy
from the United States Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement
for regulation of surface mining activities in accordance with State and
Federal law following promulgation of regulations.

4.1.2.  Current State Permit Programs

     In West Virginia the coal mining industry is regulated principally by
two cabinet departments.  Underground mining operations, mine safety, and
miner certification are regulated by the West Virginia Department of Mines.
Surface mines, the surface operations associated with underground mines, and
coal preparation facilities are regulated by the West Virginia Department of
Natural Resources.

     WVDNR is the principal State agency charged with environmental
protection and with the management of natural resources, recreation, and
State lands (Figure 4-1).  Within WVDNR the Division of Reclamation is
responsible for regulating surface mining through permit review, enforcement
and inspection, and abandoned mine reclamation programs.  The Division of
Reclamation is also the administrative agency that has been charged with
execution of State regulatory functions pursuant to the Federal Surface
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87).  During the
19781979 fiscal year the Division of Reclamation issued 135 surface mining
permits covering 12,005 acres, 44 prospecting permits, and 122 underground
opening approvals.  Division personnel made 8,400 mine inspections (WVDNR
     current (1980) membership of the Reclamation Commission consists of
the Director of WVDNR (Chairman), the Water Resources Division Chief, the
Reclamation Division Chief, and the Director of the Department of Mines.
Members receive no compensation.  The Commission has rule-making and
investigation powers.  It also acts on petitions to designate lands
unsuitable for mining (Section 4.1.4.2.).  Staff assistance is provided to
the Chairman by the West Virginia Attorney General (WVSCMRA 20-6-7, 1980).
                                     4-5

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       Wonderful WV Magazine
          Public Information
        Environmental Analysis
                  L
        Natural Resources Commission
          Reclamation Commission
          Public Land Corporation
                    DEPUTY DIRECTOR
                  Environmental Protection
 DEPUTY DIRECTOR
 Recreation & Land
Management Services
                                                               February  1979
Figure  4-1       ORGANIZATION  OF  WVDNR,  1979
                                4-6

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*
1979).  The Division is to administer the rules and regulations promulgated
by the Reclamation Commission (WVSCMRA 20-6-7, 1980).

     The Division of Reclamation heretofore has been assisted by the
Division of Water Resources, also a line agency in WVDNR, in permit review
of water quality aspects of surface mining.  The Water Resources Division
also supplies technical services including laboratory analyses to assist the
monitoring and enforcement activities of the Division of Reclamation.  The
Division of Water Resources issues permits for coal preparation facilities.
During the 1978-1979 fiscal year 15 plants were proposed or under con-
struction, and 29 new or modified plants were put into operation.  All of
the 84 active and 294 inactive coal preparation plants in West Virginia are
inspected periodically by Division of Water Resources personnel.  This
Division is implementing several Federally sponsored programs in accordance
with the Clean Water Act, and it eventually will be responsible for admini-
stration of the NPDES permit program.  In the future, NPDES effluent
limitations will be incorporated into the SMCRA and WVSCMRA permit issued by
WVDNR-Reclamation, possibly following review by WVDNR-Water Resources.

     The Water Resources Division establishes baseline water quality data
pursuant to Section 303(e) of CWA and develops stream water quality
standards to protect the uses which it establishes in conjunction with the
State Water Resources Board.  The NPDES New Source permit program can be
tailored to achieve a desirable level of protection of the established water
uses by applying, where appropriate, discharge limitations more stringent
than the Nationwide New Source Performance Standards.

     The West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission, an independent
agency, is charged with air quality regulation pursuant to the State Air
Pollution Control Act.  It also discharges the duties prescribed by the
Federal Clean Air Act pursuant to the revised State Implementation Plan,
which has received conditional approval from EPA (45 FR 159:54042-54053,
August 14, 1980).

4.1.3.  General Framework of State Laws and Regulations

     The coal mining industry in West Virginia is regulated pursuant to
Chapters 20 (surface mining) and 22 (underground mining) of the West
Virginia Code.  The West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
amended these sections of the West Virginia Code during March 1980.

     The State does not have a comprehensive environmental protection law.
It relies on various permit programs, certain of which entail performance
bonds, to assure that reclamation is performed.  The ensuing paragraphs
describe the principal State permits required for new mining activities as
of early 1980.  Revisions in the regulations as a result of the WVSCMRA are
anticipated.  Special attention is given to the environmental information
that must be supplied as part of each permit application, because such
information may be of use to EPA in administering the New Source NPDES
permit program.
                                                4-7

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4.1.4.  Specific Permit Applications

     There are several State permits and procedures that affect new mining
in West Virginia.  Which permits are necessary for a specific facility
depends largely on the nature of the proposed operation.  The descriptions
presented here are based on the 1978 edition of the West Virginia mining
statutes; the WVSCMRA; regulations, application forms, and checklists
provided by WVDNR as of early 1980; and the preliminary State regulatory
program submitted to the US Department of the Interior for administration of
the 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act during March 1980.
Mining exempt from WVDNR permits includes:

     •  Extraction of coal by a landowner for his own
        non-commercial use from land owned or leased by him

     •  Extraction of coal by a landowner engaged in construction,
        where the landowner first has demonstrated that
        construction will occur within a reasonable time after
        disturbance, and not more than one acre of private land is
        to be disturbed

     •  Removal of borrow and fill grading material for Federal
        and State highway or other construction projects, provided
        that the construction contract requires a suitable bond to
        provide practicable reclamation of the affected borrow
        area (WVSCMRA, 20-6-29).

     4.1.4.1.  Prospecting Permit

     Before a major coal mine is initiated, particularly in areas that have
not undergone extensive previous mining, it is likely that the area will be
subjected to intensive prospecting as part of mine planning.  Prospecting
can entail considerable surface disturbance.  In accordance with the State
surface mining statute (WVSCMRA 20-6-8; formerly West Virginia Code 20-6-7),
the WVDNR-Reclamation is empowered to require a permit to excavate overbur-
den from coal deposits for exploration or other purposes in any area not
covered by a current surface mining permit.  Application forms (DR-3)
require identification and bond revocation history of the applicant, the
identification of reclamation measures to be used, and information on the
proposed revegetation.  A performance bond at $500 per acre must be posted,
and the quantity of minerals allowed to be removed for testing, without
special permission, is limited to 250 tons.  Prospecting permit bonds are
released following satisfactory reclamation in accordance with permit
requirements, and the prospecting operation must conform with any
regulations on haul roads, blasting, drainage, underground water protection,
operating requirements, and revegetation that are applicable to surface
mining generally.  Prospecting permits are valid for one year.

     The WVSCMRA (20-6-8) revises prospecting permit procedures.  It
provides that a prospector file with WVDNR a notice of intent to prospect at
                                     4-8

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least 15 days prior to the commencement of prospecting operations.  The
notice is to identify the area to be prospected, the period of prospecting,
the cropline and name of seam(s) to be prospected, and other information as
required by WVDNR.  The WVDNR can deny or limit permission to prospect
where:

     •  The proposed operation will damage or destroy a unique
        natural area

     •  The proposed operation will cause serious harm to water
        quality

     •  The operator has failed to reclaim other prospecting
        sites

     •  There has been an abuse of prospecting previously
        in the area.

Prospecting operations are subject to inspection, closure, revocation of
approval, and bond forfeiture if the operations, reclamation, and
revegetation are not in accordance with the surface mining performance
standards of WVDNR.  Reclamation of prospecting disturbances, however, may
be postponed if the operator obtains a regular surface mining permit and
begins actual mining.

     The prospecting permit application must be accompanied by a map that
shows existing oil and gas wells, cemeteries, and utilities.  The
reclamation plan must specify the future post-mining land use, drainage
control measures, regrading methods and timetable, and plans for
revegetation in the event that actual mining does not occur promptly.  The
special State reclamation tax is not applied until the prospecting area is
approved for actual mining.

     The prospecting permit application is reviewed first for completeness
and technical adequacy by a district permit review team with expertise in
engineering, geology, and hydrology.  Following on-site inspection, changes
in the proposed plans can be mandated to the applicant.  The application
then is processed in Charleston, where special attention is given to
administrative aspects.  The WVDNR-Reclamation publishes notices of approved
applications in local newspapers.  The procedure is outlined in Figure 4-2,
as it is expected to function in the near future.

     4.1.4.2.  Procedure for Identifying Lands Unsuitable for Mining
               Operations

     Section 20-6-22 of the WVSCMRA provides for the designation of lands
unsuitable for mining and incorporates a public participation mechanism in
the designation process.  This section replaces Section 20-6-11 of the West
Virginia Code.  The Reclamation Commission upon petition is to designate an
area as unsuitable for new surface mining, if it determines that reclamation
of the area is not technologically and economically feasible.  The criteria
                                     4-9

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      Prospecting  Permit Application  Procedure
Rgure 4-2 PROSPECTING PERMIT PROCEDURE (WVDNR I960)
                       4-10

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established by the Legislature for surface areas that may be designated as
unsuitable for certain types of surface mining operations include:

     •  Areas where operations are incompatible with existing
        State or local land use plans

     •  Areas with fragile or historic resources where operations
        could significantly damage important historic, cultural,
        scientific, and aesthetic values and natural systems

     •  Renewable resource lands (including aquifers and recharge
        areas) where operations could result in substantial loss
        or reduction in long-term productivity of water supply,
        food, or fiber products

     •  Natural hazard lands where operations could substantially
        endanger life and property

     •  Lands with frequent flooding or unstable geology.

The Reclamation Commission is to develop a review capacity and data base to
support the designation process.  The Commission is to prepare a detailed
statement on the potential coal resources, demand for coal resources, and
impact of designation on the environment, the economy, and the supply of
coal before designating an area as unsuitable for mining.  The designation
of an area as unsuitable is not to prevent prospecting operations, but it
eliminates the value of the coal for purposes of taxation for as long as the
designation is in effect (unless the coal can be mined by underground
methods).

     The Legislature repeated the prohibitions on classes of lands
automatically to be considered unsuitable that were mandated by Congress in
the SMCRA, but authorized WVDNR to grant variances upon an affirmative
finding that positive environmental benefits would result from such mining.
The petition procedure for designation of lands unsuitable for mining is
outlined in Figure 4-3).

     When inquiries concerning specific parcels are received from coal
operators or from the public, WVDNR will ascertain whether the parcel has
been reviewed for its suitability for mining using its computerized data
bank.  Where no apparent conflicts exist, the inquiry from an applicant is
forwarded to State and Federal agencies with responsibilities for historic
and public lands.  Where an apparent conflict exists, the applicant, inter-
ested agencies, and WVDNR-Reclamation personnel hold a coordination meeting,
so that the applicant immediately can begin to address impact avoidance and
mitigative measures.  The inquiry process is to precede the remaining permit
application procedures for surface mining permit processing by WVDNR (Figure
4-4).

     EPA will not review New Source NPDES permit applications for mining
facilities proposed in any area being considered for designation as
unsuitable for mining until the designation process has been completed.  No
                                     4-11

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            Unsuitable Lands Petition Procedure
                   Circulole Petition to Othei
                   Agencies 8 Notify Public
                     ot Petilion'i Receipt

Inter ve
Procesi
Until 3
Prior to h
nlion
Valid
Ooyi
•annq
12


Adverlne for
Public Hearing
•i n
•+ i
Hold
Public Htannq
                          13
                          14
                                                      11
Figure 4-3  UNSUITABLE LANDS PETITION  PROCEDURE
             (WVDNR I960)
                            4-12

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           Unsuitable Lands Inquiry Procedure
Figure 4-4 UNSUITABLE LANDS  INQUIRY  PROCEDURE
          (WVDNR  1980)
                        4-13

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New Source NPDES permit will be issued to proposed facilities in lands
designated as unsuitable for mining.                                                m

     4.1.4.3.  Incidental Surface Mining Permit

     Coal mining on small tracts of land where coal is to be removed
incidentally to the development of commercial, industrial, residential, or
civic uses is regulated by the WVDNR-Reclamation pursuant to Section 20-6-31
of the WSCMRA.  A streamlined permit review procedure applies to tracts
smaller than five acres and also may be used for the reprocessing of
abandoned coal waste piles.  Tracts larger than two acres will require the
regular surface mining permit.

     The review process is essentially the same as that for prospecting
permits (Figure 4-2).   A reclamation bond of $3,000 per acre is required,
together with the $60 per acre special reclamation tax.  A pre-plan map
(1:6,000 scale) must be submitted, as for a regular surface mining permit,
showing existing and proposed features, together with detailed plans for the
mining and reclamation activities.  Plans for blasting, drainage control,
and the proposed post-mining uses also must be detailed, together with an
explanation of why the coal must be removed as a part of the proposed
development.

     The information submitted with the application form (DR-4) must include
the following plans, maps, and drawings for site preparation, development,
and reclamation:

     •  Pre-plan map, color coded and certified by registered                       ^
        engineer or other qualified professional
        -probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
           feet
        -probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
           within 500 feet
        -boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
        -names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
        -names and locations of all streams and water bodies
           within 500 feet
        -roads, buildings, and cemeteries within 500 feet
        -active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
           wells on disturbed areas or within 500 feet
        -boundary and acreage of land to be disturbed
        -coal crop line
        -drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
           be used for drainage, constructed drainways, and
           receiving waters)
        -location of overburden acid-producing materials that may
           cause spoil with pH <3.5
        -method for revegetation for acid spoil

     •  Description of site preparation and mining sequence, with
        time periods
                                   4-14

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     •  Methods and procedures for removing and disposing trees
        and brush

     •  Blasting plans and necessary approvals

     •  Method of drainage control

     •  Method of removing and stockpiling topsoil material

     •  Methods for handling and replacing overburden including
        toxic (acid-forming) materials

     •  Methods for control of overburden after placement

     •  Total acreage of development and specific acreage for coal
        removal

     •  Description of proposed development, including schedule by
        phases

     •  Other governmental approvals

     •  Reclamation procedures, equipment, and time schedule

     •  Typical cross-section of regraded area

     •  Methods to replace topsoil and expected thickness.

     4.1.4.4.  Surface Mining Permit

     The principal West Virginia surface mining permit application procedure
is a complex process with opportunity for public comment and review.
Detailed mining and reclamation plans are to be prepared by personnel
approved by the Division of Reclamation and then signed and attested as to
accuracy.  They are submitted first to the district Surface Mining
Reclamation Inspector for review.  This 30-day initial review addresses both
the completeness of the application and the technical adequacy of the
plans.

     At the initial review stage the mine plans must include the following
kinds of environmental and engineering information on maps, drawings, and
application forms:

     •  Limits of proposed permit area, area to be disturbed, crop
        line of coal seam, strike and dip of coal seam

     •  Limits of adjacent active underground mining operations
        within 500 feet
                                  4-15

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Probable limits of adjacent inactive or mined-out
underground mines within 500 feet

Boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet of
proposed disturbed area

Names and addresses of surface and mineral owners within
500 feet

Names and locations of streams or other public
waters, roads, buildings, cemeteries, active or other oil
and gas wells, and utility lines on or within 500 feet

Natural waterways, constructed drains, and receiving
streams for drainage, with the direction of flow for all
waterways

Location of significant quantities of acid-producing
overburden material that can result in spoil with pH less
than 3.5

Method for treatment of acid-producing spoil for
revegetation and stabilization of surface

Location and extent of access and haul roads, stockpiles,
landfills, observation wells, and other operations
currently under bond, with permit numbers

Cross-sectional scale drawing of disturbed area before,
during, and after mining

Operable equipment to be used for regrading

Method to spread topsoil or other surface material after
regrading, and approximate thickness

Drainage control methods for final regraded area

Map (1:24,000 scale) showing all structures within 0.5
mile of permit area

Evidence of right to affect structures within 300 feet of
disturbed area

Type of proposed mining operation

Premining and postmining land uses

Average pH of soil before mining
                           4-16

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pH and iron concentration in any active discharge from
abandoned underground mine on proposed permit area

Proposed mining sequence and duration

Procedure for constructing and maintaining roadways

Typical cross-section and profile of proposed roadways in
accordance with WVDNR design specifications

Indication of any proposed mining within 100 feet of
public roadway or any need to relocate a public road

Detailed site preparation procedure including removal and
disposal of trees

Location of off-site reference areas for judgment of
successful revegetation

Detailed blasting procedure and calculations according to
WVDNR formulas and requirements

Method for removing and stockpiling soil or upper horizon
material, with stockpile location(s)

Method for placement of overburden

Method for control of overburden after placement (including
haulageways; emphasis on outer slope)

Procedure for final mechanical stabilization of
overburden

Plans to develop cross-sections derived from coreborings
to show:
-Location and elevation of borings
-Nature and depth of overburden strata
-Location and quality of subsurface water
-Nature and thickness of coal and rider seams
-Nature of stratum immediately below coal to be mined
-Mine openings to the surface
-Location of aquifers
-Estimated elevation of water table
-Results of overburden analysis in watersheds of lightly
  buffered (critical) streams, except where there is
  documentation of absence of past acid problems
-Plans for handling and final placement of toxic strata

Surface water monitoring program plans to develop (during
the period of mine operation):
                              4-17

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        -Data adequate to describe daily and seasonal discharges                     .
           from disturbed area (flow volume, pH, total iron, total                   f
           suspended solids)
        -Daily monitoring^ of precipitation using rain gauges
        -Daily monitoringi and written records of total iron, pH,
           and volume of discharge water
        -Monthly report of all measurements and immediate
           notification of WVDNR of violations
        -Daily monitoring (flow volume, total iron, total
           suspended solids) following regrading and seeding to
           demonstrate acceptable postraining runoff quality and
           quantity without treatment and allow the removal of
           control systems (a one year record of meeting effluent
           limitations is acceptable evidence that surface water
           quality has stabilized)

     •  Groundwater monitoring procedure to provide:
        -Data on background groundwater levels, infiltration rates,
           subsurface flow and storage, and quality, from bonded
           wells
        -Data on effects of mining on groundwater quantity arid
           quality

     •  Data on prime farmlands and plans to restore such
        farmland

     •  Identification of slopes in excess of 20° (36%)                              •

     •  Percent original slope at 200-foot intervals along the
        contour.

     When the site has been inspected by the district Surface Mining
Reclamation Inspector and the application has been revised or appealed as
necessary, the application is filed with the Charleston Office of
WVDNR-Reclamation, and a Surface Mining Application Number is assigned.  The
applicant then must repeatedly publish a legal advertisement locally, must
notify adjacent landowners, and must provide a copy of the permit appli-
cation package for public inpsection in the local courthouse.  Thirty days
are allowed for public comments.  Copies of the completed permit application
are reviewed by the Division of Water Resources as well as by the Division
^Except where operator demonstrates by sufficient data that there is a
reasonable expectation that no violation of State or Federal discharge
standards will occur.
                                    4-18

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of Reclamation.1  During the final review of the permit application all
required information must be present.  In addition to the information
ordinarily present during the initial review stage, the following data must
be provided:

     If a mountaintop removal operation or any change from premining to
postmining land use is proposed, then the applicant must supply:

     •  Written evidence of any necessary agency approval
        regarding zoning or other land use controls

     •  Specific plans that show the feasibility of the proposed
        land use related to needs, and that the use can be
        achieved and sustained within a reasonable time after
        mining without delaying reclamation

     •  Provision or commitment to provide necessary public
        services.

     •  Provision or commitment to provide financing and
        maintenance of the proposed land use

     •  Demonstration that the proposed use will not threaten
        public health, public safety, water flow diminution, or
        water pollution

     •  Approvals of any proposed measures to prevent or mitigate
        adverse effects on fish and wildlife resources

     •  For changes to postmining cropland uses that require
        continuous maintenance, a firm written commitment to
        provide the necessary crop management, plus evidence to
        show sufficient water and sufficient top soil to support
        the proposed crop production

     •  Background analytical data from natural waterways upstream
        and downstream from the disturbed area and from
        tributaries to affected streams concerning pH, total hot
        acidity, total mineral acidity, total alkalinity, total
        aluminum, total manganese, total iron, total sulfate,
        total dissolved solids, and total suspended solids prior
       draft submission to USOSM by WVDNR procedurally allows for comments
to the Division of Reclamation during WVSCMRA permit review.  The weight
that will be given to issues raised by WVDNR-Water Resources and other
agencies by WVDNR-Reclamation is not yet certain, and the detailed
regulations are not yet available.
                                   4-19

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   to mining operations, with location of sampling stations
   shown on the map

•  Locations of proposed water monitoring stations for use
   during mining

•  Locations of proposed rain gauges

•  Treatment facilities for water discharges

•  Detailed plan for restoration of prime farmland,
   including:
   -Description of original undisturbed soil profile
   -Methods and equipment for removing, stockpiling, and
      replacing soil to preserve separate layers, prevent
      erosion from stockpiles, scarify graded land, avoid
      overcompaction, insure productive capacity, maintain
      permeability of at least 0.06 inch per hour in
      uppermost 20 inches,  prevent erosion of final surface,
      and establish vegetation quickly
   -Evidence to show that equivalent or higher postmining
      yields can be attained as compared with pre-mining
      yields
   -Evidence to support alternative measures to obtain
      equivalent or higher yields, if alternative measures
      are proposed
   -Plans for seeding or cropping the final graded land for
      the first year after reclamation

•  Plan for revegetation, including:
   -Substantiated prediction of mine soil taxonomic class
      following regrading
   -Treatment to neutralize acidity
   -Mechanical seed bed preparation
   -Rate and analysis of fertilization
   -Rate and type of mulch
   -Perennial vegetation seeding rate and species
      composition proposed
   -Areas to be seeded or planted to trees and shrubs
   -Land use objective
   -Maintenance schedule
   -Responsible party for revegetation

•  Plan for drainage, including:
   -Proposed impoundments with adequate storage capacity and
      proper design
   -Diversion ditches above highwall, if any
   -Diversion ditches below spoil, if any
   -Method to lower water from bench to drainage control
      structures
                               4-20

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     •  Plan for blasting, including:
        -Survey of dwellings, schools, churches, hospitals, and
           nursing facilities within 1,000 feet of blasting areas
        -Survey of underground utilities, overhead utilities, gas
           wells, and abandoned underground mines within 500 feet
           of blasting areas
        -List of residents, local governments, and utilities
           within 0.5 mile
        -List of landowners within 1,000 feet.

     Notice of receipt of the completed application is given by WVDNR to:

     •  Federal, State, and local agencies with jurisdiction or
        interest in the permit area, including fish and wildlife
        and historic preservation agencies

     •  Governmental planning agencies with jurisdiction over land
        use, air quality, and water quality planning

     •  Sewer and water treatment authorities and water companies
        concerned with the permit area

     •  Federal and State agencies with authority to issue any
        other permit or license known to be needed by the
        applicant for the proposed operation.

     Following opportunity for an informal conference, the Division of
Reclamation completes its technical review and prepares the written findings
to support its decision on the permit.  The recommendations of the Division
of Water Resources are considered in this process.  After the decision is
issued and interested individuals and agencies have been notified, there is
a 30-day period for initiation of appeal.  The manner in which this process
is expected to work in the near future is outlined in Figure 4-5.

     Valid permits are to be renewed by WVDNR at least once during their
term (WVSCMRA, 20-6-19), and permit rights can be transferred following
written approval by WVDNR of an application (DR-19).  Permits can be
renewed, if application (DR-17) is made 4 months in advance of expiration,
provided that:

     •  The terms of the existing permit are being met

     •  The operation complies with current reclamation
        requirements (or will be in compliance within a reasonable
        period of time)

     •  The renewal does not jeopardize the operator's
        responsibility on existing permit areas

     •  The performance bond will remain in effect

     •  The applicant provides any other information required by
        WVDNR.
                                   4-21

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     4.1.4.5.  Permit for Mine Facilities Incidental to Coal Removal

     Mine faciliites incidental to coal removal include non-exclusive haul
roads, coal preparation facilities, tipples, unit train loadouts, sidings,
equipment maintenance areas, sanitary landfills, bath houses, mine offices,
and ancillary structures.  For such facilities the application form (DR-23)
must include standard information on the identity and past mining activity
of the applicant, together with proof of notice to landowners within 500
feet.  Bond for the disturbed area (including haul roads and drainage
system) is $1,000 per acre, with a $10,000 minimum for tipples, coal
preparation plants, and refuse sites.  No special reclamation tax is
required.  The procedure is the same as that for regular surface mining
permits (Figure 4-5) .

     In addition, the following types of information must accompany the
application:

     •  Prior land use of site

     •  Post-reclamation land use of site

     •  List of residents, local governments, and utilities
        within 0.5 mile

     •  Approvals from local, other State, and Federal agencies
        needed for the facility

     •  List of landowners within 1,000 feet

     •  Sequence and schedule for clearing and grubbing

     •  Location and method for disposal of trees, brush, and
        debris

     •  Location, design, and specifications for construction and
        maintenance of underdrains, channels, diversions,
        culverts, etc.

     •  Site layout drawings (regrading, revegetation, structures,
        parking areas, refuse areas, water courses and
        drainageways, all color coded)

     •  Plans and procedures for construction and maintenance of
        haulageways and access roads, including cross-sections and
        profiles

     •  Detailed blasting procedures and pre-plans where
        applicable (including surveys of structures within 1,000
        feet)
                                    4-23

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Plans for topsoil removal, stockpiling, and reapplication
(with special provisions for prime farmland, if
applicable)

Plans for overburden placement and toxic material
handling

Methods for control of overburden after placement

Procedure for final mechanical stabilization of
overburden

Cross-sections to show original topography, surface
configuration after development, and final regrading and
topsoiling

Method for final mechanical stabilization

Revegetation plan for temporary cover, interim cover
during site use, and post-reclamation cover, including
-seed bed preparation
-soil preparation and treatment
-revegetation species and rates
-mulch

Maps (1:6,000 minimum scale) showing;
-all facilities requiring surface disturbance
-ownership of all lands within 500 feet of disturbance
-location of the permit area in the surrounding area
-percentage slope of original surface at 200-foot
   intervals
-occupied dwellings, churches, schools, public buildings,
   community buildings, institutional buildings, and
   public parks within 300 feet
-cemeteries within 100 feet
-adjacent surface mines, underground mines, haul roads,
   stockpiles, landfills, oil and gas wells, and
   utilities
-hydrologic data as for regular surface mining permit
-drainage plans
-surface and mineral ownership

Plans for control of discharge water quality and
WVDNR-Water Resources permit number for water discharge

Ambient water quality analyses as for regular surface
mining permit

Runoff storage facilities and capacities

Plans for future monitoring of rainfall and water quality.
                            4-24

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     One copy of this permit application is routed to the Division of Water
Resources.

     4.1.4.6.  Permit for Other Mining Activities on Active Surface Mine

     When an applicant seeks to construct additional haulageways,
underground mines, sanitary landfills, stockpiles, or industrial facilities
(such as tipple buildings) on an active surface mine site, he can do so
without paying a filing fee or special reclamation tax.  He must complete an
application form (DR-21), describe the need for the permit, and post a
performance bond of $1,000 per acre.  No copy of this application is routed
to the Division of Water Resources, but the approval of that Division is
required for any proposed sanitary landfills.  The review procedure is the
same as that for regular surface mining permits (Figure 4-5).   The required
information includes the following:

     •  Topographic map with lands to be disturbed and haulageways
        indicated (1:6,000 scale)

     •  Extent and location of all adjacent operations currently
        bonded by WVDNR, including
        -surface mines
        -underground mines
        -haulroads
        -stockpiles
        -landfills
        -other operations

     •  Ownership and location of landowners within 500 feet

     •  Pre-plan map, color coded and certified by registered
        engineer or other qualified professional
        -probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
          feet
        -probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
          within 500 feet
        -boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
        -names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
        -names and locations of all streams and water bodies
          within 500 feet
        -roads, buildings, and cemeteries within 500 feet
        -active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
          wells on disturbed area or within 500 feet
        -boundary of land to be disturbed and acreage
        -coal crop line
        -drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
          be used for drainage, constructed drainways, and
          receiving waters)
                                   4-25

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        -location of overburden acid-producing materials that may
          cause spoil with pH <3.5
        -method for revegetation for acid spoil

     •  Location map showing permit area in its surroundings

     •  Slope of original surface as measured at 200-foot
        intervals along the contour

     •  Evidence of notification of landowners within 500 feet

     •  Scaled cross-sections showing proposed backfill method

     •  Drainage plan in accordance with WVDNR Handbook showing
        pre-plan drainage map features noted above, plus
        -sediment control structures (0.125 acre feet capacity per
          disturbed acre; possibly less, where controlled
          placement of fill, concurrent reclamation, on-site
          sediment control, and accessible maintenance are
          provided)

        -proposed alterations to natural drainways
        -proposed surface disturbance within 100 feet of streams
        -diversions above highwalls (unless waived by WVDNR)
        -diversions on benches
        -diversions below spoil slopes
        -stream channel diversions
        -procedure for abandonment of drainage control structures

     •  Permission to enter upon lands controlled by parties other
        than the applicant, if applicable

     •  Inspection by district Surface Mining Reclamation
        Inspector

     4.1.4.7.  Drainage Handbook for Surface Mining

     The WVDNR-Water Resources Handbook (1975) is intended for use in
designing surface mine facilities so as to minimize adverse effects.  The
principal pollutant addressed in the Handbook is sediment, but other
concerns include acid mine drainage, slope stability, and water disposal
measures.  Surface mining drainage measures must be designed in accordance
with the Handbook, and the design engineer must certify to WVDNR-Reclamation
that the facilities have been constructed in accordance with the approved
pre-plan.

     4.1.4.8.  Bond Release

     Bond release is a major step in the mining permit process administered
by WVDNR pursuant to the WVSCMRA (and in the future as the regulatory
                                     4-26

-------
authority pursuant to SMCRA as well).  Bonds are released only after appli-
cation has been made to WVDNR, the application has been advertised weekly in
a local newspaper by the permittee for no less than four weeks,  the WVDNR
has inspected the site, and objections by commenting individuals or agencies
have been resolved.  The procedure is outlined in Figure 4-6). Where
reclamation and revegetation are judged unsatisfactory, performance bonds
are not released by WVDNR.

     4.1.4.9.  Underground Mining Permit

     Underground mines, except those producing 50 tons of coal or less
annually for the operator's own use, must obtain a permit from WVDM before
they can be opened or reopened (VJest Virginia Code 22-2-63).  The
application fee is $10.00, and the approval must be renewed annually.
Renewal is granted automatically if monthly reports on employment, tonnage
produced, and accidents have been filed promptly.  Certificates  of approval
are not transferable.  The surface reclamation bond required by  WVDM is
$5,000 per disturbed acre (including haulageways and drainageways) to
guarantee the removal of unused surface structures, the sealing  of abandoned
mine openings, and the reclamation of surface disturbance that does not
result in an operational underground mine.

     The mine map (1:6,000 to 1:1,200 scale) and overlays submitted to WVDM
must contain, in addition to the name and address of the mine:

     •  Property boundaries

     •  Shafts, slopes, drifts, tunnels, entries, rooms,
        crosscuts, and all other excavations, auger areas, and
        surface mined areas in the coalbed being mined

     •  Drill holes that penetrate the coalbed being mined

     •  Dip of coalbed

     •  Outcrop of coalbed within property of mine

     •  Elevation of tops and bottoms of shafts and slopes, and  of
        floor at entrance to drift and tunnel openings

     •  Elevation of floor at 200-foot intervals in
        -at least one entry of each working section and mine and
          cross entries
        -the last line of open crosscuts of each working section
        -rooms advancing toward or adjacent to property boundaries
          or adjacent mines

     •  Contour lines for coalbed being mined (10-foot intervals
        except for steeply pitching coalbeds)
                                     4-27

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Regulatory Authority
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-------
     •  Outline of existing and extracted pillars

     •  Entries and air courses with direction of air flow

     •  Locations of all surface ventilation fans

     •  Escapeways

     •  Known underground workings in the same coalbed within
        1,000 feet of workings

     •  Location and elevation of any body of water dammed or held
        in the mine

     •  Abandoned section of the mine

     •  Location and description of permanent base line points and
        bench marks for elevations and surveys

     •  Mines above or below the current operation

     •  Water pools above the current operation

     •  Locations of principal streams and water bodies on
        surface

     •  Producing or abandoned oil or gas wells within 500 feet

     •  Location of high-pressure pipelines, high voltage power
        lines, and principal roads

     •  Railroad tracks and public highways leading to the mine
        and permanent buildings on mine site

     •  Where overburden is less than 100 feet thick, occupied
        dwellings above the mine

     •  Other information as required.

     The mine map must be updated semiannually to show

     •  Locations of working faces of each working place

     •  Pillars mined and other second mining

     •  Permanent ventilation controls constructed or removed

     •  Escapeways.

Timbering also is to be indicated in the application form (A-7).  Mine maps
and updatings may be kept confidential, but must be filed with WVDM and be
available to authorized inspectors.  Following mine abandonment, the final
                                      4-29

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map must be filed with WVDM and the Federal mine inspector (WV Code
22-2-1).

     Old or abandoned mines cannot be reopened until 10 days written notice
has been given to WVDNR-Water Resources, if mine seepage may drain into a
waterway upon reopening.  WVDNR personnel are to be present at the time of
reopening, with authority to prevent any flow in a manner or quantity
judged likely to kill or harm fish in any waterway (WV Code 22-2-71).

     4.1.4.10.  Underground Mining Reclamation Plan

     The WVDNR-Reclamation requires a completed application form (DR-14),
and a bond in the amount of $1,000 per acre for access roads, haul roads,
and drainage system.  The Department of Mines requires a $5,000 bond for all
other proposed disturbed surface acres.  Where the total length of
disturbance at the outcrop is greater than 400 feet, commercial operations
must post a regular surface mining reclamation bond in addition to the
underground mining reclamation plan bond.  Copies of the application are
filed with WVDNR-Water Resources and with WVDM.  The sequence of steps for
underground mining permit approvals is the same as that for surface mining
applications (Figure 4-5).   Information required by WVDNR includes:

     •  Pre-plan map (1:6,000 scale), color-coded and certified by
        registered engineer or other qualified professional
        showing
        -probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
          feet
        -probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
          within 500 feet
        -boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
        -names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
        -names and locations of all streams and water bodies
        within 500 feet
        -roads, building, and cemeteries within 500 feet
        -active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
          wells on disturbed area or within 500 feet
        -boundary of land to be disturbed and acreage breakdown
          (haulageways, access roads, drainage and sediment
          structures, underground opening sites and excavations,
          overburden storage areas, and other facilities)
        -coal crop line
        -drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
          be used for drainage, constructed drainageways, and
          receiving waters)
        -locations of overburden acid-producing materials that may
          cause spoil with pH <3.5
        -method for revegetation for acid spoil

     •  Location map showing permit area in its surroundings
                                4-30

-------
     •  Slope of original surface as measured at 200-foot
        intervals along the contour

     •  Evidence of notification of landowners within 500 feet

     •  Drainage plan in accordance with WVDNR Handbook showing
        features noted above, plus
        -sediment control structures (0.125 acre feet capacity per
          disturbed acre; possibly less, where controlled
          placement of fill, concurrent reclamation, on-site
          sediment control, and accessible maintenance are
          provided)
        -proposed alterations to natural drainageways
        -proposed surface disturbance within 100 feet of streams
        -diversions above highwalls (unless waived by WVDNR)
        -diversions on benches
        -diversions below spoil slopes
        -stream channel diversions
        -procedure for abandonment of drainage control structures

     •  Extent and location of all adjacent operations currently
        bonded by WVDNR within 300 feet:
        -surface mines
        -underground mines
        -haulroads
        -stockpiles
        -landfills
        -other operations

     •  Off-site reference area to be used to measure revegetation
        success

     •  Detailed reclamation plan, with scaled cross-sections at
        100-foot intervals along the cropline showing topography
        -prior to mining
        -during mining
        -after mining

     •  Approval to enter upon lands not controlled by the
        applicant, if applicable.

     4.1.4.11.  Underground Mine Drainage Water Pollution Control Permit

     Pursuant to Section 20-5A of the West Virginia Code, the Division of
Water Resources requires a permit to discharge wastewater to streams from
coal mining operations.  During on-site inspection by WVDNR-Water Resources
personnel, water samples are taken from the stream and from discharges near
the proposed discharge for analysis by the applicant and by WVDNR.  The
application (WRD-3-73) must include the following information, prepared by
                                   4-31

-------
professional engineer, in addition to standard data on the applicant and
site location:

     •  Receiving stream name, stream to which it discharges,
        major drainage basin, receiving stream flow (estimate or
        measurement), probability of flooding of treatment plant,
        means to be used for flood protection, and probable
        frequency that treatment plant will be out of service
        because of flooding

     •  Mine activity status, type, coal seam name and dip,
        location of main portal

     •  Coal thickness;  acres owned, leased, and to be mined;
        production (tons/day); surface area to be affected

     •  Status and type of any adjacent mines

     •  Solid coal barrier thickness between proposed mine and
        outcrop, adjacent surface mines, auger holes, and adjacent
        underground mines

     •  Whether adjacent workings contain water, and whether water
        is to be discharged through adjacent workings from
        proposed mine or through proposed mine from adjacent
        workings

     •  Whether operation will intercept water table

     •  If pumps will be used, pump capacities and discharge rate,
        control type, backup equipment

     •  Storage time in mine sumps

     •  Type of discharge (borehole, mine opening, abandoned
        workings)1

     •  For abandoned workings, discharge, name of abandoned mine,
        volume of discharge from tunnel, acreage of abandoned
        operations tributary to drainage tunnel

     •  If wells to be drilled within mine, description of
        purpose, method of sealing after abandonment, and method
        to protect wells against mine drainage

     •  Number, design,  and locations of mine seals with
        cross-sections
                                    4-32

-------
•  Percentage of workings to be inundated after
   stabilization

•  Probability of mine having discharge after completion of
   mining, probability of pollution from the discharge, and
   basis for estimate

•  Provisions to insure funds adequate for seal construction
   after mining

•  Expected head of water on barriers at lowest point  of
   mine

•  Highest expected elevation of mining

•  Elevation of all portals, fanways, and breakthroughs

•  Location of waterbearing strata with reference  to coal
   seam and elevation of water table

•  Method of constructing and sealing surface refuse piles

•  Method of replacing refuse in mine

•  Plans for drainage treatment facilities and time needed to
   construct

•  Map to show
   -location of owned and leased coal reserves
   -owners of adjacent surface and mineral rights
   -all mine openings (drifts, shafts, fanways, boreholes)
   -boundaries of mining operations
   -extent of present mining and projected headings
   -points where drainage is likely
   -public and private roads on mine property
   -gas, oil, and water wells
   -known faults and test drill holes
   -extent of prevous auger or surface mining
   -location and thickness  of all barriers
   -elevation of entries, fanways, and boreholes
   -location of treatment facilities

•  Water quality analysis of raw mine water from the new
   opening or a nearby discharge from the same seam (Fe, Mn,
   Al, Na, Cl, 504, total alkalinity, total acidity, total
   solids, suspended solids, pH)

•  Water quality analysis of receiving stream sample.
                                4-33

-------
     4..1.4.12.  Coal Preparation Plant Water Pollution Control Permit

     If a coal preparation plant is to have a discharge to the waters of the
State, application for a discharge permit must be made to WVDNR-Water
Resources (Form WRD 5-64 as revised).  Information to be included consists
of the following:

     •  Plant type
        -wet washing (equipment type, sizes washed, capacity)
        -air cleaning (equipment type, sizes cleaned, dust
          recovery equipment, disposition of water from dust
          collection)
        -thermal drying (type, design capacity, sizes dried, dust
          recovery equipment, disposition of dust, dispositon of
          water from dust collection

     •  Coal seam from which product is derived

     •  Water supply
        -source
        -average use volume
        -height, design, material, spillway, volume, drainage area
          of impoundment dam, with drawings, if applicable

     •  Water treatment works
        -volume of effluent
        -suspended solids in untreated waste to impoundments
        -suspended solids in treated effluent to stream
        -equipment type or facilities, with dimensions and
          capacities
        -description and drawings of impoundments
        -description of worked out mine used for disposal, with
          maps
        -description of settling ponds, with drawings
        -emergency ponds description
        -drainage and runoff control measures
        -abandonment plans.

     4.1.4.13.  Air Quality Permits for Coal Preparation Plants

     WVAPCC requires that permits be obtained for various facilities in coal
preparation plants that may function as stationary sources of air pollution.
Section 16-20-llB of the West Virginia Code authorizes the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission to regulate and issue permits for air pollution
sources.  In addition to standard information on the identity of the
applicant and the location of the plant, the application (WVAPCC/72-PA 36)
is to include:

     •  Type of plant

     •  Proposed startup date for each source
                                    4-34

-------
     •  Sources for which a permit is required and other (e.g.,
        emergency) emission points

     •  Pollution control devices and emission points, with design
        data for each

     •  Description of sources of fugitive dust emissions

     •  Schematic diagram of plant operations

     •  For each affected source
        -name, type, and model of source
        -description of features that affect air contaminants,
          with sketches
        -name and maximum rate of materials processed
        -name and maximum rate of materials produced
        -chemical reactions involved
        -type, amount, sulfur, and ash in fuels combusted
        -combustion data
        -supplier and seams of coal to be fired
        -projected operating schedule
        -projected pollutant emissions without control devices
          (NOX, S02, CO, TSP, HC, others)
        -data on mechanical collectors of particulates
        -data on wet collectors of particulates.

     Public notice in a local newspaper must be published by the applicant
within five days of filing with WVAPCC for a permit.  Additional
requirements for the design, equipment, and operational procedures of coal
preparation plants, including measures to minimize dust, are included in
Section 22-2-62 of the West Virginia Code.  These provisions are
administered by WVDM.

     4.1.4.14.  Mineral Wastes Dredging Operations Permit

     Coal that is lost into the waterways of West Virginia becomes the
property of the people, and title is vested in the Public Lands Corporation
in the WVDNR.  Recovery of this coal can be undertaken only after approval
is granted by the Public Lands Corporation and a permit is issued by the
Division of Water Resources.  The permit application (WRD-10-79) must
include a description of the method, duration, and season of the proposed
dredging operation and the manner in which coal will be transported to the
preparation facility.  The length, width, depth, and volume of the dredging
site, the stream cross-section, location, and nearest downstream water
supply intakes must be specified, along with details of the preparation
facility, impoundments for wastes, maintenance, and abandonment plan.
Drawings are a part of the application.  The following parameters must be
analyzed as part of the water and sediment information unless other analyses
are mandated:
                                    4-35

-------
     •  Benthos sampling, one sample every 300 feet along  the
        length of dredged area (three samples minimum)

     •  Shallow bottom sediments, one upstream, one downstream,
        and one for each 50,000 sq ft of dredged area
        -sieve test
        -if >20% fine material passing No. 200 sieve, then results
           of elutriate test (SO^, Fe, Hg, Cd, As, Pb, Cu, Zn,
           Se, Cr, Ni, Al, Mn, pH, Total Alkalinity, Total
           Hardness, and additional organic and other pollutants
           if required)

     •  Bottom core analysis (new dredging), one for each 50,000
        sq ft (minimum two, maximum five) to depth of dredging;
        sieve and elutriate tests (as for shallow sediments) for
        each 5-foot interval.

     Water quality upstream (one station) and downstream (two  stations) must
be monitored after the initiation of approved dredging during  February, May,
August, and November, plus monthly samples during periods of dredging.
Parameters to be reported include total suspended solids, turbidity,
dissolved oxygen, and pH.  Shallow bottom sediments also are to be analyzed
quarterly.
                                    4-36

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                                                                      Page

4.2.   Federal Regulations                                            4-37

      4.2.1.   EPA Permitting Activities                              4-37
              4.2.1.1.   Existing Source NPDES  Permits                 4-37
              4.2.1.2.   New Source NPDES Permits                      4-37

      4.2.2.   SMCRA Permits                                          4-41
              4.2.2.1.   Mining Operations                            4-42
              4.2.2.2.   Protection of  Surface  Water  and              4-42
                         Groundwater Resources
              4.2.2.3.   Protection of  Aquatic  and Terrestrial         4-42
                         Ecosystems
              4.2.2.4.   Protection of  Specific Land  Uses              4-42
              4.2.2.5.   Protection of  Air Quality                    4-43
              4.2.*2.6.   Noise and Vibration                          4-43
              4.2.2.7.   Community Integrity and Quality of Life       4-44
              4.2.2.8.   Special Performance Standards                 4-44

      4.2.3.   Clean Air Act Reviews                                  4-44

      4.2.4.   CMHSA Permits                                          4-50

      4.2.5.   The Safe Drinking Water  Act                            4-50

      4.2.6.   Floodplains                                            4-51

      4.2.7.   Wild and Scenic Rivers                                 4-32

      4.2.8.   Wetlands                                               4-52

      4.2.9.   Endangered Species Habitat                             4-53

      4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands                         4-53

      4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic,  and Paleontologic Sites         4-53

      4.2.12. United States Forest Service Reviews                   4-54

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4.2.  FEDERAL REGULATIONS

     This section describes the four major Federal programs which regulate
the coal mining industry in West Virginia.  These include the EPA National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program created under the
Clean Water Act (33 USC 1251 et. seq.), the Prevention of Significant
Deterioration provisions of the Clean Air Act (USC 7401-7642, as amended by
88 Stat. 246, 91 Stat. 684, and 91 Stat. 1401-02), the Surface Mining
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87, 30 USC 1201 et. seq.), and
the Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969.  Because this assessment in its
entirety deals with the application of NEPA to the New Source NPDES permit
program by EPA Region III, this section focuses on Federal environmental
regulations other than NEPA.  EPA intends to minimize regulatory overlap
with other Fedral agencies, so long as every reasonable effort is made to
preserve and enhance the quality of the human environment.

4.2.1.  EPA Permitting Activities

     The CWA was the vehicle by which Congress established the primary goals
1) to make the waters of the National swimmable and fishable by 1983, and 2)
to eliminate water pollution by 1985.  The National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit program was created by Section 402 of CWA.
Section 306 of CWA directs EPA to establish New Source Performance Standards
for 27 industries,  including coal mining.  At present EPA administers the
NPDES program in West Virginia.  EPA also administers the PSD provisions of
the Clean Air Act (Section 4.2.3.).

     4.2.1.1.  Existing Source NPDES Permits

     For several years, NPDES permit review focused upon the attainment of
Existing Source Effluent Limitations (also referred to as New Source
Performance Standards), based on the best practicable treatment technology
currently available (Table 4-1).  Discharges are exempt from the limitations
when they result from any precipitation event at facilities designed,
constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of discharge
which would result from a 10-year, 24-hour precipitation event.

     The publication of the final New Source Effluent Limitations for coal
mining point sources (44 FR 9:2586-2592, January 12, 1979) activated the New
Source NPDES permit program for the industry.  Until the New Source Effluent
Limitations became effective on February 12, 1979, all coal mine discharges
were treated as existing sources.

     4.2.1.2  New Source NPDES Permits

     Classification of a mine discharge as a New Source is determined on a
case-by-case basis.  EPA review is based largely upon information supplied
by the permit applicant to WVDNR and to EPA directly.  Effective February
12, 1979, coal mining activities requiring New Source NPDES permits are
defined as those which meet one or more of the following criteria:
                                    4-37

-------
limitations (40 CFR 434; 42 FR 80:21379-21390, April 26, 1977).

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     o  Coal preparation facilities that are constructed on  or
        after February 12, 1979, independent of coal mine permit
        areas

     •  Surface and underground mines that are assigned
        identifying numbers by USMSHA on or after February 12,
        1979

     •  Surface and underground mines with earlier USMSHA numbers
        that meet one or more of the following criteria:
        -begin to mine a new coal seam
        -discharge effluent to a new drainage basin
        -cause extensive new surface disruption
        -begin contruction of a new shaft, slope, or drift
        -acquire additional land or mineral rights
        -make significant additional capital investments
        -otherwise have characteristics deemed appropriate by the
           EPA Regional Administrator to place them in the New
           Source category.

     All coal mines defined as New Sources must meet the National New Source
Effluent Limitations for the industry (Table 4-2).  These effluent
limitations apply only to wastewater discharged from active mining areas
prior to the completion of regrading operations.  Discharges resulting from
any precipitation event are exempt from the New Source limitations at
facilities designed, constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the
volume of discharge which would result from surface runoff from the 10-year
24-hour precipitation event.  Runoff solely from lands undergoing
revegetation is considered a subcategory separate from active mines and coal
preparation plants, and no effluent limitations have been applied by EPA to
this subcategory.  The Best Practices guidelines for coal mining (issued on
September 1, 1977 in a memorandum to EPA Regional Administrators and
incorporated by reference in the New Source Effluent Limitations) mandate
that mine plans must prevent, minimize, or mitigate the discharge of any
noxious materials that would adversely affect downstream water quality or
uses following the temporary or permanent closing of a mine.   Applicants are
to secure New Source permit approval prior to the beginning of construction
of the proposed mining facility.

     EPA administers the NPDES permit program in West Virginia, including
the New Source NPDES permit program.  Congress defined the issuance of a New
Source NPDES permit by EPA to be a major Federal action [CWA Section
511(c)].   The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 USC 4321
et seq.)  mandates the consideration of all environmental factors by Federal
decisionmakers during the evaluation of major Federal actions which may
significantly affect the environment.   EPA thus must conduct NEPA reviews
when processing NPDES permits for the construction and operation of New
Source coal mines and coal cleaning facilities.
                                   4-39

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4.2.2  SMCRA Permits

     Title V of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
(P.L. 95-87, 30 USC 1201 et seq.) produced the first comprehensive Federal
program intended:

     •  To set a National standard and define a detailed program
        for mining coal and reclaiming mined land

     •  To prohibit mining from areas where reclamation is not
        feasible

     •  To balance the agricultural productivity of land against
        coal resources and ensure adequate agricultural production
        following mining

     •  To allow the public to participate in decisions when
        the environment might be affected by coal mining

     •  To achieve reclamation of previously mined and abandoned
        lands.

SMCRA encourages State administration of the Title V program under the
supervision of the US Department of Interior, Office of Surface Mining.
SMCRA regulates all surface mines, together with those underground mines
which will disturb more than two acres of surface lands, including haul
roads.  SMCRA also regulates freestanding coal preparation plants located
outside the permit areas of active mines, and substantial coal exploration
activities.

     Federal regulations which implement SMCRA establish both minimum
performance standards describing how coal must be mined and reclamation
activities which are required to protect the environment and public health.
State-issued SMCRA Title V permits are not considered to be major Federal
actions, and thus are not subject to the requirements of NEPA.
Nevertheless, the permanent program performance standards address many
environmental issues that also would be raised by EPA during a NEPA review
of a New Source NPDES permit application.  The following paragraphs briefly
summarize general and special performance standards and lands unsuitable
provisions of the Act which provide protection to the environment.  More
detailed discussions are presented in the Section 5.0. discussions of
specific impacts and mitigations.

     During March 1980 USOSM Region I in Charleston WV issued a "Draft
Experimental Permit Application Form for Surface and Underground Coal
Mining." If adopted in essentially its present state, this form would
require the development of additional information not required at present i-
the West Virginia permits outlined in Section 4.1. of this assessment.
Because the form has not yet been adopted, it is not reviewed here, but its
information requirements are noted in the Section 5.0. discussions of
impacts.
                                     4-41

-------
     4.2.2.1.  Mining Operations

     USOSM, with input from EPA, has developed performance standards for
surface mining operations which include standards for signs and markers to
identify the various working areas of the mine, permit area boundaries, and
buffer zones.  Other operational standards discuss nearly every aspect of
coal mining which is generally applicable to the industry.  These standards
include coal recovery, disposal of non-coal wastes, and use of explosives in
coal mining, to name a few.  They are codified in Title 30 CFR, Chapter VII,
Parts 700 through 899.

     4.2.2.2.  Protection of Surface Water and Groundwater Resources

     Surface water and groundwater resource protection is mandated by
pre-mining study requirements together with performance standards
promulgated under several topics, especially  Hydrologic Balance.  The
performance standards address surface water and groundwater diversions,
sedimentation ponds, and other surface and subsurface discharge structures.
Dams and embankments of coal wastes are regulated, as are the casing and
sealing of wells and other underground openings.  The standards also define
water rights of neighboring groundwater users.  SMCRA requires replacement
of legitimate water supplies which have been affected by contamination,
diminution, or interruption resulting from surface mining activities.

     4.2.2.3.  Protection of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems

     Aquatic ecosystems are not provided direct protection under SMCRA.
They are protected indirectly through Section 515(6)(24), which requires
that the best available control technology be used to minimize disturbances
to aquatic biota, and through the prohibition of mining on lands where
reclamation is not feasible.  This includes fragile lands, lands containing
non-renewable resources, and lands containing natural hazards.  Terrestrial
ecosystems are protected directly under Section 515(6)(24), which requires
that the best available technology be used to minimize disturbance.
Critical habitats of organisms that have been Federally classified as
threatened or endangered further are protected by the Act in a requirement
that these critical habitats be reported to the SMCRA regulatory agency so
that review procedures established under the Endangered Species Act can be
followed.

     4.2.2.4.  Protection of Specific Land Uses

     SMCRA prohibits outright any new surface mine operations within 300
feet of any public park or within National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges,
the National System of Trails, Wilderness Areas, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and
National Recreation Areas.  It also requires that all new coal mining
operations that may affect a public park first be approved by the agency
with jurisdiction over the park.  Surface mining activities may be excluded
from Federal lands in National Forests, if the Secretary of Agriculture
finds that multiple uses of the National Forest would be impaired by the
                                   4-42

-------
proposed mining.  The public notice provisions of  the SMCRA provide
opportunity for owners of private recreational facilities  to comment on coal
mine permit applications that may affect  the operations  of such facilities.

     No new coal mines can be permitted that may affect  publicly owned
places that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, unless
such mining is approved by the State Historic Preservation Officer.  The
regulatory authority's discretionary power to prohibit mining  includes those
areas where mining may affect historic lands of cultural,  historic, scienti-
fic, or aesthetic value.

     SMCRA sets special performance standards for mining on prime farmlands.
Prime farmland is defined as land with suitable resource characteristics (as
determined by USDA-SCS) that also has been used as cropland for at least
five of the ten years before its proposed use for mining purposes.  The
SMCRA standards require that soil removal, stockpiling,  replacement,
reclamation, and revegetation methods return mined prime farmland to a level
of productivity equal to that which it had before  disturbance.

     Within the discretionary provisions  for designating areas as unsuitable
for mining, the regulatory authority can  prohibit  surface  mining which would
affect lands subject to hazards, including areas subject to frequent
flooding.  The regulatory authority also  may prohibit mining activities in
areas with unstable geologic characteristics, and it may impose special
standards for such areas related to woody material disposal, topsoil
handling, downslope spoil disposal, head-of-hollow and valley fills, and
pre-existing underground mines.  The regulatory authority  may designate an
area as unsuitable for mining based on the incompatibility of mining activi-
ties with existing land use plans of local governments.  The general perfor-
mance standards of the Act also set forth requirements for mining roads and
require that post-mining land uses on mined sites be compatible with
adjacent land use policies and plans.

     4.2.2.5.  Protection of Air Quality

     Air quality protection is provided through standards  for the control
and reduction of fugitive dust emissions  from haul roads and areas disturbed
during mining.  The USOSM regulations at  present do not consider pollutants
other than fugitive dust, but SMCRA requires compliance  with all other
applicable air quality laws and regulations.

     4.2.2.6.  Noise and Vibration

     The USOSM performance standards require that noise  and vibration from
blasting operations be controlled to minimize the danger of adverse effects
from airblast and vibration to humans and structures.  The Act requires
pre-blast surveys, resident notification  of blasting schedules, limits on
air blasts, explosives handling rules (including requirements for
blasters-in-charge), and recordkeeping requirements.
                                    4-43

-------
     4.2.2.7.  Community Integrity and Quality of Life                             ^

     SMCRA prohibits new mining operations within 40 feet of any roadway, or
within 100 feet of a public road right-of-way (except where a mine haul road
enters or adjoins the right-of-way) without public notice.  The public has
opportunity to comment and ensure that it is adequately protected from the
potentially adverse effects of additional traffic and right-of way
acquisition.  SMCRA also prohibits outright any surface mining operations
within 300 feet of an occupied dwelling without the owner's consent; within
300 feet of any public, institutional, or community building, church, or
school; or within 100 feet of a cemetery.

     SMCRA includes a general public notice provision to facilitate public
involvement in the permit evaluation process before a permit is issued.
Public comments may lead the regulatory authority to revise, condition, or
deny permit applications.

     4.2.2.8.  Special Performance Standards

     The general performance standards summarized above are Nationwide
minimum standards for controlling the surface effects of coal mining.  To
address the special considerations of certain geographical areas or coal
mining methods, USOSM has developed a set of special performance standards.
These standards address auger mining, mining in alluvial valley floors,
mining on prime farmlands, mountaintop removal, bituminous coal mining in
Wyoming, steep slope mining, concurrent surface and underground mining,
anthracite mining in Pennsylvania, regulations for underground mining,             •
independent coal processing plants and support facilities, and in-situ coal
utilization.

4.2.3.  Clean Air Act Reviews

     The regulatory program designed to achieve the objectives of the Clean
Air Act is a combined Federal/State function.  The role of each State is to
adopt and submit to EPA a State Implementation Plan for maintaining and
enforcing primary and secondary air quality standards in Air Quality Control
Regions.  The West Virginia SIP has been approved for overall administration
by the State except for PSD reviews, which still are performed by EPA
(45 FR 159:54042-54053; August 14, 1980).  The SIP must be revised from time
to time to comply with EPA regulations.  The SIP contains emission limits
that may vary within the State due to local factors such as concentrations
of industry and population.

     Coal cleaning operations producing 200 short tons of coal or more per
day and that utilize a thermal dryer or air tube must meet the New Source
Performance Standards promulgated by EPA pursuant to the Clean Air Act
(USC 7401-7642 as amended by 88 Stat. 246, 91 Stat. 684, and 91 Stat.
1401-02).  This permit program is administered by the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission under the State Implementation Plan approved by
EPA.  The standards reflect levels of control that can be achieved by
                                   4-44

-------
Table 4-3.  New Source Performance Standards for bituminous coal
     preparation plants and handling facilities capable of processing more
     than 181 metric tons (200 short tons) of coal per day (40 CFR 60.250,
     Subpart Y).
                                                        Particulate
Equipment           Opacity Limitation             Concentration Standard
                             %                     g/dscm         gr/dscf
Thermal dryers              20                     0.070           0.031
Pneumatic coal
cleaning equipment          10                     0.040           0.018
Coal handling and
storage equipment           20
Table 4-6.   Emission tonnages of pollutants that indicate significant
     potential impacts subject to PSD review (40 CFR 52.21;
     45 FR 154:52676-52748, August 7, 1980).
                                                       Significant
          Pollutant                                   Annual Tonnage

     Carbon monoxide                                      100
     Nitrogen oxides                                       40
     Ozone (volatile organic compounds)                    40
     Sulfur dioxide                                        40
     Particulate matter                                    25

     Hydrogen sulfide                                      10
     Total reduced sulfur (including H2S)                  10
     Reduced sulfur compounds (including H2S)              10
     Sulfuric acid mist                                     7
     Fluorides                                              3

     Vinyl chloride                                         1
     Lead                                                   0.6
     Mercury                                                0.1
     Asbestos                                               0.007
     Beryllium                                              0.0004
                                  4-45

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Table  4-5.  Nondeterioration increments:  maximum allowable increase by
     class  (P.L. 95-95, Part C, Subpart 1, Section 163).
     Data are ug/m^.

                                                                  Class I'
Pollutant*	Class I	Class II    Class III     exception
Particulate matter:

  Annual geometric mean      5           19           37           19

  24-hour maximum           10           37           75           37

Sulfur dioxide:

  Annual arithmetic mean     2           20           40           20

  24-hour maximum            5**         91          182           91

  3-hour maximum            25**        512          700          325
*0ther pollutants for which PSD regulations are "to be promulgated include
 hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, and nitrogen
 oxides.

**A variance may be allowed to exceed each of these increments on 18 days
 per year, subject to limiting 24-hour increments of 35 ug/m^ for low
 terrain and 62 ug/m^ for high terrain and 3-hour increments of 130
 ug/m^ for high terrain.  To obtain such a variance both State and EPA
 approval is required.
                                   4-47

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applying the best available control technology taking cost into account
(Table 4-3; 40 CFR 60.250; 41 FR 2233, January 15, 1976).  Permits are not
to be issued for facilities that would degrade air quality in violation  of
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS's) that are applicable  for
areas located downwind from the proposed New Source.  Currently there are no
National air pollution performance standards which directly apply to
atmospheric emissions from New Source underground or surface coal mines.

     Ambient air quality standards (40 CFR 50) specify the ambient air
quality that must be maintained outside a project boundary or within the
boundary where the general public has access (Table 4-4).  Standards
designated as primary are those necessary to protect the public health with
an adequate margin of safety; secondary standards are those necessary to
protect the public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects.

     In 1974, EPA issued regulations for the prevention of significant
deterioration of air quality under the 1970 version of the Clean Air Act
(P.L. 90-604).  These regulations established a plan for protecting areas
with air quality that currently is cleaner than the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards.  Under EPA's regulatory plan, clean air areas of the
Nation could be designated as one of three classes.  The plan allows
specified numerical increments of air pollution from major stationary
sources for each class, up to a level considered to be significant for that
area (Table 4-5).  Class I areas need extraordinary protection from air
quality deterioration, and only minor increases in air pollution levels are
allowable (Figure 2-21).  Under this concept, virtually any increase in air
pollution in Class 1 (pristine) areas would be considered significant.
Class II increments allow for the increases in air pollution levels that
usually accompany well-controlled growth.  Class III increments allow
increases in air pollution levels up to the NAAQS's.

     Sections 160-169 were added to the CAA by Congress during 1977.  These
amendments adopted the basic concept of the procedure that had been
developed administratively to allow incremental increases in air pollutants
by class of receiving area.   Through these amendments, Congress also pro-
vided a mechanism to apply a practical adverse impact test which did not
exist in the EPA regulations.  EPA revised its regulations concerning the
prevention of significant deterioration during August 1980.

     The PSD requirements apply to new or modified stationary sources of  air
pollution that exceed significance thresholds established with reference  to
potential tonnage of pollutants emitted following application of control
measures, to potential damage to Class I areas, and to the attainment status
of the construction site.  Significant increases in any of fifteen
pollutants would render the facility subject to PSD review (Table 4-6).   Any
major new stationary source that would be constructed within 16 miles of  a
Class I area and would have a 24-hour average impact at ground level of
1 ug/m3 or greater also would require PSD review.  If the area where any
major New Source is to be built has been classified by the State as
"attainment" or "unclassifiable" for any pollutant regulated by a NAAQS,
                                    4-48

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Table 4-6.  Emission tonnages of pollutants that indicate significant
  potential impacts subject to PSD review (40 CFR 52.21;
  45 FR 154:52676-52748, August 7, 1980).
                                                      Significant
            Pollutant                                Annual Tonnage

     Carbon monoxide                                      100
     Nitrogen oxides                                       40
     Ozone (volatile organic compounds)                    40
     Sulfur dioxide                                        40
     Particulate matter                                    25

     Hydrogen sulfide                                      10
     Total reduced sulfur (including H2S)                  10
     Reduced sulfur compounds (including H2S)              10
     Sulfuric acid mist                                     7
     Fluorides                                              3

     Vinyl chloride                                         1
     Lead                                                   0.6
     Mercury                                                0.1
     Asbestos                                               0.007
     Beryllium                                              0.0004
                                    4-49

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then the PSD review is triggered (40 CFR 52.21; 45 FR 154:52676-52748,
August 7, 1980).  Coal preparation plants with thermal dryers that
potentially can emit more than 100 tons per year of any pollutant regulated
under the CAA are to undergo PSD review as major stationary sources.

     Coal facilities are expected seldom to qualify as major sources that
require PSD review.  In general, any facility that will emit 250 tons or
more per year of any regulated pollutant following application of control
technology may require PSD review as a major stationary source, but fugitive
dust and mobile-source emissions are not counted toward the 250-ton
threshold (except for preparation plants with thermal dryers).  WVAPCC
directs applicants for State permits to EPA Region III when there is a
potential that PSD review will be triggered (Verbally, Mr. Robert Blaszczak,
EPA Region III, to Dr. James A. Schmid, September 4, 1980).

     In the 1977 CAA Amendments Congress designated certain Federal lands as
Class I for prevention of significant deterioration.  All International
Parks, National Memorial Parks, and National Wilderness Areas which exceed
5,000 acres, and National Parks which exceed 6,000 acres, are designated
Class I.  In West Virginia the Dolly Sods and Otter Creek Wilderness Areas
in the Monongahela National Forest are Class I areas.  These areas may not
be redesignated to another class through State or administrative action.
The remaining areas of the country are initially designated Class II.
Within this Class II category, certain National Primitive Areas, National
Wild and Scenic Rivers, National Wildlife Refuges, National Seashores and
Lakeshores, and new National Park and Wilderness Areas which are established
after August 7, 1977, if over 10,000 acres in size, are Class II "floor
areas" and are ineligible for redesignation to Class III.

     Although the earlier EPA regulatory process allowed redesignation by
the Federal land manager, the 1977 CAA amendments place the general
redesignation responsibility with the States.  The Federal land manager only
has a role in the redesignation advisory to the appropriate State or to
Congress.
     In order for Congress to redesignate areas, new legislation would have
to be introduced.  Once proposed, this probably would follow the normal
legislative process of committee hearings, floor debate, and action.  In
order for a State to redesignate areas, the detailed process outlined in
Section 164(b) of the CAA is to be followed.  This process includes an
analysis of the health, environmental, economic, social, and energy effects
of the proposed redesignation, followed by a public hearing.

     Class I status provides protection to pristine areas by requiring any
new major emitting facility (generally a large point source of air
pollution—see Section 169[1] of CAA for definition) in the upwind impacting
region to be built in such a way and place as to insure no adverse impact on
the Class I air quality related values.  A PSD permit may be issued if the
Class I increment will not be exceeded, unless the Federal land manager
demonstrates that the facility will have an adverse impact on the Class I
air quality related values.
                                    4-50

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     The permit must be denied if the Class I increment will be exceeded,
unless the applicant receives certification from the Federal land manager
that the facility will not adversely affect Class 1 air quality related
values.  Then the permit may be issued even though the Class 1 increment
will be exceeded, (up to the Class I increment exception  [Table 4-5]).  PSD
permits are administered by EPA until a State is approved for program
delegation.

4.2.4. CMHSA Permits

     The Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 is Federal legislation
intended to improve mine safety.  The Act was implemented by regulations
requiring approval of mining plans and detailed operational and design
standards for underground and surface mines and coal preparation plants.
Principal health concerns covered by the extensive safety standards relating
to coal industry operations include:

     •   Ventilation

     •   Roof Control

     •   Rock Dusting

     •   Electrical Power Distribution Systems

     •  Clean-up.

Extensive information on these aspects of underground mines in particular
must be submitted during the permit process implementing CMHSA.  To enforce
the National Standards, US Mine Safety and Health Administration inspectors
may shut down either one section or an entire mine if sufficient danger
exists.

     The concerns of CMHSA relate to miners' health and safety and primarily
are non-environmental.  Of particular interest to EPA for the NPDES New
Source program is the assignment of an identifying number to plans reviewed
by USMSHA inspectors.  USMSHA identifying numbers issued after February 12,
1979 may be used by EPA to identify New Sources among operations that seek
NPDES permits.

4.2.5.  The Safe Drinking Water Act

     On December 16, 1976, the Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-523) was
signed into law.  This Act amended the Public Health Service Act by
inserting a new title concerning the safety of public water systems.

     In brief, the Act authorizes EPA to set Nationwide minimum standards
for public drinking water (including bottled water).  Enforcement of the
standards and other EPA regulations is to be accomplished primarily by the
States, and Federal funding to the States for this purpose is authorized.
                                   4-51

-------
EPA also is authorized to sponsor research, train personnel, and provide
technical assistance to State and local governments to advance the goals of
the Act.  Citizen suits are authorized to compel enforcement of the Act.

     To protect underground drinking water resources EPA was authorized to
promulgate regulations to protect the quality of recharge water that may
endanger drinking water.  As part of this enterprise, EPA can determine that
an area has an aquifer that is the sole or principal source of its drinking
water, and that the aquifer if contaminated would constitute a significant
hazard to public health.  EPA can act on its own initiative or upon
petition.  After publication of such a determination, EPA is to review all
proposed commitments for Federal financial assistance (through grants,
contracts, loan guarantees, or otherwise).  Assistance is to be denied to
those projects that create a significant public health hazard by aquifer
contamination through the recharge zone [Section I424(e)].  Groundwater use
is not regulated under the Act.  Final Nationwide regulations are still in
preparation.

4.2.6.  Floodplains

     Undeveloped floodplains are protected by Executive Order 11988 as
implemented by the guidelines of the Water Resources Council (43 FR
29:6030-6055, February 10, 1978).  Under these guidelines, an application
for a Federal permit that proposes the structural modification or control
(such as channelization) of a stream or other body of water is subject to
review by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Army Corps of Engi-
neers as mandated by the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (16 USC 661
et seq.) and Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899.  These agency
reviewers and the general public may identify additional Federal authori-
zation or specific mitigative measures that are necessary to ensure an
adequate permit review and a sufficient level of environmental protection.

     EPA, under the provisions of Executive Order 11988, must avoid wherever
possible the long- and short-term impacts associated with the occupancy and
modification of floodplains and avoid direct and indirect support of flood-
plain development wherever there is a practicable alternative.  The Agency
also must incorporate floodplain management goals into its regulatory
decisionmaking processes.  To the greatest extent possible EPA must:

     •  Reduce the hazard and risk of flood loss, and wherever it
        is possible, to avoid direct or indirect adverse impact on
        floodplains

     •  Where there is no practical alternative to locating in a
        floodplain, minimize the impact of floods on human safety,
        health, and welfare, as well as the natural environment

     •  Restore and preserve natural and beneficial values served
        by floodplains
                                    4-52

-------
     •  Identify floodplains which require restoration and
        preservation, recommend management programs necessary to
        protect these floodplains, and include such considerations
        in on-going planning programs

     •  Provide the public with early and continuing information
        concerning floodplain management and with opportunities
        for participating in decisionmaking including the
        evaluation of tradeoffs among competing alternatives.

4.2.7.  Wild and Scenic Rivers

     The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (16 USC 1274 et seq.) provides that the
Secretary of Agriculture or Interior and the State of West Virginia review
and comment on permit applications for proposed facilities that would affect
lands in the Federally designated Wild and Scenic River System or rivers
that are being considered for such designation.  EPA cannot assist, through
permits or otherwise, the construction of a mining facility that would have
a direct and adverse effect on rivers designated as wild or scenic under
Section 3 of the Act or those designated as having potential for inclusion
under Section 5 of the Act.  If, after proper consultation with the
Secretary of Agriculture or Interior, an action is found to have a direct
and adverse impact, EPA and the applicant must provide mitigative measures.
No action may be taken if the adverse effect cannot be avoided or
appropriately mitigated.

4.2.8.  Wetlands

     Executive Order 11990, entitled "Protection of Wetlands", requires EPA
to avoid, to the extent possible, the adverse impacts associated with the
destruction or loss of wetlands and to avoid support of new Federal
construction in wetlands if a practicable alternative exists.  The EPA
Statement of Procedures on Floodplain Management and Wetlands Protection
(January 5, 1979) requires that EPA determine whether proposed permit
actions also will occur in or will affect wetlands.  If so, the responsible
official must prepare a wetlands assessment, which will be part of the
overall environmental assessment or environmental impact statement.  The
responsible official is either to avoid adverse impacts or minimize them if
no practicable alternative to the action exists.

     In addition, Section 404 of CWA requires USAGE permit approval for
activities that would result in the placement of fill in wetlands.  The
USDA, USFWS, USAGE, and the public have opportunity to review and comment on
NPDES permit applications that propose activities that may affect wetlands.
These comments may address the identification of impacts, mitigations, and
additional regulatory activities on a case-by-case basis.
                                   4-53

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4.2.9.  Endangered Species Habitat
                                                                                   I
     The EPA is prohibited under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 USC
1531 et seq.) from jeopardizing species in danger of extinction or
threatened with endangerment and from adversely modifying habitats essential
to their survival.  If listed species or their habitat may be affected,
formal consultation with USFWS under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act
is required.  If the consultation reveals that the action will affect a
listed species or habitat adversely, acceptable mitigative measures must be
undertaken or the proposed permit will not be issued.

4.2.10.  Significant Agricultural Lands

     It is EPA policy to encourage the protection of environmentally
significant agricultural lands from irreversible conversion to uses which
result in their loss as an environmental or essential food production
resource.  This policy is stated in EPA's Policy to Protect Environmentally
Significant Agricultural Lands (Draft memorandum from Douglas Cos tie,
Administrator, to Assistant Administrator, Regional Administrators, and
Office Directors, undated).  Significant agricultural lands include the
prime, unique, and additional farmlands with National, statewide, or local
significance, as defined by USDA-SCS.  EPA also has a special interest in
protecting those other farmlands that:  (1) are within or contiguous to
environmentally significant areas and that protect or buffer such areas; (2)
are suitable for the land treatment of organic wastes; or (3) have been
improved with significant capital investments for the purpose of soil
erosion control.                                                                   A

4.2.11.  Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic Sites

     EPA is subject to the requirements of the National Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 as amended (16 USC 470 et seq.), the Archaeological
and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (16 USC 469 et seq.), and Executive
Order 11593, entitled "Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environ-
ment."  These provisions and regulations establish review procedures which
EPA must follow when significant cultural resources are or may be involved.

     Under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and
Executive Order 11593, if an EPA undertaking affects any property with his-
toric, architectural, archaeological, or cultural value that is listed or
eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the
responsible official shall comply with the procedures for consultation and
comment promulgated by the US Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (36
CFR Part 800).  The responsible official must identify properties affected
by new coal mining that are potentially eligible for listing on the National
Register and must request a determination of eligibility from the Keeper of
the National Register, Department of the Interior (36 CFR Part 63).  Under
the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act, if an EPA activity may
cause irreparable loss or destruction of significant scientific, prehis-
toric, historic, or archaeological data, the responsible official or the
Secretary of the Interior is authorized to undertake data recovery and
preservation activities (36 CFR Parts 64 and 66).
                                    4-54

-------
     In general, EPA will not issue a New Source NPDES permit for a mining
operation which would affect a National Register site prior to the
completion of formal interagency coordination.  EPA relies on applicants to
supply on-site data to document the presence or absence of cultural
resources and the State Historic Preservation Officer to make determinations
of eligibility for the National Register and recommendations for mitigative
measures.

4.2.12.  United States Forest Service Reviews

     USFS has lead NEPA authority in reviewing permits for coal mining on
Federally owned lands, but may delegate this authority to another agency
such as EPA.  There are presently no National Forest lands in the Guyandotte
River Basin of West Virginia, so it is not anticipated that USFS reviews
would be required in this area.  The USFS will be afforded the opportunity
to comment on EPA permits applications for facilities that might affect its
areas of responsibility, even though the National Forest land is outside the
Basin.
                                   4-55

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                                                                      Page




4.3.  Interagency Coordination                                        4-55




      4.3.1.  USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of Understanding          4-55




      4.3.2.  Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility                         4-59

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4.3.  INTERAGENCY COORDINATION

     This section first addresses coordination between EPA and USOSM.  Then
it discusses NEPA lead agency coordination during the environmental review
process and EPA response to the designation of lands unsuitable for mining
pursuant to SMCRA.

4.3.1.  USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of Understanding

     SMCRA regulatory provisions largely overlap many of the environmental
review responsibilities required of EPA pursuant to NEPA.  Table 4-7
indicates the various areas of responsibility for each agency and the
authorizing legislation.  Sections 503(a)(6) and 504(h) of SMCRA require
coordination between USOSM and other agencies to avoid duplication of the
Title V permit program review activities with other applicable Federal or
State permitting processes.

     A proposed Memorandum of Understanding between USOSM and EPA provides
for coordination of the permanent SMCRA Title V and NPDES permit programs
for surface coal mining and reclamation operations or SCMRO's.  The
agreement will apply only in states where EPA is the NPDES permitting
authority (44 FR 187:55322-55325, September 25, 1979).  EPA encourages
states with approved NPDES programs to coordinate with USOSM in a similar
manner.  The major provisions of the agreement as proposed are outlined
below:

     •  EPA will issue one or more Statewide NPDES special coal
        mining permits covering SCMRO's which are subject to both
        Title V and NPDES permit requirements

     •  In States where USOSM primacy has been delegated, EPA may
        issue two separate NPDES special coal mining permits.
        Once special permit will apply to all SCMRO's which are
        New Sources as defined by the CWA and would provide for
        NEPA obligations.  The other special permit will apply to
        all other SCMRO's.

     •  The applicable NPDES special coal mining permit will take
        effect for a particular SCMRO upon the issuance of an
        effective Title V permit covering the discharging facility

     •  If EPA's environmental review under NEPA results in a
        determination that a particular New Source SCMRO cannot be
        regulated adequately by the NPDES special coal mining per-
        mit, EPA may issue an individual NPDES permit to that
        SCMRO.  If EPA recommends that a SCMRO's Title V permit
        include certain permit conditions to carry out the
        provisions of the CWA and the SMCRA regulatory authority
        decides not to include those conditions, EPA may issue an
        individual NPDES permit containing those conditions.


                                    4-56

-------
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     •  Except where EPA has indicated that it will issue an indi-
        vidual NPDES permit, the standard NPDES permit conditions
        and requirements will be incorporated into the Title V
        SMCRA permit

     •  The SMCRA regulatory authority will be responsible for
        permit decisions and monitoring.  EPA will have the oppor-
        tunity to review and suggest appropriate modifications to
        each permit application.

     •  Where USOSM and EPA both have NEPA responsibilities for a
        particular New Source, USOSM will be the designated lead
        agency

     •  Where a State is the SMCRA regulatory authority and only
        EPA has NEPA responsibilities, EPA will comply with its
        environmental review requirements by performing either a
        Statewide or regional review of all non-Federal lands
        where coal mining may occur.  On the basis of this review,
        EPA may decide:  (1) to issue the Statewide NPDES special
        coal mining permit; (2) to issue the NPDES special (area-
        wide) coal mining permit only to certain classes of
        SCMRO's; (3) to issue the NPDES special coal mining permit
        subject to certain conditions; or (4) not to issue the
        NPDES special coal mining permit.  The exclusion of some or
        all classes of SCMRO's from coverage by a special NPDES
        coal mining permit will not preclude the issuance of an
        individual NPDES permit to such SCMRO's following site-
        specific environmental reviews.

     This proposed MOU has not yet been implemented.  Discussions are
continuing between EPA and USOSM concerning the detailed regulations
necessary for its implementation (Verbally, Mr. Frank Rusincovitch, EPA
Office of Environmental Review, to Dr. James Schmid, August 25, 1980).

     Another MOU* between EPA and USOSM became effective on February 13,
1980.  It deals with procedures for EPA to review State SMCRA programs prior
to their delegation.  USOSM will not delegate regulatory authority to any
State until EPA has approved the State program.
1"Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Implementation of Certain
Responsibilities of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department
of the Interior Under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977," signed by EPA Deputy Administrator Blum (for Administrator Cos tie)
and by USDI Secretary Andrus.
                                   4-59

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4.3.2.  Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility

     Under the present regulatory framework, USOSM or the approved State
regulatory authority has the major responsibility and expertise under SMCRA
to regulate the methods and environmental effects of coal mining (Section
4.2.2.).  As discussed in Section 4.3.1., proposed memoranda of under-
standing between USOSM and EPA establish USOSM as the lead NEPA agency in
those situations where both agencies are involved.  If the State assumes
NPDES responsibility, no Federal actions would be involved and NEPA would
not apply to issuance of New Source NPDES permits for coal mining or other
industries.

     On Federal lands or Federally administered land the Federal agency
responsible for land management would be the lead NEPA agency for SMCRA
permits.  The administering agency may delegate NEPA responsibility to EPA
or USOSM if a New Source NPDES permit is involved.
                                   4-60

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                                                                     Page




4.4.   Other Coordination Requirements                                 4-61




      4.4.1.  Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act                      4-61




      4.4.2.  Local Notification                                     4-61




      4.4.3.  Lands Unsuitable for Mining                             4-61

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4.4.  OTHER COORDINATION REQUIREMENTS

     Several other interagency coordination requirements affect EPA when it
issues NPDES permits.  EPA will combine these coordination requirements with
NEPA reviews for proposed New Sources of wastewater discharge.

4.4.1.  Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act

     The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 requires that all
Federal permit actions be reviewed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service to
evaluate the biological effects of alterations to streams and other water
bodies.  USFWS also is to coordinate with USOSM or the State regulatory
authority in the evaluation of reclaimed surface mining lands, if the post
mining land use is to be wildlife habitat.  Before its review of permit
actions is complete, USFWS must coordinate with WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.

4.4.2.  Local Notification

     Through Office of Management and Budget Circular A-95, the Federal
Government established a procedure for coordination of projected Federal
actions with Statewide, areawide, and local plans and programs.  In Part II,
Section 4 of Circular A-95, Federal agencies responsible for granting
permits for development activities which would have a significant impact on
State, interstate, areawide, or local development plans are strongly urged
to consult with State and areawide clearinghouses and to seek their
evaluations of such impacts prior to granting such permits (41 FR 8:
2052-2065, January 13, 1976).  In certain situations, EPA will utilize the
A-95 clearinghouse mechanism in special ways to notify local governments
concerning New Source NPDES permits.

     The State clearinghouse in West Virginia is the Governor's Office of
Economic and Community Development in Charleston.  Other areawide
clearinghouses are identified in Table 4-8.

4.4.3.  Lands Unsuitable for Mining

     The proposed WVDNR-Reclamation procedure for designating lands as
unsuitable for mining pursuant to SMCRA, WVSCMRA, and the USOSM permanent
program regulations was described in Section 4.1.4.2.  As soon as EPA
receives notice that an area is being reviewed by the SMCRA regulatory for
suitability, all New Source permit applications from that area will be held
in abeyance pending completion of the suitability review.  No New Source
NPDES permit for mining activities will be issued in lands designated as
unsuitable pursuant to SMCRA and/or WVSCMRA.
                                     4-61

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                                                                      Page




4.5.  Potential for Regulatory Change                                 4~63




      4.5.1.  Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program                  ^-63




      4.5.2.  SMCRA Permit Program                                    4"63

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4.5.  POTENTIAL FOR REGULATORY CHANGE

     The administration of  the EPA New Source NPDES permit program  in West
Virginia will be affected most significantly by  two potential regulatory
changes.  These are, first, the delegation of the NPDES program  to  West
Virginia, and second, the ultimate disposition and content of the SMCRA
permit program.

4.5.1.  Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program

     The CWA provides that  States may assume responsibility for  the
administration of the NPDES permit program upon  approval by EPA.  No time
frame was specified by Congress for delegation of this program.  West
Virginia has adopted a Water Pollution Control Act (West Virginia Code
Article 20-5A), which authorizes takeover of the NPDES permit program.  EPA
Region 111 continues to work with the WVDNR-Water Resources toward  the
eventual approval of the State-administered NPDES program, which as of
August 1980 was expected to occur by October 1,  1981, provided that interim
milestones are met.  West Virginia is the only State in Region III  which
does not administer its own program.

     Should West Virginia be approved to administer the NPDES program, New
Source permits will become  State rather than Federal permits.  Hence NEPA
will no longer apply.

4.5.2.  SMCRA Permit Program

     The permanent regulatory program for implementation of SMCRA also is
designed for administration by the States (outside Federal and Indian
lands).  West Virginia has  drafted a State program, which is under  review at
this time.  USOSM regulations detail at length what features must be present
in the State programs in order to qualify for approval by USOSM.  EPA also
must approve the State program before USOSM can delegate authority  to West
Virginia.

     Several features of the USOSM program implementing SMCRA may change.
During recent months litigation has been underway in various Federal courts
to determine the extent of USOSM powers to regulate mining under SMCRA.
Moreover, during 1979 the so-called "Rockefeller Amendment" was passed by
the Senate (S.1403, 96th Congress, 1st session).  Essentially this amendment
would giv-^ additional time  for the development of State programs and would
enable the States (rather than USOSM) to declare their regulatory programs
in compliance with SMCRA.   It is possible that the West Virginia program
could diverge from the proposed USOSM mandate for State programs, if this
amendment should be enacted into law.
                                    4-63

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Chapter 5
Impacts and Mitigations

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5.1  Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations

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                                                                Page
5.1.  Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations                    5-1

      5.1.1.  Surface Waters                                    5-1
              5.1.1.1.  Geohydrology                            5-1
              5.1.1.2.  Erosion and Sedimentation               5-6
              5.1.1.3.  Water Quality                           5-8

      5.1.2.  Groundwater                                       5-14
              5.1.2.1.  Availability of Groundwater             5-14
              5.1.2.2.  Groundwater Quality                     5-15

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                        5.0.   IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS

 5.1.  WATER  RESOURCE  IMPACTS  AND  MITIGATIONS

 5.1.1 Surface  Waters

      This  section addresses  the  potential impacts of coal raining on surface
 waters  in the  following categories:

      •   Geohydrology:   physical  alterations in volume,  direction,
         and flow  of  surface  waters

      •   Erosion and  Sedimentation:   alteration in water quality
         through turbidity, sedimentation,  and  siltation

      •   Water  Quality:   alterations  in water chemistry, especially
         from acid mine  drainage.

      General mitigative measures  are presented here  for each impact category
 related  to  future coal  mining  in  the Monongahela  River  Basin.   The actual
 effects  of  coal mining  activities will vary with  particular site character-
 istics,  with pollution  control methods employed at each site during and
 after active mining,  and with  the water quality regulations that apply
 together with  their  accompanying  degree of  compliance and enforcement.

 5 .1.1.1. Geohydrology

      Surface mining  activities disturb the  topographic, hydraulic, and geo-
 logic characteristics of each  permit  area.   Surface  mining operations  affect
 both  the quantity and the  rate of runoff from  the mined area.   During
 mining, the protective  vegetation is  stripped  from the  mine surface; topsoil
 is  translocated;  and  overburden  rock is shattered and transported.  After
 the coal has been removed, the overburden  is regraded,  topsoiled,  and
 replanted.  The impacts  of rainfall  during  mining can be minimized by
 keeping reclamation  current  and minimizing  the extent of exposed areas, as
 required by SMCRA and WVSCMRA  (Section 4.O.).

      The impact of current surface mining methods on water runoff  rates and
 the resulting  effect  on flooding  are the subject  of  considerable contro-
 versy.  To minimize  flood  potential,  the maximum  amount of water should be
 retained on a  permit  area  for  the longest  possible period, with a  gradual
 release to waterways.   This  objective  must  be  attained  with due consider-
 ation of other significant regulatory  goals  including reestablishment  of
 approximate original contour, achievement of slope stability,  and  prevention
 of AMD.  Large amounts  of  overburden  and other mine  waste historically were
 lost by landslides during and after mining  operations.   Stream blockage due
 to  landslides may  cause  upstream  flooding,  with the  further effect of  down-
 stream flooding when the loose material  suddenly  gives  way.  Because most
mining and related construction occur  on steep slopes in West  Virginia,
 accelerated runoff, erosion,  and  sedimentation may affect  adjacent and
 downstream  floodplains.
                                    5-1

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     Extensive coal mining may generate  the need to construct  support
facilities, such as coal preparation plants.  Floodplains  typically  are  the          m
only low-slope areas in the Basin  (except  for some  flat hilltop  areas  and
gentle valley slopes in the Appalachian  Plateau Province),  so  the
construction of these facilities may eliminate some of the best  agricultural
lands in the Basin.  If operators construct flood control  dikes  or fills to
protect floodplain structures, the downstream flooding potential may be
increased due to the reduced  flood storage capability.

     One of the first attempts to evaluate the hydrologic  impact of  surface
mining was made on Beaver Creek in southeastern Kentucky (Musser 1963,
Collier et al. 1964 and 1966).  In this  study, streamflow  was  measured in
three watersheds, one without mining and two with mining.   Flow  in the mined
watersheds was found to be more variable than in the  control watersheds  and
tended to be higher during storms and during dry periods.   Because data  on
runoff characteristics of the watersheds for the period before mining  were
not available, and because of the relatively short  period  of record, the
results of the study were inconclusive.

     A more recent study, also in Kentucky, compared  peak  flows  before
surface mining with flows after surface  mining and  reclamation (Curtis
1972).  One hundred fifty storms were monitored in several  small watersheds
where surface mining was conducted between 1968 and 1970.   Flood heights
doubled in one watershed where 30% of the area was stripped.   Two water-
sheds, .which were 40% and 47% stripped,  each produced a five-fold increase
in flood heights.  The study  concluded that surface mining  does  increase
flooding in the Appalachians.  Another study of the effect  of  contour                4
surface mines on flooding in  a large river basin showed similar  results.             ™
Five percent of the 400 square mile upper New River Basin  in Tennessee was
surface mined between 1943 and 1973.  During this period,  the  height of  a
one year frequency flood increased 21% (Minear 1974).  For  this  reason,  the
State of West Virginia requires an emergency spillway to allow twice as much
water to flow from a settling basin serving an area 50% surface-mined, as
from a spillway serving an undisturbed area (WVDNR  1975).

     On the other hand, Curtis (1977) reported that during  one major storm
in Breathitt County, Kentucky, and Raleigh County, West Virginia, on April
4, 1977 the streamflow from surface-mined watersheds  peaked lower than that
from nearby unmined watersheds.  This study did not compare the  streamflows
between pre-mining and post-mining conditions in the  same  watershed.
Instead, it compared the streamflows between the mined and  unmined water-
sheds.  Because the similar nature of hydrologic characteristics of  the
watersheds was not established, the general conclusion that mining reduces
stormflow peaks was not demonstrated unequivocally.

     There is no question that runoff increases when  a forested  site is
mined.  Sediment ponds that are required to maintain  water  quality,  however,
also serve to attenuate peak  runoff flows leaving the mine  site.  Hence
downstream flood levels will  not necessarily increase as a result of mining
under current regulations during the mining operation.
                                      5-2

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     The extent to which  streamflow and  flooding  are  affected by surface
mining in individual streams  depends upon  the  hydrologic  characteristics of
the specific watershed  such  as  slope steepness, vegetation,  and proportion
of impermeable surface before,  during, and after  mining.   The degree to
which reclamation is kept  current  and  the  success of  revegetation efforts
following regrading also  affect  flooding.   Clear-cut  timblerlands and
clean-cultivated cropland  without  erosion  control measures may produce less
runoff following mining and  reclamation  than prior to mining.

     The USOSM permanent  program requires  that runoff be  calculated in
detail by applicants for  surface mining  permits,  and  that  measures be
adopted that will minimize changes  to  the  existing hydrologic balance in the
area covered by the mine  plan and  in adjacent  areas [30 CFR  816.41(a)].
Drainage facilities must  be  constructed  so as  to  pass safely the peak runoff
from a 10-year 24-hour storm, and  embankments  must be designed with a static
safety factor of 1.5 to preclude failure and the  release  of  ponded water
that could raise flood levels downstream (30 CFR  816.43,  .45).   The smallest
practicable area is to be  disturbed  at any one time through  progressive
backfilling, grading, and  prompt revegetation.  Backfill  is  to be stabilized
so as to reduce the rate  and  volume  of runoff  and minimize off-site effects
[30 CFR 816.45(b) and .101(b)(2)].  Sedimentation ponds must  be designed and
maintained to contain the  runoff that  enters during a 10-year,  24-hour storm
for not less than 24 hours,  unless  a shorter detention time  is approved by
the regulatory authority  upon a  detailed demonstration by  the applicant that
water quality and other environmental  values will be  protected [30 CFR
816.46(c)] .

     Compliance with the USOSM  permanent program  regulations  means that new
mines will be designed and maintained  so as to minimize potential downstream
flood impacts as a result  of  increased runoff,  erosion, slope failure,  and
dam failure.  Positive benefits  may be realized during mining (Figure 5-1).
Following reclamation and  the removal  of sediment ponds, however, runoff may
or may not  increase above  premining values, depending on the  success  of
revegetat ion.

     EPA will check to make  certain that these aspects have  been addressed
by the applicant in his surface  mining permit  application.   Only in cases
where initial permit review  indicates  that  potential  flooding of downstream
uses is a serious issue will EPA request further  measures  from applicants
beyond those imposed under SMCRA and WVSCMRA.  If these measures should be
unenforceable by the surface mining regulatory authority pursuant to  SMCRA
and WVSCMRA, EPA independently will implement  them pursuant  to  NEPA and the
Clean Water Act.

     Surface mining also  affects the relationship between  surface water flow
and groundwater flow.   Unconsolidated, cast overburden has a  greater
porosity than the undisturbed bedrock which existed before mining (Spaulding
and Ogden 1968).   Hence, there is  likely to be increased infiltration.   The
cast overburden may assume the characteristics of an  aquifer  with a rela-
tively greater groundwater storage capacity than  existed under  the
                                      5-3

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         RUNOFF FROM 10-YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM IN PERMIT AREA (SHOWN ABOVE)

                                    	 BEFORE MINING
                       ,peak= 140 cfs
     DURING AND AFTER MINING WITHOUT
	SEDIMENT POND OR REVEGETATION ON
     MINED LAND
                                         DURING MINING WITH SEDIMENT POND BUT
                                         WITHOUT REVEGETATION


                                         INCREASED RUNOFF AS A RESULT OF
                                         MINING WITHOUT REVEGETATION
                    I           2

                     Hours after storm begins
Figure 5-1 THEORETICAL  HYDROGRAPH  ILLUSTRATING  RUNOFF  FROM A
PERMIT AREA ON THE KENTUCKY-WEST VIRGINIA  BORDER (Ward.Haan and
Taap 1979)  The 120-ocre site has slopes ranging from 20 to 60% (average
45%) and  is on  Muse-Shelocta (hydroiogic type  b) soils  with 50% of  acreage
in  dense forest,30%  in thin forest, and 20% in poor  pasture. Post-mining
uses were  projected to be  40% dense forest- 30% thin forest; 20%  bare,
regraded mined  land; and 10%  poor  pasture. Revegetation  according to  State
and Federal requirements would  reduce  the runoff shown in this  worst-case
example.
                                    5-4

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pre-mining conditions  (Corbett  1965).   Current  reclamation  regulations,
however, require the compaction and regrading of  spoil  to minimize  the
penetration of water below  the  topsoil  layer.   The  compaction  is  necessary
both to insure that the  overburden remains  stable on  the  slope  (rather than
becoming fluid because of infiltrating  water) and to  reduce the amount of
water that reaches toxic material in the  overburden.  The temporary storage
of water within the spoil of  regraded New Source  mines  is expected  to  be of
significant volume relative to that flowing  across  the  surface.

     Mitigation measures to minimize flooding in  most cases are incorporated
in current reclamation requirements (see  Section  4.O.).  Typical  measures
include the following:

     •  Settling basins  constitute an effective mitigative  measure
        for flooding (Minear  1974, Corbett  1969,  Curtis 1972).
        These and other  drainage control  measures must  be in place
        prior to the start  of mining.

     •  The best contour surface mine drainage  system for con-
        trolling flooding involves the  temporary  storage of all
        runoff on the bench.  This practice  can only  be used where
        no spoil has been pushed below  the bench.   The  diversion
        of runoff around mines, an important pollution  control
        measure required on all drainage  systems, may increase
        flood heights (Minear 1974).

     •  Reclamation of surface mines may  increase runoff.   Sedi-
        ment ponds are to be  removed following  mining,  unless  the
        regulatory authority  approves their retention.  Also,
        retained ponds may become filled  over time.   Surface
        grading itself temporarily increases flooding, especially
        during extensive wet  periods (Minear 1974).   The uncon-
        trolled flow of water over the  edge of  regraded mountain-
        tops can be prevented by sloping  the finished grade away
        from the downslope edge of the  bench.   Special  discharge
        channels can be  armored with rock or otherwise  protected
        against erosion.  The energy of the water can be dissi-
        pated by appropriate  structures,  if necessary, where the
        water is discharged to a stream.

     Hardwood forests, which  typically  cover mine sites in  the  Basin prior
to mining,  transpire significant amounts  of water.  The forests generally
are replaced by grasses  and crown vetch which transpire less water  after
mining.  Much or all organic  topsoil that helps retard  runoff can be lost  if
mining does not follow current State and  Federal  requirements  for soil
removal, storage, replacement, and revegetation (Section 4.O.).   The breakup
of underlying bedrock and the provision of underdrains  in spoil and  valley
fills may speed up drainage of groundwater into streams.  Factors such as
these may combine to increase flooding  from surface mines which are
reclaimed to approximate original contour.
                                     5-5

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     The soil material eroded from mountainsides  is transported by  runoff  to
floodplains, where it can reduce the temporary flood storage capacity  of the
channel.  Hence erosion control upslope can benefit flood  levels  down-
stream.  Revegetation is the primary method to slow runoff  from slopes.

5.1.1.2. Erosion and Sedimentation

     Underground mines and coal preparation plants result  in relatively
little direct surface disturbance and hence cause only minor physical
pollution other than the siltation from haul roads, surface rock  dumps, mine
waste piles, and tailings piles.  Such piles historically have been particu-
larly vulnerable to erosion because of their siting (often  in or  adjacent  to
waterways), their inability to support vegetation, and their fine particles
(EPA 1975).  Current USOSM and State regulations  prevent placement  of  such
piles in floodplains and mandate their reclamation and revegetation
following mining.

     Surface mining typically results in open cuts and large amounts of
spoil.  The construction of roads to facilitate mining and  prospecting, the
removal of vegetation, and the loosening and breaking up of overburden may
degrade stream water quality and aquatic habitat.  Mining may entail ero-
sion, stream channel modifications (widening or filling),  diversion or loss
of permanent stream flow, turbidity caused by massive quantities  of silt and
sediment, loss of fish spawning gravels by burial or removal, and compaction
of stream bottoms.  Erosion potential is influenced by soil type, vegetation
cover, climate, topography, and erosion control structures  (Hill  and Grim
1975, Hill 1973, Spaulding and Ogden 1968).

     Cast overburden and increased surface runoff may cause accelerated
erosion in surface-mined areas.  The erosion, in  turn, causes significant
increases in turbidity and sedimentation in streams downslope from  the
mining operation.

     Erosion and sedimentation resulting from stormwater runoff are affected
by four primary factors: (1) rainfall intensity and volume; (2) flow charac-
teristics as determined by slope steepness and length; (3)  soil characteris-
tics; and (4) vegetation densities and protective effects.

     Surface mining alters all of these factors except rainfall.  Flow
characteristics are altered by the creation of highwalls,  access  roads,
spoil piles, and water handling structures.  Soil structure characteristics
are changed greatly.  Topsoil, subsoil, and substrate rock  fragments may be
intermingled, and less fertile and sometimes highly acidic  soil can result
if current State and Federal reclamation requirements are not met.   Acidic
soil material with sparse vegetation seldom can withstand  the forces of
rainfall or stormwater movement.  Vegetation is absent during the mining
process, and can be absent for several to many years after  regrading if not
replanted in accordance with current State and Federal requirements (see
Section 4.0.) .
                                     5-6

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     The rate of sediment loss as a result of uncontrolled  surface mining
may increase one thousand times over natural levels (Spaulding and Ogden
1968) .  In one study of pre-SMCRA and WVSCMRA surface mining  in the Elk
River Basin of West Virginia, active mines near Webster Springs were  found
to have contributed a high level of suspended solids (Landers 1974) .

     The specific sediment control measures currently required by surface
mining regulations are described in Section 5.7. of this assessment.  These
measures can be summarized as follows:

     •  Diverting offsite runoff around the surface mine, passing
        mine runoff through settling basins, regrading to minimize
        disturbed areas, and revegetation minimize erosion.   Where
        these requirements have been followed, sedimentation has
        been reduced (Light 1975).  Unacceptable sedimentation
        still may occur when surface mines employ these control
        measures (Phares 1971).

     •  Settling basins detain runoff polluted by sediment.
        Settling pond size should be based on a calculation of the
        storage space needed to hold the runoff expected to be
        discharged by a surface mine and for the efficient
        settling of the sediment.  The State of West Virginia
        requires settling basins to be 0.125 acre-foot volume per
       -acre of disturbed land, but this sizing criterion alone
        may not be sufficient to reduce concentrations of sus-
        pended solids during heavy rainstorms (Light 1975).  West
        Virginia regulations also have required that the capacity
        of the basin be maintained by removing accumulated  sedi-
        ment when it is 80% filled,  although the WVDNR-Water
        Resources Drainage Handbook recommends cleanout when 60%
        capacity is reached.  Some basins can fill up after only
        one moderate storm.  Therefore, doubling the size of
        settling basins was recommended in a report commissioned
        by the West Virginia Legislature (Schmidt 1972).  The
        USOSM permanent program requires cleanout at 60% of
        capacity [30 CFR 816.46(h)l.  It is theoretically possible
        to construct settling basins large enough for all surface
        mines, but site availability, road access, and cost are
        major problems in West Virginia terrain.  In the steeply
        sloping areas where need is greatest, space is most
        constrained.  The effectiveness of ponds can be enhanced
        by using baffles to maximize water retention time and by
        adding flocculants to maximize sediment deposition.

     •  An efficient means to remove sediment from large volumes
        of runoff is to capture and store water temporarily on
        the mine bench.  Sediment settles on the bench, and the
        water is released to a settling basin at a rate slow
        enough to allow adequate treatment.  This method is fully
                                    5-7

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        applicable only on contour or tnountaintop removal surface
        mines where spoil has not been pushed downslope and valley
        fills have not been used.

        Sediment is most difficult to control when surface mine
        spoil has a high clay content.  Due to its electrical
        charge, clay particles resist physical means of settling
        and coagulation/flocculation treatment systems are
        necessary (McCarthy 1973).  Problem soils in the Basin are
        identified in Section 5.7.

        Landslides historically have been the source of much of
        the sedimentation which occurs after completion of surface
        mining.  Engineered valley fills, modified block cut
        mining, mountaintop removal, and compaction of spoil
        during regrading in accordance with current regulations
        should reduce sedimentation resulting from landslides.

        Permanent erosion control can be provided by the estab-
        lishment of healthy vegetation over the entire area.
        Since 1970, revegetation requirements in West Virginia
        have required fertilization and liming, with the main-
        tenance of vegetation for two growing seasons prior to
        release of a reclamation bond.  USOSM requires that
        eastern surface miners be held responsible for effluent
        from a mine site for five years after their last seeding
        to make sure that revegetation is permanent.  Settling
        basins must be maintained to control sedimentation until
        revegetation is complete.
     5.1.1.3.  Water Quality

     Chemical pollution occurs when soluble or leachable compounds  present
in mine wastes enter streams, lakes, or reservoirs.  Most chemical  pollution
results from oxidation of sulfide minerals, resulting in acid mine  drainage.
(EPA 1973).  During surface mining for coal, the removal of overburden  often
exposes rock materials containing iron sulfide (marcasite and amorphous
pyrite).   As the following equations indicate, the oxidation of iron  sulfide
results in the production of ferrous iron and sulfuric acid (Equations  1  and
2); the reaction then proceeds to form ferric hydroxide and more acid
(Equations 3 and 4), which reduce the pH level in the receiving streams and
potentially affect aquatic biota.
                                     5-8

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2 FeS2 + 2H20 +  702    2FeS04 +  2H2S04                                    (1)
(pyrite) +  (water) +  (oxygen) — >  (ferrous  iron  sulfate)  +  (sulfuric  acid)
       14Fe+3 + 8H20     15Fe+2 +  2804-2  +
 (pyrite) +  (ferric iron) +  (water) — >  (ferrous  iron)  +  (sulfate)  +  (hydronium ion)

 4FeS04 + 02 + 2H2S04     2Fe2(S04)3 + 2H20                                 (3)
 (ferrous iron sulfate) + (oxygen) + (sulfuric  acid)  — >  (ferric  sulfate)  +  (water)

 Fe2(S()4)3 + 6H20    2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2S04                                     (4)
 (ferric sulfate) + (water)  — > (ferric hydroxide)  +  (sulfuric  acid)


 The amount  and rate of acid formation  and  the  quality  of  water discharged
 are functions of the amount and type of  iron sulfide in the  overburden  rock
 and coal, the time of exposure, the buffering  characteristics  of the
 overburden, and the amount  of available  water  (Hill  1973, Herricks and
 Cairns 1974, Hill and Grim  1975).  Framboidal  pyrite generally poses the
 most serious AMD potential.  Limestone is  readily  soluble, and hence
 provides more effective  buffering than dolomite.

     The quality of Basin water affected by acid mine  drainage is  variable,
 but generally Appalachian streams which  have received  mine drainage  are
 characterized as follows (Herricks and Cairns  1974):

     pH                                Less than 6 .0
     Acidity                           Greater than  3  mg/1
     Alkalinity                        Normally 0
     Alkalinity/Acidity                Less than 1.0
     Iron                              Greater than  0.5 mg/1
     Sulfate                           Greater than  250 mg/1
     Total  suspended solids            Greater than  250 mg/1
     Total  dissolved solids            Greater than  500 mg/1
     Total hardness                    Greater than  250 mg/1

     Physical changes from AMD result both from the  deposition of  ferric
hydroxide floes on the substrate  and from  the  hydroxides  that  may  remain
 suspended within the water  column where  they reduce  light penetration.
 Chemical changes result  from reduction in  the  receiving water  pH,  alteration
 in the bicarbonate buffering system, chemical oxygen demand  (if  the  mine
 drainage is poorly oxidized), and the  addition of  many metal  salts (Herricks
 1975, Gale et al . 1976, Huckabee et al .  1975).

     As a result of the  low pH in acid mine runoff,  the dissolved  solids  may
 contain significant quantities of iron,  aluminum,  calcium, magnesium,
manganese,  copper, zinc, and other heavy metals, depending on  the
mineralogical composition of the coal deposit and  associated strata  (Table
 5-1).  There are few actual data  reating heavy metals  pollution  and  coal

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Table 5-1.  Composite characterization of untreated acid mine drainage
  (Nessler and Bachman 1977)
            Constituent

            pH
            Acidity
            Alkalinity/Acidity Ratio
            Specific Conductance
            Total Dissolved Solids
            Total Suspended Solids
            Total Solids
            Hardness
            Sulfate
            Total Iron
            Aluminum
            Magnesium
            Manganese
            Chloride
            Calcium
            Zinc
            Lead
            Copper
            Sodium
            Potassium
1.1-7.3
0-35,000 mg H2S04/1
Less than 1
1,400-12,000 umhos/cm
Greater than 500-5,500 mg/1
Greater than 250 mg/1
1,000-11,000 mg/1
250-13,600 mg CaC03/l
20-31,000 mg/1
0.5-7,600 mg/1
30-500 mg/1
150-2,990 mg/1
5-675 mg/1
10-270 mg/1
20-500 mg/1
0-18 mg/1
0-0.5 mg/1
0-0.7 mg/1
15-70 mg/1
3-16 mg/1
                                     5-10

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mining in West Virginia.  During December  1979, USOSM  analyzed water  samples
from an unnamed tributary to Panther Fork  in Upshur County  (Buckhannon River
drainage of the Monongahela River Basin).  The cadmium concentration
increased by two orders of magnitude, from 0.01 mg/1 upstream to 1.34 mg/1
downstream from a coal mine.  At a point 0.5 mile  farther downstream, the
cadmium was measured at 0.05 mg/1.  At the same three  stations iron
concentrations varied  from <0.10 to 0.5 to <0.10 mg/1; manganese values were
0.40, 31.00, and 0.90 mg/1; and sulfate values were 4.0, 412.32, and  9.0
mg/1.  The mine was not demonstrated to be the source  or the only  source of
the cadmium or other elevated parameters.  No fish were reported in the
Panther Fork, and long-term studies of the water quality were recommended
(G. E. Hanson and J. D. Generauz, Memorandum to J. A.  Holbrook, USOSM,
Charleston WV, January 24, 1980).

     The following discussion summarizes general water quality impacts from
coal mining in terms of individual water quality constituents.  Most  of the
levels discussed below will not occur if the New Source Performance
Standards are met.  Thus the effluent limits mandated  by the NSPS
effectively should protect human health.  As pointed out in Section 5.2.,
however, the New Source standards are not necessarily  sufficient to protect
aquatic organisms.

     Water hardness becomes objectionable  at about 150 mg/1 and generally
makes water unusable for certain domestic or industrial uses at concen-
trations greater than 300 mg/1.  High hardness levels  shorten the  life of
pipes and water heaters and greatly increase the amount of soap which is
needed for cleaning.  Water can be softened by treatment, but this is
expensive and may be inadequate (Light 1975).

     Excessive iron, manganese, and sulfate concentrations can cause
objectionable taste and staining.  In addition,  sulfate levels greater than
250 mg/1 can produce a laxative effect (EPA 1976).

     Some of the tolerance levels recommended in Table 5-2 are based more on
aesthetic than toxicological considerations, such  as iron, manganese, and
zinc.  A specific limit has not been established for nickel because it is
considered relatively non-toxic to humans  (EPA 1976).  With the exception of
possible high sulfate levels,  effluents from New Source mines should  pose
little threat to public health.

     With respect to most of the Basin, the New Source standards will be
sufficient to maintain existing water quality.  The limitations govern four
of the most important constituents of mine effluents (iron, manganese, pH,
and suspended solids).  Three  of these (iron, pH, and  suspended solids) have
been the principal cause of damage to the  aquatic biota of the Basin
(see Sections 2.2 and 5.2.).  Additional limitations will be necessary in
certain areas to protect aquatic organisms.  Also  significant improvement in
the water quality of degraded  streams in the Basin will not occur  until the
numerous abandoned mines in the Basin are reclaimed.
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Table 5-2.  Tolerance levels for selected drinking water parameters
  associated with coal mine effluent (after Casarett and Doull 1975, EPA
  1976, USPits 1962).
                                      Limits in mg/1
Element
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium (Cr+"'
Copper
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Selenium
Sulfate
Zinc
Mandatory Upperl
0.05
1.0
0.010
0.05
—
—
0.05
—
0.002
0.01
250
—
Desirable Upper2
0.01
—
—
—
L.O
0.3
—
0.05
—
—
—
5.0
Ifiased primarily on health considerations
       primarily on taste, odor, or aesthetic considerations.
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     Generally,  iron  is  precipitated  as  yellow ferric  hydroxide (FeOH3).
Occasionally red  ferric  oxide  (Fe203)  is  precipitated.   Both of these
precipitates form gels or  floes that  may  be  detrimental,  when suspended in
water, to fishes  and  other  aquatic  biota.  Dissolved  iron is also toxic to
certain aquatic organisms.  A  detailed discussion  of  the  effects  of iron  on
aquatic organisms is  presented  in Section 5.2.   To insure that the concen-
tration of iron in the stream  does  not exceed  1  mg/1  as  mandated  by the
State stream standard proposed  by WVDNR-Water  Resources  (1980) and
recommended by EPA (1976),  the  mine operator may elect  to retain  his
discharge during  low  flow  conditions  or  to treat the  discharge to iron
concentrations less than 3  mg/1.  In  trout waters  the  State  has proposed  a
0.5 mg/1 maximum  in-stream  iron limitation,  and  the State may require more
stringent discharge limitations than  the  NSPS  or other measures to protect
the quality of trout  waters.

     Acid also is a major  concern in  the  Basin because  of the frequently  low
buffering capacity in streams.  Careful  pH control  is  very important in the
streams identified as lightly  buffered.

     The NSPS effluent limitations  do not apply  under  all weather
conditions.  Any  overflow,  increase in volume  of a discharge,  or  discharge
from a by-pass system caused by precipitation  or snowmelt in excess of the
10-year 24-hour precipitation  event is not subject  to  the limitations. In
addition, discharges  during small precipitation  events  also  are not subject
to the NSPS, provided that  the  treatment  facility  has  been designed,
constructed, and maintained to  contain or treat  the volume of  water which
would fall on the area subject  to the NSPS limitations  during  a 10-year
24-hour or larger precipitation event  (44 FR 250:76791, December  20, 1979).

     One important aspect  of the exemption described  above is  suspended
solids concentrations.   That is, properly designed  and  operated ponds will
remove large (settlable) solids, but  not  fine, colloidal  material.  Where
clay colloids are present,  chemical or physical  treatments such as those
described below may be required in  order  to meet the NSPS and  protect
designated water uses.

     Of the various advanced treatment techniques  developed  over  the past
two decades primarily for  large scale treatment  of  salt water,  the reverse
osmosis desalinization technique has  been most successfully  applied to acid
mine drainage (ARC 1969).   Another  chemical treatment method for  colloidal
material is flocculation.   Both of  these  techniques are  applicable in the
Basin to promote the  settling  of a  significant proportion of fine suspended
clay particles during the  sedimentation  process.   Removal of these fine par-
ticles also affects metals  impacts, because metals  are usually associated
with colloidal material  and thus are  removed along  with  the  suspended
solids.  Best Available  Control Technology and the  NSPS  apply  to  total metal
concentrations, defined  as  metals in  solution  (dissolved) together with
metals in suspension  as  part of the solids loading.  The  choice of specific
methods for meeting the NSPS is left  to  applicants  by EPA.   Information
                                    5-13

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regarding cost  and  effectiveness  of  these  and  other techniques is presented
in  Section 3.2.

     Other abatement  techniques that  have  been used and  proven practical for
Basin mine drainage treatment  are  listed in  Section 5.7.   These include
techniques that  can be  used  for underground  as well as  surface mining
operations (ARC  1969).  The  abatement  of acid  mine  drainage  in the
Monongahela River Basin could  involve  the  use  of  a  variety of  techniques.
The application  of  specific  abatement  techniques  will depend upon the type
of mining (surface, underground,  or  both), whether  the mining  operation is
active or temporarily inactive, the  characteristics of the mine drainage,
the desired resultant water  quality,  its suitability for  the uses intended,
and the secondary effects of the  abatement technique on the  environment.

5 .1 .2 .  Groundwater

     5.1.2.1.  Availability  of Groundwater

     Pumping water  from an aquifer can lower the  water level in nearby wells
in  the same aquifer.  The amount  of  lowering of the water level and  how far
away an effect can be found  are functions  of the  rate at  which the water is
withdrawn and the hydraulic  characteristics  of the  aquifer.  The effect also
occurs if water  is allowed to drain  from an  aquifer due to mining activity.
Again the extent of the effect may be  short-term, as when water drains into
a cavity until it is filled, or it may be long-term, if the  water continues
to drain or is pumped.

     There is a  scarcity of  evidence  documenting  well failure  due to mining        ^
activity in the  Basin.  Historically there have been few  accurate                  ^
measurements of  nearby  well  capability before  mining activity  begins.
Consequently, it has been hard to confirm whether well failures are  caused
by mining activity or are caused by  gradual  deterioration or other natural
causes.

     One recent  study of the major aquifers  (the  Allegheny,  Conemaugh,
Monongahela, and Dunkard Formations) in Monongalia  County, which are major
aquifers in the  Monongahela River Basin, concluded  that vertical air shafts
were responsible for groundwater drainage and  well  dewatering  (Ahnell  1977).
Where the air shafts were not pregrouted prior to construction, some were
found to affect  groundwater  levels for a distance of at least  1.5 miles from
the shafts.   Wells  located near pregrouted air shafts experienced no
noticeable reduction in levels.  Wells located  above underground mines  with
less than 300 feet of overburden between the bottom of the well and  the coal
mine commonly lost water.  The geological similarity between the Basin and
the Monongalia County study  area  indicates that similar effects can  be
anticipated  in the Basin.
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     5.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality

     As with  groundwater  availablility,  there is  a scarcity of documented
information on the effect of mining  activities  on groundwater quality in the
Basin.  In general,  local groundwater  quality can be affected by a variety
of parameters  (Table 5-3).  The  intrusion of mine drainage into rock-strata
aquifers  can  be  expected  to result  in  higher sulfate and hardness in the
groundwater,  but  low pH and high  iron  concentrations generally have little
effect on groundwater, because  they  usually are neutralized by the
carbonates in the aquifers, precipitated,  or filtered out by tiny
passageways in the rocks.  Rauch  (1980)  reported  that severe contamination
of groundwater supplies is generally is  restricted to groundwater located
within about  200  feet horizontally  of  mine drainage sources.

     There is some indication that  underground  mining may cause an increase
in sulfate and hardness content,  but the amount of increase is not usually
so great  as to restrict the utility  of the water,  based on information
obtained  from similar situations  outside the Basin and from statistically
derived inferences.  Friel et al. (1975)  reported several instances of well
contamination from mining activities,  however,  data verifying the magnitude
and extent of the contamination were not presented.   Skelly and Loy (1977)
similarly contend that groundwater  quality has  been affected seriously as
the result of mining activity.  More information  on the relationship between
groundwater availability  and quality within the Basin is needed.

     Rauch (1980) recommended that  groundwater  should be directed away from
mine sites both  during and after  mining.   In contour mines, drainage pipes
can be installed at the foot of the  highwall just  prior to reclamation.
This will result  in  a lower water table  after reclamation and less ground-
water contact with fill material.  The groundwater then can be piped to a
nearby stream channel.  Another  approach recommended by Rauch is  to install
an impermeable barrier in the backfill material a few feet below  the
surface.  This has the effect of  directing infiltrating rainfall  downslope
away from the mine and buried toxic  overburden.

     Additional  recommendations of Rauch are that  (1) surface mining be kept
at least 200  feet away from any well or  spring  water supply, especially
those supplies located downhill from the mine and (2) all bore holes created
by coring operations and all old  abandoned wells  be  filled with concrete
grout: at  the mine site during mining to  prevent polluted mine drainage from
recharging aquifers underlying the mine.   Other mitigative measures are
discussed in Section 5.7.

     The USOSM permanent program  regulations address in detail the measures
necessary to  protect groundwater  supplies  and quality (30 CFR 816.51,  .52;
817.51, .52).   Pre-mining monitoring data must  be supplied with the permit
application (30 CFR 779.15;  783.16), and  recharge  capacity must be restored
to a condition that (1) supports  the approved post-mining land use, (2)
minimizes disturbance to the hydrologic  balance on the permit area and in
                                     5-15

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Table  5-3.   Water quality parameters that potentially  affect  local  groundwater
  quality (Landers 1976).
Substance
Cohtorm Bacteria
Iron
Calcium and
Magnesium
Sodium and
Potassium
Sulfate
Chloride
Nitrate
Dissolved Solids
Total Hardness
Dissolved Oxygen
Suspended Sedi
ment or Turbidity
Sources
Present in very large quantifies in human and animal wastes,
some types are found in soil
1, Natural sources Oxides, carbonates, and sulfides of iron
2 Man made sources WeU casing, piping, pump parts, stor
age tanks, and other objects of cast iron and steel which may
be in contact with the water
Dissolved from practically all soils and rocks, but especially
from limestone, dolomite, and gypsum Calcium and mag-
nesium are found in large quantities in some brines. Mag-
nesium ts present m large quantities in sea water
Dissolved from practically all rocks and soils Found also in
ancient brines, sea water, industrial brines, and sewage.
Dissolved from rocks and soils containing gypsum, iron sut-
fides, and other sulfur compounds Commonly present in
mine waters and m some industrial wastes.
Dissolved from rocks and soils. Present in sewage and found
m large amounts in ancient bnnes, sea water, and industrial
brines
Decaying organic matter, sewage, fertilizers, and nitrates
in soil
Chiefly mineral constituents dissolved from rocks and soils.
In most waters nearly all the hardness is due to calcium and
magnesium. All of the metallic cations other than the alkali
metals also cause hardness
Dissolved in water from air and from oxygen given off in the
process of photosynthesis by aquatic plants
Erosion of land, erosion of stream channels Quantity and
particle-si/e gradation affected by many factors such as
form and intensity of precipitation, rate of runoff, stream
channel and flow characteristics, vegetal cover, topography,
type and characteristics of soils in the drainage basin, agn
cultural practices, and some industrial and mining activities.
Greatest concentrations and loads occur during periods of
Storm runoff
Significance
Used as an indicator that the water may be contaminated and
may contain disease-caus'ng organisms
More than 0 1 mg/l precipitates after exposure to air, causes tur-
bidity, stains plumbing fixtures, laundry and cooking utensils,
and imparts objectionable tastes and colors to foods and drinks.
More than 0 2 mg/l is objectionable for most industrial uses
Cause most of the hardness and scale-forming properties of
water, soap consuming («»e hardness) Waters low in calcium
and magnesium desired in electroplating, tanning, dyeing, and
manufacturing.
Large amounts, in combination with chloride, give a salty taste
Moderate quantities have little effect on the usefulness of water
for most purposes Sodium salts may cause foaming in steam
boilers and a high sodium content may limtt the use of water for
irn§dtion.
Sulfate in water containing calcium forms hard scale m steam
boilers In large amounts, sulfate in combination with other
irons gives bitter taste to water Some calcium sulfate is con-
sidered beneficial in the brewing process
fn large amounts, in combination with sodium, gives salty taste
to drinking water In large1 quantities, increases the corrosive-
ness of water
Concentration much greater than the local average may suggest
pollution Waters of high nitrate conteni have been reported to
be the cause of methemoglobmemia (an often fatal disease in in-
fants) and therefore should not be used in infant feeding. Ni-
trate has been shown to be helpful m reducing intercrystallme
cracking of boiler steel It encourages growth of algae and other
organisms that produce undesirable taste'i and odors
Waters containing more than 1,000 mg/l of dissolved solids are
unsuitable for many purposes.
Consumes soap before a lather will form Deposits soap curd on
bathtubs. Hard water forms scale in boilers, water heaters, and
pipes Hardness equivalent to the bicarbonate and carbonate is
called carbonate hardness Any hardness in excess of this is
called non carbonate hardness Waters of hardness up to 60
mg/l are considered soft, 61 to 120 mg/l, moderately hard, 121
to 200 mg/l, hard, more than 200 mg/l, very hard
Dissolved oxy
-------
adjacent areas, and (3) approximates  the  pre-mining  recharge  rate.   Mine
operators must replace the water supply of users whose  supplies  are affected
by mining activities (30 CFR 816.54;  817.54).

     Compliance with the USOSM permanent  program regulations  means  that  new
mines will be designed so as to minimize  adverse impacts  on groundwater
quality and quantity.  EPA will check  to  see that  groundwater aspects  have
been addressed by applicants in their  surface mining  permit applications.
If these measures should be unenforceable by the regulatory authority
pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA, EPA  independently will  implement  them
pursuant to NEPA and CWA.
                                    5-17

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5.2   Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations

-------
5.2.   Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations                           5-19

      5.2.1.  Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage to Aquatic        5-19
               Biota
              5.2.1.1.   Impacts of Sedimentation and Suspended        5-20
                         Solids
              5.2.1.2.   Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage                 5-20
                         5.2.1.2.1.   Iron Impacts                     5-20
                         5.2.1.2.2.   pH Impacts                       5-22
              5.2.1.3.   Impacts of Trace Contaminants                 5-24

      5.2.2.  Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts            5-24
              5.2.2.1.   Fish                                          5-26
              5.2.2.2,   Benthic Macroinvertebrates                    5-27
              5.2.2.3.   Other Organisms                               5-28

      5.2.3.  Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining Impacts      5-28

      5.2.4.  Mitigative Measures                                     5-40

      5.2.5.  Erroneous Classification                                5-49
Page
              4

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5.2.  AQUATIC BIOTA  IMPACTS  AND MITIGATIONS

     Water pollution  from mines occurs  when  dissolved  solids,  suspended
solids, or other mineral wastes and  debris  enter  streams  or infiltrate the
groundwater system.  Mine drainage includes  both  the water  flowing from
surface or underground mines by gravity or  by  pumping  and runoff or seepage
from mine lands or mine wastes.  This  pollution may be physical  (sediments)
or chemical (acid, heavy metals, etc.;  EPA  1973,  Hill  and Grim 1975).   In
subsequent sections, the effects of  sediment and  acid  mine  drainage on
aquatic biota, the response  of the biotic community  to sediment  and acid
mine drainage, and measures  to reduce  sediment and acid mine drainage  are
discussed in turn.

5.2.1.  Major Mining-Related Causes  of  Damage  to  Aquatic  Biota

     The major causes of damage to the  biota of an aquatic  system are:
1) destruction of habitats through direct physical alteration;  2) reduction
or elimination of any component of the  physical,  chemical,  or  biological
system which is essential for continued biotic functioning;  and
3) destruction or injury of  the biota by the addition  of  acutely or
chronically toxic materials  (Herricks  1975).   In  the eastern United States,
aquatic biota usually are affected adversely by mineral mining through the
following mechanisms  (Mason  1978, Hill  1973):

     •  Excess acidity

     •  Silt deposition on streambeds  and in ponds, lakes,  and
        reservoirs

     •  Turbidity

     •  Heavy metal contamination of waters  and sediment

     •  Secondary impacts such as decreased  dissolved  oxygen
        concentrations, decreased plankton populations (which
        provide food for fish and macroinvertebrates),  increased
        water temperatures,  and decreased reproductive capacities
        of fish and macroinvertebrates

     •  Synergistic effects  of mining wastes acting in combination
        with other types of  pollutants

     The effects of acid mine drainage  include fish kills,  reduction in fish
hatching success,  failure or inhibition of fish spawning, reduction in the
numbers and variety of invertebrate  organisms, elimination  of  algae and
other aquatic plants, and inhibition of bacterial growth  and consequent
retarding of decomposition of organic matter (Stauffer et al.  1978).   The
reduction in the diversity of benthic invertebrates is well  documented
(Parsons 1968,  Koryak et al. 1972).
                                    5-19

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     5.2.1.1.  Impacts of Sedimentation and Suspended  Solids

     Sediment eroded from surfaces exposed by mining may  cover  the  stream
substrate.  Apart from any  acutely toxic  effects,  sedimentation decreases
substrate heterogeneity, fills interstices with silt,  severely  reduces  algal
populations, and directly affects the bottom-dwelling  invertebrates (Ward et
al. 1978, Matter et al. 1978).  Secondarily, sedimentation  may  reduce  fish
populations by reducing habitat (filling  pools), by eliminating food
supplies (algae and benthos), by eliminating spawning  sites,  by smothering
eggs or  fry, or by modifying natural movements or  migrations  (Branson  and
Batch 1972, EPA 1976).  The ecological effects of  suspended  solids  include:
1) mechanical or abrasive effects (clogging of gills,  irritation of tissues,
etc.); 2) blanketing action of sedimentation; 3) reduced  light  penetration;
4) availability as a surface for growth of bacteria,  fungi,  etc.;  5)
adsorption and/or absorption of various chemicals; and 6) reduction of
natural  temperature fluctuations (Cairns  1967).

     Mechanical or abrasive action is of  particular importance  in the higher
aquatic  organisms such as mussels and fish.  Gills frequently are  clogged
and their proper function impaired (Cairns 1967).  Herbert  and  Merkins
(1961) exposed rainbow trout to suspensions of kaolin  and diatomaceous  earth
and found that concentrations of 30 ppm had no observable effect.   A few
fish died at 90 ppm; at 270 ppm, more than half of the fish died in 2 to 12
weeks.  They also observed considerable cell proliferation  and  fusion of
lamellae in the gills of the exposed fish.  The gills  are important not  only
in respiration but also in excretion; gills may remove six  to ten times  as
much nitrogenous wastes from the blood as the kidneys  (Smith  1929).

     The reduction of light penetration may restrict or prohibit the growth
of photosynthetic organisms that form the base of  the  aquatic food  chain.
Any significant change in the populations of these organisms  has widespread
effects  on the organisms dependent upon them for food  (e.g.,  filter-feeders
such as gizzard shad, various insects, etc.).  Non-nutritive  suspended
particulate matter may affect the feeding efficiency of many  aquatic
organisms adversely.  In addition, because a number of aquat ic  predators
such as  trout and darters depend on sight to capture their  prey,  any
increase in the turbidity of the water will lower  prey capturing efficiency
(Cairns  1967).

     5.2.1.2.  Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage

     In streams receiving acid mine drainage, microbial growth  is minimal
due to low pH (Koryak et al. 1972).  Likewise at low pH, many inorganic
elements and compounds enter receiving water bodies in a non-adsorbed or
non-absorbed state, and may exert toxic effects on the resident organisms.

     5.2.1.2.1.  Iron Impacts.  Coal mine effluents typically contain large
amounts of ferrous iron that oxidize into insoluble ferric  compounds (mostly
ferric hydroxide) as mine effluents are oxygenated and neutralized  by
receiving waters.  Much of the ferric hydroxide precipitates  onto  the  stream
                                    5-20

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substrate and blankets  the  substrate  in  a manner  analogous  to  ordinary
sediment (Gale et al. 1976, Ward et al.  1978),

     Ferric iron affects plants by  reducing  light  penetration,  by coating
the surface of algal cells  and macrophytes,  by  precipitating  algal cells,
and by reducing the  substrate heterogeneity  necessary  for  periphytic  algae
to attach and grow successfully.  By  increasing turbidity  and  by  coating
outer plant surfaces, ferric iron (in concentrations  ranging  from 1.65 to
6.49 mg/1) effectively  decreases the  amount  of  light  available  for photosyn-
thesis.  Besides shading the phytoplankton,  ferric  hydroxide  floe may carry
algal cells out of the  water column as it settles  to the bottom.   This
settling effectively reduces phytoplankton density  in  a  receiving stream.
Periphytic algae are especially vulnerable to ferric iron,  because, in
addition to being shaded, they may  be prevented from attaching  to a stable
substrate by the ferric coating on  the streambed.   Outer layers of this
coating tend to be loose, and cells attached to it  may be  dislodged by
slightly elevated stream discharges (Gale et al.  1976).

     Ferric compounds affect benthic  organisms by  decreasing habitat
heterogeneity, reducing available food,  coating the organisms  directly, and
exerting an oxygen demand,  thus reducing oxygen availability.   Iron precipi-
tates also fill small crevices in the substratum that ordinarily  are  used by
various invertebrates.  Probably of greater  significance, however,
precipitating iron reduces  the standing  crop of algae and vascular plants
which serve as food  for many benthic  invertebrates.  Burrowing  organisms  are
affected if the oxidation of ferrous  iron occurs in interstitial  waters in
the stream sediment, thereby depleting the dissolved oxygen concentration.
Similarly, precipitated iron may seal  the substrate and  prevent the exchange
of dissolved oxygen between the stream water and  the interstitial water.
Respiration by macroinvertebrates or  their eggs may be upset by heavy
coatings of iron (Gale  et al. 1976, Koryak et al.  1972,  EPA 1976).

     Fish are impacted by iron compounds as  the result of reduced algal and
invertebrate food supplies.  Iron also reduces spawning  success because the
increased concentrations of ferric hydroxide flocculants reduce the ability
of fish to locate suitable  spawning sites, blanket  suitable substrates, and
smother the eggs and embryos (Gale et  al. 1976, Sykora et  al.  1972).

     The toxicity of iron to fish and macroinvertebrates is directly
proportional to acidity.  Menendez  (1976) reported  the survival of brook
trout exposed to various iron concentrations.  He  found  that the  "no  effect"
level of iron for brook trout was 1.37 mg/1  at pH  7.0.   In  later  bioassays
using brook trout exposed to iron Menendez (1977)  found  the 96-hour LC5Q
(lethal concentration for 50% of test animals) for  iron to  be 2.3,  3.3, and
8.4 mg/1 at pH 5.0,  6.0, and 7.0 respectively.  Carp may be killed by
concentrations of iron  as low as 0.9  mg/1 when the  pH is 5.5 (EPA 1976).
Trout and pike were found to die at iron concentrations  of  1 to 2 mg/1  (EPA
1976).
                                    5-21

-------
     Sykora et al. (1972) evaluated  the  toxicity  of  suspended  ferric
hydroxide to two  invertebrates.  Crustacean and aquatic  insect  larvae
(Gammarus minus and Cheumatopsyche sp.,  respectively) were  tested  at  iron
concentrations of:  100, 50, 25, 12, 6,  3, and 20, 10, 5, 1.75,  0.80 mg/1.
The crustaceans,  especially younger  specimens, were  especially  susceptible
to ferric hydroxide.  The safe concentration  of iron  for  reproduction  and
growth of Gammarus minus is less than  3  mg/1.  The insect larvae showed  a
greater tolerance of suspended ferric  hydroxide.  Adults  emerged from  the
highest concentration tested (20 mg/1).

     For mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, which are important  stream
insects in West Virginia, the 96-hour  LC5Q values were found to  be 0.32
mg/1 iron (EPA 1976).  These macroinvertebrates are  important when
considering the impacts of iron in mine  effluent, because they  form  an
integral link in  the aquatic food chain, utilizing plants and microfauna and
providing a major food source for the  fish.

     Based upon the variable sensitivity of aquatic  organisms to iron,
EPA (1976) suggested a limit of 1.0 mg/1 iron in  natural waters  to protect
freshwater biota.  The State Water Resources Board (1980) also  is
establishing a 1.0 mg/1 maximum iron in-stream standard  to  be met  Statewide,
except where more stringent standards  are necessary  or natural  iron  values
exceed 1 mg/1 (a  limit of 0.5 mg/1 iron  in trout  waters has been proposed).

     5.2.1.2.2.   pH Impacts.  Concomitant with the addition of  acid mine
drainage to a receiving water body is  the depression  of  pH, a measure  of
hydrogen ion activity.  The impact of  low pH, in  the  absence of  other
parameters normally associated with  acid mine drainage, was evaluated  under
field conditions by Herricks and Cairns  (1974) and by Ettinger  and Kim
(1975), and in the laboratory by Bell  (1971).  Bell  performed bioassays  with
nymphs or larvae  of caddisflies (two species), stoneflies (four  species),
dragonflies (two  species), and mayflies  (one  species).  The 30-day LC5Q
values ranged from pH 2.45 to 5.38.  Caddisflies  were the most  tolerant;
mayflies, the least tolerant.  The pH  values  at which 50% of the organisms
emerged ranged from pH 4.0 to 6.6, and increased  percentages emerged at  the
higher pH values.

     Ettinger and Kim (1975) evaluated the invertebrate  fauna of Sinking
Creek, Pennsylvania,  a stream receiving  acid water from a bog but  lacking
high concentrations of ferrous or ferric iron and sulfate.  They observed
that the number of benthic insect species present decreased as  the pH
decreased.  The insects affected most  adversely were beetles, mayflies,  and
stoneflies.  T)ragonflies and caddisflies were affected less severely.
True flies seemed unaffected, and the  number  of taxa  of  alderflies,
fishflies, and dobsonflies increased in  the more  acidic waters  of  the
stream.

     Herricks and Cairns (1974) experimentally acidified  a  reach of Mill
Creek, Virginia,  and recorded the response of the benthic invertebrate
community to pH.   Two days after acidification, benthic  invertebrate density
                                    5-22

-------
and diversity were  reduced  in  the  acid-treated reach,  as compared to a
reference reach.  Herricks  and Cairns  concluded that  the low invertebrate
density resulted  from  loss  of  benthic  algae and diatoms, a source of energy
for benthic invertebrates,  and,  through  the food chain,  for fish.

     Pegg and Jenkins  (1976) identified  13  stress  symptoms during a study
that evaluated the  physiological effects  of sub lethal  levels of acid water
on fish.  The species  evaluated  were  the  bluegill,  pumpkinseed, and brown
bullhead.  When exposed to  acidified  tap  water or  water  acidified with coal
mine drainage, the  following stress  symptoms were  noted:

     •  Rapid movement of pectoral  fins

     •  Dorsal fin  fully depressed or  fully erect

     •  Pectoral  fin pressed against  body

     •  Hemmorhagic region  at  base of  pectoral fin

     •  Mucus frilling on fins,  body,  and opercular regions

     •  Coughing  reflex (gill  cleaning movements)

     •  Mucus coagulation on eyes  (opaque cornea)

     •  Gill congestion (thick mucus  accumulation on  gill
        surfaces)

     •  Alternate swimming  to  top  and  bottom of respiration
        ch amb e r

     •  Few swimming movements,  resting on  bottom  of  chamber

     •  Shallow ventilation movements

     •  Intermittent ventilation movements  (2  to  10 second pauses
        for sunfish; extended  pauses of 5 to  10 minutes  for brown
        bullhead)

     •  Increase  in ventilation  rate  (from  <50 to  100
        movements/minute).

Species differences were apparent, particularly between  the brown bullhead
and sunfish.  The sunfish displayed an increased rate  of swimming and
opercular movement, but brown  bullheads slowed or ceased activity and
opercular movements.  When the acid water conditions were  maintained for
several days or longer, long-term effects such as  reduced  growth  or even
death resulted.
                                    5-23

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     As mentioned later under acid mine drainage mitigations,  State  and
USOSM regulations require the pH of mine discharge waters  to be between  6.0
and 9.0.  This is adequate to protect the  aquatic resources of  the  Basin
from pH-related mining impacts.

5.2.1.3.  Impacts of Trace Contaminants

     Many contaminants remain in wastes or process by-products  as  a  result
of the mining, processing, and utilization of coal.  Over  60 elements have
been identified from coal, coal mine spoils, mining waste  dumps,  coal
preparation plant wastes, sludge resulting from acid mine  drainage
neutralization, flyash recovered from precipitators in  coal-burning  plants
and bottom ash, and solid reaction products recovered from flue gas
scrubbers on coal burning power plants.  Metallic elements in  coal  can be
assumed to be solubilized into the environment as these materials  oxidize
after exposure (Grube et al. n.d.), and many of the trace  contaminants
originating from coal and other fossil fuels are known  to  exert toxic
effects on aquatic animals.

     Birge et al. (1978) conducted embryo-larval bioassays on  11  metals
that commonly affect aquatic habitats.  The test organisms used during this
study included rainbow trout, largemouth bass, and the  marbled  salamander
(Table 5-4).

     Coal trace metal contaminants that proved most toxic  to trout  eggs  and
alevins included mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), and copper  (Cu),
which had median lethal concentrations (LC5o) of 0.005, 0.01, 0.05,  and
0.09 ppm, respectively.  Bass eggs and fry were most sensitive  to  silver,
mercury, aluminum (Al), and  lead (Pb), which had LC5Q values of 0.11,
0.15, 0.24, and 0.42 ppm respectively.  Trout eggs and  alevins were
considerably more susceptible to coal elements than were embryo-larval
stages of bass and salamander.  Teratogenic defects were common among
exposed trout larvae, less significant for bass, and generally  infrequent
for the salamander.   Percentages of anomalous survivors were higher  for
cadmium (Cd), copper, mercury, and zinc (Zn; Birge et al.  1978).

5.2.2.  Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts

     The recovery of stream  communities from mine discharges or other
chronic stress can be related both to distance from the point  of  stress  and
to a time-related decrease in stress intensity to levels where  aquatic
community structure and function are reestablished following cessation of
discharges.  In general, recovery  from chronic pollutional stress  can occur
if:  (1) the stress is reduced and damaged habitats are restored;  (2)
sources of recolonizing organisms  are available; and (3) seasonal  varia-
bility in stream conditions  does not preclude maintenance  of stream  communi-
ties (Herricks 1975).  Because AMD problems tend to be  permanent,  unless
costly cleanup is successful, recovery of biota historically has  not been
widespread.
                                     5-24

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Table 5-4.  Results of embryo-larval bioassays on coal elements  (Birge  et  al.  1978).

Element
Ag
(AgNO_)
j
Al
(Aid.)
3
As
(NaAsCL)
2
Cd
(CdCl_)
2
Cr
(CrOj
J
Cu
(CuSO.)
4
Hg
(HgCl2)

Ni
(NiCl2)

Pb
(PbCl2 )

Sn
(SnCl2 )

Zn
(ZnCl2)

Animal
Species
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
LC50
(ppm)
0.01
0.11
0.24
0.56
0.17
2.28
0.54
42.1
4.45
0.13
1.64
0.15
0.18
1.17
2.13
0.09
6.56
0.77
0.005
0.13
0.11
0.05
2.02
0.42
0.18
0.24
1.46
0.40
1.89
0.85
1.06
5.16
2.38
Confidence Limits
Lower (ppm) U
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
21
2
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
4
1
.01
.04
.16
.40
.07
.53
.42
.2
.89
.10
.41
.10
.07
.85
.34
.05
.66
.52
.004
.09
.07
.04
.46
.28
.10
.12
.00
.23
.77
.54
.75
.58
.60
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
84
6
0
1
0
0
1
3
0
7
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
4
1
1
5
3
PJper
.02
.23
.34
.70
.40
.29
.67
.9
.66
.18
.88
.20
.31
.58
.34
.15
.54
.11
.005
.17
.15
.06
.77
.59
.32
.46
.05
.67
.32
.32
.39
.78
.44
LC
b
i
(ppb)
0
3
7
256
1
67
40
4601
63
6
89
8
19
11
17
1
1592
21
0
9
3
0
9
15
2
2
64
16
8
4
20
966
71
.2
.7
.1

.0




.1

.1



.8


.2
.7
.7
.6
.7

.5
.1


.6
.8



Confidence Limits
Lower (ppb) Upper
0
0
2
53
0
17
16
63
14
1
57
2
0
4
3
1
893
5
0
3
1
0
3
4
0
0
18
2
3
1
5
671
18
.1
.1
.0

.1




.8

.5
.4
.5
.0
.0

.8
.1
.0
.0
.2
.7
.2
.2
.2

.1
.9
.0
.7


0.4
14
16
371
5.1
155
72
12086
161
13
127
17
56
22
48
4.5
2234
49
0.3
19
8.3
1.2
20
32
8.1
7.5
138
43
43
13
33
1266
164
aLC5o
     = lethal concentration for 1% of the population.
                                          5-25

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     Streams and rivers subjected to acid mine drainage  respond  in
predictable ways based on both the interaction between physical,  chemical,
and biological components of the stream  system and  the type,  intensity,  and
duration of the stress.  Chronic discharges have the highest  potential  for
causing damage, and recovery is related  to reduction of  stress to levels  at
which normal structure and function can  be re-established.  Generally,  the
chronic stress caused by a point source  is reduced  in the  receiving  stream
as a function of the distance from the discharge source.   The relationship
between recovery and distance can be described by an expression  which
includes parameters relating to physical factors (discharge, watershed
morphology, and geology), chemical factors (water quality), and  biological
factors (presence and abundance of biota, toxicity, and  sources  of
recolonizing organisms) affecting the receiving stream and  the
characteristics of the discharge or event that increased stress  and  caused
damage.  This expression also should include time-related  parameters that
may affect both the physical, chemical,  and biological nature of  the
receiving stream (e.g., seasonal changes in flow, oxygen,  or biological
conditions) and those characteristics of the stress whose  effect  is  changed
through time (e.g., degradable compounds; Herricks  1975).

     The response of the biotic community to traditional point sources  of
acid mine drainage is readily identifiable and well documented.   For streams
receiving acid mine drainage, three longitudinal zones are  recognizable:  an
undisturbed zone upstream from the source of acid mine drainage,  together
with unaffected tributaries; a pollution zone where mine drainage enters;
and a zone of recovery downstream from the pollution zone  (Parsons 1968,
Roback and Richardson 1969, Herricks 1975, Warner 1971, Koryak et al. 1972,
Dills and Rogers 1974, Winger 1978, Matter et al. 1978).   In  the  undisturbed
zone, the biota typically are rich in species, have a high  diversity, have
many species intolerant of mine drainage, and may have high standing crop
biomass.  In the pollution zone, species richness is depressed;  diversity
generally is reduced; only species tolerant of low  pH and  high iron
concentrations are present; and standing crop biomass may  be  given to
extremes (most populations will be low but densities of  tolerant  species
will be high).

     The following paragraphs discuss taxa in various major biotic groups
(fishes, macroinvertebrates, and other organisms) that can  tolerate  gross
pollution by acid mine drainage.  Aquatic biota that are sensitive to low pH
and high iron concentrations and that generally are reduced in the pollution
zone associated with acid mine drainage  also are identified.  In  addition,
the interdependence of aquatic biota is  discussed for each  group  of
organisms.

     5.2.2.1.  Fish

     The diversity, richness, and biomass of fish are reduced in  streams
affected by acid mine drainage (Winger 1978, Branson and Batch 1972).   Fish
generally do not inhabit waters severely polluted by acid  mine drainage
(Warner 1971, Nichols and Bulow 1973).   Surveys conducted  in Roaring Creek,
West Virginia, revealed that fish inhabited only those reaches of the stream
                                    5-26

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where the median pH was 4.9 or higher.  Nichols  and  Bulow (1973)  reported
extirpation of fish along 40 miles  of the  Obey River,  Tennessee,  that
received acid mine drainage.  This  reach had  pH  values ranging  from 3.3  to
8.0 and iron concentrations ranging  from 0.0  to  >300.0 ppm.

     Trout and gamefish are among the most  sensitive  fish species.
Fedearally threatened or endangered  fish and State  fish species  of concern
are also usually either very sensitive to  pollution  or only  found in
restricted habitats where they are  very susceptible  to any habitat
destruction, which could eliminate  them.   These  fish  are  usually  the first
to suffer from mine-related impacts  and the last to  recover.

     Repopulation of pollution zones by fish  occurs  by migration  or
recolonization from upstream unaffected zones, from  tributaries,  or from the
downstream recovery zone.  Physical  barriers  (waterfalls  and  culverts) may
be effective in preventing the upstream migration  by  fishes  from  downstream
populations (Vaughan et al. 1978).

     5.2.2.2.  Benthic Macroinvertebrates

     These biota are extremely important components  in the diets  of nearly
all fish species in the State.  Changes in the species  composition  and
relative numbers of individuals in  the macroinvertebrate  community  can
greatly affect feeding and growth in the fish species  which  prey  upon them.
These fish include trout, gamefish,  and darters.

     Roback and Richardson (1969) studied  the effects  of  both constant and
intermittent acid mine drainage on  the insect fauna  of  selected western
Pennsylvania streams.  Under conditions of constant  acid  mine drainage,  the
dragonflies, mayflies, and stoneflies were eliminated  completely.   Caddis-
flies, fishflies, alderflies, dobsonflies, and true  flies  also were reduced
in number.  A caddisfly (Pt ilostomis sp.), an alderfly  (Sialis  sp.),  and a
midge (Chironomus attenuatus) were  tolerant of the conditions produced by
acid mine drainage.  Non-benthic true bugs and beetles  were  little  affected
and developed large populations in  the stations  with  acid mine drainage.
Under intermittent acid mine drainage, a diverse but  slightly depressed
insect fauna was able to develop.

     In other studies of Pennsylvania streams receiving acid mine drainage,
Tomkiewicz and Dunson (1977) and Koryak et al. (1972)  reported that the  most
numerous invertebrates in the stream sections exhibiting  high acidity and
low pH were midge larvae (especially Tendipes  riparius), an  alderfly
(Sialis sp.), and a caddisfly (Ptilostomis sp.).   The  number  of insect
groups increased steadily with progressive neutralization in the  recovery
zone until crustaceans and aquatic  earthworms appeared, indicating
considerable improvement in water quality.

     Parsons (1968) found Pantala nymenea, Procladius  sp. , Probezzia sp.,
Spaniotoma sp.,  and Sialis sp.  to be tolerant of severe mine drainage condi-
tions in Cedar Creek, Missouri.  In  the Obey River of  Tennessee,  Nichols  and
                                      5-27

-------
Bulow (1973) found that Chironomus  sp.  and Sialis  sp.  were  the  only acid-
tolerant genera collected in abundance; Chironomus  sp. was  closely
associated with the algal species Euglena mutabilis.   In  the New River of
Tennessee, Winger (1978) found that fishflies and midges  dominated the
invertebrate fauna stressed by acid mine drainage  and  sedimentation.
Caddis flies (particularly Cheumatopsyche sp. and Hydropsyche sp.)  and  may-
flies (mainly Stenonema sp.) were tolerant of moderate stress  from acid mine
drainage and sedimentation.  The alderfly (Sialis sp.), the midge
(Chironomus plumosus), other midges,  and dytiscid beetles were  reported to
tolerate high concentrations of -acid mine drainage  in  Roaring Creek, West
Virginia (Warner 1971).  Warner reported that these  forms locally  were
abundant in severely  polluted reaches; up to 16,675  individuals  per square
meter of the midge (C. plumosus) were  collected from a swamp having a  median
pH of 2.8.  During summer, the caddisfly (Ptilostomis  sp.)  also  was present.
These more pollution  tolerant macroinvertebrates generally  do not  provide so
good a food source for fish as do the  more sensitive orders of  insects such
as stoneflies, mayflies, and dragonflies.

     5.2.2.3.  Other  Organisms

     Microflora and zooplankton form  the base of the aquatic food  chain and
perform important biological functions.  These functions  include photosyn-
thesis and the assimilation of nutrients and detritus  into  plant and animal
tissue.   Therefore, changes in the community composition  of these  biota can
affect the feeding behavior and hence  the growth and survival of larger
organisms.

     Parsons (1968) found large zooplankton populations that were  composed
of relatively few species in mine drainage-polluted  areas of Cedar Creek,
Missouri, and small populations composed of many species  in the  nearby
undisturbed zone.  During that study  16 taxa were collected altogether,  of
which 13, 5, and 12 taxa were collected from the undisturbed zone, pollution
zone, and recovery zone, respectively.

5 .2 .3 .  Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining  Impacts

     BIA Category I and Category II Waters

     On the basis of  all information  collected for  this report  and the BIA
criteria outlined in  Section 2.2., EPA has classified  Basin areas  as either
unclassifiable, nonsensitive, or a BIA.  BIA Category  I and Category II
differentiations have been based on the best professional judgement of
technical experts consulted, following public and State agency  review.
Applicants must comply with different  requirements depending upon  the  permit
area's classification.

     BIA waters in the Basin that should receive special  attention in  regard
to their aquatic biota are identified  in Table 5-5 and are shown in Figure
5-2.   The rationale behind protecting  these streams  is also given  in the
Table.  Of the waters listed in the Table,  the general mitigative  measures
listed in Section 5.7. should be adequate to prevent significant
                                    5-28

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Figure 5-2
BIOLOGICALLY  IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
CATEGORY I


CATEGORY H
I
                                           MILES
                                       0       10
                                         WAPORA, INC

-------
environmental degradation  for the Monongahela River, Dunkard  Creek,  Westover
Park Lake, Buffalo Creek, West Fork River  (Weston  to Clarksburg),  Temnile
Creek (above Rockcamp Run), Elk Creek, Markers  Creek,  Tygart  Valley  River,
Buckhannon River (Panther Fork to mouth),  Coopers  Rock Lake,  Big  Sandy
Creek, Cheat River (above Pringle Run),  and Thomas Park Lake.

     Because of the nature of the aquatic  biota  of the Basin  (the  presence
of many fish species that  require a silt  free substrate to  survive and
reproduce, many native trout streams,  important  warmwater sport fisherys,
the small size of most of  the streams, and the  poor buffering capacity  of
many Basin streams), for the remaining waters (and their watersheds)  listed
in Table 5-5, EPA will require that biological  assessment studies  be
conducted before mining can be allowed.  These  site specific  assessments
will allow EPA to better define the species composition,  assess their
susceptibility to mining, and determine what mitigative measures beyond
those described in Section 5.7. may be necessary.  The scope  of these
biological assessments will be determined  by EPA on a  case  by case basis in
conjunction with the applicant.  For  all  of the  waters listed in Table  5-5
EPA probably will require biological  and  chemical  monitoring  during  mining
and use of mitigative measures such as those that  will insure that maximum
total iron concentrations  in the receiving stream  do not exceed 1  mg/1  (as
currently proposed SWRB).  Additional  requirements may be made by  EPA,
depending upon the biological assessment  findings.  The specifics  of the
biological assessment required will vary  from site to  site  according to
waterbody size and especially according  to the  resources that are  being
assessed.  The assessment  and any required sampling program should be
designed to address the reasons used  for BIA Category  II identification.

     Three streams were exemptions to  the  general  BIA  classification system:
Laurel Run, Middle Fork River, and the Blackwater  River.  As  determined from
1977 records, Laurel Run supported trout  and had a high equitability value
(Table A-l in Appendix A, Stations 99, 185).  Recent water  quality data
(2 July 1980), however, showed a pH of only 4.2.   Mining has  occurred in
this watershed since the fish data was gathered  and the previous  fish
community may have been reduced or eliminated (Verbally, Mr.  D. Gasper,
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, to Mr. G. Seegert, 18  December 1980).  Because of
the confusion over its current aquatic population, it  was not considered a
BIA.

     Two stations (114 and 187, Table  A-l  in Appendix  A) on the Middle  Fork
River had high equitability values.   Both  these  stations, however, were
surveyed in the 1960's.  Station 49,  which had  XLO macroinvertebrate taxa
and _>50% sensitive individuals, was sampled in  1965 (Table  A-5, Appendix A).
Since the 1960"s the Middle Fork has  become increasingly acidic due  to
mining activity on Cassity Fork and other  tributaries.  Recent water quality
data collected at Audra and Ellamore  showed pH  values  of 4.1  and 4.0,
respectively.  Because of its present  acid condition the lower Middle Fork
River was not designated a BIA.

     Station 20 on the Blackwater River yielded  two or more intolerant
macroinvertebrates during a collection made in  1972 (Table  A-4, Appendix A).
The lower Blackwater River is now degraded by acid drainage coming from two
of its tributaries:   North Branch and  Beaver Creek.  Thus,  it was  not
considered a BIA.
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Table 5-6.  Non-sensitive streams in the Monongahela River Basin.
  Non-sensitive area confined to the mainstem unless otherwise indicated.
Sub-Basin                                                       WVDNR-Code

   M          Robinson Run (watershed)                            M-4
   M          West Run                                            M-3
   M          Courtney Run                                        M-5
   M          Scott's Run                                         M-6
   M          Decker's Creek                                      M-8
   M          Brand Run                                           M-ll
   M          Flaggy Meadow Run                                   M-14
   M          Birchfield Run                                      M-15
   M          Parker Run                                          M-20

  MWF         West Fork mainstem (Clarksburg to mouth)
  MWF           Homer's Run (of Booths Creeks)                   MW-2-D
  MWF             Purdy Run                                       MW-2-D-1
  MWF           Mudlick Run                                       MW-9
  MWF           Simpson Creek                                     MW-15

  MT          Three fork Creek (watershed)                         MT-12
  MT          Sandy Creek (watershed)                             MT-18
  MT          Ford Run                                            MT-27
  MT          Tygart Valley R (from confluence with Roaring
                               Creek to confluence with
                               Buckhannon R)                      MT
  MT          Mud Lick Run (of Fink Run)                          MTB-ll-B
  MT          Bridge Run (of Fink Run)                            MTB-ll-D
  MT          Middle Fork River (from Cassity Fork to mouth)      MTM
  MT            Whiteoak Run                                      MTM-8
  MT            Cassity Fork (watershed)                          MTM-16
  MT          Island Creek                                        MT-36
  MT          Beaver Creek                                        MT-37
  MT          Grassy Run                                          MT-41
  MT          Roaring Creek (watershed)                           MT-42

  MC          Cheat River (from Pringle Run downstream)           MC
  MC            Scott Run                                         MC-7
  MC            Bull Run                                          MC-11
  MC            Conner Run                                        No code
  MC            Greens Run (watershed)                            MC-16
  MC          Muddy Creek (below Jump Rock Run)                   MC-17
  MC            Martin Creek (watershed)                          MC-17-A
  MC            Jump Rock Run                                     No code
  MC          Roaring Creek (below confluence with Lick Run)      MC-18
  MC          Morgan Run (watershed)                              MC-23
  MC          Heather Run                                         MC-24
  MC          Lick Run                                            MC-25
  MC          Pringle Run                                         MC-27

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Table 5-6.  Non-sensitive streams in the Monongahela River Basin
  (concluded).
Sub-Basin                                                       WVDNR-Code

  MCB         Blackwater River (below confluence with Beaver
                                Creek)                            MC-60-D
                Big Run                                           MC-60-D-1
                Tub Run                                           MC-60-D-2
                Lindy Run                                         No code
                Finley Run                                        No code
                North Fork (watershed)                            MC-60-D-3
                Shays Run                                         No code
                Engine Run                                        No code
                Beaver Creek (watershed except for Chaffey
                              Creek)                              MC-60-D-5
                                   5-37

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Figure 5-3
NONSENSITIVE AREAS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WAPORA 1980)
                                      0       10
                                        WAPORA, INC.
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     Non-Sensitive Areas

     Despite an  improvement  in  water  quality  for  the Basin as a whole (see
Section 2.1.), numerous polluted waters  still  exist  (Table 5-6).   Given
extensive  rehabilitation  these  areas  could become high quality aquatic
environments.  However, in their present  condition,  additional limitations
beyond those mandated  by  the New Source  regulations  are not necessary.
Non-sensitive streams  include all  those  shown  in  Figure 5-3.

     Unclass i fied Are as

     All areas and waters not identified  as BIA's or non-sensitive were
categorized as unclassified  (Figure 5-3).   These  are waters for which either
there is no data or  for which the  data  is  not  sufficient to accurately
determine  what category they should be in.  Conditions in the upper portions
of  the Basin have been comparatively  well  documented.   However, recent data
is  sparse  for the lower portions of the drainage,  especially  in the West
Fork Sub-Basin and in  Big Sandy Creek.  Additional studies will be necessary
before these areas can be assigned to a specific  category.

     The procedure EPA will  follow for determining the sensitivity of the
aquatic biota in the unclassifiable areas  is as  follows:   EPA will examine
available  data on iron concentrations and  pH in  any  unclassified  stream
proposed to receive New Source  mine effluents.  This information  will be
obtained from copies of one  of  the following State permit forms:   WRD-3-73,
Mine Drainage Water Pollution Control Permit Application,  or  Application  for
Mine Facilities Incidential  to  Coal Removal (see  Section 4.0.).  If the data
on  the forms indicate  stream pH to be at or below 5.0  or iron concentrations
to  be at or above 3.0 tng/1,  the stream will be considered degraded and the
applicant  will follow  the standard New Source effluent limitations and not
be  required to conduct any subsequent sampling.   If  the pH of the stream  or
streams is between 5.0 and 9.O., and  the  iron concentration is less than  3.0
mg/1, the  applicant will be  asked  to  conduct an  original field survey to
determine  the sensitivity of the aquatic biota present.

     A one-time, intensive fish and macroinvertebrate  sampling is to be
conducted  under the auspices of a  professional aquatic biologist.   Aquatic
habitat types are to be sampled at one station upstream and one station
downstream from each site where mine  effluent or  drainage  will enter the
stream(s).  Habitat might include  pools,  riffles,  boulders,  large rocks,
gravel, clay, and soft mud.  Streams may range in size from intermittent
creeks to  large rivers.  Sampling  is  to be  conducted during any season other
than winter and during any non-flood  period (for  intermittent streams, the
streams must be flowing).

     Sampling methods  and gear  types  are  to be utilized that  will collect
thoroughly all possible species of fish and macroinvertebrates from the
stream.  For example,  to collect fish, backpack  shockers and  seines should
                                    5-39

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be  used  in  small  streams.   In  large  streams  and  rivers,  fish  should be
collected by  large  gill  nets,  trammel  nets,  seines,  and  boom  shockers
mounted  on  a  boat.  To  collect  macroinvertebrates,  Surber  or  similar
samplers should be  used  for hard  substrates,  and  dredge- or grab-type
samplers should be  used  to  sample soft substrates.   In  general  for fish,  at
least  two gear types should be  used.   Estimated costs for  this  intensive
one-time sampling are  approximately  $750  to  $1,000.

     Upon the completion  of this  intensive,  one-time stream sampling,  the
supervising biologist  is  to prepare  a  brief  report  documenting  the numbers
of  individuals by species of fish and  macroinvertebrates captured.   The
report also is to describe  all  station locations  and their proximity to  the
proposed mine; the  aquatic habitat at  each station; conditions  when the
sampling took place; the  methods  used;  and the qualifications of  the
personnel who conducted the sampling including name, education, and
experience.

     On  the basis of this report,  EPA  will classify the  area  either as
non-sensitive or as a Category  I  or  II  BIA according to  the criteria
discussed in  Section 2.2.  Based  on  this  determination,  the applicant  will
be  asked to develop the appropriate  mitigations as  discussed  subsequently.

     In  lieu  of the original field investigation  outlined  here, the
applicant may supply EPA  with  equivalent  data collected by WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources,  together with  a  statement from that agency that the  data are
believed to represent current conditions.

State High Quality  Streams

     Streams  listed by WVDNR-Wildlife  Resources as high  quality with respect
to  their recreational fishery are not  necessarily identified as BIA's.  For
those high quality  streams not  considered to be BIA's, EPA will contact
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  district biologists to solicit comments  during New
Source NPDES  permit review.  Comments  received will be considered  carefully
during permit review, and may  form the basis  for  special permit conditions,
designation as a BIA Category  I or II,  and so forth.

     5.2.4.   Mitigative Measures

     As stated in Section 2.2., the  essential difference between  BIA
Category I and Category II areas  is that mitigative measures (pre-mining
biological and chemical surveys,  ongoing mining biological and  chemical
monitoring,  permit conditions,  etc.)  can be advanced in Category  I  areas
which will protect the sensitive  aquatic  biota identified.  However, in
Category II areas, these mitigative measures may not be  adequate because  of
the extreme sensitivity of the biota to mining-related pollutants.
Consequently more detailed investigations (biological assessments)  must be
undertaken initially to evaluate  the extent and nature of the biological
community in detail  as well as  the effects of the proposed mining  action  (or
alternative mining techniques).  These evaluations may indicate that BIA
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Category I-type mitigative measures  are  adequate  or  may indicate that more
stringent state-of-the-art-type mitigative measures  must  be  required or may
indicate that mitigation  is not possible  (permit  denial).

     Because technologies presently  do not exist  to  guarantee  complete AMD
and erosion control, pre-mining biological and  chemical surveys  will be
required both prior to permit approval and during mining  for all mining
operations planned  in those areas  designated  as  a BIA Category I
(Table 5-5).  BIA Category II waters, if  permitted,  also  are likely to
require this program, depending upon the  results  of  the required biological
assessment discussed in the following section.  BIA  Category II  requirements
may be more extensive, however.

     When the pre-mining  survey information called  for in Table  5-7 has been
provided by the applicant, EPA will  determine those  mitigative measures that
will be necessary to protect Basin streams from  future coal  mining.  This
determination can be expected to be  made  in BIA Category  I areas and may
occur in BIA Category II  areas, depending upon  biological  assessment
results.  (It is possible that biological assessment  results in  BIA Category
II's may indicate that no mitigative measures entirely are adequate and that
the New Source permit must be denied.)  Based on  the  available information,
mitigative measures for BIA Category I areas  and  possibly for  BIA Category
II areas include:

     •  Prompt follow-up  action.   When biological and chemical
        monitoring detects apparent  degradation during mining,
        quick response is necessary  to ensure that  possible
        irreversible environmental damage will not occur.  As  soon
        as an apparent downward trend is  identified  in any of  the
        appropriate indicators (e.g., biomass,  species diversity,
        species numbers,  etc., depending  upon the reasons  for  BIA
        Category I or Category II  classification  of  the stream),
        more intensive sampling is to be  initiated  promptly  by the
        applicant to determine whether environmental  damage
        actually has occurred or whether  the  observed downturn was
        a result of a sampling anomaly or statistical error.   If
        significant environmental  damage  is verified, mining
        activities either must be  modified or halted  if further
        harm is to be prevented.

     »  Iron limitations.  Appropriate measures  can  be taken to
        ensure that in-stream iron concentrations regularly  do not
        exceed 1.0 mg/1.  The West Virginia stream  standard  for
        trout waters proposed during 1980 is  a more  restrictive
        0.5 mg/1, and may be imposed by  the State (SWRB 1980).
        Control measures with generalized cost estimates  are
        discussed in Section 5.7.  and include chemical treatment,
        flocculation, and isolation  of iron-containing refuse  from
        ground and surface waters, and controlled release  of
        effluent discharges during low-flow periods.   EPA  will

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Table 5-7.  Aquatic biological  and  chemical water  quality  pre-mining  survey
   and mining monitoring requirements  for proposed New Source  coal  mines  in
   BIA Category I areas.  These requirements  and other requirements may  be
   required in BIA Category II  areas,  if permitted.*

     A report prepared by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources under the  direction of
the Director of the Division of Wildlife Resources which contains data for
this area equivalent to that required  in this  program may  be  submitted to
EPA in lieu of conducting this  aquatic biological and chemical water  quality
pre-mining survey and ongoing mining monitoring program.   Applicants  are
advised to confer with EPA prior to initiating field investigations.   For
mine sites adjacent to or discharging  into EPA BIA Category I  streams, the
NPDES New Source Coal Mining permit applicant's baseline aquatic biological
survey of fish and macroinvertebrates  must be  provided prior  to  permit
approval.  For each permit site, the exact details of the  survey will  vary
according to the size and type  of mining, steepness of slope,  size  and
number of receiving streams, and the chemical and biological makeup of the
receiving streams.  The sampling program is to be conducted under the
auspices of a professional aquatic biologist, as described below.

     An ongoing mining monitoring program also is required in  BIA Category  I
areas,  and may be required in BIA Category II areas, if permitted.  The
nature of the monitoring program is similar to the pre-mining  survey,  as
described below.  Table 5-8 provides additional examples of aquatic
biological premining surveys and ongoing mining monitoring programs in
different contexts.
1.   Sampling Locations  for Aquatic Biota

     At least one control and one downstream station are  to be  sampled  for
aquatic biota in each potentially affected  stream.  Each  station  is  to
include all the habitat  types found in the  stream near  the mine,  such as
pools, riffles,  boulders, large rocks, gravel,  sand, and mud.  Wherever
possible the control station should be located  so that  it is not  affected  by
confounding influences (e.g. effluents from a sewage treatment  plant,
adjacent to an active logging site, etc.) that  may be present above  the mine
site.

2.   Time of Year and Frequency  for Sampling Aquatic Biota

     Aquatic biota sampling will be conducted during the  period April to
November for a 20 week period before a mining permit is issued.   Further
sampling of similar intensity is to continue throughout either  active mining
or until it can be determined that no detrimental effects have  or are  likely
to occur.   If the applicant documents the absence of adverse effects on
aquatic biota, a reduction in aquatic biota sampling frequency  may be
warranted,  but aquatic biota sampling will  not  be discontinued  completely.
*WVDNR-Wiidlife Resources currently requires collectors  permits  for  aquatic
biological sampling conducted in the State.  EPA will  coordinate  all NPDES
sampling requirements with State procedures to the maximum  extent.
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Table 5-7.  BIA monitoring  requirements  (continued).
3.   Methods  for Collecting Biota

     Intensive sampling of both  fish  and  macroinvertebrates will be con-
ducted for the habitat types within the affected  stream using appropriate
gear.  Examples  are  the use of backpack  shockers  and seines for fish in
small streams and boat-mounted boom shockers,  gill  nets,  and seines for fish
in pools and  riffles  in larger streams  and  rivers.   For fish a minimum of
two gear types and a number of repetitive applications  of the gear are to be
used to collect  the  greatest number of  individuals  and  the greatest diver-
sity of species  in every stream  or river  sampled.   Gear for macroinverte-
brates should include Surber or  similar samplers  for hard substrates and
dredges or grab  samplers for soft substrates.  Artificial substrate samplers
(e.g., Hester-Dendy  and rock-filled baskets  also  should be used.
4.   Pre-Mining Chemical Water Quality  Survey  and  Ongoing Mining Chemical
     Water Quality Monitoring

     Chemical monitoring is  to accompany  the aquatic  biological  survey
described above.  The same stations  are to  be  sampled as  for  the biological
data, at minimum one upstream  and  one  downstream from the proposed
discViarge.  Significant tributaries  also  should  be sampled.   Measured
parameters are to include temperature,  specific  conductance,  pH, total
dissolved solids, total suspended  solids, total  iron, dissolved  iron, total
manganese, sulfate, hardness,  acidity,  alkalinity, and heavy  metals  that
exist: in the toxic overburden  at levels that potentially  could be toxic.
Samples are to be collected  weekly during the  low-flow period and monthly at
other times for one year prior to  mining.   Water quality  data collected to
accompany any other State or Federal  permit application may be  submitted to
EPA, so long as it includes  the requisite information.

     During mining the  same  chemical water  quality monitoring program is to
be conducted as specified for  the  pre-mining survey.   Again,  if  these data
already are being supplied to  other  State or Federal  agencies,  they  can be
submitted to EPA and no additional monitoring  is required.
5.   Reports

     Upon the completion of  the 20-week  intensive  pre-mining  aquatic
biological sampling surveys, the  supervising  biologist  will prepare  a brief
report documenting the number  of  individuals  by  species of  fish  and
macroinvertebrates and showing the diversity  and equitability  index  values.
This report  is to describe  all station  locations and  their  proximity  to the
proposed mine; the aquatic habitat at each  station; when the  sampling took
place; the methods used; and the  qualifications  of  the  personnel  who
conducted the sampling, including name,  education,  and  experience.   All
water quality data also will be included in this report.
                                   5-43

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Table 5-7.  BIA monitoring requirements  (continued).


     Specifically, each pre-mining survey report is  to:

     •  Describe  sampling methodology  (equipment,  station
        locations, sampling dates, organisms reported  to be of
        concern)

     •  Summarize biological habitat conditions,   (3)  report
        chemical water quality parameters

     •  Identify  organisms present with  emphasis on  organisms of
        special concern

     •  Assess overall quality of aquatic ecosystem  using
        qualitative information and quantitative analyses
        (diversity, equitability, etc.)

     •  Forecast  susceptibility to coal mining  impacts

     •  Identify measures to avoid or  minimize  adverse  impacts.

     Once mining has begun and after each aquatic  biological sampling
effort, EPA will  require the prompt submission  of  a  report by the
applicant; this report should compare  quantitatively the baseline  data to
the data obtained subsequent to mining.  This report also will  compare data
from stations upstream from the mine site with  those downstream from the
site.  Similarly, chemical water quality data collected during  ongoing
mining monitoring must be submitted to EPA.

     Each biological monitoring report is to cover the  same topics  as the
pre-mining survey report, and in addition is to:

     •  Compare survey baseline data with available  monitoring
        data

     •  Evaluate  professionally any apparent habitat trends and
        mining impacts

     •  Assess the effectiveness of any measures actually
        implemented to avoid or minimize adverse impacts on
        aquatic resources

     •  Recommend modifications in the monitoring  program, if
        appropriate.

Reports ordinarily will be expected to be about 10 text pages in  length and
are to include supporting tables and figures as needed.  Each report is to
highlight the significance of any changes or  trends that are apparent in
the data,  with due consideration to the relative importance of mining and
non-mining influences on the stream ecosystem.
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Table 5-7.  BIA monitoring requirements  (concluded).
6.   Costs

     Costs for a 20 week biological monitoring program  (such  as  the  one
described in Table 5-8, Example 1) are estimated to be  approximately $9,000
annually.  Laboratory analyses for the water quality  data will not  add
additional costs; these analyses currently are required under SMCRA
permanent program regulations.
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Table 5~8.  Examples of aquatic biological pre-mining survey  and  ongoing
   mining monitoring programs.*
EXAMPLE 1   Pre-Mining Survey

     A 20 week program designed to assess fish and macroinvertebrates,  and
composed of the following elements should be developed.
Station Number:


Station Length:

Habitat:


Gear:
Frequency:
Time of Year:
For each stream affected one upstream from and at  least
one downstream from the mine.

Sufficient to characterize the stream accurately.

All habitat types (pool, riffle, run, etc.) must be
sampled.

Fish - At least two types.  Seining  and electrofLshing
will be sufficient in most small and medium streams.
Additional gear types (e.g., hoop nets, gill nets, etc.)
will be necessary in large rivers and lakes.

Macroinvertebrates - Gear should include Surber  or similar
samplers for hard substrates and dredges or grab samplers
for soft substrates.  Artificial substrate samplers  (e.g.
Hester-Dendy, rock-filled baskets) also should be used.

Fish - A survey should be conducted  at the beginning,
middle, and end of the 20 week program.  Each survey
should be conducted for two consecutive days and
repetitive applications of each gear type should be used
each day.

Macroinvertebrates - Triplicate ponar and Surber samples
should be taken at the beginning and end of the 20 week
program.  Triplicate artificial samplers should  be used
for six week periods at the beginning and end of the 20
week period.

April - November
*These examples are designed to illustrate several situations that  typically
might be encountered.  They do not attempt to cover all possible  situations.
Further, the above examples should not be construed as limiting the
professional biologist in his design of a pre-mining  survey  and mining
monitoring program for aquatic biota.  They illustrate several approaches  to
answering the issue in question; other approaches may be equally  valid.
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Table 5-8.  Examples  of  aquatic  biological  pre-mining survey and ongoing
     mining monitoring  programs  (concluded).
EXAMPLE 2 - Trout  Stream

     WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  should  be  contacted  to  determine whether (1)
the stream is  still considered  a  trout stream,  (2)  the  stream supports a
reproducing population  of  trout,  and  (3)  the  location of  known spawning
areas.  If WVDNR confirms  the  presence of  trout, the  biological sampling
program should be  designed  to  determine  exactly which sections of the stream
contain trout.  Backpack electrofishing  gear  would  be the method of  choice.
If the section of  the stream potentially  affected  by  mining  is downstream
from the stream section containing  trout,  the NSPS  should be  sufficient
protective measures.  For  streams containing  naturally  reproducing
populations, the sampling  program also should attempt to  determine the
principal spawning areas through  a  combination  of  visual  observations and,
where appropriate, seining with a fine mesh net.   Sampling should be
conducted at least three times  during the  year  and  should be  correlated with
the critical periods determining trout survival  (e.g.,  summertime low flow
period, high temperatures,  spawning season, etc.).
EXAMPLE 3 - Presence of WVDNR-HTP Species

     If the presence of a WVDNR-HTP  species  is  the  sole  basis  for
classifying an area as a BIA, then the sampling program  should be  directed
towards confirming the presence of that species and  assessing  its
population.  The gear type(s) used and the habitat  examined should be
appropriate to the species in question.  If,  for example,  the  investigator
is looking for a darter, appropriate gear types would be seines  (kick
seining techniques should be employed) and electrofishing.  Gill nets, hoop
nets, etc. would be inappropriate.   Similarly, the  investigator would
concentrate his sampling in preferred darter habitat riffles and runs, not
pools.   Conversely, for species preferring sluggish  currents (e.g., bullhead
minnow), the investigator should concentrate on pools and  backwater areas.
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require that all applicants within BIA Category  I  areas
control iron concentrations in their effluent  so that
30-day average in-stream iron concentrations are not more
than 1 mg/1.  The 1 mg/1 standard for total iron also
probably will be required in BIA-Category II areas,  following
evaluation of biological assessment information  and
stream buffering capacity.  When the ambient concentration
of iron in the stream receiving the mine discharge is
higher than 1.0 mg/1 but less than 3.0 mg/1, EPA expects
that the State stream standard will be set at  the  stream's
low-flow, 30-day average ambient iron concentration  in
BIA-Category I areas and, where appropriate, in
BIA-Category II areas, consistent with the proposed  (1980)
State water quality standards promulgated by WVDNR-Water
Resources.  EPA will require that the applicant's  effluent
quality will be such that the State stream standard  will
be met.  At no time is the 30-day average total  iron
concentration in the New Source discharge to exceed  3.0
mg/1.

Special measures.  Whatever measures are taken to  minimize
the adverse effects of mining on aquatic resources,  there
is likely to be some measure of adverse impact in  BIA
Category I and Category II (if permitted) areas  even
following the application of the best available  water
pollution control technology as a result of unavoidably
increased sedimentation, AMD, and toxic substances.
Various mitigative measures can be implemented to  offset
such unavoidable adverse impacts.  Some of these concepts
have been applied in West Virginia; some have  not.   EPA
encourages applicants for New Source permits to  propose
and, in appropriate instances, may require through special
NPDES New Source permit conditions that one or more  such
mitigations be implemented in BIA Category I and Category
II (if permitted) areas after a detailed, case-by-case
review.  These state-of-the-art mitigative measures may be
applicable especially in BIA Category II areas,  if EPA
deems that the permit can be issued following  thorough
evaluation of biological assessment issues.

In some instances it may be appropriate that an  applicant
reclaim nearby abandoned mines to current standards when
New Source mining is undertaken.  In this way  the
unavoidable adverse effects of the new mining  can  be
offset by the beneficial results of reclaiming an  existing
pollution source, thus producing a long-term net
environmental benefit on aquatic habitats.  Regrading and
revegetation can reduce erosion from barren sites.  Forest
along streambanks can be re-established to shade the
waterway and reduce sediment influx by filtering runoff.
                            5-48

-------
        Some AMD sources  can be  eliminated,  or  the  AMD can be
        treated.  Stream  flow can be  augmented  to improve  water
        quality, particularly during  low-flow periods.   Although
        State and Federal programs envision  the  eventual
        reclamation of  abandoned mine lands  using publicly
        administered funds, applicants doubtless could  accelerate
        the reclamation process  through  private  initiative.   It is
        the policy of EPA Region III  that New Source  applications
        that propose reclamation of  abandoned mines receive
        priority consideration during permit review.

     •  Restocking and  other special  restorative programs.
        Aquatic habitats  affected by  past or by  New Source mining,
        if free of continuing, long-term pollution  by AMD  or  other
        toxic substances, eventually  can be  expected  to regain
        some or all of  their pre-mining  biota.   The pace and  the
        extent of biological rehabilitation  can  be  enhanced
        significantly by  appropriate  interventions, once favorable
        habitats have been created.   Applicants  can undertake
        restocking programs aimed at  restoration of a diverse
        aquatic fauna.  At present there is  only limited knowledge
        concerning the  reestablishment of communities that  contain
        the myriad organisms present  in  undegraded natural
        waterways.  Research has focused almost  exclusively on  the
        propagation of  a handful of  game fish.   Hence applicants
        could mitigate  adverse impacts by funding both  the
        development and the implementation of stream
        rehabilitation  techniques.

     •  Special mining  practices.  Finally,  because natural
        recolonization  is most probable  and  most rapid  where  there
        is an undisturbed upstream source for organisms, appli-
        cants can propose sequences  of mining activity  that will
        maximize the probability of biological recovery.   Small
        subwatersheds can be set aside and protected  as
        sanctuaries while mining proceeds nearby.  Then, when the
        mined streams have recovered  and a viable and diverse
        fauna is established, the sanctuaries themselves can  be
        mined.  Applicantsponsored research  aimed at  minimizing
        the time needed for restoration  of the aquatic  biota  will
        reduce the waiting period before mining  can proceed in
        such sanctuaries.

5.2.5.  Erroneous Clas s i ficat ion

     EPA recognizes that biological  conditions change over  time and  that
some of tVie data available for this assessment may no longer  reflect  ambient
conditions.  Applicants may develop original data or  provide  current  data
from State or other sources to challenge the EPA classification of any
watershed as a BIA.  If EPA and WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and  Water Resources
                                   5-49

-------
personnel concur in the erroneous classification of  an  area  as  a BIA,  then
the requirements that otherwise would apply to the BIA  may be relaxed  with
respect to the stream reach in question.  Either chemical or biological data
may be considered adequate to challenge the BIA classification,  as  long as
the data are adequate to demonstrate with confidence  that no significant
aquatic biota are present.

     Likewise, areas not currently classifiable as. BIA's  in  the  fviture may
qualify for such designation.  EPA will consider all  available  evidence
during each permit review, and will extend the BIA designation  to additional
streams where appropriate.
                                    5-50

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5.3   Terrestrial Biota Impacts and Mitigations

-------
                                                                      Page

5.3.  Terrestrial Biota                                               5-51

      5.3.1.   Impacts Associated with Mining Activities                5-51
              5.3.1.1.   Prospecting                                   5-51
              5.3.1.2.   Road Construction                             5-51
              5.3.1.3.   Mining                                        5-54
                        5.3.1.3.1.   Contour  Surface Mining            5-55
                        5.3.1.3.2.   Auger Mining                       5-57
                        5.3.1.3.3.   Mountaintop Removal                5-57
                        5.3.1.3.4.   Room and Pillar Underground        5-57
                                     Mining
                        5.3.1.3.5.   Longwall or Shortwall Mining      5-58
              5.3.1.4.   Transportation of Coal  or  Coal Refuse          5-58
              5.3.1.5.   Coal Preparation                              5-58
              5.3.1.6.   Reclamation                                   5-58
              5.3.1.7.   Secondary Impacts                             5-60

      5.3.2.   Mitigation of Impacts                                   5-61
              5.3.2.1.   Pre-mining Mitigations                         5-61
              5.3.2.2.   Mitigations During Mining                      5-63
                        5.3.2.2.1.   Prospecting                       5-63
                        5.3.2.2.2.   Road Construction                 5-63
                        5.3.2.2.3.   Mining                            5-63
              5.3.2.3.   Post-mining Mitigations                       5-74

      5.3.3.   Revegetation                                            5-75
              5.3.3.1.   Factors  That Control Revegetation             5-75

      5.3.4.   Long-term Impacts  on the Basin                          5-77
              5.3.4.1.   Overall  Landscape and Ecosystem  Changes        5-77
              5.3.4.2.   Potential Impacts on Known and Unknown        5-80
                         Significant Resources

      5.3.5.   Data Gaps                                               5-80

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5.3.  TERRESTRIAL BIOTA

5.3.1.  Impacts Associated with Mining  Activities

     Impacts on terrestrial ecosystems  from coal mining have  been reduced in
scope and  intensity  in recent  years.  State and Federal regulations have
been issued to control the coal mining  industry (see  Section  4.O.).   Techno-
logical advances have occurred that have  made  new  methods  of  mining and
reclamation feasible, and the  industry  itself  has  taken an active interest
in  environmental protection and the return  of  mined  areas  to  productive use.
Impacts from clearing of vegetation,  excavation, blasting,  placement of
spoil, sedimentation, fugitive dust,  and  acid  mine drainage still occur, but
to  a lesser degree.  This section  includes  a description of the  potential
direct and indirect  impacts on terrestrial  biota  at  each step in the coal
mining process, from prospecting to reclamation.   Both  beneficial and
adverse effects are  discussed.

     An overview of  the major  beneficial  and adverse  impacts  associated with
each activity is given in Table 5-9.  The relationships that  each major
"impact mechanism" or influencing  factor  may have  on  various  biotic compo-
nents of the ecosystem are summarized in  Table 5-10.  This  table is taken
from Moore and Mills (1977), and was  prepared  as  part of a document on the
effects of surface mining in the western  US.   The  majority  of the
information presented also is  applicable  to mining in the  eastern US,
because of the general similarity  of  the  phases of a  mining operation and
the basic  ecological relationships involved.   The  emphases  on wild and feral
ungulates, fencing,  and competition with  livestock are  distinctly western.

     5.3.1.1. Prospecting

     Prospecting is  conducted  by drilling core samples  or  by  excavating
trenches to reach the minable  coal seam (Grim  and  Hill  1974).  The immediate
impacts from drilling are localized noise and  dust.   Trenching with
bulldozers has greater immediate impacts  on vegetation  and  wildlife,  because
the vegetation is removed from the area of  the trench or buried  under spoil,
and an uncovered or  incompletely filled  trench acts as  a pitfall for
animals.  Exploration may be a temporary  intrusion into undisturbed or
remote habitat (Grim and Hill  1974).  If  the coal  seam  subsequently is
mined, the impacts from exploration would be redundant  with those of mining.
Therefore, the impacts from exploration would  be  insignificant (Streeter et
al. 1979).  A prospecting permit is required by WVDNR-Reclamation (see
Section 4.1.4.1.).

     5. 3.1.2.  Road Cons true t ion

     The impacts on  terrestrial biota from  construction of  an access road or
haul road would depend on the  length  and  distribution of the  road and  the
coincidence of road  construction with other mining activities.  USOSM
requires applicants to control  adverse  impacts from road construction and
use (see Section 4.2.2.).  If  the  coal  mine, the  coal preparation
                                     5-51

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Table 5- 10. Effects of changes in ^
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and other biota (Moore and Mills 1977). 2^
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IMPACT MECHANISMS
A. Airborne Contaminants/Emissions
Gaseous effluents
Fugitive dust
B, A Ground Water Quality
Toxic materials
Nutrients
Pathogens
Other Chem./Phys. Parameters (Temp, Ph, TDS, SS)
C. A Surface Water Quality
Toxic materials
Uotrients
Patnogens
Other Cheni./Phys. Parameters
L). A Water Supply
Aquifer interruption/contamination
Instream flow changes
Removal of creation impoundments
E. A Soi Is
Direct loss (removal, erosion, etc.)
Change in soil flora/fauna
Change in soil moisture
Change in soil structure
Change in soil nutrients
F. A Vegetation
Direct removal
Modification of species composition
A food value
A in cover/density
G. A Topography
Removal/change in natural shelters
M ic rod ima te
Watershed (see water supply)
Barriers to wildlife movement
H. A Land Use Practices (dependant on postmining land use plan)
Increased competition witn livestock
Cnange in wildlife food sources (see vegetation)
A fencing
A wildlife habitat enhancement
I. Sol id Waste Disposal
Direct substrate inundation
Indirect effects via other categories e.g., water qual .
J. Fires--direct or indirect
K. Direct wildlife mortality
L. Human Presence, Noise, and Ground Shock
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                                                       5-53

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facilities, and existing public roads  all  are  proximate,  the  extent  of
private access roads will be less.  Access roads  and haul roads  that
coincide with existing or future mine  benches  have  negligible impacts.

     The major adverse effects of road construction include removal  of
vegetation  (discussed in detail in Section 3.2.); temporary disruption  of
wildlife behavior (including daily or  seasonal movements) because  of noise
and intrusion; localized fugitive dust deposition on vegetation, which  may
reduce photosynthesis and palatability of roadside  plants; and mortality of
less mobile animals during grading and excavation activities  (Cardi  1975,
Dvorak et al. 1977, Lerman and Darby 1975, Michael  1975, Rawson  1973, USDOE
1978).  Coal haul roads also are a source  of sedimentation, which  can bury
downslope vegetation and microfauna.  However, this problem largely  can be
eliminated with proper design and maintenance  (Grim and Hill  197A,  Scheidt
1967,  Weigle 1965, 1966).

     The beneficial effects of coal mine road  construction include  possible
improved access for hunting, fishing,  and fire control (although accessi-
bility also can lead to abuse [Boccardy and Spaulding  1968, Rawson  1973,
Thomas et al. 1976]).  Roadside vegetation often  is preferred by white-
tailed deer for browse, and the open corridor  adds  diversity  to  the  forest
habitat, thus resulting in a richer variety of bird species in the  area
(Bramble and Byrnes 1979, Michael 1975).  These roads  also can be used  as
travel corridors by deer and other wildlife.

     5.3.1.3.  Mining

     Mining operations are subject to USOSM and State  regulations.   These
regulations are described in Sections 4.2,2. and  4.1.4. respectively.
Regardless of the technique used to remove coal at  a specific mine,  the
following information should be considered to  determine the significance of
the terrestrial resource and potential adverse mining  impacts at the site
(Smith 1978):

     •  The current protection status  of the resource - is it
        under Federal or State protection?

     •  The particular role and function of the species within the
        ecosystem - are there other species more  tolerant in  the
        vicinity that can perform those functions,  or will the
        reduction in number or loss of this species adversely
        affect other components of the ecosystem  in the area?

     •  The relative uniqueness of the resource in  the State  - are
        there only a few locations known for this resource?

     •  The tolerance to disturbance and manageability of the
        resource - can it recover and  reinhabit the area  (with or
        without human help), or is it  fragile, easily damaged,
        with strict habitat or reproduction requirements  (such as
                                     5-54

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         a  critical  population  size,  or  a plant  community or
        wetland that cannot be  replaced)?

     •  The  size  and quality of the  population  of  the resource at
        that site,  as compared  to  others of  that resource in the
        State.

     The location of significant  terrestrial resources can be determined
from the 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1.   This information also is to be provided
by the permit  applicant on  the  USOSM Draft Experimental Form to some
extent.

     After information on significant  terrestrial  resources has been
obtained,  the  site  must be  evaluated.   Questions such as:   "Will the area or
adjacent areas  fulfill the  habitat  and  other requirements of the element
during and after mining?" and "Are  there other  populations of the element
nearby that  can repopulate  the  area?" must be answered.   Habitat require-
ments are  presented in Tables 5-13  through 5-16 and  should be consulted to
answer the first  question.  Information of the  populations of the species in
the surrounding area is available  from  WVDNR-HTP and/or WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources  depending on the  species  involved.  In some instances, a species
may be included in  the WVDNR-HTP  listing as  having been present some years
previously,  but it  is not known whether it still is  present in that area.
Because of this uncertainty, and because of  the value of the habitat for
this species and  possibly for other  species,  WVDNR-HTP continued to keep the
information  on that location on file until such time as  more information is
known about  the status of the resource  in the State  or the presence of other
rare species at that location.

     The major impacts of various mining techniques  employed in West
Virginia are described in the following sections.

     5.3.1.3.1.  Contour Surface Mining.  The major  direct effects of
surface mining excavations  and  spoil placement  are removal of vegetation and
disruption of  the soil (Cardi 1973,  Rawson 1973, Smith 1973, Streeter et al.
1979, USDOE  1978, WAPORA, Inc.  1979).   Vegetation  is the basic food source
and energy-gathering medium for the  ecosystem.  Vegetation also is a climate
modifier; plants intercept  direct  sunlight,  wind,  and precipitation, and
increase humidity.  The vertical  stratification and  horizontal mosaic of
plant communities provide diverse wildlife habitats  (Balda 1975, McArthur
and Whitmore 1979,  Willson  1974).

     Mining  removes tree-,  shrub-,  and  groundlayer nesting sites,  including
snags,  fallen  logs,  rock dens,  humus, and burrows.   Less mobile animals can
be killed because they are  not  able  to  avoid the disturbance (Dvorak et al.
1977, Streeter et al. 1979).  Species able to migrate to adjacent habitats
survive only to the extent  that adjacent habitats  are able to support them.
Displaced individuals then compete with resident individuals for food,
cover,  mating  grounds, and brooding  sites.   Species  that exhibit strong
territorial behavior especially can  be  stressed.   The increase in
                                     5-55

-------
populations of vertebrate consumers  exaggerates  the  high  and  low points  of
population cycles in higher- and lower-order consumers, although a  natural
balance eventually can be expected to be  attained.   The net effect  is  a  loss
of those individuals that exceed the carrying capacity  (ability  to  support
wildlife) of the adjacent habitats (Dvorak  et al.  1977, Streeter et al.
1979).  The populations of most species of  game  animals in the Monongahela
River Basin are near the carrying capacity  of their  habitats  (WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources 1980).  Most of these species are farm  game animals and their
numbers are expected to decrease as  farmland is  abandoned.  The  additional
loss of habitat associated with mining will result in further reductions  of
game populations during the short term, but may  offset  the loss  of:  farmland
during the long term by providing successional plant communities on
reclaimed mine lands.

     Noise from operation of equipment and  from  blasting  temporarily dis-
turbs some species of wildlife, although  most authors have indicated that
acclimatization eventually occurs.   It has  been  speculated that  man-made
noise alters the behavior of animals and  interferes  with  communication among
individuals (Memphis State University 1971, Streeter et al. 1979),  but
the most severe reaction of wildlife to noise actually noted has been  local-
ized avoidance (Fletcher and Busnel  1978).  It is  possible that  abandonment
of nests and/or young can occur in some species,  as  individuals  leave  the
area to avoid noise or ground  shock  (Moore  and Mills 1977).

     Contour mining aggravates erosion and  sedimentation.  Sedimentation  has
both direct and indirect impacts on  terrestrial  biota,  although  the major
impacts are directed to the aquatic  environment  (see Section  5.2.).
Vegetation on downslopes and valley  floors  can be  buried  under alluvium.
Slides of improperly placed or insecure spori.1 represent the most severe
example of this problem (Cardi 1973, Rawson 1973).

     The terrestrial ecosystem is affected  indirectly when the aquatic
ecosystem is affected.  Many species of terrestrial  animals are  dependent on
the surface water system or on wetland and riparian  vegetation for  essential
elements of survival, such as  drinking water, food,  dwelling  space, travel
corridors, and mating and brooding areas.  Sedimentation  beyond  the
buffering capacity of riparian or wetland plant  communities can  damage these
uncommon community types (Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973, Streeter et al.  1979).
Among the species closely linked to  the aquatic  system  are furbearers  such
as raccoons, opossums, muskrats, skunks,  minks,  and  beavers;  game animals
such as wild turkeys, woodcock, and  ducks; wading  birds and shorebirds such
as herons, bitterns, rails, and sandpipers; many  reptiles; and most
amphibians (Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973).  Because wetlands in the Basin
generally are small, and are extremely limited in  occurrence, any adverse
impacts that can be expected to reduce their quality should be considered to
be severe.

     Alteration of the topography of an area by  contour mining has  both
beneficial and adverse effects on terrestrial biota.  Excavation and grading
impinge on microhabitats and temporarily  isolate  upslopes from downslopes.
                                    5-56

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This isolation provides  the benefit  of  protection  from human intrusion
(WVDNR-Reclamation  1978), but has  the  adverse  consequence  of interference
with wildlife movements  (Anonymous  1976,  Knotts  1975).   Depressions become
filled with water and provide new  aquatic habitats.   North-facing  or
southfacing slopes  can be converted  to  create  new  habitat  types,  due to
different amounts of insolation  (solar  radiation)  received  (Streeter et al.
1979).

     5.3.1.3.2.  Auger Mining.   This method  of mining usually is  performed
concurrently with contour surface mining.  The only  effects  not redundant
with those resulting from contour  surface mining are effects from  acid mine
drainage.  These effects occur if  groundwaters are intercepted and the auger
holes are not sealed.  Acid mine drainage is a function of  the overburden
chemistry and is a  severe problem  in the  Monongahela River  Basin.   Acid mine
draiiage can impact the  aquatic  system  adversely,  and thus  indirectly affect
the terrestrial system.  Acid mine drainage  seepage  and surface runoff also
can affect the- terrestrial environment  directly  by limiting the species of
flora and fauna to  those that can  tolerate acid conditions  (Blevins et al.
1970,  Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973).  AMD especially  can  affect  wetland biotic
communities.

     5.3.1.3.3.  Mountaintop Removal.   This method of area  mining  has the
same major impacts  from clearing of vegetation, noise,  dust,  erosion,  intru-
sion,  and displacement of wildlife as  contour  mining.   Mountaintop removal
differs in the amount of topographic alteration and  in  the  fact that
orphan mines often  are involved.  Conversion of  a mountain  peak to a flat or
rolling plateau results in a radical conversion of plant communities,  habi-
tat types, and resident wildlife,  especially if  there is a  concomitant
change in the post-mining use of the land (see Section  3.2.).  A mountaintop
removal operation on an orphan mine might benefit  the terrestrial  environ-
ment if the orphan mine previously had  exposed toxic  spoil  and was not being
revegetated naturally through succession.  The new mining operation would
ensure revegetation and proper handling of spoil through conformance  with
State and Federal regulations.   However,  some  researchers have suggested
that,  where natural succession has provided excellent native  wildlife
habitat on orphan mines, it would be a  negative  impact  to replace  the
natural successional stage with  cultivated vegetation (Haigh  1976,  Smith
1973,  WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).   The time  required  for various stages  of
natural succession varies considerably  within  the Basin and  State.   Timing
and extent of natural succession is dependent  on specific environmental
factors (i.e., moisture, altitude,  soils  topography,   amount  of available
sunlight, etc.) at  a particular  site,  and thus cannot be determined except
in a site-by-site basin.

     5.3.1.3.4.   Room and Pillar Underground Mining.   This  type of under-
ground mining leaves the terrain generally intact, with no  major alteration
of wildlife habitats.  The principal disturbances result from subsidence,
disposal of mine refuse, and acid mine  drainage  (Aaronson 1970, Dvorak
1977).
                                     5-57

-------
     Subsidence  affects  terrestrial vegetation  and wildlife  moderately or
not at all, depending on the individual  circumstances.   In more  severe
cases, trees  can be  toppled and  sinkholes  appear within one  day.   Subsidence
also can occur sporadically for  years  after  closure  of  the mine  (Grim and
Hill 1974).   In  general, however,  subsidence is gradual and  little wildlife
mortality results.

     The disposal of mine  refuse  involves  some  commitment of land  if the
refuse is not placed on  a  mine site.   Besides resulting in the removal of
vegetation, the  reconstruction of  a mine refuse pile  can be  a source of dust
or toxic runoff  (Dvorak  et al. 1977, Rawson  1973, USDOE 1978).

     5.3.1.3.5.  Longwall  or Shortwall Mining.  In this type of  underground
mining, subsidence is immediate  and controlled  (Moorman et al. 1974).   Any
impacts on the surface vegetation  and  wildlife  associated with subsidence
is temporary.  Subsidence  does not occur sporadically during subsequent
years  (Grim and  Hill 1974, Moorman et  al.  1974).

     5.3.1.4.  Transportation of Coal  or Coal Refuse

     The major modes of  coal transport are truck, belt  conveyor, railroad,
barge, and slurry pipeline (Dvorak et  al.  1977, Hummer  and Vogel 1968).
Each mode of  transportation has  some impact  on  terrestrial biota as  a result
of the construction and  operation  of loading  and storage facilities  and
rights-of-way (Dvorak et al. 1977).  Transportation  of  coal  by truck results
in roadkills  of  wildlife,  noise, and dust, but these  impacts  are minor
compared to the  overall  effects  on terrestrial biota  from mining operations.
Impacts from  the construction of  linear  facilities,  such as  conveyors  or
pipelines, are similar to  the impacts  associated with road construction
previously discussed.

     5.3.1.5.  Coal Preparation

     The construction of a coal  preparation  or processing plant  involves a
commitment of land and results in  the  generation of noise and dust.   If the
plant  is located on the mine site, these impacts are  negligible.   Cleaning
processes used in coal processing  plants are  listed in  Section 3.2.3.

     If coal  is  used for fuel in  the processing plant,  emissions of  sulfur
dioxide can affect sensitive species of  plants.  The  potential effects of
these  emissions  include  reduced  productivity, physical  injury, reduced
forage and habitat for wildlife, and selective extirpation of sensitive
species in the fumigation  area (Cardi  1979,  Dvorak et al. 1977,  Glass  1978,
Mudd 1975,  Nunenkamp 1976).  These impacts are unlikely if appropriate
control technology is used (Dvorak et  al.  1977, also  see Section 5.4.).

     5.3.1.6.  Reclamation

     The impacts from the  regrading and  revegetation  of mined areas  on the
terrestrial environment generally  are beneficial,  although some  adverse
                                     5-58

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effects  also  can  result.  Regrading  restores  integrity to the landscape and
allows wildlife access  to areas  above  former  highwalls.   Ac id-forming spoil
is buried,  and both  direct  and  indirect  effects  of  acid  mine drainage are
minimized  (Brown  1975,  Hill  and  Grim 1977).   Spoil  is  consolidated and
slopes are  reduced to control erosion  and  sedimentation  (Glover et al.
1978).  A  variety of microhabitats,  including new  aquatic habitats,  can be
created by  topographic  alteration  (Allaire 1979).

     Among  the potential negative  impacts  on  terrestrial biota from
regrading  is  spoil compaction which  especially is  evident in spoil with
greater than  15%  clay (Chapman  1967).  This compaction reduces moisture
retention  and retards the establishment  of plant seedlings (Glover et al.
1973, Potter  et al.  1951, Riley  1963,  Vimmerstedt  et  al.  1974).   Some
mountaintop removal  operations  and head-of-hollow  fills  create level land
that replaces the previous natural habitats (Bennett  et  al.  1976,  Bogner and
Perry 1977, Jones and Bennett 1979).   The  nonnative herbaceous species,
commonly planted  because of  their  tolerance to the  possible  limiting factors
of mine  spoil, provide  habitat  that  would  be  inferior  to that provided
through natural succession  (Haigh  1976,  WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).   Smith
(1973) has  indicated that herbaceous  cover is not  a suitable replacement for
commercially  valuable forest.  However,  Bones (1978)  stated  that  forest  area
and  volume  are increasing in West Virginia, despite revegetation  with
herbaceous  cover  on  some mine sites.

     There  are several  viewpoints  on whether  the conversion  of unbroken
forest to combinations  of meadow,  shrubland,  and forest  has  beneficial or
adverse effects on wildlife  populations.   Allaire  (1979a and 1979b),  Cardi
(1979), Holland (1973)  and Whitmore  (1980) have  ascribed benefits  to this
diversification,  both for the provision  of new habitat and the increase in
species and numbers  of  grassland fauna.  Approximately 21,700 acres  of new
grassland were created  in West Virginia  during the  period 1972-77, mostly in
small patches (Whitmore 1980).   Populations of birds  on  these patches have
been shown  to fluctuate rapidly  and  to have high turnovers,  and it has been
suggested that reclaimed areas would be  more  suitable  for grassland  species
if larger:  than approximately 100 acres (Whitmore 1980).   Remining  in pre-
viously reclaimed areas, mining  of extensive  areas, and  the  coalescence  of
small reclamation sites may  provide  such larger-sized  habitats.   This could
benefit species such as the  grasshopper  sparrow, which has been declining  in
population  in recent years  (Whitmore  1980).   Balda  (1975), Haigh  (1976), and
members of  the Wildlife Committee  of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency
Evaluation  of Surface Mine Reclamation (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978) recognized
the  possible  loss of native  forest-dwelling species and  the  subsequent
introduction  of exotic  plant species  as  a  negative  impact.  Fragmentation of
forested areas and subsequent replacement  of  neotropical  migrant  birds (that
use  the forest interior) by  less migratory species  (that use edge  areas) has
been identified as a significant problem in the  eastern  US,  particularly
around urban  areas (Lynch and Whitcomb 1980,  Whitcomb  1977).   Populations  of
some species  of forest  birds begin to  decrease when the  size of the  parcel
in which they reside is reduced  to 750 acres,  depending  on the degree of
isolation and the intensity  of human-related  disturbance  (Lynch and  Whitcomb
                                     5-59

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1980, Robbins  1979).  Likewise,  if  forestland  is  replaced  with an extensive,
unbroken grassland, the  diversity of  species of birds  has  been found to
decline radically  (Whitmore  and Hall  1978).  A decrease  in species diversity
does not result necessarily  in a direct decrease  in  the  total  number of
birds in an  area.  However,  a reduction in  the total population of birds is
likely to occur if forest  land is replaced  with grassland,  because the
decrease in  the structural diversity  of the vegetation may result in a
decrease in  the number of habitats  available.

     Whether revegetation  has a  beneficial  or  an  adverse effect depends to a
great extent on the type of  vegetation previously  present  on a site and the
vegetation present on surrounding areas.  Revegetation that results in a
different type of cover, such as grassland  openings  in a forested area or
shrubland or forest in a pasture or agricultural  setting,  will provide addi-
tional diversity and increase the ability of the  area  to support more or
different species  and more individuals of those species  (increase the
carrying capacity).  Revegetation with grasses in  a  previously forested site
that is surrounded by grassland  areas results  in  a reduction in diversity
from the premining condition, and thus constitutes an  adverse  impact.
Replacement  of part of a grassland  area with another grassland area has
little long-term effect  (WVDNR-Reclamation  1978).

     The potential beneficial effects of revegetation  include:   further
consolidation  of spoil and reduction  of sedimentation; increased vertical
stratification and provision of  edge  that would enhance  wildlife habitat;
provision of multiple food sources  and breeding areas  that  would increase
the carrying capacity for many species of wildlife;  and  increased potential
for desirable  species of game animals or commercially  valuable plants
(Barnhisel 1977, Bennet  et al. 1976,  Brenner et al.  1975,  DeCapita and
Bookhout 1975, Jones and Bennett 1979, Riley 1977).

     5.3.1.7.  Secondary Impacts

     Impacts associated  with temporary and/or  permanent  increases in human
population due to inmigration of miners, construction  and  road-building
crews, and their families  constitute  indirect  effects  of mining-related
activities.   The land area required for housing and  transportation of this
increased population and for the development of associated  community infra-
structure (public services and facilities)  may be  significant  in terms of
effects on wildlife and  wildlife habitat.   Other  sociologically-related
impacts (Streeter et al.  1979) such as increases  in  human  presence and
recreational activities, hunting pressure,  poaching,  predatory domestic
pets, and road kills may create  additional  stress  on resident  wildlife
populations  and further  reduce the  availability and  suitability of habitats
in the area.   The long-term  secondary impacts  associated with  the major
changes in land use, population, and  economic  growth that  may  accompany
mining,  are discussed further in Sections 5.3.4.  and 5.6.
                                     5-60

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5.3.2.  Mitigation of Impacts

     Measures to mitigate  adverse  impacts  from  mining  on the  terrestrial
environment can be incorporated before,  during,  and  after  mining activities.
The pre-mine plan as required  by  the  State should  include  comprehensive
information on baseline conditions, sensitive terrestrial  resources,  mining
operations, mitigative measures suited  to  the type  and scale  of  impacts
anticipated to occur at the particular  site, and appropriate  reclamation
plans.  Thus the pre-mine  plan contains  the  major  compilation of mitigative
measures, which are identified and  approved  before mining  begins.   Mitiga-
tive measures also are to  be identified  by the  applicant on the  USOSM Draft
Experimental Form.  An overview of  the  factors  to be considered  and steps
that can be taken in each  of the  three  stages (before, during,  and after
mining) is presented in Table  5-11.

     5.3.2.1.  Pre-mining Mitigations

     Many of the mitigative measures  included in the pre-mine plan simply
involve foresight.  Careful land use  planning and  future regulations  require
identification of physical  limitations  (toxic overburden,  erodible soils,
groundwater systems), the biotic resources (including  rare or endangered
species and unique plant communities  or  habitats),  and the desired
postmining land use(s) at a particular  site  prior  to the initiation of
mining.

     The description of the post-mining  land use(s)  for  the site should
include detailed revegetation  plans complementary  to existing and  proposed
land uses for adjacent areas.  For  example:  Pasture should not  be proposed
as a post-mining land use where slopes  are steep (greater  than 20%).
Restoration to original contour should  not be proposed for a  mountaintop
removal site where level land  for development is needed.   Level  land  for
development should not be  proposed  for  a remote  site where access  is
difficult.  Wildlife habitat should incorporate  all  of the habitat
components necessary for the desired  species.   Several of  the members of  the
Fourteenth Annual Interagency  Evaluation (WVDNR-Reclamation 1980)  commented
that many incompatible land uses  are  being proposed  because the  planning
decisions are made somewhat arbitrarily, on  the  basis  of limited information
and without knowledge of the management  techniques,  technical information,
and assistance available as well as the  ecological relationships involved.
Input  from professional landscape architects, wildlife ecologists, and plant
ecologists was recommended  to  disseminate  this  information.   For a wildlife
habitat land use, target species  should  be identified  and  their  respective
habitat requirements should be provided.   The members  of the  Wildlife
Committee of the Interagency Tour also  suggested that  planning be  performed
on a watershed basis so that cumulative  impacts  can  be assessed  and plans
developed for specific sites can be made compatible  with a regional scheme.

     Planning for reclamation  that  features wildlife habitat  as  a  final land
use should consider the value  of  the  pre-mine habitats.  Both the  Federal
and State regulations require  that  the mine  site be  returned  to  a  use as
good as or better than that of the  pre-mine  state.   However,  neither  set  of
regulations requires that the  pre-mine wildlife  habitats be evaluated to
                                     5-61

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ensure that the post-mining habitats  are  of  equal  or  higher  value.   Many
techniques are available  for  pre-mining assessment  of existing  habitat
values (Bramble and Byrnes  1979,  Farmer 1977,  Harker  et  al.  1980,  Lines and
Perry 1978, Norman 1975,  Whitaker  et  al.  1976).  Nongame birds,  particularly
songbirds, can be valuable  indicator  elements  in habitat evaluations because
many species are associated with  a single habitat  or  stage  of succession and
their high visibility  facilitates  the counting of  individuals  (Eddleman
1980, Graber and Graber 1976).  West  Virginia  and  USOSM  regulations  require
that the revegetation  on  the  reclaimed  site  conform to that  on  a similar
reference area.  No reference  areas have been  designated in  West Virginia,
and the requirement is not  expected to  be  included  in the final  regulatory
program (Verbally, Mr. William Chambers, WVDNR-Reclamation,  to  Ms. Kathleen
M. Brennan, WAPORA, Inc., April 24, 1980).

     5.3.2.2.  Mitigations During  Mining

     Few impacts are unavoidable  or irreversible.   Mitigative  measures
are available for most impacts of  mining on  the terrestrial  environment.  In
some cases, the impact can be  mitigated by the replacement  of  lost resources
with, resources of equal value  (such as replacement  of one type  or  area  of
wildlife habitat with  another, or  restocking of some  species after mining).
The latter mitigative  measures will be  described under post-mining
mitigations and will require  the  type of pre-mining evaluation  techniques
referenced previously.

     5.3.2.2.1.  Prospecting.  The impacts associated with  prospecting
include noise, dust,  intrusion into undisturbed wildlife habitat,  and small
excavations.  Because  most of  these impacts  probably  are redundant with
eventual mining activities, they are  not considered to be significant.
However, in instances  where the noise and  intrusion will disrupt seasonal
mating and brooding of significant species of  wildlife,  one  mitigative
technique is to avoid  the performance of these operations during these
periods.

     5.3.2.2.2.  Road  Construction.   The impacts associated  with road
construction include removal of vegetation,  disruption of wildlife activi-
ties, generation of dust, and  increased sedimentation.   These adverse
impacts are mitigated  somewhat by  the beneficial effects  of  road construc-
tion described in Section 5.3.7.   Additional mitigative  practices  include
watering exposed ground and spreading wood chips or salt  to  control  dust
(Grim and Hill 1974,  Williams  1979).   Sedimentation can  be  controlled with
proper design (Weigle  1965, 1966).  Besides  using the  prescribed grades  and
drainage controls, proper design  includes removal of  overhanging vegetation
so that the roadway is exposed more to the sun and  thereby dries faster
after a rain, constructing the road during dry weather,  contemporaneous
revegetation, and using filter strips of vegetation between  the  road and the
side ditches (Barfield et al.  1978, Grim and Hill  1974).

     5.3.2.2.3.  Mining.   Impacts  from mining  include  loss of vegetation,
displacement of wildlife, topographic  alteration, degradation of water
                                   5-63

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resources,  fugitive dust, noise,  acid mine  drainage,  and  creation of toxic
spoils.  Adherence to State and Federal regulations reduces  many  of  these
adverse effects.  However,  the emphasis on  protection or  enhancement of
wildlife habitat in the USOSM regulations generally is not carried through
to the actual mining operation, as noted by members of  the Wildlife
Committee of the Fourteenth Annual Inter agency Evaluation  (WVDNR-
Reclamation 1980).  Remedies include enhancement  of adjacent undisturbed
habitats with nest boxes, wildlife food plantings, or other  acceptable
management  techniques that  increase the ability of the  adjacent habitats to
support wildlife displaced  from the mine site.  These remedies may be
necessary in parts of the Monongahela River Basin where the  habitat  is
decreasing or limited for some species of wildlife.

     Additional mitigative measures include limiting  the  extent of the
actively-mined area.  This particularly is  relevant to mountaintop removal
operations, where large areas are disturbed and left  unvegetated  until  a
large-scale revegetation effort is performed.  Members of the Wildlife
Committee recommended more contemporaneous  revegetation of smaller areas of
active mining.  This practice reduces dust  and sedimentation, as  well as
partially replace the lost habitat more rapidly.

     Allaire (1978) recommended a buffer area of  undisturbed vegetation at
least 100 meters wide to protect bird breeding grounds  from  active mine
sites.  Blasting he argues, should be conducted on a  regular schedule,  so
that wildlife can become acclimated.  Dust  is less of an  impact if blasting
is performed only on still days or on days  when the wind  is  blowing  away
from the adjacent undisturbed vegetation (Allaire 1978).

     Federal regulations also require that  the location, design,  and
construction of electric transmission lines meet  criteria set by  USDOI
(1970).   These criteria were developed to minimize the impacts of power
lines in rural areas, and stress preservation of  the  natural landscape.
Examples of the criteria are:

     •  Only vegetation that presents a possible  hazard should be
        cleared

     •  Brush blades rather than dirt blades should be used  on
        bulldozers to preserve the ground cover

     •  Cleared vegetation should be piled  to provide habitat for
        small animals

     •  Native vegetation should be preserved or  planted  for
        screening

     •  Natural features should be protected from damage  during
        construction
                                    5-64

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     •  Construction  activities  should  be  avoided during critical
        periods  for wildlife

     •  Temporary roads  should be  restored to  original slopes and
        planted with  native ground  cover

     •  Restored vegetation should  be maintained  in rights-of-way.

     If the mining operation  affects a  significant  terrestrial resource,
such as a wetland, remnant forest,  or rare species  of  plant  or animal,
mitigations should be  agreed  upon by the applicant  before  a  permit  is issued
(Table 5-12).  If location data  on  the  sensitive  terrestrial resource are
fragmentary, State agencies should  be contacted to  check the data.   For rare
plants, nongame  animals,  and  remnant forests,  WVDNR-HTP  should be contacted.
For game species, mitigations, or habitats, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources should
be contacted.  To check  on the presence of a Federally endangered or
threatened species, the  USFWS Area  Office  in Harrisburg  PA should be
contacted.

     If an examination of the requirements of  the resource or the factors
required for its presence (Tables 5-13, 5-14,  5-15  and 5-16) shows  that
mitigative measures are  known and  available that  will  allow  preservation
and/or protection of  the resource,  a determination  should  be made as to the
feasibility and  practicality  of  these measures at the  particular site and
the willingness  of the mine operator (and  sometimes the  surface owner)  to
implement them or to  work with the  appropriate State agency  personnel to
implement them.  In some cases this may not be feasible  for  technical or
economic reasons, or  not  agreeable  to the  parties involved.   A judgment must
then be made as  to whether to issue or  deny the permit or  to place  a
restrictive condition  on  the  permit that would require the use of the
measure or action.

     Water quality related impacts  on terrestrial resources  may be  mitigated
by standard prescribed methods for  sediment control and  water quality
treatment (see Sections  3.2.  and 5.1.).  Other mitigative  measures  can  be
applied specifically  to  restore  affected elements to the terrestrial
ecosystem.  For  example,  acid-tolerant  plants  can be used  to replace aquatic
plants lost because of acid mine drainage  (Chironis 1978).   Members of  the
Wildlife Committee of  the 1979 Interagency Evaluation  Review (WVDNR-
Reclamation 1980) indicated that sediment  ponds and other  artificial
impoundments that are  scheduled  to  be filled in conformance  with State  and
USOSM regulations can be preserved  and  used as replacement or enhancement of
degraded aquatic habitats, particularly on mountaintop removal sites.

     Allaire (1979a)  recommended several low-cost improvements to provide
water-related diversity  in the landscape.  These  include the maintenance of
a rolling topography, where water may collect  to  form  shallow puddles or
mudflats that would attract shorebirds, and leaving farm ponds for  small
flocks of ducks and geese that also would  provide water  for  amphibians,
                                     5-65

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                                                                                                                                                                                             -  3

-------
reptiles, deer,  or  other wildlife.  He  also  recommended  the  development of
multipurpose ponds  and cattail  swamps.  These  are  described  in  Appendix C.

     Biologists  from  the TVA  presently  are conducting  research  on the use of
sediment ponds by amphibians, reptiles, and  other  species  of wildlife in
cooperation with the USFWS Eastern Energy  and  Land Use Team  (TVA 1980).
Preliminary reports of these  investigations  are  expected  to  be  available in
late-1980.

     5.3.2.3.  Post-mining Mitigations

     Most post-mining mitigations are encompassed  within  required reclama-
tion procedures  (Section 4.O.).  Some of these reclamation efforts,  however,
have adverse impacts, such as soil compaction, alteration  of the structure
of native plant communities,  replacement of  native species of plants with
nonnative species,  replacement  of forest-dwelling  species  of wildlife with
open-land species,  and removal  of successional plant communities from aban-
doned mine sites.

     Federal regulations require avoidance of  compaction  and creation of a
rough surface.  Spoil handling  techniques have been developed that  lease the
seedbed rough and friable  (Glover et al. 1978).  Soil  amendments and mulches
also can be used more effectively to improve reclamation results.  Members
of the 1979 Interagency Evaluation Tour noted  a  lack of  individualized
attention to detailed spoil characteristics  (WVDNR-Rec1amation  1980).   Fer-
tilizers and mulches  for example, were  being used  indiscriminately.   Soil
amendments, final grading, and  mulches  should  be used  only where an  analysis
of soil characteristics has shown a need for such  measures.   Federal and
State regulations contain only  general  requirements for the  use  of mulches
and fertilizer^.

     The replacement  of native  forest with grass-legume herbaceous  communi-
ties must be viewed from a regional perspective.   If a proposed  mountaintop
removal or valley-fill operation is proposed for an area  in  which many simi-
lar operations have been performed, and thus large tracts  of forest  are to
be replaced with grassland, the impact  will  be more severe than the  impact
from an isolated operation creating a small woodland opening.   In the former
case, some reforestation should be prescribed, or  the  extent of  mining in a
watershed should be controlled  so that  recently mined  areas  are  reclaimed
and allowed to begin  succession back to forest cover before  additional
extensive areas are mined.  Control of  the amount, extent, and  frequency of
mining helps maintain forest  communities and reservoirs of desired  species
of wildlife to repopulate reclaimed areas.   In the latter  case,  the  change
to a grassland area might diversify the forest habitat with  maintained
grass-legume-shrub  openings,  provide new sources of food and a  new  "edge"
habitat, and thus be  beneficial for wildlife.

     The introduction of nonnative species of  plants can be  mitigated by
revegetation with some native species,  but commercial  availability  of native
species is limited  at present.  State regulations  stipulate  species  mixtures
and rates, and many of the recommended  plants  are  nonnative  species.
                                     5-74

-------
     Another approach  to  encourage  the  reestablishment  of native species
would be to selectively plant  species  to  provide  a  ground cover that would
not  impede natural  succession.  This  could  be  accomplished by thinly
planting nonagressive  species.  If  an  abandoned mine  is  to be reopened,  the
successional vegetation already developed on the  site should be evaluated
for  its potential for  wildlife.   If the potential is  high, as much of this
vegetation as possible should  be  preserved.   Compliance  with State and
Federal regulations that  require  return to  approximate  original contour
results in a regrading process on reopened  mines  in which most or all of
this natural vegetation is removed.   Stands  of native vegetation can be
preserved on new mine  sites  to provide  seed  sources for  more rapid
reestablishment of native vegetation.  Artificial structural features such
as nest boxes can be placed  on the  site to  replace  the  original structural
features such as snags and den trees.  Seeds  of shrubs  can be included in
the  seed mix to be used in hydroseeding to  add both diversity and to provide
additional sources of  food (Samuel  and Whitmore 1978).   A summary of the
types of mitigative measures that can be  taken to alleviate the major
adverse impacts on terrestrial biota  is given  in  Tables  5-11 and 5-12.

5.3.3.  Revegetation

     5.3.3.1.  Factors That  Control Revegetation

     Revegetation is controlled largely by  three  factors:

     •  State and Federal regulations  (see  Section  4.0.)

     •  Provisions of  the pre-mine  plan,  as  required  by  the State

     •  The physical conditions at  the  site.

     The State and Federal regulatory  frameworks  are  dissimilar,  but both
sets of regulations address  revegetation  to  a great extent.  Where the
frameworks vary, the stricter requirements  are discussed herein.   Seeding
and mulching are required after the abandonment of  fill  sites,  access roads,
and drainage systems.  During the mining  operation, topsoil must be separ-
ated and stockpiled for later resurfacing of  the  mine site.  Toxic
overburden must be buried under at  least  four  inches  of  non-toxic material.
All  land must be returned to a condition  suitable for its pre-mining use or
for a higher use.  State regulations require  that herbaceous plantings must
achieve at least 80% ground  cover before  the  performance bond is released.
Woody plantings must exceed 400 stems per acre (600 per  acre on steep
slopes), with at least 60% herbaceous ground  cover.   The Federal regulations
stress wildlife habitat considerations more  than  do the  State regulations.
For example, the Federal  regulations  contain  specifications that wildlife
values should be protected to the greatest  extent possible, and enhanced
when practicable, by the  following:

     •  Locating and operating haul roads to minimize impacts to
        signif ica it species  of wildlife
                                    5-75

-------
     •  Protecting fauna  from toxic waters

     •  Restoring unique habitat

     •  Restoring, enhancing, or maintaining riparian vegetation
        and other wetlands

     •  If wildlife habitat  is  a designated post-mining  land use,
        the vegetation to be used must provide cover, have  proven
        nutritive value,  and be capable of supporting and
        enhancing wildlife populations after the bond is released

     •  Wildlife plantings must optimize  edge effects

     •  Land for row crops or development must have cover belts
        for wildlife.

Furthermore, the State regulations contain specifications of the  species  of
plants to be used and the combinations of species and rates of planting  for
particular physical situations.  The WVDNR-Reclamation pre-mine plan  should
contain specifications for the  post-mining land use and the revegetation
plan.  It should take into account both the physical conditions of  the  site
and the adjacent land use (Anonymous 1974, Wahlquist 1976).

     Because of these regulations no special conditions  on  vegetation in  New
Source NPDES permits are envisioned by EPA, unless the Federal or State
reclamation requirements were to become unenforceable.  In  that event EPA
will require an EPA-approved reclamation  plan as a condition in granting  a
New Source permit.

     The physical site factors  that influence revegetation  efforts  include
(Bennett et al. 1976, Berg and Vogel 1973, Deely and Borden 1973, Goodman
and Bray 1975, Schimp 1973):
        Slope
        Stoniness
        Soil color
        Moisture availability
        Aspect
        Elevation
Friability
Fertility
Stability
Reaction
Toxicity.
These factors are discussed in greater detail  in Section 2.7.  and 5.7.
Other factors that affect the rate and success of revegetation include  pH,
nutrient supplies, soil microorganisms,  and  surface  temperature.  In
addition, ions of metals such as aluminum are  particularly inhibitory to
plant growth (D'Antuono 1979).

     Information on state-of-the-art wildlife  and vegetation management
techniques which should be utilized in reclamation plans is included in
Appendix C.
                                    5-76

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5.3.4.  Long-term  Impacts  on the  Basin

     5.3.4.1.  Overall Landscape  and  Ecosystem Changes

     The  removal of  an entire ecosystem in an area and the disruption of
biological communities in  adjacent  areas  are  unavoidable during surface
mining.   Some  adverse effects also  are associated with deep mining and other
mining-related activities  such  as coal transportation and coal processing.
Additional surface mining  in the  Basin can be beneficial for some species
and detrimental to others,  depending  on the sensitivity to disturbance and
habitat requirements of  the species,  the  type and extent of mitigation and
reclamation techniques employed,  and  the  post-mining use of the area.   Most
species of plants, reptiles,  and  amphibians are affected adversely because
of their  lack  of mobility.   Stable  native  plant communities with a diversity
of species that are  best  suited to  the area's particular conditions will be
lost.  Many associated components of  the  ecosystem,  such as invertebrates
and soil  organisms,  also will be  eliminated.   Species that require
undisturbed wilderness,  such as black bear and turkey, may abandon areas
temporarily or permanently.   In some  cases, the change to a simpler plant
community with fewer species  will reduce  the  natural diversity of habitats
in an area and, as a result,  the  number of species of wildlife.   In others,
the creation of openings in the forest cover  will provide increased amounts
of edge area for various successional plant communities and also enhance the
structural and species diversity  of the area.

     The  removal of  forest  cover  and  change in landform over large areas of
the Basin also affect drainage patterns, water quality,  soil moisture
levels, and local  climatic  conditions.  The long-term effects of acid  mine
drainage, erosion, and siltation  on terrestrial ecosystems are not well
known.  Fragmentation of ecosystems can produce islands of various habitat
types, including artificial  prairies  of reclaimed grasslands,  that are not
large enough nor diverse enough to  satisfy the needs of many species.   Some
of these areas might not be  located near  "continents" or corridors of
similar habitats that could  serve as  reservoirs or migration routes,
respectively,  for  the continued colonization  of the  islands by the species
that have been destroyed or  driven  away.

     Most secondary or sociologically-related impacts that occur as a  conse-
quence of mining can be detrimental to terrestrial biota.   This  is
especially significant in  areas where coal  mining activity may induce
development to occur in response  to the needs  of  the increased human
population.  The induced development  can  remove wildlife habitat.

     The long-term effects  of mining  on the terrestrial biota of a particu-
lar site depend on the conditon of  the site and the  surrounding land  prior
to mining, the post-mining  land use of the  site and  the adjacent area,  the
type and uniqueness of the  biological  communities affected, and the amount
of additional disturbance  in  the  watershed.   The  long-term effects on  the
watershed depend on the percentage  of  the  total amount of each type of
community that is lost or  degraded, the magnitude and extent of  other
                                   5-77

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stresses on these communities, and the  size  of  the  areas  that  are  segmented
and separated from areas with similar biotic components.  Habitats  of
limited extent generally are considered  to be more  "valuable"  than those of
greater extent because of their scarcity, the fact  that they tend  to  contain
more unique or rare species, and their  limited  capability to recover  from
damage because of the lack of a suitable  adjacent reservoir of  replacement
individuals.  In the Monongahela River Basin, the types of  communities  of
limited extent are primarily wetlands, riparian habitats, stands of
relatively undisturbed cove hardwood  forests, and other communities that
also are restricted in other parts of the State.  Individual mine  permit
applications should be examined in the  light of past  and  present raining in
the same area of the watershed to evaluate the  amount  of  each  community or
habitat type that will remain and the cumulative effects  of mining  on
proposed buffer areas and the Basin as a whole.  This  information  can be
augmented and verified by contacting  the WVDNR-Reclamation  officer
responsible for overseeing that particular nining operation Involved.

     In the Monongahela River Basin,  the  other  known  stresses  on  the
ecosystem include the effects of logging  practices  and  air  pollution
(including acid rain).  Increased coal mining can have  long-term adverse
consequences due to both the initial  coal extraction  and  its combustion as
fuel, although the latter issue is not necessarily  restricted  to coal mining
in the Basin.  The potential for terrestrial resource  damage within the
Basin by atmospheric pollutants such  as  S02  and NOX and acid precipi-
tation are just beginning to be realized.  The  effects  on forest ecosystems
noted have included loss of productivity, reduced photosynthesis because of
leaf injury, decreased soil fertility, decreased uptake of nitrogen and its
fixation by legumes, reduction in species diversity,  decreased  resistance to
pests and diseases, reduced height, inhibited bud formation and seed
germination, soil acidification, leaching of calcium  from the  soil, and
increased solubilization of aluminum  and heavy metal  ions (which are  known
to be toxic to plants in more than minimal concentrations; Bucek 1979,  Glass
and Rennie 1979, Kozlowski 1980, Likens  et al.  1979, Miller and McBride
1975, Vitousek 1979).  These effects  are more pronounced  where  soils  contain
relatively low levels of nutrients and thus  cannot  adequately  buffer
increased acidity.  The podzolic soils  in eastern deciduous forests in  the
Appalachian area are included in this category.  Major  air  pollution  sources
are discussed in Section 2.4.

     The leaching of nutrients from the  soil also may  affect adversely  the
success of revegetation in some areas, especially if monoculture plantings
of one or only a few species are used.   Revegetated areas also  may  be
affected adversely if the species used are susceptible  to particular  air
pollutants, if these are present in significant concentrations.  The  species
composition of certain areas may change because the different  levels  of
tolerance of the various species may  give some  a comparative advantage  over
others.

     Conversely, the nitrogen content in  acid rain  may  have a  slightly
positive effect on soil fertility that can offset the  other adverse effects.
                                     5-78

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However, nitrogen  generally  is  stored  in  the  lower  (B)  horizon of forest
soils, and the release  of  stored nitrogen after  clearcutting or forest fires
also causes  increased acidification  of soil  and  water resources.   The
overall economic benefits  available  from  forest  resources  in the  Basin
(timber, recreation, wildlife  production) can be expected  to be reduced as
the quality  of the  forest  resources  declines.

     In summary, the overall response  of  an  ecosystem to disturbance such as
mining can be separated into two components:   resistance (the relative
magnitude of the system's  response to  the disturbance)  and resilience (the
relative rate of recovery  after the  disturbance  [Vitousek  1979]).   In the
case of coal mining in  the Monongahela River  Basin,  the ecosystem may have
considerable resistance because of the complexity and patchwork effect of
the various  types  of biological communities,  but the  resilience may be low
for a number of reasons:   the  extent of damage;  the  loss of  many  structural
and functional components  of that complex system; and the  complexity of the
replacement  and repair  process, especially when  altered by the introduction
of nonnative species and the inhibiting effects  of  other stresses on the
system mentioned previously.  The time required  for  various  stages  of
natural succession will vary considerably in  different  parts of the Basin
and with particular site conditions, and  some  areas may require considerably
longer to return to pre-disturbance  conditions (such  as remnant forests
requiring nearly a century to  recover).   These effects  typically  are not as
severe in the case of remining  of previously  mined  areas because  the systems
still exhibit evidence  of  disturbance  and are  less  complex.   Fewer  and less
extensive rnitigative measures  should be required in  these  areas,  although
disturbance  of successful  revegetation, especially natural succession,
should be limited where this provides  valuable wildlife habitat.

     The use of Federal and State required mitigation,  reclamation,  and man-
agement techniques and  procedures can  benefit  both wildlife  and human popu-
lations.  Populations of desirable species of  both  game and  nongame animals,
particularly birds, may be increased after surface mining  if reclamation
plans include topographic  diversity, structural  and  species  diversity of the
vegetation,  and water sources  necessary for  their existence.   Species not
previously sighted or common in the Basin, such  as  various types  of grass-
land birds, may increase in number because of  the new type of habitat, the
"artificial  prairie", that is  associated  with  the revegetation of surface
mine sites.  The retention of  sediment ponds  in  particular provides
significant  opportunities  for enhancement of  wildlife populations  and
consequent provision of additional recreational  opportunities (Turner and
Fowler 1980).  This measure has special value  because of the  current and
projected levels of hunting pressure and  recreational usage  of land and the
high potential for the  development of  mountaintop removal  sites.  The
addition of  numerous sediment  ponds will  supplement  the limited availability
of wetland habitats within the Basin and  should  be  employed  whenever
possible.
                                    5-79

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     5.3.4.2.  Potential Impacts on Known  and Unknown  Significant  Resources

     Species that are considered to be rare, threatened,  or  endangered
usually are  those associated with habitats  that  presently are  of  limited
extent in the Basin, such as caves, wetlands, and riparian areas.   Rare
species of mammals  and birds require  a relatively large  area of  a climax
community (the most advanced successional  stage  possible  under the physio-
graphic, climatic,  and soil conditions at  a particular site).  These species
usually inhabit the interior of such  areas,  are  less tolerant  of  distur-
bance, have  specific food, cover, activity,  or reproduction  requirements,
reproduce more slowly, and care for their  young  for longer periods than  do
more opportunistic  species that inhabit  the  edge areas where two  types of
communities  meet.  Black bear, turkey, and  various species of  warblers are
examples of  the former "wilderness" species.  The latter  "weedy"  species,
such as the  cottontail rabbit, have high reproductive  potentials,  can
colonize an  area quickly if conditions are  favorable,  and can  use  a wider
variety of habitats.

     Rare species of invertebrates and plants, on the  other  hand,  often  are
limited to very localized areas because  of  their requirements  for  specific
food plants, soil types, or microclimatic  conditions,  such as  those found  in
wetlands.  Any mining approved in areas  of  limited habitat or  previously
undisturbed  areas within the Basin should  be conditioned  and monitored care-
fully to avoid adverse impacts on significant or sensitive resources,  espec-
ially those  that are endemic (restricted in  distribution  to  the State).

     Because of the concentration of  coal  resources in several areas in  the
Monongahela  River Basin, it may be possible, preferential, and time- and
cost-effective to mitigate effects on significant or sensitive resources on
a Basin-wide basis, at the locations  where  assistance  would  benefit the
resource most, rather than at each individual mine site.   This approach
would provide the flexibility necessary  to  adjust to fluctuations  in game
and nongame  wildlife populations, other  environmental  conditions  or stress
factors, and the general patterns and timing of mining activities  and land
use changes.  In such a system, mine  operators would comply  with  the State
and Federal  requirements for reclamation of  a particular  mine  site,
including implementation of measures  for the protection and  enhancement  of
species previously  present, but primarily  would  concentrate  mitigation
activities or funds in areas where these would be most effective,  as deter-
mined by WDNR or other appropriate State  agency personnel on  the  basis  of
current information on conditions within that part of  the Basin.   The high
proportion of lands in private ownership in  the Basin, however, could
present problems in the implementation of  such a system unless adequate
information  distribution to and communication with the public  were developed
and maintained.

5.3.5.  Data Gaps

     During  the preparation of the information presented  on  impacts,
mitigations, and revegetation, various gaps were noted in existing informa-
tion.  These deficiencies, including  those  reported by other investigators,
involve:
                                    5-80

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•  The long-term effects  of  acid mine  drainage  on watersheds,
   and particularly on terrestrial biota,  are not known
   (Wildlife Committee, Fourteenth Annual  Interagency Evalua-
   tion, WVDNR-Reclamation 1980)

•  Few data are available on  the rates  at  which wetlands  or
   riparian areas perform various water purification
   functions, such as absorption of  nonpoint  source pollu-
   tants and groundwater recharge (Clark and Clark 1979).
   The data on threshold  levels of nutrient  loadings  are
   extremely limited, except  for a few  studies  on assimila-
   tion of sewage effluent.  Most studies  have  focused on
   plant uptake of heavy metals and  have not considered
   subsequent effects on wetland and terrestrial food chains
   or the long-term effects  of pollutant loads  on the species
   composition and functions of wetland communities.

•  The "ripple" effect of displacement  of  wildlife into
   unmined areas and the resistance  and resilience of those
   communities needs additional investigation,  particularly
   in regard to the number and magnitude of  the stresses  in
   the same locality (Risser 1978)

•  As indicated by Anderson  et al. (1977), the  data base
   available for use in assessing the  impacts of energy
   developments in eastern ecosystems  on terrestrial  wildlife
   populations and their habitats is meager.  The information
   is scattered among many sources and  is  incomplete  or
   lacking for most topics or groups of organisms.  A prelim-
   inary discussion of alternative methods proposed to ful-
   fill data requirements for such assessments  is  contained
   in Anderson et al. (1977).

•  Few, if any,  studies have been conducted on  wildlife
   populations on the same mine site before, during,  and
   after mining.   Some studies have  been done on abandoned
   mine sites (Chapman et al. 1978,  Karr 1968,  Riley  1952,
   1957, 1977),  others on the use of reclaimed  sites  several
   years after mining (Allaire 1979, DeCapita and Bookhout
   1975, Jones 1967,  Whitmore and Hall  1978, Yahner and
   Howell 1975),  and others  on the use  of  abandoned or
   reclaimed areas by a particular species, such as grouse
   (Kimmel and Samuel 1978), turkey  (Anderson and Samuel
   1980), fox (Yearsley 1976), and white-tailed  deer  (Knotts
   1975).  However, no comprehensive baseline inventory and
   subsequent follow-up have been done  for an entire  mine
   site with its various biological  communities.   Those
   studies performed several years after mining ceased
   generally do not contain  descriptions of premining
   conditions, mining history, and post-mining  land use
                               5-81

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 (Vogel and Curtis 1978).  Little  information  has  been
published on the changes in species  diversity,  community
composition, population size,  food habits,  and  vigor  of
terrestrial and aquatic biota, or on the  effects  of
changes  in land use patterns  on wildlife  species
composition and human use of  the  area.  This  information
would be helpful in the determination of  appropriate
mitigations and reclamation plans.   Current research  by
TVA biologists, who are conducting a five-year  research
project, is expected to satisfy some  of the data  gaps on
wildlife populations (TVA 1980).

The cumulative effects of multiple or sequential  mining  in
a watershed on terrestrial biota  have not  been  examined

The concept of mitigation as  employed in  this section is
relatively recent, and most of the literature on
mitigation measures for terrestrial  biota  has been
developed for large-scale water resource  development
projects in the western US, where large areas of
alternative lands can be acquired with Federal  funds  for
mitigation of habitat and population losses.  Information
on techniques for mitigation  of impacts on individual
species has been developed primarily  for  raptors,  large
grazing  animals, and large populations of  waterfowl.
Little information is available for  the more  complex
forest ecosystems in the eastern US  with  their  diversity
of vegetation types and species,  particularly nongame
mammals, songbirds, reptiles,  and amphibians.   The
information available primarily has  been  prepared  for the
enhancement of populations of  game animals  such as deer,
turkey, cottontail rabbit, and grouse.

Additional work needs to be done  to  identify  native
species of plants that can tolerate  conditions  at
reclaimed mine sites, have significant value  to wildlife,
and are economically feasible  to  plant (Wildlife
Committee, Fourteenth Annual  Interagency  Evaluation,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1980).  Methods should  be developed for
commercial production of hawthornes,  other  species in the
rose family, and any other multivalue species that may be
identified.  Species should be classified  according to
their suitability for the various physiographic areas and
altitudinal zones within the  State.

Methods should be developed for the  transfer  of available
information on reclamation procedures that would  benefit
wildlife resources to permit-granting agencies, reclama-
tion planners, and mine operators.   This  would  include
information on wildlife habitat requirements  and  manage-
ment practices and suitable native vegetation (Wildlife
                           5-82

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Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1980).

Little information is available  on  the  establishment,
increase, and management of wildlife populations on
reclaimed surface mines, particularly nongame  species,  as
indicated previously.  Recent research  by Samuel and
Whitmore  (1979) and Whitmore (1979, 1980) in West
Virginia, by Allaire (1979a) in Kentucky, and  by TVA
biologists in Tennessee  (TVA 1980)  has  been designed  to
provide data in this area.  This type of information
should be distributed as widely  as  possible when it
becomes available.  General information on wildlife
management for many species of game animals currently  is
available from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
                           5-83

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5.4  Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations

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                                                                      Page




5.4.   Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations                    5-85




      5.4.1.   Air Quality Impacts                                     5-85




      5.4.2.   Noise Impacts                                           5-87

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5.4.  AIR QUALITY AND NOISE  IMPACTS  AND MITIGATIONS

5.4.1.  Air Quality Impacts

     Coal related impacts on air  quality  occur  principally  as  a result of
the combustion of coal to generate electricity  and to  fuel  industrial
operations.  The point and non point  emission of  air pollutants from surface
coal mining and coal preparation  operations  can affect  air  quality  for
relatively short distances down wind  from mine  sites.   The  principal and
significant impacts on local  air  quality  result from the  particulate matter
and fugitive dust generated  by coal  mining,  hauling, and  storage.   Emissions
from vehicles on mine sites  generally  are relatively minor  in  magnitude
(Table  5-17) and remote  from sensitive receptors.

     Point source emissions  from  coal  mining (that is,  emissions through
smoke stacks) are associated  principally  with thermal  dryers  that may be
used in coal preparation plants.  Thermal dryers  and any  other emission
sources in preparation plants must receive prior  approval by WVAPCC
according to the State Implementation  Plan,  and information on thermal
dryers must be provided  also  in the  State water pollution control permit for
preparation plants (see  Section 4.1.)

     EPA has not yet delegated administration of  the Prevention of
Significant Deterioration program to West Virginia.  Hence  EPA will review
in detail those coal preparation  plants that meet the  threshold criteria for
PSD analysis as presented in  Section 4.2.  It is  unlikely that proposed
mining facilities other  than  preparation  plants with thermal dryers will
trigger PSD reviews, because  their emissions of regulated pollutants are too
small.

     Dust control measures are mandated by the USOSM permanent program
regulations.  A plan must be  prepared  by  the applicant  to control dust,  and
the plan as approved by  the  regulatory authority  must be  implemented by the
operator during mining (30 CFR 816.95, 817.95).   On-site monitoring data may
be required by the regulatory authority for  use in developing  the plan
(30 CFR 780.15, 783.15).  Dust control measures such as the following are to
be included as appropriate:

     •  Periodic watering of  unpaved roads,  with  an approved minimum
        frequency

     •  Stabilization of unpaved  roads with  nontoxic chemicals

     •  Paving of roads

     •  Prompt, frequent grading  and compaction of unpaved  roads to
        remove debris and stabilize the surface

     •  Restriction of vehicle speed

     •  Revegetation and mulching of areas adjoining roads

     •  Restricting travel by unauthorized vehicles
                                     5-85

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     •  Enclosing, covering,  and watering  loaded  trucks  and  rail
        cars

     •  Substituting enclosed  conveyors  for haul  trucks

     •  Minimizing the disturbed land area

     •  Prompt revegetation of  regraded  lands

     •  Restricting dumping and wetting  disturbed materials  during
        handling

     •  Planting of windbreaks  at  critical  locations

     •  Using water sprays or  dust collectors  to control drilling
        dust and dust at coal  and  spoil  transfer  points

     •  Restricting areas blasted  at one time

     •  Limiting dust-producing activities  during episodes of
        stagnant air

     •  Inspecting and extinguishing areas  of  burning  coal.

     EPA estimates of the efficiency of  dust control measures applicable  to
unpaved roads range from 25% to 85%  (Table 5-18 ).   Industry  sources  suggest
that dust from other sources in coal operations can be reduced by 50%  to  90%
by appropriate control measures (Table 5-19).

EPA will check to see that appropriate dust control measures have been
incorporated into permits issued pursuant  to SMCRA  and WVSCMRA.  In  the
event that the USOSM practices  are not enforceable by  the regulatory
authority, EPA independently will  implement them  pursuant to NEPA and  CWA
WVAPCC also requires a dust control  plan as part of its  air  pollution
control permit for preparation  plants (see  Section 4.1.4.13.).  Should air
quality issues other than dust  control be  determined to be potentially
significant during the review  of a New Source  permit,  EPA will utilize the
resources of its in-house staff to determine such significance and to
develop appropriate permit conditions.

5.4.2.  Noise Impacts

     The major sources of noise impacts  associated with  coal mining  include
blasting, equipment operation,  and coal  transportation.  Table 5-20  presents
a comparison of sound intensity, pressure  level,  and common  sounds to
provide a frame of reference for the following  discussions.

     Blasting noise is the most intense  noise  associated with the operation
of a New Source coal mine.  Blasting is  the most annoying type of noise and
has the greatest potential for  damaging  structures near  the  site.  The USOSM
permanent program performance standards  require that noise and vibration
from blasting operations be controlled to minimize  the danger of adverse
impacts (30 CFR 816.61-68; 817.61-68).

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Table  5-18.  Efficiency of dust control methods for unpaved roads  (EPA  1975)
          Control Method                  Approximate Control Efficiency,(%)

Paving                                                   85

Treating surface with penetrating chemicals              50

Working soil stabilizing chemicals into roadbed          50

Speed control ("uncontrolled" speed is 40 mph)
     30 mph                                              25
     20 mph                                              65
     15 mph                                              80
                                    5-88

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Table  5-19.   Dust  emission factors  from  coal  operations  compiled by
                  D'Appolonia   (1980).
    Emission Source
                        Emission Factor
                                                Reduction factor  it Control is
                                                           Utilized
                                                            Achievable  Lmissiun F,ictc>rs
                                                             for Controlled Processes
    Drilling
         Coal
         Overburden

    Topsoil Removal

    Overburden Removal

    Blasting
         Coal
         Ove rburden
0.22 Ib/hole
1.5 Ib/hole

0.38 lb/ydJ

0.07 Ib/ton
72.4 Ib/blast
85.2 Ib/blast

0.0035 Ib/ton
    Coal Removal

    Raw Coal Dump hopper    0.02 Ib/ton

    Coal Crushing          0.18 Ib/ton
                                                Enclosed operation: 90%
                                                              1.8 x 10 2  Ib/ton
     Conveyor Transport:

         Raw Coal
         Crushed  Coal

         Clean  Coal and
            Coal

         Refuse

    Raw Coal  Stacker


    Clean Coal  Stacker
    Refuse  Chutes
0.02 Ib/ton
0.02 Ib/ton


0.02 Ib/ton

0.0004 Ib/ton

1.32 Ih/ton
  Stored

1.32 Ib/ton
  Stored


0.02 Ib/ton
Cover conveyors:  902
Cover conveyors:  90%


Cover convevors:  90%

Wet process  coal:  85%

Arrange stacker to provide
enclosure:   90%

Wet process  coal:  852
Arrange stacker to provide
enclosure:   90%

Uet refuse in process:  85%
 2 x 10_:! Ib/ton
 2 X 10   Ib/ton


 2 x 10~3 Ib/ton

 3 x 10~4 Ib/ton

 1.3 x icf1  Ib/ton
   Stored

2.0  x  1G~2  Ib/ton
   Stored
                                                                                        3.0  x  10  3 Ib/ton
    Coal Refuse Storage
            Bin             0.20 Ib/ton
                                               Enclose storage bin:  90'u
                                               Wet refuse In process:  85%
                                                             3 x  10  3  Ib/ton
    KefuM-  Dumping          0.02  lb/ci>n

    Haul  Koads,  (Inpaved)     0.45  Ib/vmt

    [rain Loadout           0.20  Ib/ton

    Reclama tion &
        Maintenance        16 Ibs/hr

    Wind  Lrosion           0.25 ton/acre
                     Wet refuse In process:  50%


                     Spray water on  road:  50%

                    Wet process coal:  85%
                                        1 x 10  2  Ib/ton
                                        2.2  x  10   Ib/vnt

                                        3.0  x  10"2 Ib/ton
                                                    5- 39

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    Table 5-20.  Comparison of intensity,  sound pressure level,  and common
      sounds (USAGE 1973).
       Relative
Energy Intensity (units)

 1,000,000,000,000,000
   100,000,000,000,000
    10,000,000,000,000
     1,000,000,000,000
       100,000,000,000
        10,000,000,000
         1,000,000,000
           100,000,000
            10,000,000
             1,000,000
               100,000
                10,000
                 1,000
                   100
                    10
                     1
Decibels

   150
   140
   130
   120
   110
   100
    90
    80
    70
    60
    50
    40
    30
    20
    10
     0
    Loudness

Artillery at 500 feet
Jet aircraft at 50 feet
Threshold of pain

Near elevated train
Inside propeller plane
Full symphony or band
Inside auto at high speed

Conversation, face-to-face
Inside general office
Inside private office
Inside bedroon
Inside empty theater

Threshold of hearing
                                       5-90

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     Air blast must be controlled  so  that  it  does not  exceed  the  following
values at any dwelling, public building,  school, church,  commercial
structure, or institutional building  that  is  not owned  by the operator
(30 CFR 816.65, 817.65):

       Low frequency limit of                     Maximum level
       measuring system (Hz)                      	dB	

     
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Table 5-21.  Measured noise levels of construction equipment (EPA 1971b).
 Equipment
   Noise Level
in dBA at 50 feet
       Equipment
     Noise Sources
(in order of importance)
Earthmoving
   Front loaders
   Backhoes
   Dozers
   Tractors
   Scrapers
   Graders
   Trucks
   Pavers
        79
        85
        80
        80
        88
        85
        91
        89
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
D
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
H
H
H
W
W
W
T

Stationary
   Pumps
   Generators
   Compressors
        76
        78
        81
        E C
        E C
        E C H
Impact
   Pile drivers
   Jack hammers
   Rock drills
   Pneumatic tools
       101
        88
        98
        86
        W P E
        P W E C
        W E P
        P W E C
Other
   Saws
   Vibrators
        78
        76
        W
        W E C
     Sources:
         C  Engine Casing
         E  Engine Exhaust
         F  Cooling Fan
         H  Hydraulics
                   I  Engine Intake
                   P  Pneumatic Exhaust
                   T  Power Transmission Systems, Gearing
                   W  Tool-Work Interaction
                                   5-92

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Table 5-22.  Results of noise surveys of coal-related facilities (Watkins
  and Associates 1979) .  Measured noise levels can be expected to decrease
  by 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the source, but terrain
  features can modify this general decay rate.
    Type of                     Measurement                         1
 Plant/Source                 Distance (feet)            Noise Level
Coal preparation                    150                       81.4

Mine vent fan                       270                       63.0

Coal preparation                    250                       69.5

Mine vent fan                     1,500                       59.2
 L    (24) - The equivalent steady state sound level which in a 24-hour period
             of time would contain the same acoustic energy as the time-varying
             sound level actually measured during the same time period, in dBA.

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 90
 80
 70
 60
  50
 40
       \
  f
                                                              COAL
                                                              PREP
                                                              PLANT
   MINE
   VENT
   FAN
          200      400      600     800     1,000    1,200

                       DISTANCE FROM SOURCE-FT
1,400
Figure 5-4  Leq VERSUS DISTANCE FROM MAJOR NOISE SOURCES AT
           A TYPICAL  COAL MINE AND PREPARATION  PLANT
           (Watkins and Associates 1979)
                              5-94

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Table 5-23.  Typical public reaction and health impacts associated with
  various 24-hour average noise levels.
   24-hour Leq
      (dBa)

     51-54
     54-57
24-hour Ldn
   (dBa)

  55-58
  58-61
     57-60
  61-64
     60-63
  64-67
     63-66
  67-70
     66-69
    >70
  70-74
 >74
      Typical Effects on
      Health and Welfare

Few problems except in unusual
nighttime situations.

Sensitive individuals may
become annoyed and
sporadically complain,
especially concerning
nighttime noise.

A substantial number of people
become annoyed and begin to
have difficulty conversing
outdoors.

Many people are unable to talk
or relax outdoors and
experience considerable
stress.

Most people experience severe
emotional stress, finding
outdoor areas totally unusable
for work or play.  Strong
official complaints.

Individuals with sensitive
hearing may begin to suffer
temporary hearing loss.

EPA suggested limit to prevent
permanent hearing loss,
including factor of safety.
                                     5-95

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                  Equipment
Noise Level at 50 feet
            2  front  loaders @ 79
            2  dozers        @ 80
            2  graders       @ 85
            2  scrapers      @ 88
            4  trucks        @ 91
         82
         83
         88
         91
         97
           Total
         99 dBA; round to
        100 dBA for calculations
Also assume background  noise  levels  [15-hr Leq]  of  55  dBA  during  the
hours 7 am-10 pm and  [9-hour Leq]  of 45 dBA during  the hours  10 pra-7 am.
This is a background Ldn  of 55 dBA.

     Noise levels decline  away from  the noise  source at the  rate  of  6 dB(A)
per doubling of distance.  Weighted  day/night  noise levels (Ldn)  that
will result from a noise  source  of 100 dBA are as follows, based  on  the
formula:
       - 10 log
   10
                                             ,Leq(l)
                                             -
                        7am-10pm
               Leq(l)+lQ
        10 expl   10     J
                       10pm-7am
where Leq(l) is the 1-hour noise level assumed  to prevail  throughout
the shift(s):
                One 8-hr shift
                 (7 am-3 pm)
 Two 8-hr shifts
  (7 am-11  pm)
Three 8-hr shifts
100
94
88
85
82
76
70
64
58
95
89
83
80
77
71
65
60
54
95
89
83
80
77
71
65
60
54
Ldn
100
94
88
85
82
76
70
65
59
L (24)
eq
98
92
86
83
80
74
68
62
56
 Distance (feet)L   (1)L,   L   (24)  L
                 eq    dn   eq

     50
    100
    200
    300
    400
    800
  1,600
  3,200
  6,400

EPA recommends that yearly averaged outdoor L(jn values not exceed 55
dBA in order to protect public health and welfare with an adequate margin of
safety where there are sensitive land uses.  Examples include  residential
districts and recreational areas.  The worst-case situation in Example  1
would produce noise levels in excess of the EPA-recommended limit at
sensitive receptors located within about 1 mile of the source.

Given the temporary nature of surface mining operations, it is not likely
that the hypothetical worst-case values will be experienced at a given
Ldn
106
100
94
91
88
82
76
71
65
L (24)
eq
100
94
88
85
82
76
70
64
58
                                     5-96

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sensitive receptor for  an  entire year.  Moreover,  SMCRA bans mining  within
300 feet of sensitive receptors.

     Example 2.  Underground Mine Vent  Fan

     Assuming  the same background conditions and computation methods  as  in
Example 1, the noise impacts produced by  a underground mine can be
illustrated.   The dominant surface noise  source at the underground mine  can
be assumed to  be the vent  fan, which must be operated continuously,  24 hours
per day until  the mine  is  abandoned (unless a special permit is granted  to
shut down the  fan).  Assuming that the  vent fan generates 59 dBA  at
1,500 feet (Table  5-22), then:

 Distance (feet)        Leq^24)          Ldn

    188                  77              83
    375                  71               77
    750                  65              71
  1,500                  59              65
  3,000                  53              59
  6,000                  47              53

In Example 2 the noise  levels at sensitive receptors surrounding  the  mine
may exceed the averaged yearly L^n of 55 dBA recommended by EPA within
about 1 mile of the mine fan site.

     Example 3.  Coal Preparation Operations

     Assuming  the same background conditions and computation methods  as  in
Examples 1 and 2, the noise impact from coal preparation activities  can  be
assessed hypothetic ally based on a noise level of  81 dBA at 150 feet
(Table  5-22):

                One 8-hr shift      Two 8-hr shifts       _,     0 ,    , .-
                 /-,     T   \         i-,    11    N         Three 8-hr  shifts
                 (7 am-3 pm;         (7 am-11 pm)         	

 Distance
  (feet)

   150     81        76                   81                      87
   300     75        70                   75                      81
   600     69        65                   69                      75
 1,200     63        59                   64                      69
 2,400     57        56                   57                      64
 4,800     55        55                   56                      61

     As in the two preceding examples,  the EPA-recommended yearly average
Ldn °f 55 dBA  would be  exceeded at sensitive receptors less than  1 mile
from the preparation plant, particularly if the plant operates two or three
shifts every day during the year.

     All of the illustrative calculations are approximate, and modifications
in the assumptions concerning background noise levels and the behavior of
noise with distance would be appropriate  in actual cases.  Mobile equipment
                                     5-97

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will be dispersed across a surface mine  site, rather  than  concentrated  in a
tight circle at the boundary.  Vegetation and intervening  ridges  will reduce
the noise experienced at a receptor to levels less than those  expected  on
the basis of distance decay.  Conversely, highwalls may serve  as  sound
reflectors, increasing the values actually measured above  those  expected  at
a given distance.

     As part of the New Source NEPA review process, EPA will check  to see
whether any sensitive receptors (such as residences,  parks, campgrounds,  or
schools) are present within a 1-mile radius of the proposed facility.   If
so, EPA will request the applicant to furnish data concerning his proposed
noise sources and to project noise levels at the sensitive receptors.
During the public notice period affected persons will have the opportunity
to express concerns regarding future noise levels to  EPA.

     On a case-by-case basis EPA may condition New Source NPDES  permits to
insure that noise levels do not cause unacceptable levels.  Measures that
may be imposed include limitation of operations to one or  two  shifts and/or
to seasons when impacts would be least (surface mines and  coal preparation
plants), specification of maximum permissable noise ratings or less exposed
locations for mine vent fans (underground mines), or  additional  buffer  zones
beyond those mandated by SMCRA.

     Off-site haul truck noise on public roadways will not be  regulated as
part of the NPDES permit process.  Pursuant to the Noise Control Act of
1972, EPA has set maximum noise standards for trucks  of 10,000 Ibs  gross
vehicle weight or larger that are used in interstate  commerce  (40 CFR 202;
38 FR 144: 20059-20221, July 27, 1973).  The passby standards  are 86 dB(A)
at 50 feet and 35 mph posted speed and 90 dBA at 50 feet and 55 mph.  For
the stationary runup test, EPA uses a standard of 88  dBA at 50 feet.

     The most appropriate governmental level at which local truck traffic
noise can be addressed is that of the municipality, which  can  set local
speed limits to control both noise and vibration.  EPA provides  technical
assistance both to the States that seek  to develop intrastate  standards and
to municipalities through its Quiet Communities Program.
                                      5-98

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5.5   Cultural and Visual Resource Impacts and
     Mitigations

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                                                                      Page

5.5.   Cultural Resource and Visual Resource  Impacts  and Mitigations    5-99

      5.5.1.   Potential Impacts  of Coal  Mining  on Cultural  Resources   5-99
              - Historic Structures and  Properties
              5.5.1.1.   Primary  Impacts                                5-99
              5.5.1.2.   Secondary  Impacts                              5-100
              5.5.1.3.   Mitigation                                    5-100

      5.5.2.   Potential Impact of  Coal Mining on  Cultural Resources    5-102
              - Archaelogical Resources
              5.5.2.1.   Primary  Impacts                                5-102
              5.5.2.2.   Secondary  Impacts                              5-102
              5.5.2.3.   Data Available  and Need for  Supplementation    5-102
              5.5.2.4.   Mitigation                                    5-104

      5.5.3.   Potential Impacts  of Coal  Mining  on Visual Resources     5-105
              5.5.3.1.   Mining Impacts                                 5-105
              5.5.3.2.   Mitigative Measures  for Impacts on  Primary     5-106
                        Visual Resources

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5.5.  CULTURAL RESOURCE AND VISUAL  RESOURCE  IMPACTS  AND  MITIGATIONS

5.5.1.  Potential Impacts of Coal Mining  on  Cultural Resources  -  Historic
        Structures and Properties

     5.5.1.1.  Primary Impacts

     Primary impacts on historic resources are  those that  would result  from
construction or operation of coal mines or related facilities.  These
resources may include historic  sites,  properties,  structures, or  objects
that are listed on or determined eligible for the National Register of
Historic Places.  Should coal mining  activities  result in  primary impacts  to
known historic properties presently listed on or determined  eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places,  or  to  sites  that are determined
eligible as a result of mitigative  investigation, Section  106 proceedings,
as outlined in the US Advisory  Council Procedures  for the  Protection of
Historic and Cultural Properties, must take  place.   These  requirements must
be met, regardless of NEPA and  USOSM  requirements  (see Section  4.2.).

     Primary or direct impacts  of New  Source coal mining on  historic
resources may be beneficial or  adverse.   Beneficial  effects  of  New Source
coal mining activities are those which improve the aesthetic setting of
historic structures, or enhance the surrounding  landscape.   Adverse effects
are more common and may consist of one or more of the following (36 CFR 800
as amended):

     •  Destruction or alteration of  all  or  part of  a property

     •  Isolation from or alteration  of its  surrounding environment

     •  Introduction of visual, audible,  or  atmospheric elements
        that are out of character with the property  or alter its
        setting

     •  Transfer or sale of a Federally-owned property without
        adequate conditions or  restrictions  regarding
        preservation, maintenance, or  use

     •  Neglect of a property resulting in its deterioration or
        destruction.

     To date, few surveys have  been conducted in the Basin to identify those
historic places that presently  are not listed on but  may be  eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places.  Cultural  resources  on a  mine site not
listed on or nominated for the  National Register and not  recognized during
the permit review process are likely  to be destroyed during  any mining
activity that significantly alters the land  surface.
                                    5-99

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     5.5.1.2.  Secondary Impacts

     Secondary impacts are those beneficial or adverse affects  that may
occur indirectly as a result of New Source coal mining activities.
Secondary adverse impacts of a proposed project on historic resources  can
include the indirect impacts that result from induced related growth,  such
as subsidiary industrial development, development related to distribution
and marketing of coal, or housing development.  Development related to coal
mining or alteration of open space surrounding known historic structures and
constituting an integral part of their historic setting potentially may
diminish the historic integrity of such properties.  Similarly,  alteration
of the character of designated or potential historic districts  by the  intro-
duction of structures, objects, or land uses that are incompatible with the
historic setting and buildings of the district constitutes an adverse  impact
on the historic quality of the district.  Occasionally, induced growth and
industrialization increase pressures to demolish historic buildings in order
to make way for new development.  Should coal mining activities result in
indirect effects on historic resources that are listed on or eligible  for
the National Register, compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic
Preservation Act is required.

     5.5.1.3.  Mitigation

     In order to identify all historic structures, properties,  and places
that may be eligible for the National Register of Historic Places and  that
may be affected adversely by coal mining operations, a mechanism is needed
to ensure that any necessary visual surveys will be conducted,  and that
significant resources will be identified prior to issuance of New Source
NPDES permits.  The present Federally (partially funded by USHCRS) supported
State Historic Preservation Plan in West Virginia is incomplete.  Only a few
of the potentially significant historic places in the Monongahela River
Basin have been surveyed, evaluated, and/or nominated to the National
Register of Historic Places.  Thus the mapping of known historic resources
may not be sufficient to guarantee adequate consideration and protection of
all historic resources that may be eligible for the National Register  of
Historic Places and may not satisfy requirements of Executive Order 11593.
Additional studies may be required to assure recognition and protection of
all significant historic resources.

     The State Historic Preservation Officer is the mandated administrator
of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended,  in the  State
of West Virginia.  As such, the SHPO maintains responsibility for National
Register and National Register eligible sites as well as substantial file
data not made available for EPA use (see Section 2.5.).  Hence  EPA Region
III will contact the SHPO concerning each application for New Source NPDES
permit.  This SHPO contact immediately will follow EPA's examination of
their 1:24,000-scale environmental inventory maps sets to determine proxi-
mity to and potential impact on Overlay 1 mapped sites.  The SHPO then will
advise EPA of (1) the possibility that important historic resources will be
impacted by the coal mining activities proposed for a Federal permit (based
on EPA data,  State files, or any other information), and (2) whether
on-the-ground surveys will be required to locate and evaluate such resources
                                    5-100

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 if  data  are  lacking.  The  SHPO  will  evaluate  whether  an historic  place that
 satisfies Criteria of Eligibility  for  the National  Register  of  Historic
 Places in and  adjacent  to  the permit  area for the mining operation will  be
 impacted significantly.  This finding  will be considered carefully by  EPA
 during NPDES permit  review to comply  with Section 106  procedures.   Recommen-
 dations made here are adequate  to  satisfy requirements  of the USOSM regula-
 tory programs  as well (i.e.  the  SHPO  will provide the  same information to
 both EPA and USOSM).

     Early notification  of New  Source  coal mine  permit  applications received
 by  EPA will be accomplished  through monthly publication in EPA  ALERT.  This
 notification will be sent  directly to  Mr. Clarence  Moran (SHPO) and Mr.
 Roger Wise (State Archaeologist).  Also, EPA  formally  will alert the SHPO
 and State Archaeologist  to the  proposed  action (the draft NPDES permit)
 during the 30  day public notice  period.  If a reply is  not received prior to
 the close of the public  notice  period, EPA will  assume  that  the SHPO and
 State Archaeologist have reviewed  the  proposed action  and have  no  comments
 on  potential cultural resource  impacts.

     The SHPO  is familiar  with  the amount of  survey work previously
 conducted in the vicinity  of each  potential minesite  in West Virginia,  for
 which a permit is sought.   Should  there be insufficient  available  informa-
 tion regarding historic  resources  of  the area, the  SHPO may  recommend  that a
historic resources survey  be conducted by the applicant.   The SHPO also  is
 authorized under the US  Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of
 Historic and Cultural Properties (36 CFR 800  as  amended)  to  delineate  the
 area of  impact of any New  Source coal  mine.

     Such surveys may be expedited in  several  ways.  Applicants for coal
mining NPDES permits may wish to retain cultural historians  as  consultants.
 Thus, should the need for  a  survey arise, such work could be initiated by
 the applicant  without time-consuming  contract  negotiations.  Additional
 Federal grant monies may be  applied for by the SHPO's  office to support
 State-appointed regional cultural  historians.  Such experts  could  be
 supported by Federal monies  authorized to the  State of  West Virginia under
 the National Historical Preservation Act of 1966.   Regional  cultural
historians, which act for  the SHPO's  office,  could  be  available for brief
 reconnaissance of coal mine  sites.

     If the applicant is required  by the SHPO  and EPA  to conduct a survey of
 a mine site and if resources that may be eligible for the National Register
 of Historic Places are identified, concurrence with such a determination
 should be sought by the applicant  from the SHPO.  If the SHPO concurs,
 nomination forms should be  submitted by the SHPO to the US Secretary of  the
 Interior for a determination of eligibility for the National Register  of
Historic Places.  The Secretary's  opinion will be final.

     If significant resources are  identified  that will  be affected by  coal
mining operations, several  options are available as mitigation.  The SHPO,
the appropriate EPA officials, and the Executive Director of the US Advisory
                                    5-101

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Council are required under US Advisory Council Procedures  (36  CFR 800)  to
confer and decide upon appropriate mitigations on a case-by-case  basis.
Such mitigations can range from permit conditions that  require the avoidance
of disturbance to the historic structure  (if demolition is indicated) to
planting of trees and shrubs to screen the mining activities  from the
historic property in order to retain its historic setting.  When  mitigations
have been agreed upon, a Memorandum of Agreement concerning the necessary
NPDES permit conditions will be executed  formally.  If mitigations either
cannot be identified or if the applicant will not accede to permit:
conditions required, the New Source permit will not be  issued  by  EPA.

5.5.2.  Potential Impact of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources  -
        Archaeological Resources

     5.5.2.1.  Primary Impacts

     Primary impacts to archaeological resources may occur wherever the
ground surface will be disturbed by construction activities associated  with
coal mining facilities.  Any activity that will result  in  total or partial
destruction, disturbance to, or disruption of information  contained within
or related to an archaeological site may be considered  to  be  a primary
impact on the archaeological resource.

     Historic and archaeological resources are highly susceptible to damage
by the mining of coal, particularly by surface mining that entails an exten-
sive modification of large surface areas.  Mine pits, roads,  and  fills
frequently encompass several landforms, all or any of which may contain
archaeological sites .

     Site accessibility may be reduced when spoil heaps accumulate over
sites.  Surface or near-surface sites will be destroyed.  More deeply buried
sites may not be disturbed significantly by stratification from waste
dumping, but such inaccessibility is tantamount to destruction.

     5.5.2.2.  Secondary Impacts

     Beneficial impacts of coal mining may include road construction that
provides greater access to archaeological resources for scientific investi-
gation, and a possible increase in the site location data  base, if surveys
are made during the permit application process.  Enhancement  of the positive
aspects can be accomplished if archaeological sites adjacent  to coal mine
permit areas are formally registered with the SHPO.  If unreistricted access
is provided to looters and vandals, however, the potential scientific
benefits from the added roads can be negated.

     5.5.2.3.  Data Available and Need for Supplementation

     Comprehensive archaeological surveys have not been conducted on a
Statewide basis.  The WVGES-Archaeology Section maintains  a central State
file of previous surveys undertaken in the Monongahela River Basin.  Limited
                                    5-102

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information has been published, and other  archaeological  data may  be  on  file
at some universities.

     With some exceptions, archaeological  resources  recorded by  the WVGES-
Archaeology Section have not been field tested or  evaluated  for  their
National Register potential.  Also, site distributions  and variability  for
the Monongahela River Basin are considered moderately to  poorly  known
because of the limited amount of survey work conducted  in the Basin and  in
the State.  Site-specific surveys may be required  by the  SHPO and  EPA to
supplement existing data for the following reasons:

     •  West Virginia's known and registered archaeological  sites
        represent only a small fraction of the potential  total
        number of prehistoric and historic archaeological sites
        that are believed to exist.  Entire classes  of  site  types,
        such as ridge-top and "bear wallow" sites,  are  almost
        unrepresented in the catalogs.  Obviously,  it is  possible
        that many more archaeological sites exist  but are not
        listed in  National, State, or any other files.   Data gap
        areas cannot be treated as areas with no resource values;
        they therefore require additional  field investigations,
        application of substantial local insight,  and/or  use of
        predictive models to evaluate potential adverse impacts
        (at this time application of predictive models  is not
        practicable).

     •  Only those cultural resources that satisfy Criteria  of
        Eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places
        and ultimately have been determined eligible by the US
        Secretary of the Interior warrant  protection under current
        Federal historic preservation legislation.  Evaluated
        sites and unevaluated sites are mapped in  the State  files
        and by inference are accorded equal protection.   A
        substantial number of known recorded cultural resources
        may not be of National Register quality.   At the  same
        time, there is a high probability  that numerous,  signifi-
        cant, unrecorded resources, potentially eligible  for the
        National Register of Historic Places, occur in the
        Monongahela River Basin.  Because  these State files were
        not made available and were not reviewed,  serious data
        base questions remain.

     •  No mechanism is provided for identifying unknown
        resources.  There is a need for case-by-case professional
        evaluation of identified cultural  resources when  such
        resources may be affected by a proposed mine and  selection
        of only those that warrant protection.
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     •  There is a high probability that, in many cases, the frequencies  of
        recorded sites related to certain landforms, altitudes, and
        environmental zones are as much a function of  former unsystematic
        survey and reporting methods as of actual site densities and
        distributions.

     5.5.2.4.  Mitigation

     The EPA review procedure for potential impacts on archaeological
resources is similar to that used for historic structures and properties.
Upon receipt of a New Source permit application, EPA will examine the
1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets (Overlay 1) that show the
locations of known archaeological sites listed on (or  eligible for) the
National Register of Historic Places.  Early notification of New Source coal
mine permit applications received by EPA will be accomplished through
monthly publication in EPA ALERT.  This notification will be sent directly
to Mr. Clarence Moran (SHPO) and Mr. Roger Wise (State Archaeologist).  The
SHPO will be expected to identify potential impacts on known archaeological
resources, to recommend special NPDES permit conditions to protect signifi-
cant archaeological resources, and/or to recommend on-the-ground surveys to
identify unknown archaeological resources, as appropriate.  If a reply is
not received from the SHPO and State Archaeologist during the public notice
period, EPA will assume that the SHPO and State Archaeologist have reviewed
the proposed action and have no comments on potential cultural resource
impacts.

     In general EPA recommends to applicants that an on-ground survey by  a
qualified archaeologist be conducted early in the mine planning process.
Such a survey may minimize potential processing delays, if the SHPO requires
an original survey, and if significant resources are identified on or
adjacent to a permit area.

     If archaeological resources that may be eligible  for the National
Register of Historic Places are identified during surveys, nomination forms
should be submitted by the applicant to the SHPO.  Resources considered
eligible by the SHPO then are forwarded by him to the US Secretary of the
Interior for a determination of eligibility.  If eligible, mitigative
measures probably will be necessary where significant National Register
archaeological resources potentially would be affected by proposed mining
operations.  EPA officials, the US Advisory Council, and the SHPO are
required to confer and develop appropriate mitigative measures on a case-by-
case basis.  If mitigations either cannot be identified or if the applicant
will not agree to the permit conditions required, the New Source permit will
not be issued by EPA.
                                    5-104

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5.5.3.  Potential Impacts of Coal Mining  on Visual  Resources

     5.5.3.1.  Mining Impacts

     Impacts of coal mining on visual  resources  are influenced  by the type
of mining activity proposed, the natural  characteristics  of the site,  and
the proximity of primary visual resources.  The  potential  for adverse impact
is especially important to recognize,  especially  if coal mining activities
increase significantly, more areas  are disturbed,  and  more expensive  lands
closer to developed areas (and therefore  more  visible)  can be affordably
-nined as the price of coal increases.

     Historically, unregulated mining  activities  of all types (surface and
underground) have affected visual resources adversely.  Where old surface
mines were abandoned prior to the implementation  of current laws,  the long-
term scars from mining are quite apparent.  Highwalls  are  prominent;  spoil
may be heaped in irregular piles on  the downs lopes  below  the excavation
bench; and little or no vegetation may have recolonized the area.   In the
past improper abandonment of strip mining sites,  coal  preparation plants,
and tipple sites have created:

     •  Disturbed landscapes resulting from improper reclamation
        or lack of reclamation

     •  Improperly handled waste stock piles

     •  Abandoned and derelict equipment  and  structures.

Requirements of WVDNR-Reclamation and  USOSM (return to  approximate original
contour, for example) have reduced the potential  for significant adverse
impacts.  Furthermore, many areas that can be  expected  to  be mined in the
future will be in areas not accessible or visible to tourists or to local
residents.  These lands, privately owned,  often are posted against trespass
and typically are not viewed publicly.  During mining  operations the  public
is excluded for safety reasons; before and after mining, exclusion of the
public is a prerogative of the surface landowner.   Nevertheless,  currently
regulated mining activity, particularly surface mining, can affect adversely
visual resources in areas that are near public roadways and are within view
of scenic overlooks.

     Surface mining typically is conducted along  the contour of the
mountainsides high above the valley  floor and  takes  place  in side hollows,
removed from major public roads.  The  actual  pit  operations are not
attractive, and all vegetation is removed before  the overburden is stripped
from the coal.  Sites reclaimed and  revegetated  in  accordance with current
State and Federal standards usually  resemble  grassy pastures with somewhat
steeper slopes than those originally present.  The  return  of scrub and
forest vegetation to mined lands is  a  slow process.  In a  few places,  sur-
face mines are visible at a considerable  distance from  public roads that
extend along high ridges.  Currently,  mountaintop removal  operations  in the
Basin are not readily observable but they can  bring substantial topographic
changes with visual resource impacts.  Often,  mining activities cannot be
seen from adjacent or nearby roads situated in steeply  sloping  valleys, but
are visible from more distant roadways, overlooks or other viewpoints.
                                     5-105

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     The storage and disposal of  the mining wastes  is  another  visual
intrusion created by surface mining.  Mine dumps, tailing  ponds,  and spoil
piles cause disturbances of land  form and vegetation creating  visual
contrasts.  These waste areas tend to be located near  the  coal-preparation
plants that may be located along  public roadways.   These plants  also cause
visibility problems resulting from the emission of  fugitive  dust  and exhaust
fumes.  Dust and fumes create localized haze  and discoloration of the
atmosphere, visible from long distances as well as  from the  site  vicinity.
Structures associated with these  plants also  cause  some intrusion because of
their height and possible poor state of repair.  Conveyor  systems and
transmission lines leading in and out of the  preparation plants  traverse the
landscape, disturbing vegetative  cover.

     5.5.3.2.  Mitigative Measures for Impacts on Primary  Visual  Resources

     The sensitive area that is associated with a prime visual resource is
defined by the vista that is presented to visitors  to  the  resource.   In many
cases in the Basin, vistas extend beyond the  limits of public  lands  and into
private lands with coal resources.  Furthermore, the severity  of  these
impacts is a function of the amount of time needed  for the mining site to
return to the point where it is similar to its original state  and blends in
with the surrounding landscape.

     When New Source permit applications for  new mining operations are
reviewed by EPA personnel, consideration will be given to  potential  impacts
on primary visual resources at minimum.  Table 2-45 (see Section  2.5) will
be consulted to determine existence of primary visual  resources and
potential adverse impacts on these resources.  To determine  the  potential
adverse impact on primary visual  resources, an assessment  of visibility will
be required.  This assessment is  executed in  a straight-forward manner
through topographic analysis.  All proposed mining  activity, including pits,
spoil areas, coal haul roads, preparation plants, conveyors, tipples, and so
forth, are first located on the topographic base map and then  evaluated in
terms of primary visual resource  points of access or user  potential.  In
effect, EPA will ascertain if these primary visual  resources are  "down
basin" or "down slope" from proposed mining activity and judge whether or
not these activities will be visible from these primary visual resources
(and their access points such as  State Park roads,  overlooks,  and so forth).
This assessment of visibility assumes no special mitigations,  buffering, or
special circumstance and serves to identify potential  adverse  impact.

     If the determination of visibility indicates potential  for  adverse
impact, the permit applicant is responsible for demonstrating  that signifi-
cant adverse impacts will not occur.  This demonstration may be  accomplished
by the applicant's detailed analysis of proposed mining activity  and
potentially affected primary visual resources.  The applicant's  detailed
analysis may indicate that, because of specific attributes of  the mining
                                    5-106

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proposal and site (e.g., timing, buffering  of  deciduous  and  evergreen
vegetation, and effective use of mitigations on a long and short-term  basis)
as well as attributes of the primary visual resources  (patterns  of  use,  for
example), significant adverse impacts will  not result.   This  requirement
essentially is a request for additional  information  from the  applicant.
Because of the relative scarcity of primary visual resources  in  the  Basin,
this requirement will be made by EPA relatively infrequently.  The  appli-
cant's additional information also should be supplied or copied  to  the
agency/entity responsible for the primary visual resource (WVDNR-Parks  and
Recreation, WVDNR-HTP, and so forth) for notification of and  concurrence
with potential adverse impacts and their mitigation.  If no  such
agency/entity has been designated, special  mention of this potential impact
issue should be included in the advertisement  for the public  notice  period.
If potential adverse impacts either can be  avoided or mitigated  without
disagreement, EPA will proceed with permit  issuance.  The permit may require
conditioning, if the applicant proposes the use of specific mitigative
measures to minimize primary visual resource impacts.  Examples  of  specific
mitigative measures are given below.  If the applicant is unable or
unwilling to demonstrate mechanisms to avoid potential adverse impacts  on
these resources and/or responsible agencies/entities do  not concur  with
avoidance of potential adverse impacts,  then EPA will require additional
detailed evaluations, meetings, mitigations, and alternatives to the
proposed action.

     Although it would not be appropriate for  EPA to dictate  the specific
approach to be used in the applicant's demonstration of  no significant
adverse impact or of effective mitigation,  applicants may choose to  utilize
all or a portion of the following:

     •  Use of a landscape architect to undertake recommended
        detailed studies

     •  Preparation of photographic inventories from primary
        visual resource perspectives for all seasons

     •  Preparation of profiles for analyzing  visibility of
        proposed mine activity locations from  resource points

     •  Clarification of long-term versus short-term primary
        visual resource impacts

     •  Introduction of mixed vegetative species to  avoid a
        monoculture effect

     •  Use of native species to reduce the color and texture
        contrasts of incompatible species

     •  Design of irregular clearing edges  to  avoid unnatural
        appearing straight lines and opening configurations
                                    5-107

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•  Introduction of woody plants other than grasses  to  serve  a
   variety of functions such as to provide wind breaks;
   provide wildlife habitats; absorb solar radiation;
   attentuate noise; control circulation; provide shade;
   separate incompatible uses; modify vegetative edges  for
   smooth visual transition; screen undesirable features  from
   view; mask visual contrast in form, line, color  or
   texture; and many more (Tuttle 1980)

•  Use of shoreline configuration of sediment basins with
   flowing irregular lines, rather than geometric shapes  as
   is common practice, whenever possible.  Natural  vegetation
   should be planted at the water's edge.

•  Siting of structures in accord with existing topography
   and vegetation; natural screening is preferable  and  should
   be investigated as an inexpensive technique

•  Selection of rights-of-way for transmission towers  arid
   conveyor systems that are sited to preserve the  natural
   landscape and minimize conflicts with present and future
   land use schemes

•  Use of joint rights-of-way should be utilized in a  common
   corridor whenever feasible

•  Design of rights-of-way to avoid heavily timbered areas,
   steep slopes, proximity to main highways, shelter belts
   and scenic areas

•  Placing of overhead lines and conveyors beyond the  ridges
   or timbered areas where ridges or timber areas are
   adjacent to public view

•  Consideration of underground placement

•  Use of long spans when crossing roadways to retain  natural
   growth and provide screening from view in forested  areas

•  Design of power line rights-of-way to approach highways,
   valleys, hills, and ridges diagonally

•  Placing of transmission lines and conveyors part way up
   slopes to provide a background of topography and/or
   natural vegetation as well as to screen them from public
   view whenever possible

•  Avoidance of placing towers and conveyors at the crest of
   hills and ridges
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     •  Use of irregular patterns of rights-of-way through  scenic
        forest or timber areas to prevent long corridors

     •  Use of right-of-way clearings that maximize preservation
        of natural beauty, conservation of natural resources, and
        minimize scarring the landscape (USDI and USDA 1970).

     This proposed process requires no special mechanism for treating
unrecorded primary visual resources (data gap areas) or secondary visual
resources such as Basin landscapes.  During the required public notice
period, EPA may receive comment on these issues, potentially requiring use
of special mitigative measures on the part of the applicant (i.e.
designating the area as a Mitigation Area) or, in the extreme, requiring a
PSIA designation.
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5.6  Human Resource and Land Use
    Impacts and Mitigations

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                                                                      Page

5.6.   Human Resources and Land Use                                     5-111

      5.6.1.  General Background                                      5-111

      5.6.2.  EPA Screening Procedure  for Potentially Significant      5-112
               Human Resource and Land Use Impacts
              5.6.2.1.   Macroscale  Socioeconomic Impacts              5-113
              5.6.2.2.   Transportation Impacts                         5-117
              5.6.2.3.   Land Use Impacts                               5-118

      5.6.3.  Special Considerations for  Detailed Impact and          5-121
               Mitigation Scoping

      5.6.4.  Employment and Population Impacts  and Mitigative        5-122
               Measures
              5.6.4.1.   Boom and Bust  Cycles in  Coal Production       5-126
               and Lack of a Compensating Economic  Base

      5.6.5.  Housing Impacts and Mitigations  of Adverse Impacts       5-127
              5.6.5.1.   Direct Corporate  Mitigations                  5-130
              5.6.5.2.   Indirect Corporate Mitigations                5-132
              5.6.5.3.   State, Federal, and Local Governmental        5-132
                         Mitigations

      5.6.6.  Transportation Impacts and  Mitigative Measures          5-134
              5.6.6.1.   Roads                                         5-134
              5.6.6.2.   Railroads                                     5-136

      5.6.7.  Local Public Service  Impacts and Mitigations            5-137
                of Adverse Impacts
              5.6.7.1.   Health Care                                   5-137
              5.6.7.2.   Education                                     5-139
              5.6.7.3.   Public Safety                                  5-140
              5.6.7.4.   Recreation                                     5-140
              5.6.7.5.   Water and Sewer Services                      5-140
              5.6.7.6.   General Community Fiscal Impacts              5-141

      5.6.8.  Indirect Land Use Impacts                               5-143

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5.6.  HUMAN RESOURCES  AND  LAND  USE

     This  section  first  describes the  probable  nature  of coal mining
impacts on human resources  and  land uses  in  the Monongahela River Basin.
Then, it outlines  a method  whereby EPA can  identify or screen proposed
operations that may entail  adverse effects  if no coordination or direct
raitigative measures are  undertaken.  Next,  EPA  special notification
procedures for use in  such  cases are indicated.   If,  after  all notification
and coordination actions are  taken by  EPA for those operations screened as
potentially adverse, there  remains substantial  concern regarding potential
adverse impacts, more  detailed  analyses  (such as EIS's)  can be undertaken.
Finally, potential impacts  and  mitigations  are  discussed in greater detail,
for the purposes of scoping  such detailed analyses.

5 .6 .1.  General Background

     In general, the expansion  of the  coal  industry in the  Basin should not
bring serious negative social and economic  impacts  such  as  those that  have
occurred in the West,  where major new  coal  mines and  other  energy-related
projects bring sudden  change  to sparsely  populated  areas (USGAO 1977).
Eastern coal areas such  as  the  Monongahela  River Basin will derive
relatively great net human  resource benefits from increased coal development
because of their traditionally  high unemployment and  depressed economies.
The overall economic situation  can be  expected  to improve,  at  least
temporarily, as new mining  and  mining-related jobs  are created.   This  can be
an important step toward reducing the  socioeconomic  problems that the  area
has experienced (USGAO 1977b) .  For example, coal development  that occurred
during the 1970's resulted  in significant relative  income gains  for the
Mononghela River Basin although income  levels are still  below the National
average (see Section 2.6).

     Local conditions  greatly influence  the  impacts  of new  coal  raining and
processing facilities  (Van Zele 1979).  Local familarity is by far the most
important  factor in forecasting the nature  and  magnitude of potential
impacts.  This was shown by a recent model  of the local  socioeconomic  and
fiscal impacts of new mining  activity  in  Wayne  County  (southern West
Virginia) conducted by Argonne National Laboratory  (Verbally,  Mr.  Dan
Santini, Argonne National Laboratory,  to  Dr. Phillip D.  Phillips,  May  6,
1980).

     Three major factors that affect the  nature  and  severity of  the local
impacts of increased coal mining were  described  in  a report prepared by the
USOTA (1979):

     •  The current residual  deficit in  community facilities

     •  The problem of continued uneven coal demand as it
        affects particular  communities  or sub-State  areas

     •  The rapidity of  coal  development.
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USOTA concluded that "the social, political, and  economic  effects  of  coal
mining have been most severe where communities were  totally  dependent  on
coal, where the terrain was inhospitable to other  activity,  and  where  mining
was the principal socializing force in community  life".  Various other
studies also have indicated that the negative  impacts  of new coal  mining
typically are severe:

     •  In sparsely populated areas (USGAO 1977,  Argonne National
        Laboratory 1978)

     •  In areas with low levels of urban population (USGAO  1977)

     •  In areas where the number of employees in  the  new  mine or
        mines is large in relation to the existing population
        (Cortese and Jones 1979)

     •  In areas where the buildup in employment  in  the new  mine
        is rapid, the period of mine operation is  short, or  the
        mine shutdown is rapid  (Cortese and Jones  1979) .

     Communities that have had  a long history  of  economic  and population
decline generally welcome a major new development, at  least  initially.   As
negative impacts become apparent, however, community attitudes may become
less enthusiastic (Gilmore 1976).  Moreover, the  ability of  a community to
benefit from coal-related development depends  to  a great extent  on the
nature of the community's existing economic and  fiscal  problems.   Where
existing problems already are evident, coal-related  development  will
generally produce more serious  negative impacts  (USOTA 1979).  An  especially
serious problem for sparsely populated areas and  areas with  long-standing
economic problems is how to find another economic  base  after the mine  or
processing plant reaches the end of its lifespan  and closes  (Cortese and
Jones 1979).

     Early notification to the  local government  concerning coal  development
plans is a major factor in helping communities to  prepare  for such
development (Cortese and Jones  1979).  To the  extent that  coal operators
recognize the value of advance  community planning  for  impacts, they can seek
to inform local communities of  proposed development  projects  (USGAO 1977).
In addition to the problems caused by the lack of  prior information, many
communities are handicapped by  the lack of local  planning  capabilities (see
Section 2.6).

5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure  for Potentially Significant Human Resource
       and Land Use Impacts

     This section first describes how EPA can  screen significant adverse
socioeconomic impacts on a macroscale.   Then, it  sketches the screening
procedure for microscale (site-related) impacts  on transportation  and
adjoining land uses.
                                    5-112

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     5.6.2.1.  Macroscale Sqcioeconomic  Impacts

     Impacts of new coal mining and  processing facilities  on  overall
employment, population growth, provision of  housing,  need  for developed
land, and governmental expenditures  for  services  and  facilities  are  closely
related, as indicated by Figure 2-34 in  Section 2.6,   Based on the  data
presented in Section 2.6. and the  information about  impacts that  is  detailed
in this section, equations can be  constructed.  The maximum potential  impact
(in dollars) of a new mining operation on  employment,  population, housing,
land use, and governmental expenditures  in the Monongahela River  Basin may
be represented by the following equations:

     (Em) (B/T) = TE                          (1)
     (TE) (T/P) = P                           (2)
     P r 0 = DU                               (3)
     (P) (0.16) = LU                          (4)
     (P) (C) (i) = G                          (5)

where:
     Em =    new employment in the proposed  mine  or  processing
             plant, as adjusted for  existing unemployment.  An
             estimate of employment  at full  operation  is to be
             obtained from the applicant  (required on  NPDES short
             Form C).

     B/T =   the basic employment/total  employment ratio,  which  is
             1:3.46 in the Monongahela River Basin (derived in
             Section 2.6.)

     TE =    total new employment  generated  by a  new mine  or
             preparation plant

     T/P =   the total employment/population ratio, which  is
             1:3.02 for the Monongahela  River Basin  (derived  in
             Section 2.6.)

     P =     total potential population  increase  generated by a
             new mine or preparation plant

     0 =     the occupancy rate for  dwellings in  the Monongahela
             River Basin, which is 3.0 persons per occupied
             dwelling (1970)

     DU =    the total additional  demand  for dwelling  units
             generated by a new mine or  preparation plant

     0.16 =  the acres of additional developed land that is
             required for each new resident  (land absorption
             coefficient derived based on  information  in Section
             2.6.)
                                     5-113

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     LU =    the total acres of developed  land  that  is  required
             for the total potential population  increase

     C =     the cost of government services  and  infrastructure
             per capita for a new mining operation or preparation
             plant (in 1975 dollars, the cost per capita  is
             $3,121, as explained in Section  5.6.7.6.)

     i =     an inflation factor, which is  the  current  consumer
             price index divided by the 1975  consumer price  index
             (values for this factor may be obtained  from the
             USBLS)

     G =     the total potential for additional  governmental
             expenditures.

This sequence of equations is easier to understand if they are used  on an
example of a new mining operation.  Assume  that  a new mine will  employ 700
persons at full operation.  Also assume that  for  this example  the inflation
factor (i) is 1.5.  Thus, Em = 700, and

     Total new employment (TE), using Equation  1  =
     (700K3.46) = 2,422

     Total potential population increase (?), using Equation 2 =
     (2,422)(3.02) = 7,314

     Total additional demand for dwelling  units  (DU), using
     Equation 3 =
     7 > 314   = 2,438
      3.0

     Total potential demand for additional  developed  land (LU),
     using
     Equation 4 = (2,438)(0.16) = 390 acres

     Total potential for additional governmental  expenditure, with
     assumed 50% increase in consumer price index 1975  to date of
     analysis, (LT), using Equation 5 = (7 ,314)(3,121)(1.5)  =
     $34,240,491.

     The calculations presented above indicate  the maximum potential
financial impact must be reduced to reflect the  following offsetting
factors:   the increase in mining employment (Em)  should be discounted  by
the number of currently unemployed miners  in  the host county.  WVDES (Mr.
Ralph Halsted) will provide an estimate for the  number  of unemployed miners
at the time of analysis.  In the example above,  if there  were 300 unemployed
miners in the host county, Em would be reduced  from 700 to 400.
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     The current unemployment  that  exceeds  4%  (the  assumed frictional
unemployment level)  for non-miners  in  the host  county  should be subtracted
from the total  potential  new employment  (TE)  generated.   In the example
above, if the host-county, non-mining  labor force were 10,000,  of whom 1,000
(10%) were unemployed, a  total  of 600  (1,000  -  400  = 600) unemployed persons
should be considered as available to fill jobs  stimulated by the new mining
operation.  WVDES  (Mr. Ralph Halsted)  will  provide  the most recent data on
non-mining unemployment.

     EPA will consider a  single  new mining  operation to  have potentially
significant impacts  on human resources if it  generates a 5% or  greater
increase in population, employment, dwelling  units,  or need for developed
land within a given  county.  This criterion is  intended  to provide a rough
estimate of the size of mining  operation that may produce significant
adverse impacts.   The cutoff values for  new mine employment that generates
total employment,  as well  as population,  dwelling unit,  and land use demands
which all result in  potentially  significant impacts  are  presented in Table
5-24.  These values  were  derived using the  equations presented  in this
section.  These cutoff values  assume that 80% of all employment and other
impacts will occur in the  county where the  mine is  situated.

     Cumulative impacts also will be analyzed on the basis of this
framework.  Thus,  if two  or more permit  applications together create the
potential for new  employment that will exceed the threshold value during a
12-month period, EPA will  consider  these impacts as  potentially significant.
In an area like West Virginia,  which has  traditionally been characterized by
many small mines (as compared  to the western US), cumulative significant
impacts may occur  frequently,  even  though individual mines or processing
plants rarely exceed the  threshold  values presented  in Table 5-24.

     When an identified threshold is exceeded (and,  thus,  when  potentially
significant adverse  impacts on  human resources  have  been screened), EPA will
notify the appropriate Regional Planning and Development  Council (see
Section 4.4) and request  their  estimate  concerning  the severity of the
potential adverse  impacts, the  conformance  of the potential project with
local plans and policies,  and  any specific  mitigative  measures  that may be
undertaken by local  agencies or recommended as  New  Source NPDES permit
conditions.  This  notification  will be undertaken by EPA in writing.  The
councils will be given ample time to exercise their  A-95  review
responsibilities.

     EPA1s primary objective in notifying RPDC's is  to verify the nature and
extent of the potential human resource impacts  as well as to specify
mitigative measures  or permit  conditions recommended for  issuing permits.
These permit conditions may require that  the  applicant commit himself to
mitigations directly or indirectly.  For example, if a housing  shortage is
exacerbated, the applicant may  commit  himself to providing additional
housing units directly or  may  present  a  demonstration  from a relevant
agency/party that  such housing  is committed.  In any case, EPA  expects to
receive more detailed information upon which  to evaluate  the permit.
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Table 5-24.
Employment thresholds for potentially significant mining
impacts in the Monongahela River Basin  (see text for method  of
calculation).  Minimum threshold value  of estimated employment
for each county is underlined.
              ADDITIONAL MINE OR PREPARATION PLANT EMPLOYMENT REQUIRED  TO
              PRODUCE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON:
County
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
Total
Employment
75
495
107
413
481
115
143
55
35
98
Population
(1970)
92
449
121
376
401
161
155
91
45
126
Dwelling Units
(1970)
93
469
105
400
379
156
154
93
50
119
Developed
Land
80
485
125
371
327
157
184
85
62
105
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     If the screening process suggests potentially  significant  adverse  human
resource effects, if RPDC coordination corroborrates this showing,  and  if
mitigations cannot be or are not committed by  the applicant,  a  potentially
significant impact has been identified and additional detailed  study  is
required.  Sections 5.6.4. through 5.6.8. provide information that  will  help
specify the content of detailed studies.  A good example of a detailed  study
is the evaluation of the socioeconomic impacts of two new coal  mines  in
Wayne County, which was conducted by Argonne National Laboratory  in
conjunction with the ARC (Argonne National Laboratory 1978).  In  the  case of
the Wayne County study, the original request for the study was  made by  the
Wayne County Board through the WVGOECD; funding was provided  by the ARC.

     5.6.2.2.  Transportation Impacts

     Off-site transportation impacts are to be expected from  new  mining
operations, but these impacts are not addressed currently in  the  State  or
Federal surface mining regulations.  In EPA's  review of New Source  permit
applications, the major concern for transportation  impacts is based on human
health, safety, and general welfare.

     EPA will contact the appropriate transportation agencies on  a  case-by-
case basis when significant transportation issues have been identified
during the public comment period.  Typically,  the identification  of
potential transportation impacts that are adverse may be accomplished
through written or oral comments from citizens, special interest  groups, or
public agencies.  When a New Source coal mine application has had
potentially adverse transportation impacts identified, the applicant  will be
requested to provide the following information:

     •  Origin point of coal shipments to market by public road,
        railroad, or waterway

     •  Destination point(s) of shipments by public road, rail-
        road, or waterway (when known)

     •  Route(s) of shipment (when known)

     •  Volume of shipment by route and destination, in tons  per
        year average (when known).

     EPA personnel then will contact the appropriate transportation
agencies, will provide to the agencies the information about  transportation
that was submitted by the applicant, and will request that these  agencies
evaluate potentially significant adverse impacts.  Contacts with  agencies
will be done on a case-by-case basis, depending upon the issues identified.
The transportation agencies that may be contacted to evaluate impacts
include:

     •  Railroads — West Virginia Rail Maintenance Authority

     •  Roads -- West Virginia Department of Highways.
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     Again, if either the authorized transportation  planning,  and  management
agency or RPDC verifies potentially significant  adverse  impacts that  the
applicant cannot or will not mitigate,  additional detailed  analyses
(and possibly EIS's) will be required by EPA.  An extended  discussion of
potential transportation impacts and mitigations of  adverse  impacts  is
provided in Section 5.6.6. and is provided  for the purposes  of planning
such detailed analyses.

     5.6.2.3.  Land Use Impacts

     Potential land use impacts associated  with New  Source  coal mining
include both direct impacts of the mining activity itself and indirect
impacts associated with the induced population growth that may be  associated
with a new mine.  The nature and severity of these impacts reflect a  variety
of factors, including:

     •  The type of mining activity.  Short-term surface mining
        generally has a larger potential to produce  direct land
        use impacts on surrounding areas than long-term
        underground mining with comparable  production tonnage,
        unless there is damage from subsidence.  Underground
        mining operations may produce greater induced population
        growth impacts, because of the  larger number of workers
        required to produce a given tonnage.

     •  The physical characteristics of the specific site on which
        the mine is located.  Generally, impacts on  surrounding
        areas are potentially more severe when the site  is  steeply
        sloping or is upslope or upstream from developed areas.

     •  The general land use characteristics of the  area in which
        a mine is located.  Adverse secondary impacts of induced
        population growth will be especially severe  in areas of
        steeply sloping terrain and concentrated land ownership
        (see Section 2.6.).

     Direct mining impacts on land use  occur where the proposed mining
operation is incompatible with surrounding  land uses.  USOSM permanent
program regulations are designed to minimize these impacts by prohibiting
surface mining:

     •  Within 100 feet of a cemetery

     •  Within 300 feet of public buildings (schools, churches,
        and community or institutional  buildings)

     •  Within 300 feet of occupied residences (unless the consent
        of the owner is given)
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     •  Within 100 feet of public roads  except where  the mine  road
        joins the public road, (exceptions are allowed  following  a
        public hearing)

     •  Within National Parks, National  Wildlife Refuges,  the
        National System of Trails, Wilderness Areas,  the National
        Wild and Scenic Rivers System, and National Recreation
        Areas

     •  On prime farmlands, unless there is  special reclamation to
        restore productivity following mining

     •  In State Parks

     •  In State Forests (except by underground methods)

     •  On State Public Hunting and Fishing  Areas  (except  by
        underground methods)

     •  In areas where the mining would  adversely  affect National
        Register-eligible or listed historic sites (unless full
        coordination is accomplished)

     •  In areas where a public park would be affected  adversely
        (unless the consent of the agency administering the park
        is given).

     Under the SMCRA permanent program regulations, mining may be banned  at
the discretion of the regulatory authority where the  regulatory authority
determines that the mining would:

     •  Be incompatible with land use plans

     •  Be damaging to important or fragile  historic, cultural,
        scientific, or aesthetic values  (see Section  5.7.)

     •  Result in substantial loss of water  supply or food or
        fiber productivity

     •  Affect natural hazards that could endanger life and
        property, including areas subject to frequent flooding and
        areas of unstable slopes.

     Mining activities may be incompatible with surrounding uses  and
generate negative impacts,  however, even if  they are  in conformance with
existing regulations.  Factors that may  lead to such  incompatibility
include but are not limited to:

     •  Excessive noise from machinery,  haul trucks,  or blasting
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     •  Excessive vibration from machinery or haul  trucks

     •  Fugitive dust

     •  Rockfalls and other forms of earth movement  in  the
        vicinity of the mine site

     •  Aesthetic intrusion of mining  in residential  and
        recreational areas or high-quality natural  landscapes.

     Certain uses are especially sensitive to mining  impacts,.   Such  uses
include educational institutions, both public and private primary  and
secondary schools, colleges and universities, and institutions  designed  for
exceptional populations (e.g., schools for those with learning  disabilities
or other impairments).  Other sensitive uses are:

     •  Health care facilities, including hospitals,  clinics, and
        nursing homes

     •  Public and private recreational facilities,  including
        parks, playgrounds, campgrounds, and fishing  areas

     •  Governmental facilities, including all  local, State  or
        Federal offices or installations

     •  Public meeting places, including churches,  auditoriums,
        and conference centers.

     Because of the potential for significant adverse impacts to these
facilities, even when existing State and Federal mining regulations  are
satisfied, EPA will request that the applicant  identify (by  name,  address,
phone number, etc.) all sensitive uses and facilities (as described  above)
within 2,000 feet of the boundary of the proposed operation.  Then EPA will
notify all owners, managers, or other  individuals responsible for  the
operation of these sensitive facilities.  (To avoid  duplication of effort,
evidence of previous notification to any of these persons in connection with
other mining permits is acceptable to EPA.)  This special notification
process is designed to ensure that operators of all  such facilities  are
aware of the proposed mining activity  and are given  the opportunity  to make
responses to the mining proposal directly to EPA.  Notification by EPA is  to
contain all information found in the general public  notice required  pursuant
to SMCRA and WVSCMRA.

     The use of this notification process will  provide  EPA with information
in addition to that received during the public  comment  period that is in
regard to permits that may impact sensitive facilities.  Moreover, the  list
of sensitive facilities within 2,000 feet of the proposed mining activity
will provide EPA with an adequate current data  base  for potential  land use
and human resource impacts even in the event that no  public  response is
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received and the EPA permit reviewer determines  that  potential  significant
adverse significant impacts may result.  Because much  of  the  new mining
activity in the Basin will take place  in areas remote  from  sensitive  land
uses, EPA expects that its notification requirements will affect only  a
small proportion of New Source NPDES permit  applicants.

5.6.3.  Special Considerations for Detailed  Impact  and Mitigation Scoping

     The assessment of specific human  resource impacts of new coal-related
facilities and the development of mitigative measures  for adverse impacts
are made difficult by a variety of factors,  including:

     •  Secondary as well as primary impacts;  for example,
        increased employment in mining operations that generates
        additional, secondary employment in  service industries.

     •  Significant positive as well as negative impacts.   In an
        area with high unemployment,  especially  in  the mining
        sector, new mining activity substantially can  reduce
        unemployment.  The additional  income generated by new
        mining employment also serves  as a boost to the entire
        economy of an area because of  its secondary impacts.

     •  Human resource impacts have "spread  effects";  that  is,
        they are regional in nature.   Frequently, mine workers
        commute as much as 50 miles (one way)  to work.  As  a
        result, economic, demographic, and land use impacts
        associated with mine operation typically are  spread over a
        wide radius.  This necessitates a regional  approach to
        impact analysis.

     •  Short-term variability in demographic, economic,  and
        financial characteristics stemming from rapid  changes are
        common in migration patterns,  unemployment  rates, and
        governmental financial conditions.

     •  Lag times and lead times affect the  prediction and
        interpretation of impacts.  Mitigative strategies can
        counteract problems of impact  timing,  especially  on local
        governmental finances (see Section 5.6.7).

     •  Many human resource impacts involve measurement of
        conditions that are difficult  to quantify objectively,
        such as quality of housing, adequacy of  public services,
        and local fiscal capability.
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     •  Institutional mitigations can  offset  adverse  human
        resource impacts, especially in housing  supply  and
        government finance.

     •  The adverse impacts of  an individual  facility may not  be
        significant, but the cumulative impacts  of  several
        facilities may be significant.  Cumulative  impacts  must be
        examined on a regional, as well as a  local, basis because
        of the "spread effect"  described  above.

     The complexity and interactive nature of human resource  impacts  has  led
to the development of sophisticated analytical models,  including  the  Social
and Economic Assessment Model  (SEAM) and  the  Spatial  Allocation Model (SAM).
The implementation of these models is  not necessary for the routine permit
review process to be conducted  by EPA, but it may be  useful for scoping
SIS's or detailed analyses of  New Source  proposals  whose  socioeconomic
issues require thorough evaluation.

5.6.4.  Employment and Population Impacts and Mitigative Measures

     Potential employment and  related  economic impacts  of coal mining
operations are strongly influenced by  three factors:

     •  General boom and bust  cycles in the coal industry

     •  The mix of surface .and  underground mining,  which have
        distinctly different labor requirements  for given levels
        of production

     •  Trends in miner productivity (tons of coal mined per
        worker day).

     The largest economic gains from coal-related growth go to young  workers
with needed skills, who will constitute the largest fraction  of the expanded
labor force.  The biggest losers in areas with coal-related growth will be
persons on fixed incomes, whose incomes cannot keep pace with  local.
inflation, and marginal businessmen, who  cannot  pay higher  wages  in
competition for the remaining  local labor force  (Paxton and Long  1975,
Mountain West Research 1975).

     Eastern coalfields have received  much less  attention than western coal-
fields as potential recipients  of coal mining impacts,  despite the fact that
over 85% of the Nation's additional mining employment needs are expected  to
occur in the East.  Employment  growth  in  coal mining  in the East  expanded
much more rapidly during the mid-1970"s than  either the Edison Electric
Institute or the USBM predicted (USOTA 1978).
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     An important factor  in  forecasting  community  impacts  of  increased coal
production is the local ratio of underground  to  surface  mining.   Underground
mining now requires roughly  550 miners  to  produce  1  million tons  of coal per
year; surface mining requires only  about 160  miners  for  the same  level of
production (USOTA 1979).  This difference  must be  considered  when potential
employment impacts are analyzed.

     One of the most serious impacts  of  coal  mining  is  the cyclic problem of
boom and bust periods.  Perhaps the best example of  the  impacts of  cyclic
coal development during the  post-1970 period  is  the  Raleigh County  (Beckley)
area.  Beckley grew rapidly  during  the mid 1970's, as a  regional  center for
the metallurgical coalfields of southern West Virginia.  Employment,
population, and incomes rose rapidly.  During 1978,  however,  Raleigh  County
experienced a severe economic slump,  with  slack  demand  for local
metallurgical coal (USOTA 1978).  Between  1978 and 1980, a total  of 2,243
coal miners were laid off in workforce  reductions.

     New coal mining workers may come from a  variety of  sources,  including:

     •  Unemployed workers with previous experience  in  coal mining
        and related occupations (see  Section  2.6.)

     •  Persons formerly  employed in  mining,  but now employed in
        other occupations

     •  New entrants to the  local labor  force

     •  Commuters into the area

     •  In-migrants to the area.

     Adverse impacts will be reduced  to  the extent that  persons already
living in the local area can be employed.  To the  extent that new mining
operations can provide employment to  miners laid off during earlier periods,
new mining will have distinctly beneficial  local economic  and employment
impacts.

     Commuters to new mining operations  in the Monongahela River  Basin from
areas relatively distant  from those operations are a significant  factor in
the mining labor force.  A common consequence of new mine  development,
especially in small towns and rural areas,  is the  development of  an
extensive commuter field.  A survey of  commuting patterns  to  one  large coal
mining operation revealed the following  pattern of commuting  distances (Bain
and Quattrochi 1974):
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Residence Distance from Mine (miles)           Percentage of Workers

           0-15                                         32
           16-29                                        40
           30-44                                        17
           45 or more                                   11

A study by Argonne National laboratory (1978) of commuting distance (in
hours) of job applicants for a large new coal mine to be operated by  the
Monterey Coal Company in Wayne County, West Virginia, revealed the  following
potential distances:

                                               Percentage of Workers
Residence Distance from Mine (miles)           Urban           Rural
           0-15                                 37              40
           16-20                                20              23
           21-30                                20              23
           31-39                                 8              11
           40 or more                           15             	3
                                               100             TOO~

     Coal miners tend to commute long distances to work for the following
reasons :

     •  Limited life-span of mines, making a permanent move to the
        mine area undesirable

     •  Inability of workers to find suitable housing sites in the
        mine area (see Section 2.6.)

     •  Inability of workers to sell houses that they already own
        that are relatively distant from the mine.

     Commuting over long distances has a variety of impacts, both negative
and positive.  These include:

     •  The consumption of large amounts of fuel for commuting
        (negative)

     •  Reduction of worker reliability (negative)

     •  "Leakage" of wages and taxes outside the host communLty
        and county in which the mine is located (negative)

     •  Preservation of socioeconomic stability in the community
        that otherwise could be reduced by in-migration (USGAO
        1977; positive)
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     •  Reduction  of  increased  loads  on host  community
        infrastructure  that  otherwise would result  from
        in-migration  (positive).

     At the proposed  new  coal mine  in Wayne County,  West  Virginia,  the 1,565
applicants for the 1,540  anticipated  jobs  had  the  following
characteristics  (Argonne  National Laboratory  1978):

     •  Incomes  were  near local  averages,  but  well below  mine-
        worker averages

     •  86% of all applicants had no  previous  mining experience,
        which may  reflect the fact  that Wayne  County is not  a
        traditional coal  mining  area

     •  91% of all applicants were  male

     •  81% of all applicants for whom information was available
        were 18  to 35 years  of  age

     •  98% of all applicants were  white

     •  88% of all applicants for whom information was available
        were at  least high school graduates, making  the applicants
        better educated than the general population  of the area.

The low incidence  of  previous mining  experience  among the applicants
indicated that new employees could  be drawn from people having a  relatively
wide range of previous  occupations.   This  would  be especially pronounced in
areas that traditionally  have not had high levels of mining  activity.   Many
non-mining workers are willing  to switch to mine employment  because of the
high salaries offered.

     The primary employment  impacts of mining  are amplified  by the
"multiplier effect" described in Section 2.6.1.1.5.   An overall multiplier
ratio of 2.46 service (non-mining)  jobs to one basic (mining) job was
calculated for the Monongahela River  Basin.  Because coal mining  is a  basic
occupational sector,  this  ratio  indicates  both a significant multiplier
effect and a significant  generation of secondary impacts.    It is highly
unlikely, however, that the  full multiplier effect will be felt because of
"dampening" factors,  such  as current  levels of unemployment  among miners,
commuting, and the limited  life  span  of coal mines.   Thus, use of the  stated
employment multipliers developed in this analysis probably will tend to
produce a high,  or "worst  case", estimate  of employment and  population
growth.  This estimate  also  will indicate  the  maximum potential demand for
additional housing, transportation  facilities, government  services, and
developed land.
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     Employment and population growth  potentially have  favorable impacts as
well as adverse impacts.  Beneficial impacts  include:

     •  The reduction of unemployment  in  areas  of chronically  high
        unemployment

     •  The reduction in the poverty-level  population,  especially
        in areas with a high proportion of  poverty  level
        population

     •  Potential for former out-migrants to  return to  the  area,
        if they desire

     •  Re-employment of coal miners who  have been  laid  off  during
        recent work force reductions and  mine closings.

The direct employment and population growth consequences  of  increased coal
production that are described above produce three major categories of
negative impacts that may require mitigation, as discussed  in  the following
paragraphs.

     5.6.4.1.  Boom and bust cycles in coal production  and  lack of a
compensating economic base.  The local economic base of coal producing areas
should be diversified.  This may be accomplished by developing industrial,
commercial, and recreational areas.  This development can be undertaken by
municipalities, counties,. RPDC1s, and  the State, primarily  through the
WVGOECD and the WVEDA.  Coal mining companies may aid in  these efforts by:

     •  Encouraging their personnel to donate time  and  expertise
        to local industrial development efforts

     •  Providing "seed money" for local  development through
        grants and low-interest loans

     •  Providing services-in-kind (e.g., use of earth-moving
        equipment) at sites for industrial, commercial, and
        recreational development

     •  Planning mine development so as to  provide  additional  land
        suitable for post-mining commercial and industrial use,
        especially in areas with less  land  capable  of being
        developed.

     Generation of additional employment  that will  induce in-migration,
population growth, and additional demand  for  land and governmental
services.  To the extent that new local miners  can  be found, in-migration
and its potential impacts will be reduced.  Mining  companies can work to
increase local employment through:
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     •  Supporting mining-related  vocational  education (primarily
        a responsibility  of  county boards  of  education as  assisted
        by  the State Bureau  of Vocational.  Technical,  and  Adult
        Education)

     •  Providing on-the-job  training

     •  Planning intensive job advertising  campaigns to  seek  local
        workers, including women and minority group members.

     Increased long distance  commuting  to mining  areas and associated
excessive energy consumption.  Coal companies,  and/or  local governmental  and
quasi-governmental agencies may seek to  reduce  long-distance  commuting  by
either facilitating the construction of  housing near new mine locations or
through providing alternative transportation  strategies, such as  carpools,
vanpools, and bus service.  Alternative  strategies could be coordinated
through the WVGOECD, the  WVDH, and the  RPDC's.

     The employment and population impacts  described here  are cumulative  for
the various coal mining activities that  have  an impact on  any local  area.
As a result, individual permit-by-permit analysis  is not sufficient  to
determine all impacts.  A cumulative record of  increased employment  and
population  is needed.  It is  useful to  maintain such data  both on a
county-by-county basis and on a Basin-wide  basis.  The accumulated total
additional  employment and population for all  permitted facilities within  the
Basin and each of its cons.tituent  counties  will be monitored  by EPA  on  a
continuous  basis as new permit applications are received.  This monitoring
is necessary in order to  detect overall  changes and local  concentrations  of
employment  and population impacts  that  may  be significant  based on the
criteria presented in Section 5.6.2.

5.6.5.  Housing Impacts and Mitigations  of  Adverse Impacts

     The USOTA (1979) calls housing "the most  severe coal  impact  that
communities have been unable  to resolve."   Problems of housing quantity and
quality can be greatly increased by the  impacts of new mining activity.   The
recent slump in demand for coal temporarily has reduced  the need  for new
housing in  the Monongahela River Basin.  Increased coal  mining activity in
the Basin will exacerbate the housing shortage.

     Housing impacts are complicated by  the age of the existing housing
stock and the increase in population during the 1970's (see Section  2.6.).
The existing vacancy rates in the  Basin  are very low and allow little
absorption  of additional  population.  Failure  to provide adequate additional
housing can result in the overcrowding  of the  existing housing stock and
the development of substandard housing,  which  creates  potential reductions
in the availability and productivity of  coal  mine workers.

     Housing for employees is an important  factor  in the financial success
of a mine (Metz 1977).  Housing conditions  affect the  productivity of
                                   5-127

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miners, especially when they  are  aspiring  toward  higher  living  standards.
Many mining companies have come to accept  the  fact that  a  convenient,
desirable housing supply is needed in order  to  attract a stable workforce,
to raise productivity, and to decrease downtime.  It has been  found  that  the
investment of time and money  in developing an  adequate housing  stock is more
than compensated by more efficient mine operation for companies that help to
provide housing for their work force (Metz 1977).

     There are impediments to providing adequate  housing in  the Monongahela
River Basin; the effort is subject to both physical  and  institutional
constraints.  The limitations resulting from steep slopes  and  flooding and
from concentration of land ownership are described in Section 2.6.   Among
the many institutional factors that limit  availability of  housing  in the
Basin are (President's Commission on Coal  1979):

     •  Regional capital shortages.  Banks are  generally  small,
        rely on local depositors  for funds,  and are  very
        conservative in their lending policies.

     •  The high risks and uncertainties of boom  and bust  cycles
        have reinforced the conservatism of  local lending
        institutions.  Lending institutions  do not want  to risk
        foreclosure on a house in a mining region during  the
        downside of a coal cycle because the house will have
        little resale value.

     •  Regulatory constraints, especially on  branch banking,
        restrict the flow of  funds to smaller  towns  and  rural
        areas

     •  The inability of local governments to  obtain the necessary
        funds to provide public service support for needed housing
        - especially roads and water and sewer  facilities

     •  Federal programs generally have had  limited  success  in
        meeting needs in rural areas.  Little USHUD money  has  gone
        to rural areas and USFmHA programs have experienced
        cutbacks.

     •  Program cost standards, particularly for  USHUD and FHA, do
        not adequately take into account high  site development
        costs in steeply sloping  areas

     •  Federal housing program standards  often require
        development and construction practices  that  are  suited  to
        densely populated urban areas
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     •  Land development controls  and  building  codes  that  are
        suited to local environmental  factors and  construction
        practices are often non-existent.

     •  Housing assistance staffs  in Charleston or Philadelphia
        are often too far away  to  benefit  rural areas.
        Knowledgeable local observers  report that  the  lack of
        local administrative  staff has  effectively prevented
        maintenance of a USHUD  Community Development Block grant
        program in the coalfield areas.

     •  The area's history of limited  and  cyclical housing demand
        has reflected the cyclical nature  of coal  development.  As
        a result, high volume,  low cost development has not been
        undertaken.

     •  Few local builders have the resources,  either  in working
        capital or available  credit, needed  for large-scale
        development

     •  There are shortages in  the types of  skilled labor
        necessary for major residential development

     •  Scattered sites also  have  prevented  the use of
        cost-reducing "industrial" housing construction
        techniques

     •  Subsidence, water contamination, and reduced groundwater
        availability resulting  from previous mining activity limit
        housing development in  some areas.

Such constraints on housing supply make it difficult to provide adequate new
housing for the substantial increases  in population that might  be associated
with new mining activity.

     New housing that is required  in coalfield  areas may be provided  by the
coal companies themselves; by local, regional,  State, and  Federal agencies;
by nonprofit corporations; and  by  quasi-governmental agencies.  As  a  result,
the roster of potential mitigative techniques for  adverse  impacts is  long.
Also, the problems that make housing provision  difficult are closely
related.  For example, the high cost of site development on steep slopes
usually makes it difficult to obtain sufficient  capital for housing
development.

     Because of the complex and interrelated nature of the impacts  and
their mitigations,  this section has been divided into three parts.  The
first part describes mitigations that may  be undertaken directly by the coal
mining companies and is arranged in sequence from  the least direct to the
most direct corporate intervention in  providing  housing.   Examples of recent
corporate housing aid in West Virginia  also are  provided.  The  second
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part describes measures  that may be  undertaken  by  public  and  quasi-public
corporations, often with the assistance  of mining  corporations.   The third
part addresses actions to be undertaken  by governmental agencies.

     5.6.5.1.  Direct Corporate Mitigations

     Direct corporate mitigations  include the following (Metz  1977):

Provision of Professional Advice and Guidance.  Professional  advice  or
guidance can be offered  to  local governmental agencies by the  corporation
proposing a new mining development.  A company  can lend staff  and provide
staff or consultant time in developing housing  plans, untangling  legal
issues, and preparing applications for grant assistance.   This  is especially
helpful in rural areas where governmental units have  no professional staffs
with experience in housing matters;  few, if any, ordinances regulate growth;
and little knowledge exists about  available State  and Federal  grants.

Provision of Equipment and Manpower.  The company  proposing a  mining
development can lend equipment and manpower to  aid in housing  site clearance
and grading and to aid in community  projects.

Provision of Financial Aid.  The company proposing a  development  can "prime
the pump" with regard to housing development by providing either  temporary
or permanent financial aid  to developers, municipalities,  or  individual
employees.  The company  that gives financial assistance may expect total
monetary recoupment of investment  or a limited  direct monetary  loss,  to  be
recouped through trade-off benefits.  "Trade-off"  benefits to  the company
may include lower employee  turnover, reduced absenteeism,  higher
productivity, and easier employee  recruitment.

Direct Provision of Housing.  A mining company  may want to direct a  housing
development part or all  of the way from  initiation to the  unit  sale  or
rental stage.  The direct provision  of housing  units  for  sale  or  rent  or
provision of mobile home pads for  rent allows a company wide  latitude  in
land development.  The company then has  control over  the  housing
development's layout, recreation facilities, open  areas,  commercial  sector,
landscaping, protective  covenants, government involvement, and  services.
Two major decisions a company involved in the direct  provision  of housing
must make sooner or later are the  percent of investment it seeks  to  recoup
and when it should extricate itself  from the housing development's operation
(Metz 1977).

     Options in the direct provision of housing include:

     •  A company or consortium of companies may set up or use  a
        subsidiary to handle the whole housing  development from
        project initiation through operation

     •  A company may hire an outside firm to manage the  project,
        deal with the subcontractors, and ultimately  sell  or rent
        the units for the company.
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     Many coal companies have been reluctant to enter the housing  field
because of the hatred and bitterness arising from the company towns of
earlier eras.  A few companies have begun to make housing available again,
often in conjunction with Federal, State, and local agencies.  Rarely does  a
coal company assume responsibility for provision of housing  (Metz  1977).

     Examples of direct provision of housing in West Virginia are  provided
by the Eastern Associated Coal Company, which built two  subdivisions and  a
mobile home park for its workers in West Virginia during the coal boom of
the mid-1970's.  These developments included (Metz 1977):

     •  A subdivision near the Federal #2 Mine in Marion County.
        Eastern bought theland, developed the infrastructure, and
        sold lots to a house builder at cost.  Eastern did not
        find this subdivision successful and concluded that
        isolated, suburban-style subdivisions that were  near
        mines, but separated from surrounding public sector
        facilities and nearby communities, would not be
        successful.

     •  A subdivision in Raleigh County, West Virginia.  Eastern
        provided financial support, and the Appalachian  Power
        Company made 1,200 acres of land available for development.

     •  A mobile home park in Boone County, West Virginia.  This
        park was initiated by the company because workers were
        having difficulty finding suitable home sites in Boone
        County and because many young miners could not afford
        conventional housing.  The Mobile Home Manufacturers
        Association aided in the layout of this 35-unit  park.
        Eastern committed several hundred thousand dollars for a
        sewer and water system, blacktopped streets, underground
        power and telephone lines, cable television, landscaping,
        and pad construction.  The monthly pad rentals do not
        cover the park's operating costs, but Eastern feels that
        the investment is easily recouped in mine efficiency.

     Coal companies  also can work through non-profit housing development
consortia.  An example of such a corporation is the Coalfield Housing
Corporation (CHC) in Beckley.  CMC is a joint venture of seven large coal
producing companies  (US Steel, Consolidated, Georgia-Pacific, Eastern, Armco
Steel, Westmoreland, and Beckley Mining) and the United Mine Workers of
America.  CHC was founded in 1976 to help identify and purchase suitable
housing sites and then bring together potential developers and public and
private agency lenders.  No other similar agencies have  been instituted
elsewhere in West Virginia (USOTA 1979).
                                 5-131

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     5.6.5.2.  Indirect Corporate Mitigation

     Numerous options are available to a mining company that wants to
provide financial assistance for housing.  The magnitude of financial aid,
the degree of risk entailed, and the degree of anticipated financial
recoupment will vary with the corporation's philosophy about the expected
trade-off benefits.   Options available to a company include the following
(Metz 1977):

     •  Mining companies can offer aid in the purchase of land
        and/or in infrastructure development; proceeds from a
        possible land sale could be returned to the company or
        placed in a revolving fund for future land and/or
        infrastructure ventures.  A company also can provide
        collateral to a bank making possible a loan to a developer
        for subdivision preparation.

     •  Mining companies can guarantee a builder/developer that a
        certain number of housing units will be purchased during a
        specified time period.   The housing units either would be
        purchased on the open market (the company buying the
        unsold difference) or directly by the company, for resale
        or rental to its employees (possibly discounted).  Such
        guarantees by a company often are sufficient to secure a
        developer's loan application approval with no monetary
        outlay.

     •  Mining companies can offer inducements in various forms to
        employees for house rental or purchase subsidies and
        discounts.  They can offer interest free or monthly
        reduced loans for down payments, closing cost absorption,
        sale of house at cost,  house cost not reflecting land
        and/or infrastructure costs, payment of several points on
        FHA, VA, and even conventional mortgages, and
        company-sponsored mortgage insurance programs.

     5.6.5.3.  State, Federal,  and Local Governmental Mitigations .

     A wide variety of Federal, State, and local progrpTi^ is available to
provide housing.  These include:

     •  Section 601 Energy Impact Assistance Grants.  This is a
        USDOE program administered by the USFmHA.  It is
        applicable to coal and synfuel impacts in West Virginia.
        The Governor's Office is responsible for designation of
        impact areas, with the approval of USDOE.  Eligible impact
        areas either have had an 8% population growth over the
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        past year or are projected to have 8% growth per year  for
        the next three years.  An energy impact growth management
        plan, which will become part of the State Development
        Plan, is now in preparation.  Funding under Section 601 is
        for land acquisition and site development costs; it does
        not cover actual dwelling construction costs.  Community
        facilities, such as parks, hospitals, schools, and sewage
        treatment plants, are covered.

     •  ARDA Section 207 grants.  This program encompasses most of
        ARDA's housing assistance and provides catalyst money
        through three mechanisms.  (1)  "Up-front" risk capital is
        available for low and moderate income housing and for  site
        engineering and preparation.  The 207 program provides 80%
        of funding; local sources (including other Federal grants)
        must provide the remaining 20%.  (2) Outright grants of
        10% (up to 25% under pending legislation) help reduce  site
        preparation costs in areas with steep terrain and/or high
        infrastructure costs.  (3) Technical Assistance Grants
        support program development.  The State implementing
        agency for this program is the West Virginia Housing
        Development Fund.

     •  ARDA Section 302 grants.  These are research and
        demonstration grants administered by ARC.  Through this
        program, guidelines .for other housing programs can be
        waived for energy-impacted areas.

     •  Community Development Block Grants.  USHUD Block Grants
        were provided in 14 West Virginia counties in Fiscal 1980
        and are scheduled to be provided in 19 counties in Fiscal
        1981.  The State implementing agency for this program  is
        the WVHDF.

     •  USHUD/USDA Rural Demonstration Programs.

     •  The WVHDF provides assistance for low and moderate income
        housing through bond sales as well as serving as the State
        implementation agency for the ARC and USHUD programs
        described above

     •  Regional Planning and Development Council in the
        appropriate region (Figure 6-1; Table 6-3)

     •  Local public housing authorities.

The sponsoring agencies provide detailed information about program
specifications, eligibility, and current funding levels for their programs,
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     The President's Commission on Coal (1979) recommended improving the
skills of construction workers to improve housing availability.  Manpower
training programs in construction skills could be developed through the
State Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult Education.  The Commission
also urged reexamination of Federal housing program standards to bring them
more in line with conditions in areas like the Monongahela River Basin.

5.6.6.  Transportation Impacts and Mitigative Measures

     Transportation impacts and potential mitigations for adverse impacts
differ substantially among the various coal hauling modes.  The discussion
first describes impacts for the major haul modes in use in the Basin (road
and rail) and then presents mitigative strategies for each mode.  No
descriptions of the impacts and mitigations of slurry pipeline haulage are
presented, because no slurry pipelines are known to exist currently or to be
planned for construction within the Basin.  Also, a limited description of
the impacts of barge hauling of coal is presented, because use of this mode
is not pertinent to the Basin and not expected to become significant in the
future.

     5.6.6.1.  Roads

     A variety of adverse impacts is associated with coal haulage over
public roads.  The major categories of negative impacts described by the
USDOT (1978) and the USOTA (1979) are:

     •  Safety of other vehicles using the roads.  Coal trucks
        often travel on roads originally intended only for
        farm-to-market access.  Vehicle weights often exceed road
        weight limits (USDOT 1978).  The resulting deterioration
        of the roads makes passage by lighter vehicles both unsafe
        and difficult.  Passing, whether by coal trucks on
        downhill grades or by non-coal vehicles on uphill grades,
        may be extremely dangerous on many narrow, winding roads
        in the Basin.

     •  Noise from coal hauling vehicles.   For example, a demsity
        of 100 automobiles per mile of roadway will generate a
        median sound level of 69 dB(A) at a distance of 100 feet
        from the edge of the roadway.  If 20% of this traffic is
        coal trucks, sound level would rise to 75 dB(A).   This
        increase in noise levels is equivalent to quadrupling the
        number of passenger automobile sound sources.  FHA design
        level noise standards for residences, schools, libraries,
        hospitals, and parks provide that a level of  70dB(A) not
        be exceeded more than 10% of the time (USDOT 1978).
                                    5-134

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     •  Vibration from passing coal traffic, especially when coal
        roads are in poor condition or contain potholes, cracks,
        etc. (USDOT 1978)

     •  Dust and spillage of coal on roadways

     •  Increased traffic congestion that is associated with mine
        employment, induced secondary employment, and population
        growth.  These impacts are especially severe during shift
        changes at the mines.  Beckley, in Raleigh County, is a
        good example of the problems that arise from the increased
        local population associated with the growth of mining
        employment.  Despite the fact that Beckley is a relatively
        small city (population about 35,000), some employees face
        more than three hours of driving time to and from work
        because of traffic congestion (USOTA 1978).

     •  Increased costs of road maintenance.  The estimated cost
        of improving existing public coal haul roads in West
        Virginia ranges from $1.2 to $2.3 million (see Section
        2.6.).  Additional coal haul vehicle traffic will increase
        the cost of road maintenance, both by increasing wear on
        roads currently utilized for coal hauling and by
        increasing road repair costs when roads not currently used
        for coal hauling are so utilized.  Impacts will be
        especially severe on. roads not currently used for coal
        hauling.  Not only will they need increased maintenance
        but also widening, realignment, and construction of new
        bridges may be required if the roads are to meet State or
        Federal standards.

     USDOT (1978) stated that "Appalachia"s coal road problems could become
so severe as to become a bottleneck on coal production ."  Transportation
impacts are likely to be most severe in towns and cities currently
experiencing little coal truck traffic.  Impacts are likely to be especially
significant if the town itself is not a coal production center but only a
pass-through point between coal production sites and coal preparation or use
sites (USDOT 1978).

     Mitigative measures include:

     •  Improvements in road width, alignment, pavement quality,
        and bridges that will improve highway safety and reduce
        the levels of noise, vibration, and dust generated by
        coal trucks

     •  Strict enforcement of weight limits and speed limits

     •  Rerouting of coal truck traffic around urban centers to
        reduce noise and vibration impacts in populated areas
                                    5-135

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     •  Restrictions on the hours during which coal trucks may
        operate to eliminate noise and vibration impacts at those
        times when they cause greatest problems.

In West Virginia no local funds are used for road construction or
improvement.  State responsibility is implemented by WVDH.  Planning
functions are handled by the WVDH Advance Planning Section.

     5.6.6.2.  Railroads
     If rail movements of coal increase, impacts will be less than  if the
coal moves by truck.  Nevertheless, some adverse consequences may develop:

     •  Disruption of traffic on local streets.  This impact is
        especially severe because rail lines pass through most
        towns at grade level.  Passing trains temporarily sever
        towns, disrupting traffic on local streets, and delaying
        essential hospital, fire, and police services.  The
        severity of this impact depends upon the frequency of
        train movements, the length of trains, and the speed of
        trains.

     •  Increases in grade-crossing accidents.  More than 1,900
        persons  were killed and 21,000 persons were injured in
        rail accidents Nationwide during 1974.  Most of these
        accidents occurred at grade crossings.  USOTA (1979)
        estimated that approximately 15% of all rail accidents
        involved coal hauling.  The proportion of coal related
        rail accidents can be expected to increase in the Basin,
        if coal  hauling by rail increases.  No Basin-specific
        statistics on coal hauling related rail accidents were
        found during this assessment.

     Increased coal hauling also will have significant impacts on the need
for railroad maintenance.  These needs will be balanced by increased carrier
revenues.  Overall, increased coal traffic is expected to have significant
positive effects on the financial condition of railroads (USOTA 1979).

     Mitigative  measures for adverse impacts include:

     •  Provision of grade separation at critical rail crossings
        to reduce the potential for accidents and reduce the
        degree of disruption of community life from frequent train
        movements

     •  Provision of improved crossing signals to reduce the
        potential for accidents.

Responsibility for these programs is the concern of WVRMA and WVDH.
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5.6.7.  Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigation  of  Adverse  Impacts

     The impacts of energy development  fall most heavily on  local  govern-
ments.  This is the case not only because  employment  and population  grow,
thus creating a demand for government services in a  particular  area,  but
also because local governments generally have  limited  financial  and  manpower
capabilities to deal with such impacts  (Argonne National Laboratory  1978).

     Two major themes recur throughout  all analyses  of  the mining  impacts  on
local public services and the potential mitigation of  adverse impacts:

     •  Advance information and advance notification  of
        development plans by mining companies  is the  key to
        successful local governmental response

     •  Local governments should have initial  financial
     assistance.

     The remainder of this section reviews both the  need for key services  —
health care, education, public safety, recreation, water and sewer,  and
solid waste disposal — and also the need  for  local  planning.   The current
status of these services and planning within the Basin  was presented  in
Section 2.6.  This section also reviews standards for  service delivery and
suggests mitigative measures designed to allow local  governments to  plan
adequately for development and to achieve  or maintain  desirable  standards  of
service.

     Local public services that would be affected most  significantly  by new
mining development include health care, education, public safety,
recreation, and water and sewer services.  New coal mining activity  also
will have overall fiscal impacts on local governments.

     5.6.7.1.  Health Care

     Health care impacts are a result of both  the primary impacts  caused by
increased mining with its potential for mine-related  accidents  and diseases
and of secondary impacts caused by general population  increase  and need for
additional health care facilities and personnel.  These impacts  are made
more serious because much of the Basin  is  rural in nature and because of the
existing health care deficiencies, as described in Section 2.6.

     Additional coal mining employment will produce the following  direct
impacts:

     •  Immediate need for increased availability of  emergency
        care facilities to deal with accidental injuries in mines.
        This will include not only increased emergency  care
        personnel but also improved emergency transportation
        f ac i 1 i t i e s .
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     •  Longer terra need for increased medical personnel and
        facilities to deal with coal-related occupational
        illnesses, especially pneumoconiosis (black lung).

     An indirect impact will be an increased need for the full range of
health care facilities proportional to any induced population growth.  The
most serious impacts will occur when a proposed new mine is located in
health care manpower shortage areas, as designated under Section 329(b)  and
332 of the Public Health Service Act.

     Detailed goals, objectives, and strategies for achieving adequate
health care are contained in the Health Systems Plan and Annual
Implementation Plan for West Virginia (WVHSA 1979).  No mitigations will be
undertaken by EPA unless they are within the framework of the Plan and are
coordinated with the State Health Department.  A recent report by the USOTA
(1979a) suggested the following options, designed either to improve the
provision of health care in coalfield areas or to reduce the demand for
health care facilities by mine workers by reducing on-the-job health
hazards:

     •  Institute a rural health care system for coalfields

     •  Reassess the inherent safeness of the current respirable
        dust standard

     •  Consider alternatives to current dust sampling, including
        continuous in-mine monitoring, and possibly more effective
        ways of carrying out sampling, such as miner or USMSHA
        control of the program

     •  Encourage the establishment of health standards for
        nonrespirable dust,  trace elements, fumes, etc., that are
        now unregulated

     •  Consider lowering the Federal noise standard for mining

     •  Promote occupational health training for miners

     •  Consider the feasibility of requiring or encouraging
        conversion to the "safest available mining equipment"
        (adjusted to individual mine characteristics), consistent
        with the intent of the 1969 and 1977 Federal safety
        standards for mine equipment

     •  Establish Federal safety standards for mine equipment
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     •  Require 90-day apprentice training before a miner is allowed to
        operate an unfamiliar piece of mobile mine equipment

     •  Clarify the right under Federal law of individual miners
        to withdraw from conditions of imminent danger.

     •  Establish Federal limits on fatality and injury  frequency
        for different kinds of mines with substantial penalties
        for mine operators who exceed those limits.

     •  Establish performance standards for USMSHA.

     5.6.7.2.  Education

     Adverse impacts of new mining activity on schools can arise because of
possible increases in enrollments that result from induced population
growth.  It has been calculated that, on the average, each family  attracted
to an area brings 0.70 school age persons, consisting of 0.23 high  school
age students and 0.47 elementary school age students (Argonne National
Laboratory 1978).  Thus, concentrated population growth resulting  from
mining activity can result in the overcrowding of schools.

     Moderate increases in school enrollment may have significant beneficial
impacts.  In West Virginia, as in the rest of the Nation, school enrollments
have been declining, forcing teacher layoffs and school closings.   Moderate
coal-induced increases in school enrollment may help to prevent teacher
layoffs and school closings.  Also, a large proportion of school funds comes
to local districts from the WVDE.  These funds are allocated on a  per-
student basis.  As school enrollment goes up, so does State aid, thus
reducing the burden on local school districts.

     West Virginia has made significant gains in educational attainment
within the last two decades (see Section 2.6.).  A variety of measures may
be taken to help minimize any problems created by induced population growth
that results from New Source coal mining.  These include:

     •  Prepayment of taxes by coal mining companies so that
        educational facilities will be available as they are
        needed (USGAO 1977b)

     •  Use of programs such as USFmHA grants, ARDA Section 207
        grants and Section 302 grants, USHUD Community Development
        Block Grants, and WVHDF grants, as described in Section
        5.6.5.3., to help provide for schools as infrastructural
        facilities associated with new residential development

     •  Development of additional school programs for energy
        impacted areas through the WVDE.
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     5.6.7.3.  Public Safety

     Impacts of increased mining activity on police  and  fire  protection
include increases in personnel and equipment needs because  of  induced
population growth.  The USGAO estimated additional costs  of  fire  and  police
protection to range from $71 to $148  (in 1975 dollars) for  each new resident
of a coal-impacted area.  No specific mitigative measures  for  the impacts  of
coal on public safety services are generally available.

     5.6.7.4.  Recreation

     Induced population growth associated with  new mining  activity will
generate additional needs for local recreation  facilities.  Each  additional
1,000 persons within an area requires approximately  4 acres  of additional
public playground area and 3 acres of additional community  park area,  based
on currently accepted standards (Argonne National Laboratory  1978).

     Those housing programs designed  to provide infrastructure facilities  as
well as housing (see Section 5.6.5.)  can be used to  help  provide
recreational facilities.  Additional  facilities might be  developed with the
help of donated land, services, advice, or equipment by mining companies.

     5.6.7.5.  Water and Sewer Services

     The problems of inadequate existing water  and sewer  facilities  and the
difficulties that the topography and  settlement patterns  of  the Monongahela
River Basin pose  for the provision of additional water and  sewer  facilities
were reviewed in  Section 2.6.  Increases in population that may be induced
by additional mining activity will create adverse impacts  because of:

     •  Overloading of existing systems that are often already
        outmoded  and inadequate

     •  High costs of providing sewer and water facilities  to  new
        res idences

     •  New residences that are built in areas  that  do not  have,
        and are not programmed to have, centralized  sewer  and
        water services, and that do not have soil characteristics
        suitable  for septic tanks or  aquifer characteristics
        suitable  for wells

     •  The provision of government aid for construction  of water
        and sewage treatment facilities on the basis of
        determining prior need.  As a result of governmental
        restrictions on funding, many programs  such  as EPA  Section
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        201 (CWA) water and sewer grants are not available for
        growth-induced housing in mining areas with rapid
        population increases.  Most rural areas in the Basin must
        rely on a limited number of USFmHA grants and loans, which
        pay only 50% of costs rather than the 75% provided by EPA
        grants (President's Commission on Coal 1979).

     Problems that result from the overloading of existing water and sewer
systems, high density development in areas where centralized water  and  sewer
development is not cost-effective, and low-density development in areas
where the use of individual wells or septic tanks is not feasible can be
mitigated by:

     •  Development and enforcement of local zoning and building
        codes

     •  Use of various housing development programs described in
        Section 5.6.5. to help the development of centralized
        water and sewer systems

     •  Prepayment of taxes by companies that propose to develop
        new mines, so that needed facilities can be in place
        before population growth occurs

     •  Reworking for eligibility requirements EPA Section 201
        (CWA) construction grants program to make it easier for
        coal-impacted rural areas and small towns to qualify.

     5.6.7.6.  General Community Fiscal Impacts

     Estimation of potential fiscal impacts on local governments for
providing additional facilities and services may be accomplished through  a
variety of fiscal analysis methods.  Standard methods in use for such
estimation include (Burchell and Listokin 1977):

     •  Per capita multipliers

     •  Service standards

     •  Proportional valuation

     •  Case study

     •  Comparative study

     •  Employment anticipation.

Each method has advantages, but for a simple "first cut" analysis of
potential impacts of New Source mining facilities on local governmental
expenditures, the per capita multiplier method is the simplest and  most
effective way to estimate the general magnitude of impacts.
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     USGAO (1978) developed the following range of per capita costs for coal
induced development of new community facilities:
                                               COSTS (1975 DOLLARS)
Type of Facility or Service

Streets and roads
Water
Sewage and solid waste
Education
Recreation
Fire and police protection
Libraries
Health care
Other

Total
   Study A
(Low Estimate)

    $730
     625
     500
     888
     130
     148
      46
      54
       0
  $3,121
    Study B
(High Estimate)

    $1,144
       583
       613
     1,678
       118
        71
        45
       241
       399

    $4,892
     Local governments in West Virginia can meet these costs through a
variety of sources of revenue (see Section 2.6.).  The primary sources of
revenue to municipalities are property taxes, Federal revenue sharing, State
aid for schools, and fines and charges for services.

     The State also levies a coal severance tax at a rate of $3.85 per
$100.00 of gross sales of coal.  Of this, $3.50 is retained by the State as
general revenue and the remaining $0.35 is allocated to local governments.
Of the $0.35 returned to local governments, 75% ($0.26) is returned to
counties on a proportional basis relative to the percentage of State coal
production occurring in each county.  The remaining 25% ($0.09) is returned
to counties and municipalities, based on their population.  Thus, some
increased coal severance tax money goes to local areas on the basis of
increased coal production and induced increases in population resulting from
increased coal production.  This compensates local areas somewhat for
increased costs incurred as a result of increased coal production.

     Two adverse fiscal aspects of coal production on local units of
government have been noted widely:

     •  Most coal mining corporations (especially the larger
        corporations) are headquartered, and their stockholders
        reside, outside West Virginia.  Therefore, corporate
        profits leave the State and cannot serve as a source of
        State or local revenue (Cortese and Jones 1979).

     •  Many mine workers live in mobile homes (see Section 2.6.)
        that require local services.  These mobile homes
        contribute little, however, to the local property tax
        base.
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     The programs designed to help meet specific community impacts,  as
described above, represent a partial solution to the more general problems
of providing adequate assistance to mitigate the adverse impacts of  new
mining activity on community finances and services.  The $3,121 to $4,892
per capita costs (1975 dollars) calculated by USGAO for all new community
facilities and services indicate that, overall, more impact mitigation may
be needed.  Several options for such general mitigation techniques were
described by USOTA (1979a):

     •  Enact a National Severance Tax on coal to help finance
        needed improvements in impacted communities

     •  Provide loans or subsidies for services through a public,
        non-profit coalfield development bank

     •  Require operators to submit a community impact statement
        to local and Federal officials before mining begins.

5 .6.8.  Indirect Land Use Impacts

     Demand for additional developed land to accommodate the population
growth induced by a new mining facility represents a significant potential
impact.  Many areas of the Basin have very poor potential to accommodate
substantial additional urban development.  Major constraints on additional
development include large proportions of steeply sloping land and relatively
high levels of current mining development and existing urban development.

     Existing population and land use (see Section 2.6.) patterns in the
Monongahela River Basin indicate an overall land absorption coefficient of
approximately 0.16 acres/person.  This land absorption coefficient provides
a reasonable estimate of additional developed land needed on a per-capita
basis to accommodate housing, streets and roads, schools, commercial areas,
and other facilities for potential induced population growth that occurs as
a result of new mining activity.
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5.7   Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations

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5.7.   Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations                           5-145

      5.7.1.  Erosion                                                 5-145
              5.7.1.1.   USOSM Permit Information Requirements          5-145
              5.7.1.2.   USOSM-Mandated Erosion Control  Measures        5-146
              5.7.1.3.   Buffer Strips                                 5-147
              5.7.1.4.   Prompt Reclamation                            5-147
              5.7.1.5.   USOSM Regrading and Revegetation              5-148
              5.7.1.6.   Drainage and Sediment Pond Design             5-152
              5.7.1.7.   Roadway Construction                           5-154
              5.7.1.8.   Steep Slope Mining Standards                   5-155
              5.7.1.9.   Coal Processing Plant Requirements             5-155

      5.7.2.  Steep Slopes                                            5-155

      5.7.3.  Prime and Other Farmlands                               5-158
              5.7.3.1.   Prime Farmlands                               5-158
              5.7.3.2.   Other Significant  Farmlands                   5-160

      5.7.4.  Unstable  Slopes                                         5-161

      5.7.5.  Subsidence                                              5-163

      5.7.6.  Toxic or  Acid Forming Earth  Materials and Acid Mine     5-170
               Drainage
              5.7.6.1.   Coal Overburden Information Requirements       5-170
              5.7.6.2.   Surface Disposal of Acid-Forming              5-176
                         Materials
              5.7.6.3.   Underground Disposal  of Spoil and Coal        5-182
                         Processing Wastes
              5.7.6.4.   Coal Preparation Plant and Other Refuse        5-183
                         Piles
              5.7.6.5.   In-Situ Coal Processing                       5-188
              5.7.6.6.   Exploration Practices                         5-189
              5.7.6.7.   Other AMD Control  Measures                    5-190
Page
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5.7.  EARTH RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS

     Earth resource impacts and mitigations are addressed at  length in the
permanent regulatory program performance standards mandated by USOSM  pursu-
ant to SMCRA.  The final program performance standards are codified in Title
30 of the Code of Federal Regulations in Chapter VII under Parts 816  and  817
for surface and underground mines, respectively.  These standards  eventually
may be administered by WVDNR-Reclamation in accordance with SMCRA  and
WVSCMRA following approval of the State program by USOSM.

     This chapter summarizes the performance standards which New Source coal
operators are expected to meet in order to avoid or minimize  adverse  impacts
on earth resources.  Special standards that affect selected types  of  mines
or areas are discussed following the general rules for all mines.  The
general performance standards typically are identical for surface  mines and
for the surface aspects of underground mine operations.

5.7.1.  Erosion

     Erosion (and the subsequent deposition) of disturbed soil materials  is
the principal physical impact of the surface disturbance caused by coal
mining.  Wind is secondary to water as a cause of erosion in West Virginia.

     The most fertile and productive topsoil layers are eroded first  after a
mine site is exposed by clearing and grubbing operations.  After the  top-
soil, the subsoil and finally the underlying weathered or shattered rock
materials are removed from the surface.  The surface of the site is subject
to erosion until a dense vegetation has become reestablished  following the
mining and regrading activities.

     Post-mining erosion following regrading and seeding can  create gullies,
which in turn speed up the rate of continuing erosion locally, and leave
only the least mobile soil or rock materials for subsequent attempts  to
restore vegetation.  Historically, erosion has devastated hillsides in the
Basin and throughout Appalachia.  West Virginia for years has regulated
surface mining operations to reduce the effects of erosion, as discussed  in
Section 4.1. of this SID.  Following the enactment of SMCRA, USOSM (with  the
assistance of EPA) also has developed stringent performance standards to
minimize erosion from new mines.

     5.7.1.1.  USOSM Permit Information Requirements

     The USOSM regulations require that maps and descriptions of existing
soil types, present and potential productivity, and the results of tests  on
overburden material proposed for use as topsoil be a part of  every applica-
tion (30 CFR 779.21).  Slopes, waterways, and previous mining activity in
the permit area must be mapped and described in detail (30 CFR 779.24).
Mine operation plans must identify proposed topsoil storage areas  and water
pollution control facilities (30 CFR 780.14).  The reclamation plans  must
detail spoil backfilling, compacting, and regrading; replacement of topsoil
                                    5-145

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or other surface materials; surface soil evaluation measures; methods  for
revegetation (schedule, species and quantities of plants to be installed,
planting methods, mulching techniques, irrigation if appropriate); and
methods to determine revegetation success.  They also must describe plans
for water control, for water treatment if required to meet applicable
standards, and the expected impact of mining on suspended solids
concentrations in receiving waters (30 CFR 780.22; 784.14).  Essentially the
same requirements apply to underground mining applications (soil
information, 30 CFR 783.22; slopes, 783.24; topsoil storage areas,,
backfilling, topsoiling, revegetation, and water quality impacts, 784.11;
sedimentation ponds, 784.16).  In short, the permit applications must  show
in detail how the operator plans to meet the performance standards for
erosion control.

     5.7.1.2.  USOSM-Mandated Erosion Control Measures

     The performance standards are intended to minimize the opportunities
for erosion and sedimentation, and thus keep possible downslope  impacts on
lands and waters due to surface disturbance related to coal mining at the
lowest possible level  (30 CFR 816.45; 817.45).  The basic directives for
erosion control are the following:

     •  Minimize the amount of bare soil exposed at one time

     •  Minimize the length of time that soil is barren

     •  Protect soil with mulch, temporary cover, and permanent
        vegetation

     •  Optimize conditions for the regrowth of vegetation (soil
        porosity, structure, fertility, etc.)

     •  Minimize the development of rills and gullies

     •  Minimize slippage of regraded spoil material and maximize
        stability of the surface

     •  Divert water that otherwise would flow across unprotected
        slopes

     •  Provide non-erodible channels or pipes for collected water
        with outlets capable of accepting flows

     •  Capture runoff from disturbed slopes and allow suspended
        material to settle in basins of adequate volume and
        retention time

     •  Retain sediment within disturbed areas using straw dikes,
        check dams, mulches, vegetated strips, dugout ponds, or
                                    5-146

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        other means to reduce overland  flow velocity  and runoff
        volume

     •  Enhance precipitation of sediment  in basins by  adding
        chemical coagulants and flocculants to the collected
        runoff water.

     5.7.1.3.  Buffer Strips

     Buffer strips at least 100 feet wide  adjacent to all perennial  streams
and to any other streams inhabited by two  or more species of macroinverte-
brates are mandated to be left undisturbed during mining (30 CFR  816.57;
817.57).  The buffer strips must be marked in the field and shown on mining
plans (30 CFR 816.11; 817.11).  Disturbance within the  buffer  strip  can  be
authorized by the regulatory authority, provided that the stream  is  restored
following mining and that water quality within 100 feet of the mining  acti-
vities is not affected adversely.  If a stream is diverted, then
contributions to suspended solids  from  the channel must be prevented,  and
the natural habitat conditions and riparian vegetation must be restored
following mining (30 CFR 816.44; 817.44).  Where buffer strips are
preserved, they provide a means of protection against the escape  of eroded
sediment into waterways.

     5.7.1.4.  Prompt Reclamation

     The duration of the surface disturbance governs  the opportunity for
erosion.  The general performance  standards require prompt topsoil removal
after vegetation has been cleared, before  any other mining-related activi-
ties may proceed [30 CFR 816.22(a); 817.22(a)].  The  topsoil is to be  reused
or stockpiled and protected, so that it does not wash from the mine  site  (30
CFR 816.23; 817.23).  Where the exposure of the disturbed land otherwise may
result in erosion-caused air or water pollution, USOSM  authorizes a
limitation on the size of the area disturbed at any one time,  directs  that
the topsoil be placed at a time when the topsoil can  be protected and
erosion minimized, and authorizes  the imposition of any other  discretionary
measures which the regulatory authority may judge necessary [30 CFR
816.22(f); 817.22(f)].

     Specific timing requirements  for rough backfilling and grading
following the removal of the coal  are found in 30 CFR 816.101(a)  and
817.101(a).  For contour mines, rough backfilling and grading must follow
coal removal by not more than 60 days or 1,500 linear feet along  the
mountainside.  Open pit mines with thin overburden are  to be backfilled  on a
schedule proposed by the operator  and approved by the regulatory  authority.
Area strip mines must be rough backfilled  and graded  within 180 days
following coal removal and be not more than four spoil  ridges behind the
active pit.  The operator is given the opportunity to justify  a request  for
additional time by submitting a detailed written analysis showing that
additional time is required.
                                   5-147

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     There is no prescribed time limitation on final grading and redistri-
bution of topsoil following coal removal in the general performance
standards.  The operator is not eligible for the release of 60% of his
performance bond, however, until backfilling, topsoiling, regrading, and
drainage control have been completed.  This provides a substantial financial
incentive to conclude these operations expeditiously.  Moreover, topsoil and
other subsoil materials are allowed to be stockpiled only when it is
impractical to redistribute these materials promptly on other regraded areas
[30 CFR 816.23(a); 817.23(a)].  Lateral haulback, modified area mining, and
controlled direct placement contour methods offer greatly enhanced
opportunity for prompt reclamation in contrast to uncontrolled mining
techniques.

     5.7.1.5.  USOSM Regrading and Revegetation

     The post-mining surface configuration of reclaimed areas is specified
in 30 CFR 816.101(b) and in Subsection 102, along with the corresponding
sections of Subchapter 817.  These standards require elimination of high-
walls, spoil piles, and depressions, and the return of mined areas to their
approximate original contour.   The elimination of highwalls means that
spoils are regraded to the approximate original slope.  If a permanent road
is proposed to be retained on the bench (a common practice in West
Virginia), the final slope must be steeper than the original slope, if the
highwall is to be eliminated.   Subsection 816.102 also specifies conditions
where cut and fill terraces may be substituted for approximate original
contour.

     Section 816.102(a)(2) mandates a static safety factor of 1.3 to insure
the stability of backfilled materials.  Terrace benches are to be no wider
than 20 feet unless specifically approved as necessary for stability,
erosion control, or approved permanent roads.  The vertical distance between
terraces is to be specified by the regulatory authority.  Terrace outslopes
are not to exceed 50%, unless  stability, erosion control, and coriformance
with pre-mining slopes are assured [Subsection 102(b)].  Final grading,
preparation of overburden before topsoiling, and placement of topsoil are to
minimize subsequent erosion, instability, and slippage.  Stabilizing or
regrading rills and gullies that may exacerbate erosion is required when
they exceed 9 inches in depth.  Hills or gullies shallower than 9 inches
also may be required to be eliminated (Subsection 106), if the regulatory
authority determines that they are disruptive to the approved post-mining
land use,

     Topsoil and subsoil must be removed and segregated from other materials
prior to drilling, blasting, or mining (30 CFR 816.21; 817.21).  It is pref-
erable that the soil be relocated to areas that are ready to receive it
following mining; otherwise it must be stored and protected from erosion
until ready for replacement on the mine surface.  Subsoil must be segregated
from topsoil and replaced as subsoil if the regulatory authority determines
that such measures are necessary or desirable to achieve post-mining produc-
tivity consistent with the approved post-mining land use.
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     Thirty-one of  the 66  soil  series  in  the  Monongahela River Basin (47%)
present limitations for use as  topsoil  in  reclamation (Table 5-25).   The
SMCRA regulatory authority is empowered to approve selected overburden
materials for use as substitutes  for or supplements  to  topsoil,  if the
operator provides evidence demonstrating  that the  substitute material is
more suitable for the growth of vegetation than  the  original topsoil.  In
such cases it may not be necessary  to  stockpile  topsoil separately.

     If neither soil nor the overburden can support  satisfactory plant
growth, then it may be necessary  to  borrow soil  material from elsewhere.  In
this case, reclamation of  the borrow area  also must  be  considered, and the
material remaining  at the  borrow  site  must be evaluated for its  suitability
to grow vegetation.

     The regraded overburden material  must be treated as required by the
regulatory authority to eliminate slippage surfaces  and to  promote root
penetration prior to (or,  upon  approval,  following)  topsoiling
(30 CFR 816.24; 817.24).   The topsoil  is  to be replaced in  uniform,  stable
layers consistent with the approved  post-mining  land uses,  contours, and
surface drainage system.   Excessive  compaction is  to be prevented, and
protection is to be provided from water and wind erosion before  and after
the topsoil is planted.  Nutrients  and  other  amendments are to be provided
in accordance with  soil tests in  amounts  that will assure revegetation in
accordance with the approved post-mining  land use  (30 CFR 816.25; 817.25).

     A number of requirements are designed to maximize  the  success of
revegetation following mining so  that  long-term  erosion can be minimized.
At least four feet  of the  best  available  nontoxic  cover nrte-ial must be
placed on top of materials  exposed,  used,  or  produced during mining
(30 CFR 816.103; 817.103).  Where necessary,  the regulator/ authority may
require thicker cover, special  compaction, isolation from gr mndwater
contact, or acid neutralization of  the  cover  to  minimize adverse effects on
vegetation or provide sufficient  depth  for plant growth (Subsection 103).

     A permanent vegetation must  be  established  capable of  stabilizing the
soil surface from erosion  (Subsection  111).   Anchored "mlc.i \s are required
to facilitate revegetation unless the  operator can demonstrate to the regu-
latory authority that alternative measures will  achieve SU~CPSP  (Subsection
114).  Successful revegetation  is defined  as  coverage an<<  n ,' tr'ivity at
least 90% of that on a designated,  undisturbed referenc>.- area v,    in the
permit area with 90% statistical  confidence (80% confidence on s  -ublands),
and must be maintained for no less  than five  years in humid regions such ad
West Virginia (Subsection  116).   Vegetation reestablished on previously
mined areas must be adequate to control erosion  to less than that present
before the remining.  Adequate  erosion control,  as determined by the
regulatory authority, also must be  established on  lands to  ru.' u.-ed for
residential or industrial  purposes  less than  two years  after regrading is
complete.  On areas to be  used  for  fish and wildlife management  or forestry,
the vegetation  must satisfy the  regulatory authority as adequate to control
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Table 5-25.  Soils of the Monongahela River Basin which exhibit potential
  limitations for reclamation (Cardi et al. 1979).   Data is available from
  only Monongalia, Preston, Tucker, and Barbour Counties.
  SOIL SERIES
          POTENTIAL LIMITATION
Albrights
Alluvial Land
Atkins
Barbour
Belmont

Blayo
Brinkerton

Buckhannon
Calvin
Carode

Chagrin
Clarksburg

Cookport

Durmont

Elkins
Ernest
Gilpin-Culleoka-Upshur
  (Association)
Guernsey

Holly
Kanawha
Lickdale

Lindside
Lobdel
Lobdel-Holly (Association)
Meckesville
Melvin
Mixed Alluvial Land
Monongahela

Nolo
lower slope soils
flooding
flooding
flooding
lies over solution channels; steep
  slopes; erosion
lower slope
slow permeability/seasonal high water
  table
lower slope
stoney soil; steep slope; erosion
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
flooding
slippage; lower slope soils; steep slope;
  low permeability
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
ridgetop; slow permeability; seasonal
  high water table
flooding
slippage; slow permeability; lower and
  steep slope soils; seasonal high water
  table
slippage

ridgetop; slow permeability; seasonal
  high water table
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
flooding
flooding
flooding
slippage
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
                                    5-150

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Table 5-25.  Soils of the Monongahela River Basin  (concluded).
  SOIL SERIES
          POTENTIAL LIMITATION
Philo
Pope
Pope Variant
Purdy

Sequatchie
Strong Alluvial Land
Tyler

Upshur
Westmoreland
Wharton

Zoar
flooding
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
slippage; zones of low permeability
slippage; zones of low permeability
seasonal high water table; slow
  permeability
slow permeability; seasonal high water
  table
                                      5-151

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erosion (70% of coverage on reference area with 90% confidence).  On permit
areas smaller than 40 acres, alternative performance standards to the refer-
ence area may be approved by the regulatory authority.  70% or greater
coverage for five consecutive years with 400 woody plants per acre in mixed
plantings (600 woody plants per acre in mixed plantings on slopes steeper
than 20°).

     5.7.1.6.  Drainage and Sediment Pond Design

     Erosion is to be controlled sufficiently so that water quality  limita-
tions are met by discharges from the mined area (30 CFR 817.41; 817.41).
Changes in flow to minimize pollution are preferred to treatment methods,
but treatment is required if necessary to meet standards or insure achieve-
ment of the approved postraining land use for the area.

     All surface drainage from the disturbed area, including regraded and
replanted areas, must be passed through one or more sedimentation ponds
before release from the permit area (Section 42).  The sedimentation ponds
must be constructed prior to beginning any surface mining activities and
maintained until all revegetation requirements have been met and the quality
of the untreated drainage satisfies applicable water quality standards.
Exemptions from sediment pond requirements may be granted by the regulatory
authority upon a demonstration that ponds are not necessary for drainage to
meet NPDES effluent limitations or quality requirements applicable to down-
stream receiving waters.  Road drainage and the flow from diversion ditches
(unless mixed with active mine drainage) are not required to be routed
through the sediment pond.

     The NPDES existing source effluent limitation for total suspended
solids is 70.0 mg/1 maximum allowable and 35.0 mg/1 maximum average  for 30
consecutive days.  Discharges are exempt from this and other effluent limit-
ations when they result from any precipitation event at facilities designed,
constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of discharge
which would result from a 10-year 24-hour precipitation event.  New Source
NPDES limitations have not yet been incorporated into the 1JSOSM performance
standards.

     Overland flow must be diverted from disturbed areas if required by the
regulatory authority to minimize erosion (30 CFR 816.43; 817.43).  Temporary
diversions must be constructed to pass safely the peak runoff from at least
a 2-year precipitation event, and the SMCRA regulatory authority may require
that a more severe storm be used in planning the pond design.  Permanent
diversions must be able to accommodate at least a 10-year storm event and
are to have gently sloping banks stabilized by vegetation.  Asphalt,
concrete, or other linings are to be used only when approved by the
regulatory authority.  The diversion channels are to employ the best
technology currently available to prevent erosion of additional suspended
solids from the channels themselves.  This may involve rock lining and  a
series of small, sediment-trapping dikes within the ditches.
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     No diversion is to be located so as to increase the potential  for
landslides, and none is to be constructed on an existing landslide  unless
approved by the regulatory authority.  Temporary diversions must  be  removed,
regraded, topsoiled, and revegetated when no longer needed.  Any  diversion
of water into underground mines first must be approved by  the  regulatory
authority.  Stream channel diversions also must be designed and constructed
to minimize erosion (temporary diversion to accommodate 10-year,  24-hour
storm; permanent diversion to accommodate 100-year, 24-hour storm;
Subsection 44).

     Sedimentation ponds are the primary means of insuring that soil
materials eroded from a mine in so far as possible are captured within  the
permit area, rather than discharged downs lope or into waterways.  In  steep
terrain areas of the Monongahela River Basin none of the measures to
minimize erosion that were discussed previously can be expected to  be
altogether successful, either alone or in combination; hence sedimentation
ponds are essential.  The same steepness of terrain creates severe  practical
difficulties in finding suitable, accessible locations for ponds  on mine
sites where runoff can be contained and maintenance can be performed.

     Sedimentation ponds must be constructed as near as possible  to  the
disturbed area and outside perennial stream channels, unless otherwise
approved by the SMCRA regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.46; 817.46).  The
minimum sediment storage volume either must accommodate the accumulated
sediment volume from the drainage area for a 3-year period using  calculation
methods approved by the regulatory authority or must provide 0.1  acre-feet
of storage per acre of disturbed land in the drainage area.  The  regulatory
authority is authorized to approve a minimum sediment storage  volume  no less
than 0.035 acre-feet per acre of disturbed area if the operator demonstrates
in the permit application that sediment removed by other control  measures  is
equal to the reduction in sediment pond storage volume.  Sediment is  to be
removed from ponds when its volume reaches 60% of the design storage  volume
(or total storage volume, if larger than the required design volume  and
provided that the required theoretical detention time is maintained).

     The minimum theoretical detention time for runoff from a  10-year,
24-hour storm is to be 24 hours, not including drainage area runoff  diverted
from the disturbed area and pond.  The regulatory authority may approve a
minimum theoretical detention time of not less than 10 hours when the opera-
tor demonstrates (1) that pond design provides a 24-hour equivalent  sediment
removal efficiency (as a result of pond configuration, inflow   !d outflow
locations, baffles to reduce velocity and short-circuiting etc.;  and  the
pond effluent is shown to achieve and maintain effluent limitations,  or (2)
that the particle size distribution or specific gravity of the suspended
matter is such that applicable effluent limitations are achieved  and  main-
tained.  Any minimum theoretical detention time can be approved by  the  regu-
latory authority, if the operator demonstrates that the chemical  treatment
process to be used (1) will achieve and maintain effluent  limitations and
(2) is harmless to fish, wildlife, and related environmental values.
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     Ponds must be designed by, constructed under the supervision of, and
certified by a registered professional engineer.  The ponds must meet USOSM
and USMSHA criteria for design safety and must be inspected four times per
year.  Following mining, when drainage water quality is approved, the ponds
must be removed and their sites regraded and revegetated, unless they meet
the applicable requirements for permanent ponds and have been approved as
part of the post-mining land use.

     5.7.1.7.  Roadway Construction

     Roadways also must be constructed so as to minimize erosion.  Roadways
of any class are not to cause contributions of suspended solids to
streamflow or to runoff outside the permit area in excess of applicable
limitations to the extent possible using the best technology currently
available (30 CFR 816.150, 160, and 170 and the corresponding subsections of
subchapter 817).  Roads are to be located on ridges and on the most stable
available slopes in so far as possible.  Roads must not be located in the
channel of a permanent or intermittent stream, and stream fords are
prohibited, unless specifically approved by the regulatory authority
(Subsections 151, 161, and 171).   During the construction of Class I and
Class II roads topsoil must be handled in essentially the same manner as
topsoil from the rest of the mine site (Subsections 152 and 162).

     Temporary and permanent erosion control measures such as construction
of berms and sediment traps must  be implemented during and after road
construction.  No more vegetation is to be cleared than the minimum
necessary for any roadway with its ditch and utilities, and ditch drainage
structures must be designed to minimize erosion on Class I roads (those used
for coal haulage) and Class II roads (non-coal roads used more than six
months; Subsections 153, 163, and 173).  Unless approved as part of the
permanent post-mining land use, all roads are to be reclaimed and
revegetated following mining.

     Maximum road grades are specified.  For Class I roads, embankment
outslopes are to be no steeper than 50% (74% where embankment material is at
least 85% rock).  Ditches and drains must be built to handle a 10-year
24-hour storm event, and roads must be surfaced with rock, gravel, asphalt,
or other approved materials.  For Class II roads steeper grades are allowed.
Embankment rules do not apply on slopes of less than 36% for Class II roaHis,
but culverts must be spaced closer together than for Class I roads.  Class
III roads (non-coal roads used less than six months) do not require drainage
ditches along the road; their culverts must be sized for a 1-year, 6-hour
storm.  Topsoil must be removed from Class III roads and stockpiled only
where excavation requires replacement of material and redistribution of
topsoil for proper revegetation.   Other transportation facilities, such as
railroad spurs, conveyors, or aerial tramways, also are to be constructed so
as to minimize erosion (30 CFR 816.180).
                                   5-154

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     5.7.1.8.  Steep Slope Mining Standards

     Special performance standards are applicable to minimize erosion on
lands with slopes in excess of 20°.  Steep slope standards are discussed in
Section 5.7.2.

     5.7.1.9.  Coal Processing Plant Requirements

     Coal processing plants must meet the erosion and sediment control
standards applicable to surface mines as described in the preceding
paragraphs (30 CFR 827).  Roads serving processing plants are subject to the
same standards as roads serving mines.  Reclamation of processing plant
sites is to be accomplished according to the standards applicable to surface
mines.  Support facilities incidental to mining operations also must be
located and constructed so as to control erosion, and they must not
contribute suspended solids to streams in excess of applicable standards
(30 CFR 816.181).

     Taken together, the USOSM performance standards represent the current
state of technology available to control erosion and minimize the resultant
sedimentation.  The State of West Virginia must develop a detailed compari-
son of its regulations to demonstrate conformance with the USOSM permanent
program requirements as part of the basis for approval of the State admini-
stration of SMCRA permits.  As long as applicants for New Source NPDES
permits adhere to the USOSM permanent program performance standards, erosion
can be expected to be minimized, and no special NPDES permit conditions for
erosion control are necessary.  Should USOSM performance standards not be
enforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA will impose equivalent measures
pursuant to CWA and NEPA.

5.7.2.  Steep Slopes

     Where the prevailing pre-mining slopes are steeper than 20° (36%),
surface mine operators are required to meet special performance standards
for operations on steep slopes, and permit applications must contain
sufficient information to establish that the operations will meet the
applicable performance standards.  Six special standards are mandated by
USOSM (30 CFR 826.12):

     •  Placement of spoil, waste materials, debris (including
        clearing and grubbing debris from road construction), and
        abandoned or disabled equipment on the downslope is pro-
        hibited (except for the controlled placement of road
        emb ankment s)

     •  Highwalls are to be completely covered, and approximate
        original contours are to be reestablished, with a minimum
        static safety design factor of 1.3

     •  Land above the highwall is not to be disturbed without the
        approval of the regulatory authority upon a finding that
        the disturbance is necessary to blend the solid highwall
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        with the backfill, to control runoff, or to provide access
        to the area above the highwall

     •  Excess spoil must be placed in approved fills

     •  Woody material is not to be placed in backfills unless the
        regulatory authority determines that slope stability will
        not deteriorate; chipped woody material may be used as
        mulch, if the regulatory authority approves

     •  Unlined or unprotected drainage channels are not to be
        constructed on backfills unless approved by the regulatory
        authority as stable and not subject to erosion.

     Variances from the requirement to return the site to approximate
original contour can be authorized in order to improve the control of water
on the watershed and make level land available for various uses  following
reclamation.

     The regulatory authority must determine, on the basis of a  completed
application, that the following requirements for the variance are met (30
CFR 785.15):

     •  The purpose of the variance is to make the affected lands
        suitable for an industrial, commercial, residential, or
        public post-mining land use

     •  The proposed variance use represents an equal or better
        economic or public use than the pre-mining use

     •  The proposed use meets Subsection 133 criteria for
        approvable alternative land uses (viz., compatible with
        applicable land use plans and policies; economically and
        technically feasible; necessary public facilities to be
        provided; financing available; applicable stability,
        drainage, revegetation, and aesthetic design standards
        met; no threats posed to public health, water flow, or
        water pollution; no unreasonable delays in reclamation;
        fish and wildlife measures acceptable to State and Federal
        agencies; commitment to provide maintenance if intensive
        agriculture is proposed and soil and water will support
        crops)

     •  The watershed can be deemed by the regulatory authority  to
        be improved if (1) concentrations of total suspended
        solids or other pollutants will be less following mining
        than before mining, with improvement to water supply or
                                   5-156

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        habitat value; or flood hazards  from peak discharges will
        be reduced; (2) the total volume of flow from the permit
        area will not vary so as to affect waterway habitat value
        or water use values adversely; and (3) the State
        environmental agency approves the plan

     •  The surface owner consents in writing to the variance, and
        is aware that the variance cannot be granted without his
        consent.

In areas with multiple-seam mining, the  spoil not required to  reclaim  a
permit area may be placed on a pre-existing spoil bench if approved by the
regulatory authority.  The spoil must be graded to the most moderate slope
consonant with elimination of the highwall (30 CFR 826.16).

     Permits that incorporate variances  are to be reviewed by  the regulatory
authority at established intervals to evaluate progress and make certain
that the operator is complying with the  terms of the variance.  The regula-
tory authority must be able to impose more stringent requirements by
modifying such a permit at any time if necessary to insure compliance with
SMCRA and USOSM regulations (30 CFR 785.16).

     RPA will check to see that standards equivalent to these USOSM perma-
nent program requirements are applicable to New Source mining on slopes
steeper than 20° (36%).  In the event that these measures are  not
enforceable by the regulatory authority  under SMCRA, EPA will  impose
equivalent measures under CWA and NEPA.

     EPA will consider additional measures to insure long-term post-mining
slope stability on a case-by-case basis where there is any question of
stability as a result of slope steepness.  First, EPA will consider applica-
tion of the USOSM steep-slope performance standards on slopes steeper than
14° (25%), rather than the less stringent USOSM threshold of 20° (36%) to
insure long-term slope stability (see section in 5.7.4.).  As indicated in
Section 2.7. of this SID, much of the Basin has slopes of at least 14°.
Such slopes have been mapped at Basin scale (available from the EPA Region
III office in Philadelphia), and must be detailed in State surface mining
application drawings.  Second, EPA will consider application of a more
conservative static design safety factor of 1.5, rather than the USOSM
minimum factor of 1.3, in order to preclude slope failure that could
exacerbate additional erosion, alter stream flow, pose a hazard to public
safety, or adversely affect the appearance of the area.  Third, where
steep-slope mines are to be reclaimed to approximate original  contour, EPA
will check to be sure, if  haul or access roads are proposed to be retained
permanently on the solid bench, that steepening of the final slopes beyond
the original grade on account of the roads does not occur; that downslope
haul road embankments below the bench are proposed to be removed following
mining; and that any roads preserved near the top of the highwall have
ditches and other drainage structures adequate to prevent infiltration into
the backfill.
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5.7.3.  Prime and Other Farmlands

     It is not possible to mine the  coal beneath  agricultural  land  by
surface methods without severe short-term  impacts on the  soil  resource  and
agricultural production.  Long-term  impacts, however,  can be minimized  by
reconstructing the soil resource and treating it  in such  a manner as to
reestablish pre-mining productivity  and by restoring the  land  to  farming  use
following the conclusion of mining activities.  Detailed  USOSM standards
apply to land classed as prime farmland.  EPA also is  concerned with the
protection of other significant agricultural lands when reviewing New Source
NPDES permits.

     5.7.3.1.  Prime Farmlands
     There is relatively little prime  farmland  in the Monongahela  River
Basin because of the prevalence of steep  slopes.  Soils considered to  be
prime in West Virginia are reported in Section  2.7. of this  SID  and have
been mapped at Basin scale on maps available  from the EPA Region III office
in Philadelphia.  Because surface mining  in West Virginia generally occurs
along hills and ridges where coal crops out,  prime farmland  is not expected
to be disturbed by future mining activity to  a  significant extent.

     New mining operations on prime farmlands that have been used  as crop-
land for at least five of the ten years preceding the permit application  or
that otherwise are recognized by the regulatory authority as clearly
farmland are considered to be in a special mining category under the USOSM
permanent regulations (30 CFR 785.17).  Special performance  standards  apply
to the removal of topsoil from, and the post-mining restoration  of,  prime
farmlands.

     Each SMCRA permit application must include a soil survey of the permit
area developed in accordance with USDA procedures.  Each soil must be
mapped, and a representative soil profile for each must be described.
Original moist bulk density data in accordance  with USDA laboratory proce-
dures must be reported for each major horizon of each soil.  (Appropriate
Soil Conservation Service maps, profile descriptions, and bulk density data
may be used where available, if their use is  approved by the regulatory
authority.)  Methods and equipment to be used for soil removal,  storage,  and
replacement must be specified.  Plans  for soil  stabilization before its
redistribution and drawings that show the sites of the separate  stockpiles
for each horizon must be submitted. Plans for seeding and cropping during
the five years following regrading until performance bond release  must be
detailed.  (Final graded land is not to be allowed to erode  during seasons
when vegetation cannot be established due to weather conditions.)   Data
indicating that the proposed reclamation will achieve post-mining  crop
yields equivalent to or greater than those extant before mining  are to be
provided, along with USDA-estimated yields for  each mapped soil  unit under a
high level of management.   The regulatory authority must consult USDA-SCS
through the State Soil Conservationist concerning the adequacy of  each
proposed reclamation plan and must incorporate  any USDA recommendations as
                                   5-158

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specific permit conditions to provide  for more adequate  soil
reconstruction.

     Permits may be granted for mining prime  farmland  if the  regulatory
authority finds, upon the basis of a complete application, that:

     •  The approved proposed post-mining use is  to be prime
        farmland

     •  Any USDA recommendations appear as permit  conditions

     •  The applicant has the technological capability to restore
        the prime farmland within a reasonable time to yields
        equivalent to those on local unmined  prime farmland under
        equivalent levels of management

     •  The operations will comply with the prime  farmland
        reclamation performance standards in  30 CFR 823,  which  are
        summarized below.

     The soil horizons are to be removed separately, unless the  operator  has
demonstrated that combined material will create a  more favorable plant
growth medium than the original prime  farmland soil.   Soil not  utilized
immediately must be stockpiled in segregated  piles and protected against
erosion by quick-growing vegetation or other  means.  The minimum depth of
reconstructed material is to be 48 inches or  the  depth of root  penetration
in the natural soil, whichever is less.  A soil depth  greater than 48 inches
may be specified by the regulatory authority  wherever  necessary  to restore
productive capacity.  The backfill material is to  be final graded and
scarified before soil placement, unless site-specific  evidence  demonstrates
that scarification will not enhance the yield of  the reconstructed soil.
Moist bulk densities following compaction shall not exceed the  original
values by more than 0.1 g/c^ over more than 10% of any layer.   The
reconstructed surface material is to be protected  from erosion using mulch
or other means before it is replanted, and nutrients are to be  applied as
needed to establish quick plant growth.  The  vegetation  must be  capable of
stabilizing the soil surface against damage by erosion and must  contribute
to the recovery of productive capacity.  The  land must be returned to crop
production within ten years of regrading.

     The minimum criteria for determining the success  of revegetation on
prime farmland provide that crop production data:

     •  Must be based on a minimum of  three years  data including
        the three-year period immediately preceding bond release

     •  May be adjusted for weather-induced variability  in annual
        mean crop production, if adjustment is authorized by  the
        regulatory authority
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     •  Must be equivalent to or higher  than  the predetermined
        target level of crop production  specified in the permit,
        based op unmined  local prime  farmland under equivalent
        levels of management.

     These standards require the restoration  of prime  farmland  to  its  pre-
mining productive capacity and to agricultural use following mining  as  a
precondition for release  of the operator's performance bond.  They provide
for the site-specific input of expertise  from USDA in each  permit.   There-
fore EPA anticipates that no additional New Source NPDES permit  conditions
will be necessary to protect the prime farmland resources regulated  by
30 CFR 823, as long as the USOSM requirements are enforceable by  the regula-
tory agency.  If the USOSM standards  are not  enforceable, EPA will impose
equivalent measures pursuant to CWA and NEPA  for restoration of  prime
farmland during the period of the NPDES  permit.

     5.7.3.2.  Other Significant Farmlands

     Farmlands of concern to EPA, may include lands not classified as  prime
farmlands by the SMCRA regulatory authority or USDA-SCS.  In order to
minimize the conversion of significant agricultural lands to non-farming
uses as a result of mining, EPA will  impose,  on a case-by-case  basis,
special requirements for New Source NPDES permits when the  following types
of sensitive farmland^ are proposed for mining:

     •  Unique farmland,  and other farmlands  of National,
        Statewide, or local significance, as  defined by USDA-SCS

     •  Farmlands within  or contiguous to other environmentally
        sensitive areas that protect  and buffer those sensitive
        areas

     •  Farmlands that may be used for the land treatment of
        organic (sewage) wastes

     •  Farmlands with significant capital investments that: help
        control soil erosion and non-point pollution.

     For unique or other  farmlands of special significance  as identified by
USDA-SCS, the productivity of the land following reclamation must  be
restored to yields equivalent to unmined local farmland of  the  same  type
under equivalent levels of management.  The proposed post-mining  land  use
will be expected to be farmland.

     For farmlands that buffer sensitive areas, no mining will  be  allowed
prior to a thorough evaluation of the potential effects of  the  proposed
mining on the adjacent sensitive areas.  If the effects are judged by  EPA  to
be significant and not avoidable or subject to mitigation,  then EPA  will not
issue a permit prior to formal decisionmaking in compliance with NEPA
through issuance of draft and final EIS's.
                                   5-160

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     For farmlands  that may be used  for  the  land  treatment  of  organic
(sewage) wastes, the post-mining  land use  is  to allow  for the  land treatment
of organic wastes.  The applicant will be  expected  to  demonstrate that the
postmining soil material is appropriate  for  such  waste  treatment.

     Farmlands with significant capital  investments  that help  control soil
erosion and non-point pollution must be  restored  to  farmland use  and  must
have measures to control erosion  and non-point  pollution equivalent to or
better than those which existed prior to mining.  Following reclamation such
lands are to be restored to yields equivalent to  or  better  than unmined
local farmland of the same type under equivalent  levels of  management and
capital investment.

     EPA also will make certain that appropriate  measures are  proposed by
operators to avoid adverse impacts on off-site  sensitive farmlands from
upslope surface mining operations in the vicinity of the sensitive farmlands
and from underground operations that might cause  subsidence that  may  disrupt
sensitive farmlands.

5.7.4.  Unstable Slopes

     Landslides and related slope failures in West Virginia,  as discussed in
Section 2.7. of this SID, are most likely  where the  slopes  are between 15%
(9°) and 35% (19°).  On slopes of less than  15%,  there  is relatively  little
mass movement; on slopes steeper  than 35%, relatively  little  unconsolidated
material can accumulate and'become unstable  as  a  result of  mining.  Specific
topographic situations where landslides  are  most  likely to  develop are
indicated in Figure 2-47 in Section 2.7.   Nine  maps  pinpointing unstable
slopes in the Basin at the l:24,000-scale  are partially available and have
been depicted on Overlay 3.  Additional maps  are  being  developed  under an
ongoing program at WVGES.

     Human activity can induce or increase the  severity and extent of slope
failure.  Drilling and blasting vibration  may open  existing joints, liquify
fine material along faults, or trigger rockfalls.  An  excavation  may  remove
the support from the toe or increase the loading  on  the crest  of  a potential
slide.  Slope failure associated  with coal mining poses a serious problem in
the Basin because of the large areas in  the  Basin with  slopes  ranging from
15% to 35%.  Qualitative analyses of slope failure  associated  with mining
activity in the Basin show that such failures generally occur  away from
populated areas; thus the damage  to  local  property may  be slight.

     A few rock strata and soil series have  been  found  to be  associated
frequently with mass movement.  This is  particularly true of  the  red  shales
of the Monongahela, Dunkard, and  Conemaugh Groups and  the following soil
series:

       Brooke               Ernest            Vandalia
       Brookside            Gilpin            Westmoreland
       Clarksburg           Guernsey          Wharton
       Culleoka             Markland           Zoar
       Dormont              Upshur

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Detailed cross-sections and topographic maps must be developed as  a  part  of
each mining application now submitted to WVDNR and also are mandated by
USOSM (30 CFR 779.25; 783.25).  Data on geology and soils are required to be
submitted to WVDNR-Reclamation as a part of current mining applications and
also are mandated by USOSM (30 CFR 779.14, 779.21, 783.14, 783.22).

     The USOSM performance standards place great emphasis on slope stability
as a primary objective of the engineering for mining and reclamation activi-
ties.  The performance standards relating to backfilling and grading and  to
fills, water diversions, dams, and roads all bear on slope stability.  An
undisturbed natural barrier is to be retained in place, beginning  at the
elevation of the lowest coal seam to be mined, to prevent slides at  surface
mines (30 CFR 816.99; 817.99).  No surface water diversions are to be
located on existing landslides without the approval of the regulatory  auth-
ority, and no diversion is to be located so as to increase the potential  for
landslides (30 CFR 816.43; 817.43).  Diversions are to be able to  pass at
least a 10-year storm in order to protect fills, and impermeable linings  may
be used to prevent seepage from diversions into fills.

     Backfills must meet a professionally engineered design safety factor of
1.3 (30 CFR 816.102; 817.102).  Regraded slopes are to be the most moderate
possible, and must cover the highwall.  Spoil is to be retained on the solid
part of the bench, and cut and fill terraces may be allowed by the
regulatory authority.  Terrace out slopes are not to exceed 50% unless  they
are approved as having a static design safety factor of more than  1.3.

     Spoil in excess of the quantity needed to eliminate the highwall  is  to
be placed in designated surface disposal areas on the most gently  sloping
and naturally stable sites available.  Placement is to be in a controlled
manner to insure stability (30 CFR 816.71; 817.71).  Spoil disposal  areas
must be constructed with a static design safety factor of 1.5 and must be
inspected and certified by a registered engineer.  Where the slope of  the
disposal area exceeds 36% or such lesser slope as may be designated  by the
regulatory authority, keyway excavations to stable bedrock or rock toe
buttresses to insure stability must be constructed following engineering
analysis of data from on-site borings (30 CFR 780.35).  Valley fills and
head-of-hollow fills must meet the general requirements for spoil  disposal,
plus special requirements for dimensions, compaction, and drainage
(30 CFR 816.72, 73, and 74 and the corresponding sections of Subchapter
817).

     Embankments for sedimentation ponds must meet a design safety factor of
1.5 (30 CFR 816.46; 817.46).  Embankments constructed of coal processing
wastes or intended to impound processing wastes also must meet the design
safety factor criterion of 1.5 (Section 85).  Embankments for Class  I  and
Class II roads must meet a design factor of at least 1.25 (Subsections 150
and 160).

     Taken together, the USOSM performance standards should provide  a
generally acceptable set of controls to regulate mining on unstable  slopes.
                                   5-162

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If the standards should be unenforceable  by  the  regulatory  authority,  EPA
will impose equivalent requirements on New Source mines  pursuant  to  CWA and
NEPA.  During the review of New Source NPDES  permits,  EPA will  check to
insure that no temporary or permanent spoil  placement  is proposed downslope
from the solid bench on outcrops of red shales of the  Dunkard,  Monongahela,
or Conemaugh Groups, or on the thirteen soil  series  frequently  associated
with mass movement that were previously identified.

5.7.5.  Subsidence

     Subsidence is a surface impact of underground mining.   It  results when
the material overlying a mined area caves in.  This  material  fills  the void
created by the removal of the coal and results in the  vertical  and
horizontal displacement of the surface.  As  a consequence there can  be
severe impacts on surface land uses and the  potential  influx  of water  into
the mine.  The amount of surface movement is  dependent on the geometry of
the coal deposit and topography, the method  of mining, and  the
characteristics of the coal seam and overlying strata.

     For essentially flat-lying deposits  such as most  West  Virginia  coals,
the underground excavation width in relation  to  its  height  and  the  depth
from the surface to the coal seam, are important in  calculating the  amount
of subsidence.  In general, the shallower the overburden and  the  wider the
mine excavation relative to its height, the  greater  the  surface subsidence
will be.  Current research that bears on  subsidence  prediction  is discussed
in the following paragraphs.

     A critical width to depth ratio must be  achieved  before  the  maximum
possible subsidence (S max) will occur in a  coal seam  of a  given  thickness
(Figure 5-5, Case a).  At greater widths  of  excavation (where the ratio is
higher in value), the horizontal distance (and surface area)  over which the
maximum subsidence will occur is greater  (Figure 5-5,  Case  b).  On the other
hand, if the mine width is less than the  critical width  relative  to  depth,
the maximum possible subsidence will not  occur (Figure 5-5,  Case  c).   For
convenience in planning and analysis, a subsidence factor can be  calculated
as the subsidence (S) divided by the seam thickness  or height (H).   This
factor, if multiplied by 100, is the percentage  of the seam thickness  that
will be manifested at the surface as vertical movement.

     Many empirical studies have been conducted  in Europe to  preset  and
minimize subsidence effects.  They show that, for flat-lying  deposits  at a
given seam thickness, some critical minimum  width of an  excavation relative
to its depth must be achieved before any  surface effects will be
encountered.  For very deep deposits the  amount  of surface  subsidence  in
proportion to seam thickness is less, because the underground subsidence is
dampened as it spreads toward the surface through intervening rock layers.

     A mean subsidence curve developed from  measurements at 157 coal mines
in Britain by the National Coal Board is  illustrated in  Figure  5-6.  For an
excavation width to depth-from-surface ratio  of  less than 0.25, subsidence
                                     5-163

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    Horizontal displacement
                                        Seam
                           •w
Minimum critical  width for maximum  surface  subsidence


    Horizontal displacement/—•v
       Subsidence
-Surface

     (b)
                                         Seam
       Greater than  critical width  of  excavation
     Horizontal displacement
        Subsidence
                                             -Surface
                                                 (c)
                                       Seam
         Less than critical width of excavation
Figure 5-5 MEAN SUBSIDENCE  CURVES (adapted  from
           Kohli etal. !980).Not to scale.
                    5-164

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:D
CO

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 1.0




0.86

0. 8






0.6






0.4






0.2


0.095
              Narrow Excavations

                  and/or

                Deep Seams
                                                 Wider Excavations
                                                     and/or

                                                  Shallow Seams
                  I
I
I
                 I
           0.0
             0.2
      0.4
          0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
              EXCAVATION WIDTH T DEPTH FROM SURFACE (W/D)
 Figure 5-6  EMPIRICAL  RELATIONSHIP  OF SURFACE SUBSIDENCE SEAM
            THICKNESS RATIO TO PANEL WIDTH / DEPTH  FROM SURFACE
            IN GREAT BRITAIN (National  Coal Board 1966)
                                5-165

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damage is very small; for a W/D ratio of 1.3, a surface  subsidence  of 90%  of
the seam height is estimated to result.  Two examples can  illustrate how
this model is used to predict the effect of excavation width  on  the amount
of subsidence, based on the empirical ratios presented in  Figure^-5-6.

Example 1:  If a coal seam 5 feet thick (H = 5 feet)  is  mined  at  a  depth  of
100 feet (D = 100 feet) and the excavation width is 20 feet (W =  20 feet),
how much subsidence  (s) would be expected at the surface?  For this example,

     W    20           S_
     D = 100 = 0.2,  so H = 0.095 (Figure 5-6)

          S_
     Then 5 = 0.095, and S = 0.48 feet or 5.8 inches.

Example 2:  If a coal seam 5 feet thick at a depth of 100  feet is mined at
an excavation width  of 100 feet, then the surface subsidence  is:

     100      IS
     100 = 1, H = 0.86 (Figure 5-6)

     S = 5 x 0.86 =  4.8 feet or 52 inches.

These hypothetical examples indicate how increasing an excavation width by a
factor of five could increase the expected subsidence by a factor of nine
(4.3 r 0.48 = 8.96).  The same analysis shows how increasing  seam depth
decreases surface subsidence effects.  If the excavation width is 100  feet
and the seam depth is 500 feet for the same 5 feet thick coal  seam, the
expected subsidence  is the same as in Example 1:  0.48 feet.   If  the 5  feet
thick seam were mined using 20 feet wide excavations  at  a  depth  of  500  feet,
the subsidence would be only 0.08 feet (or 1 inch).

     British National Coal Board (1966) data have been used to predict
subsidence in the United States because of the absence of  sufficient
domestic information, but Breeds (in Bise 1980) found the  geological
characteristics of the strata in the UK and US to be  totally  dissimilar.   If
the British model is used for subsidence prediction,  it  usually  will result
in a higher value of subsidence than that which actually occurs  in  West
Virginia.  Preliminary data show that the predicted subsidence was  larger
than the actual subsidence in West Virginia by 30% to 70%  (Von Schonfeldt  et
al. 1980).  This is  due to the greater proportion of  limestones  and
sandstones in West Virginia in comparison to the British strata,  which  are
primarily shales.

     A few subsidence areas have been mapped by the WVGES.  These are mainly
urban areas.  Subsidence potential is classified as severe where  mines  are
at a depth of 150 feet or less, moderate where the mines are  between  150
feet and 300 feet deep, and slight where the mines are deeper  than  300  feet
(Verbally, Dr. Peter Lessing, WVGES, to Mr. Carl Peretti,  1980).
                                    5-166

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     Longwall, shortwall,  and  room  and  pillar mining  methods  are  selected
for specific geological conditions.  Room  and pillar  methods  (see Section
3.2.) generally  are used  at  shallow depths  because  they  are  the most
economical.  Room and pillar methods generally  require leaving  some  amount
of coal in place, even in mined-out panels  and  gob  areas.  Deep seams
require that a larger pillar be  left to bear the  increased pressure
resulting from thicker overburden.  Where  it is necessary  to  leave very
large amounts of coal in  place,  room and pillar mining may not be
economical.  Room and pillar mining with or without secondary recovery of
pillars may result in delayed  and unequal  subsidence  across the land surface
above the mine.

     Shortwall mining requires the  use  of  larger  supports  or  props than
longwall mining.  Because of these  larger  supports, shortwall methods
frequently are employed at shallower depths than  longwall methods.  At
shallow depths stress distributions are such that they are concentrated at
the shortwall supports.   Only  large supports can  tolerate  the increased
stress without becoming immobilized.  Shortwall mining may be employed to
minimize overall subsidence  damage  by allowing  an immediate  and uniform
subsidence to occur over  a large area.

     Preliminary studies  of  longwall panels in  West Virginia  indicate  that
the caved or fractured area  extends  from 35 to  50 times  the seam  height or
to the surface, whichever comes  first (Von  Schonfeldt et al.  1980).
Generally this caved area does not  reach the surface, because the longwall
mining is conducted at great depths.

     An ongoing  study by K. K. Kohli and S. S.  Peng of the Department  of
Mining Engineering of West Virginia University  concerning  subsidence induced
by longwall mining in the Northern  Coalfield of Appalachian  is  one of  the
first in-depth studies of subsidence in the US.  Preliminary  data indicate
that the following findings may  be  applicable to most subsidence  in  Northern
Appalachia related to deep underground coal mines:

     •  The angle of draw ranges from 21°  to 30°  (0 in Figure
        5-6).  The angle  of draw, extended  to the surface, defines
        the surface area  affected by subsidence.

     •  The subsidence factor  ranges from  0.22  to 0.7 and
        increases with seam  depth.  This is a narrower range  of
        values than those presented in Figure 5-6.  This is unlike
        the results from  shallow seam mining techniques  and occurs
        because the caved area extends 35  to 50 times the  seam
        height above the  mined area.  Above this height  the rock
        generally settles in continuous, unbroken pieces.  The
        thicker  the overlying  rock,  the more weight exerted on  the
        gob and the greater  the  compaction.
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     •  The subsidence profile can be approximated and predicted
        by a simple profile function in most cases.  The following
        equation was found to approximate most subsidence
        profiles:

           S = 1/2 S max [1 - tan h (2X r B)], where
           S = the subsidence at a horizontal distance X from the
           point of half-maximum subsidence
           B = a constant that is one-half the critical width
           S max = the maximum subsidence
           tan h = the hyperbolic tangent.

     •  Time-dependent subsidence, that is, the residual
        subsidence after the main subsidence has occurred due to
        gradual compaction of the subsided ground, is less  than
        13% of the total subsidence

     •  Where mining panels occur horizontally adjacent to  each
        other, the interpanel effect adds 15% to 33% to the
        maximum possible subsidence.

     USOSM permanent program regulations  implementing SMCRA require  that
surface subsidence control be incorporated into underground coal mine  design
(30 CFR 817.116).  Underground mining activities are to be  planned  and
conducted so as to prevent subsidence from causing material damage  to  the
surface, to the extent technologically and economically feasible,  and  so  as
to maintain the value and reasonably foreseeable use of surface  lands.  This
may be accomplished on the one hand by leaving adequate coal in  place,  by
backfilling, or by other measures to support the surface, or alternatively
by conducting underground mining in a manner that provides  for planned and
controlled subsidence.  The underground mine operator must  prepare  and
implement a detailed subsidence control plan approved by the regulatory
authority where the information in the permit application indicates  the
presence of sensitive surface resources.

     Subsidence control begins during mine planning with the identification
of potentially affected surface structures, water resources, and land  uses
(30 CFR 817.122 through .126).  Specific  surface areas beneath which mining
will occur  must be identified, together with the dates of  the proposed
mining activity.  Measures to control surface damage must be described in
detail.  This information must be provided to each resident and  owner  of
surface property beneath which the mining is to occur at least six  months
prior to the start of mining.

     The surface owner is to be protected by:
                                   5-168

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     •  Approval by  the regulatory  authority  of  a mining plan
        (including provisions  for monitoring)  that will  prevent
        subsidence from causing damage  or  diminution of  the value
        or reasonably  foreseeable use of the  surface area

     •  Establishment  of  a means  to  fulfill the  legal
        responsibility of the  mine  owner to restore or purchase
        any damaged  structure  and restore  damaged land  to its
        original condition or  its reasonably  foreseeable use
        through purchase  of  insurance or any  other method required
        by the regulatory authority.

Mining under urbanized areas can  be  suspended  at  any time,  if it is found to
cause imminent danger  to  the surface inhabitants.

     Buffer zones must be established in certain  areas  to prevent
subsidence damage, unless the  regulatory authority finds that the buffer
zone is not necessary  to  protect  the surface  resource from subsidence (30
CFR 817.126).  These zones will have no mining activity, if the regulatory
agency determines that reduced extraction  ratios  or other mining methods are
insufficient to eliminate damage  to  the surface  features.   The areas  that
must be considered for buffering  include:

     •  Perennial streams

     •  Water impoundments, with a storage  volume  of 20 acre-feet
        or more

     •  Aquifers that  serve  as significant sources of water to
        public water systems

     •  Public buildings.

     If it is determined  by  the regulatory authority that sensitive surface
uses exist in the mining  area, the  permit  application must  include a
subsidence control plan (30  CFR 784.20).   The  plan must  include a detailed
description of:

     •  Mining methods and the extent to which planned  subsidence
        is anticipated

     •  Measures employed to prevent subsidence  damage,  such as
        backfilling, leaving support pillars,  leaving unmined coal
        below ground,  together with  surface measures such as
        structural reinforcement, relocation,  and  monitoring

     •  Measures to  determine  the extent of future subsidence
        damage, including presubsidence surveys  of structures and
        other surface  features which might be  damaged and plans
        for monitoring these features during  mining.
                                    5-169

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     West Virginia has no current subsidence control program.  The State
must draft regulations to conform to USOSM requirements before it can
administer the SMCRA program.  New regulations also are required to
implement the subsidence provisions of the recent WVSCMRA [West Virginia
Code 20-6-14(b)(D] .   So long as applicants for New Source NPDES permits
adhere to USOSM permanent program performance standards, subsidence can be
expected to be minimized, and no special New Source NPDES permit conditions
for subsidence control are necessary.  Should the USOSM performance
standards not be enforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA will impose
equivalent measures under the CWA and NEPA.

5.7.6.  Toxic or Ac^id Forming Earth Materials and Acid Mine Drainage

     Toxic or acid-forming materials can be present in the unconsolidated
and consolidated material above a coal deposit, within the coal seam  itself,
in the underclay, and in coal preparation waste material.  These materials
have the potential to produce acid water and biologically harmful substances
when exposed to air,  water, and microorganisms (see Sections 2.7., 3.2., and
5.2.).

     Water quality problems as a result of AMD are widespread in the
Monongahela River Basin (see Section 2.7).  The potential for toxic or
acid-forming constituents exists throughout the Basin  (Arkle et al. 1979,
Caruccio 1970, Home  et al. 1978, Ferm 1974).

     5.7.6.1.  Coal Overburden Information Requirement;;

     Both surface coal mining and underground coal mining must meet special
performance standards for operations in toxic or acid-forming strata
(30 CFR 816.48, 816.103, 817.48, and 817.103).  In order to determine
whether these special performance standards must be applied, the operator
must document the presence or absence of excessively toxic, acidic, or
alkaline strata as part of his permit application to the SMCRA regulatory
authority.

     The USOSM performance standards (30 CFR 779.14) require test borings  or
core samples that extend from the surface to the stratum immediately  below
the lowest coal seam to be mined (30 CFR 779.14, 783.14).  The operator  also
is required to provide the following data:

     •  Location of subsurface water table and aquifers

     •  Drill logs which include the rock type and thickness of
        each stratum and coal seam

     •  Physical properties (i.e. structure, texture, and
        composition)  of each stratum including analyses of
        compaction and erodibility

     •  Chemical analyses of each stratum including the underclay
        of the lowest coal seam to be mined.  The analyses must
        include pH, reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid, total
        sulfur, and neutralization potential (acid-base accounting
        by layer)
                                 5-170

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     •  Strata or horizons within a  stratum which  contain
        potential acid-forming, toxic, or  alkaline materials

     t  Analyses of coal seams  including sulfur, pyrite, and
        marcasite content.

Original analyses of core samples may be waived by the  regulatory authority,
if the authority provides a written  statement that equivalent  information is
accessible and in the proper  form from other  sources.

     EPA is aware of the significant local fluctuation  in  toxic/acid  and
alkaline overburden, as well  as the  diversity of the  acid  potential of  coal
seams and underclays in West Virginia.  EPA believes  that  a minimum of  one
original, on-site core analysis of the overburden, coal seams,  and
underclays on each mine site, supported by local correlating data, is
necessary to identify toxic spoil and meet the needs  of the New Source  NPDES
permit program, unless equivalent information is submitted by  the applicant.
This analysis is to be made in  accordance with the USOSM Draft  Experimental
Permit Application Form (Chapter 4)  and the EPA Manual  for the  Analysis of
Overburden (Smith et al. 1976,  Sobek 1978).  EPA expects that  this
information will be developed for State and Federal mining permit
applications, and that no additional information will be required
specifically for the New Source NPDES permit program.

     EPA will require that data on overburden characteristics  be retrieved
either by core sampling or from highwall samples, because  air  drill chips
easily may be contaminated.  Fresh exposures  along a highwall  are to  be
sampled for each stratum.  Each sample is to be at least 500 ml (roughly
1 pint) in volume for adequate  laboratory preparation and  evaluation  (SMDTF
1979).  Core samples are to be  protected from moisture  (i.e.,  wrapped in
plastic) and placed in a wooden or other suitable  container  for transport
and storage prior to analysis.  EPA  expects that the necessary  data will be
included in the mining permit application and will not  have  to  be compiled
specially for the NPDES permit  application.

     EPA will require data to be submitted from core  samples or highwall
samples separated horizontally by no more than 3,300  feet  in previously
unmined areas and in coal seams where potential toxic materials are
suspected.  Seams identified by WVDNR-Reclamation as  potentially toxic  have
been mapped on the 1:24,000-scale maps and is available at EPA Region III
offices.   The maximum distance between samples may be  waived  where
applicable local data are submitted  that indicate  (1) that no  toxic or
acid-forming materials are present,  or (2) that historically the area has
been free of acid mine drainage.

     Depending on the observable rate of lateral change in the  local  strata,
EPA may require closer spacing  of core holes or highwall samples locally
within the permit area to assure adequate data to  predict  impacts and enable
                                   5-171

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compliance with applicable performance  standards  for  soil  and  water quality
(Smith et al. 1976).  EPA recommends that applicants  utilize a maximum
horizontal spacing of 2,000 feet or  less in  areas  of  known toxic  or
uncertain potential within the permit area,  to  preclude  the need  for
additional drilling after permit review is underway.  Obvious  changes  in
rock properties, (i.e., weathered vs. unweathered  zones  within one  stratum,)
are to be sampled, and the two or more  zones  should be  logged  separately
(SMDTF 1979).

     Pre-mining laboratory analyses  of  overburden  that  identify  toxic  or
potentially toxic materials and allow mine planning to  prevent or control
acid mine drainage will be required  by  EPA.   It  is expected  that  this
information will have been prepared  by  the operator as  a part  of  the SMCRA
application.  Acid-base accounts are the principal part  of overburden
analysis.  They involve two basic measurements:   (l)  total pyritic  sulfur
concentration; and (2) neutralization potential,  that is,  the  calcium
carbonate equivalent of bases present in the  various  rock  layers.  The
thresholds for defining overburden materials  as  toxic or acid-forming  are
that either (1) the pH is less than  4 standard  units, or (2) there  is  a net
potential deficiency of 5 tons calcium  carbonate  equivalent  or more per
1,000 tons of materials (Smith et al. 1974).

     EPA recognizes that alternative methods  to  prevent  formation of acid
mine drainage include both the thorough blending  of toxic  or acid-forming
materials with alkaline materials and the selective placement  and isolation
of the problem materials in the backfilled areas.  EPA  also recognizes that
improper blending of these materials can result  in toxic or  acid  Leachate.
EPA may approve the blending of overburden materials,  provided that the
operator demonstrates that blending, or a combination of blending and
segregation, will produce desirable  results.  The  operator must  demonstrate
one or more of the following:  1) that  there  is  sufficient alkaline material
present in the overburden as a whole to produce  a net acid-base  account, ?)
that other local mine sites with similar overburden and  mining methods are
known to have no uncontrollable acid water discharges,  or  3) that the  toxic
or acid-producing material is not a  pyritic  sandstone and  that it possesses
sufficient neutralizers.  Pyritic sandstone  ordinarily  will be expected to
be segregated.

     Figures 5-7 and 5-8 provide examples of  acid-base  data  from  two
overburden columns from two coal seams  in the Monongahela  River Basin.   The
original topsoil material in Figure  5-7 is low  in  total  sulfur,  but it lacks
neutralizers and shows a net deficiency in calcium carbonate equivalent.
The topsoil is not base-deficient enough, however, to be considered a  toxic
zone.  From a depth of 4 feet to 23  feet the  base-rich  shale and  other
mudstones show a net excess of approximately  10%  calcium carbonate
equivalent together with a high total sulfur  content.   Except  for 2 feet of
overburden below the base-rich zone, the remaining overburden  material above
the Bakerstown Coal also is high in  total sulfur.  The  net deficiency  of
calcium carbonate equivalent places  this material  in  the potentially toxic
or toxic category (Smith et al. 1976).
                                    5-172

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SANDSTONE
  SHALE
MUOSTONE
 LIMESTONE
  COAL
                           ACID-BASE ACCOUNT
                        DEFICIENCY
                       % SULFUR (t)
                     1.0       0.1
EXCESS
                                       20-
                     100  40 20  10 6 4  2  I
                                           2  4 6 IO  20   60 tOO
                           CaC03  EQUIVALENT

                          (TONS/THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL)
  Figure  5-7  AQID-BASE ACCOUNT AND ROCK TYPE OF OVER-
              BURDEN ABOVE A BAKERSTOWN COAL SEAM.
              (EPA  1976)

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SANDSTONE
 SHALE




MUOSTONE
LIMESTONE
 COAL

                    DEFICIENCY
                     % SULFUR («)
                   1.0      0.1
ACID-BASE  ACCOUNT

                 EXCESS
                   IOO  40 20 10 6 4  2  I  I  2  4 6 10 20 4O  100
                              468
                                PH
                             CaC03  EQUIVALENT

                             ( TONS/THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL)
  Figure 5-8 ACID-BASE ACCOUNT AND ROCK TYPE OF THE OVER-
           BURDEN ABOVE AN UPPER FREEPORT COAL SEAM
           (EPA 1976)
                           5-174

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     In Figure 5-8 the net  deficiencies  of  calcium carbonate equivalent
occur at several levels in  the material  overlying  the Upper  Freeport  Coal.
Three of these zones  are  considered  toxic or  potentially toxic:   (1)  20 to
24 feet from the surface; (2) at a depth of 51  to  52  feet;  (3)  the Upper
Freeport Coal zone itself,  58 to 68  feet from the  surface.   Only the  natural
soil (the uppermost 2 inches) in the  surficial  10  feet of material does not
have a net base deficiency.  From 10  to  20  feet  the column  shows a low
Sulfur content and slightly alkaline  material.   Hence the weathered zone as
a whole has an insignificant net deficiency in  calcium carbonate that is too
small to be recorded.  A  potentially  toxic  layer 1 foot  thick at a depth of
52 feet occurs in the otherwise alkaline zone from 24 to 58  feet in depth.

     These two examples of  overburden analysis  suggest various  effective
methods for toxic material  placement  during mining.   Rock  from  the 5  to
23 feet zone overlying the Bakerstown Coal  (Figure 5-7)  could be segregated
from the remaining overburden during  mining.  This alkaline  material  could
be used to cover the  potentially toxic material  and to form  a substitute
topsoil.  Wherever in West Virginia  the  Bakerstown Coal  is  shallow enough to
be minable by current surface methods, it is  accompanied by  alkaline
overburden that can be used to form  a mine  soil  with  revegetation potential
greater than that of  undisturbed topsoil (Smith  et al.  1974).

     Alternative reclamation operations  would be feasible where the Upper
Freeport Coal, as described in Figure 5-8,  is mined.   The weathered zone
(upper 20 feet) is usually  removed and placed at the  surface to form  the
minesoil and cover the toxic material below.  Fertilization  and liming can
produce successful pasture  (Smith et  al. 1976).

     A second option  is to  remove 5  feet of the  potentially  toxic material
immediately below the weathered zone  and bury it in the  backfill away from
the highwall and the  top  and bottom  of the  pit.  The  25  feet to 58 feet
alkaline section of the overburden then  can be  blended with  the uppermost
20 feet and used to create minesoil.  This  option  is  available  only when the
overburden consists primarily of shales  and mudstones instead of sandstone.

     Blending should be thorough enough  to  eliminate  pockets of potentially
acid-forming materials.   Neutralizing agents  such  as  lime  can be added or
mixed with overburden materials.  Controlled  drilling and blasting can keep
the potentially toxic material in relatively  large chunks,  thus minimizing
the reactive surface, while at the same  time  fragmenting the alk --line
material to increase  its  reactive surfaces.   If  the coal seam and closely
associated materials  are  acid-forming, the  pit  should be cleaned prior to
backfilling.  Positive drainage can  be provided  adjacent to  the highwall
face and across the pit floor through non-toxic,  preferably  alkaline
material.   If the coal pavement or underclay  are potentially toxic, sealants
can be applied to create  a non-reactive  surface.   Possible  sealants include
clayey soil, weatherable  shale, manufactured  compounds,  and  lime (which can
react with iron in water  to form a non-reactive  surface  (SMDTF  1979).

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     Total analyses for the trace elements aluminum,  arsenic, beryllium
cadmium, chromium, chlorine, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel,
selenium, silver, and zinc are suggested  in the USOSM Draft Experimental
Permit Application Form to show the expected trace element content  of  future
soils that develop from these rocks and the potential availability  of  these
elements to plants.  Heavy metals less readily are leached from  soils  or
weathered rock than calcium, magnesium, and potassium.  Nevertheless,  they
may be toxic to plants and hamper revegetation, especially where  pH is less
than 4.0.  The natural weathering process  is accelerated by mining  activity,
and low pH mine waters have the potential  to release  levels of these heavy
metals that generate significant adverse  effects.

     EPA may require original laboratory  analyses  for these metals  in  areas
where metals are suspected of posing an environmental problem, unless
equivalent data are available from comparable local situations and  the
comparable data are submitted with the New Source NPDES permit application.
EPA expects that the data prepared for the regulatory authority  pursuant  to
SMCRA and WVSCMRA will be adequate to meet the needs  of New Source  NPDES
permit review, as long as the information requirements outlined  in  this
section are satisfied.

5.7.6.2.Surface Disposal of Acid-Forming Materials

     After toxic, acid-forming, potentially toxic, or potentially acid-
forming materials have been identified, the mine operator who plans surface
disposal of such materials is required to meet special performance  standards
and procedures during mining and reclamation operations (30 CFR  816.48,
817.48).  The operator already is required by current WVDNR permit
applications to describe in the mine plan the proposed disposal  or  treatment
method for all toxic or acid-forming materials.  USOSM performance  standards
for disposal of toxic or acid-forming materials require that the  operator:

     •  Minimize water pollution and treat the discharge if
        necessary to control pollution (816.41)

     •  Haul or convey and place spoil in compacted horizontal
        lifts, graded to allow surface and subsurface drainage to
        be compatible with local conditions

     •  Divert runoff around the spoil disposal site  [816.74(c)]

     •  Unless waived by the SMCRA regulatory authority, reclaim
        the mine site contemporaneously with mining activities
        (816.100)

     •  During backfill and grading operations, haul  and compact
        the spoil in order to prevent leaching of  toxic or acid-
        forming materials, minimize adverse effects on receiving
        waters and groundwater, and support postmining land uses
        (816.101).
                                     5-176

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     Requirements for covering coal  and  toxic or  acid-forming  materials
during  backfilling and grading operations  include  the  following   measures
(30 CFR 816.103 and 817.103 and WVDNR-Reclamation Regulations  1978:
Chapter 20-6, Section 9.03):

     •  A minimum of 4 feet of cover  over  1) all  coal seams, 2)
        toxic or acid—forming materials, 3) combustible materials,
        4) materials deemed unsuitable by WVDNR-Reclamation  for
        thinner cover

     •  The 4 feet or more of cover material must be non-toxic,
        non-acid forming, and non-combustible

     •  Toxic or acid-forming materials  must be tested  and treated
        or blended with suitable materials  to neutralize  toxicity
        if necessary

     •  WVDNR-Reclamation may require 1) greater  than 4 feet of
        non-toxic and non-acidic cover,  2)  special  compaction  of
        toxic or acidic materials, and 3)  isolation of  these
        materials from groundwater in order to minimize the
        potential effects of upward migration of  salts, exposure
        due to erosion, and formation of toxic or acid  seeps,  to
        insure adequate depth for plant  growth, and to  meet  any
        special local conditions

     •  Placement or storage of toxic or acid materials is to  be
        sufficiently distant from drainage  courses  to prevent  or
        minimize any threat of water  pollution

     •  Methods and design specifications  for compacting
        materials, prior to covering  any toxic or acid-forming
        materials, must be approved by the  SMCRA  regulatory
        authority.
                                                                      j
Figures 5-9 and 5-10 illustrate water and  overburden handling  measures
currently recommended in West Virginia.

     Overburden thickness is variable across the  Basin  and locally within
individual mines.  Fluctuations in overburden thickness may be due to
changes in the depositional environment, post-depositional erosion and
tectonics, topography, and elevation  of  the coal  seam.  All toxic materials
must be covered, whether the overburden  is  thin or  thick  (816.104,  105).

     "Red dog" is the West Virginia coal miner's  term for a  solid,
non-volatile combustion product of the oxidation  of coal  or  coal  refuse.
The term commonly is applied to coal  or  refuse that has been burned in  place
prior to mining.  The material is red in color and  traditionally  has been
used for road surfacing in the Basin  (WVDNR 1979).  USOSM permanent program
regulations require that no toxic or  acid-forming materials be used for  road
                                     5-177

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5-178

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   DBIU. Ho-E . Fo« A.OO
          COOUT
                                     E3
                                     [rx^rU

                                     CH
                   To BE
                             OTHE.R
                             CUT
        Tonic
                FIPST CUT
Figure 5-10 CROSS-SECTION VIEWS OF CONTOUR
           SURFACE MINE SHOWN IN FIGURE 5-9
           (Smith 1979).
                    5-179

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Figure 5-10  (concluded)  CROSS-SECTION VIEWS
                         5-180

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surfacing  (816.154,  .164,  and  .174).  Because  red  dog  commonly  is  an acid-
forming material, the red dog now generally must be handled  as  any other
toxic overburden.  EPA will require  standard overburden  analysis  of any red
dog material proposed for use on any road surface  to determine  its toxic or
acid-forming potential.  Unless the  material is demonstrated not  to be
acid-forming, its use as a road material will  be denied.

     USOSM performance standards mandate that  the  waters  of  the permit area
and adjacent areas be protected from the potential acid  or toxic  drainage
from acid or toxic forming overburden (30 CFR  816.48 and  817.48).   Drainage
from these toxic or acid forming materials is  to be avoided  by  identifying,
isolating, burying, or treating where necessary all overburden  material that
the regulatory authority considers a potential threat  to  water  quality or
vegetation.  In particular:

     •  Toxic or acid materials are  to be isolated (816.103  and
        817.103)

     •  Spoil is to be buried or treated within 30 days  after
        exposure, and the regulatory authority may require a
        period of less than 30 days

     •  Temporary storage of the toxic materials may be  approved
        by the regulatory  authority  if the operator can
        demonstrate 1) that burial or treatment of the toxic
        material is not feasible and 2) the material does not pose
        a potential water pollution  problem or other adverse
        environmental effect

     •  The temporarily stored toxic or acid material  must be
        handled as soon as it becomes feasible to  do so

     •  All temporarily stored, potentially toxic  or acid-forming
        material, is to be placed on top of impermeable  material,
        sealed, or otherwise protected from erosion and  contact
        with surface water.

     Subsurface water usually is encountered at the highwall, in  or near the
coal seam.  The mine operator, by determining  the  dip  of  the strata,  can
identify  likely areas for  subsurface water discharge.  With  this  knowledge,
a mine operator can avoid placing toxic materials  in such areas.
Alternatively, up-dip areas can be used for toxic  spoil  placement, thus
preventing or minimizing contact with subsurface waters.  Special  care in
blasting  procedures on the last highwall cut also  can  be  used to  reduce
highwall  fracturing and thus reduce  the potential  infiltration  of
groundwater.  Where pavement materials are found to be alkaline,  shallow
fragmenting of the coal pavement can help to minimize  the potential for acid
mine drainage formation.  By fragmenting the pavement, subsurface  water
flowing into the backfilled site can be directed into  and across  the
alkaline  pavement.
                                     5-181

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     Where large volumes of subsurface water  are encountered,  the  coal  pave-
ment can be trenched and/or treated to provide routes  for the  water  to  exit
the fill in a planned and controlled manner.  Non-toxic  stone,  as  well  as
durable pipes or culverts, can be used in the trench to  provide  a  quick con-
veyance system.  Construction of collection and conveyance  drainage  systems
for springs and underground seeps is also a useful subsurface  water  control
measure to prevent entry of groundwater into  potentially toxic materials
stored in fill areas.

     The potential for surface water to enter underground mines  is greatest
where subsidence has taken place.  Thus special attention should be  given  to
areas where subsidence is most likely to occur, as for example,  where  there
are numerous, thin strata above the coal seam (as opposed to few,  massive
beds).  Surface topography also may affect the potential for subsidence,
with greater probability of mine roof problems beneath ridges  than beneath
hollows.  The measures taken to prevent unwanted subsidence during mining
(timbering, roof bolting, trusses, etc) may be effective in protecting
workers during the relatively short-term period of active mining (seldom
more than 25 years).  In the long term, however, they  are not  likely to pre-
vent surface subsidence in many situations, and consequently the quantity  of
potential acid drainage may increase long after a mine has  been  abandoned.

     5.7.6.3.  Underground Disposal of Spoil  and Coal  Processing Wastes

     Spoil from surface and underground mines and coal processing  plant
wastes can be returned to underground mine workings, provided  that such dis-
posal has been planned and approved by the SMCRA regulatory authority  and  by
USMSHA.  The USOSM-mandated reclamation plan  must protect the  hydrologic
balance.  Surface water and samples of groundwater quantity and  quality are
to be collected, analyzed, and reported (30 CFR 817,52).  The  determination
of the probable hydrologic consequences during all seasons  due to  the  pro-
posed underground disposal is to document existing and predict future  levels
of the following parameters:

     •  Dissolved and total suspended solids

     •  Total iron and manganese

     •  pH

     •  any other parameters designated by the SMCRA regulatory
        authority.

Pursuant to CWA and NEPA, EPA will exercise its responsibility to  preserve
water quality by requiring that the operator  furnish the results of  analyses
of total acidity and alkalinity (as CaC03) and of heavy  metals concentra-
tions in groundwater and surface water within the permit area  and  adjacent
streams as discussed in the previous sections.  Ordinarily,  the  information
                                   5-182

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developed for the regulatory  authority  pursuant  to SMCRA will  be  adequate
for EPA review.

     As part of plans for the proposed  disposal  of spoil underground,  the
operator is to provide locations and dimensions  of existing  spoil  areas,
coal and other waste piles, dams, embankments, other  impoundments,  and water
and air pollution control facilities within the  permit  area  (783.25 and
784.11).  Each disposal plan  is  to  include the disposal methods  and sites
for placing the underground development waste or excess spoil  generated by
surface mines (816.71-.73 and 817.71-.73).  Each disposal  plan is  to
describe the operator's geotechnical investigations,  engineering  design, and
proposed the construction, operation, maintenance, and  removal of  structures
(784.19).

     No surface water is to be diverted or discharged  into underground mine
workings unless the operator can demonstrate to  the SMCRA  regulatory
authority that the procedure will abate water pollution and  will  be a
controlled flow discharge meeting applicable effluent  limitations  (816.42).
The existing source NPDES effluent  limits may be exceeded  if approved  by the
SMCRA regulatory authority, but  such approvals are restricted  to:   1)  coal
processing waste, 2) fly ash  from coal-fired facilities, 3)  sludge  from acid
drainage treatment facilities, 4) flue  gas desulfurization sludges, 5)  inert
materials used for stabilizing underground mines, and  6) underground
development wastes.

     In order to return coal  processing waste to abandoned underground
workings, the operator is to describe to the regulatory authority  the
design, operation, and maintenance  of the proposed processing  waste disposal
facility (785.25).  The coal processing waste may be  returned  to  underground
workings according to a waste disposal  program approved by the regulatory
authority and USMSHA under the requirements for  the disposal of  excess spoil
(30 CFR 780.35.).  A description of the disposal site  and  design  of spoil
disposal structures (816.71-.73), including a report  on the  geotechnical
investigation of the disposal site  and  adjacent  areas,  is  required  by  the
various subparts of 780.35 and 816.71-.73.  The  requirements are  detailed in
Chapter 6 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form.

     5.7.6.4.  Coal Preparation  Plant  and Other Refuse Piles

     All coal preparation plants generate waste  materials  with the  potential
to pollute nearby receiving streams (Torrey 1978, EPA 1979;  see  Section
3.2.).  The solid wastes generated  at coal preparation  plants  include  both
coal dust and fine and coarse rock material.  Preparation  plants  that
utilize water produce wastewater and process sludges.   Various undesirable
elements are separated from the  coal during the  cleaning process;  therefore,
greater concentrations of acid-forming  or toxic  elements such  as  sulfur
compounds are present in the coal refuse piles than in  the original coal.
The exposure of coal mine or preparation plant refuse  to air,  runoff water,
and  microbiological activity is likely to produce undesirable or  toxic
water quality in nearby surface  waters  and groundwater.  Coal  storage  areas
                                    5-183

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also have a high potential to produce undesirable drainage.  Excess
suspended material and acidity are a potentially severe drainage  problem
from coal storage areas in the Basin (Torrey 1978).

     Toxic or acid-forming materials exist in surface gob piles  (that  is,
disposal sites for underground mine workings, coal preparation plant wastes,
and wastes generated by coal processing).  Coal waste piles have  the
potential to produce various types of toxic conditions ranging from low pH
leachate to effluent with complex organic and inorganic chemicals  in
concentrations damaging to the survival of organisms and to other
established water uses (Torrey 1978).  Leachate may be produced  continuously
or intermittently, and it frequently has resulted in long-term degradation
of the surrounding surface water and groundwater system.

     Coal refuse piles, coal preparation wastes, and coal processing wastes
potentially are more toxic or acid-producing than the original overburden or
coal seam.  Because preparation plant waste piles may generate water
pollution, EPA will review the pre-mining overburden, underclay,  and coal
seam analyses including trace element content for each coal seam and
overburden that is to be processed at a proposed plant and an in-depth,
physical and chemical analysis of the untreated surface runoff and seepage
from each waste or refuse pile at the plant (if any).  So long as  data
are developed by the applicant as described in Chapter 4 of the  USOSM  Draft
Experimental Permit Application Form, no additional information  is likely to
be needed by EPA.

     Both suspended solids and acid mine drainage water pollution problems
associated with preparation plant facilities can be classified into two
general types:  1) process-generated wastewater and 2) area wastewater in
the vicinity of plant facilities, coal storage areas, and refuse  disposal
areas.  Process water control can entail various clarification techniques  to
reduce the typically high concentrations of solids.  Measures include  froth
flotation, thickeners, flocculation, settling, vacuum filtration,  and/or
pressure filtration.  If coal fines are separated from other particulates,
such as clay, these fines either can be blended with clean coal  or
transported to a refuse disposal site.  Process water can be recycled.
Excess process water sometimes requires treatment to meet effluent
limitations prior to discharge (pH, iron, etc).  The most common  practice  is
to add lime to make-up water after clarification in settling ponds, but it
also can be added prior to recycling through these ponds.  More
sophisticated treatment processes, as described in Section 5.7.6.7.,  are
employed only when the process water is of extremely poor quality.

     Water pollution control related to preparation plant ancillary areas
includes preventive and treatment practices related to refuse piles,  slurry
ponds, and coal storage sites.  Various measures are utilized by preparation
plant operators to control drainage from these areas.  Site selection  of
refuse piles, slurry ponds, and coal storage areas is an important factor
in minimizing drainage problems.  These sites can be isolated from surface
and ground waters.  Refuse piles and coal storage sites usually  are located
upslope from slurry ponds or other settling ponds and treatment  facilities.
                                   5-184

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In this way, any drainage can be directed  into  the  ponds  for  settling  and/or
treatment prior to reuse or discharge.  Water diversion systems can be
incorporated into site development, and, if  springs or large  surface runoff
quantities are expected, subdrains also can be  employed.

     The following techniques can be used  during  temporary refuse  pile
construction:

     •  Proper compaction of refuse to reduce infiltration

     •  Minimizing exposed surface area during  construction

     •  Utilizing relatively uniform-sized refuse to  insure good
        compaction with fines to reduce air and water permeability

     •  Construction of a clay liner over  the pile  followed by
        topsoil placement and revegetation after desired  depth of
        refuse is reached.

Additional slurry pond control measures include:

     •  Avoiding toxic refuse in slurry pond retention
        embankments

     •  Minimizing the velocity of slurry  influent  into the pond
        and maximizing the slurry travel distances  through the
        pond to optimize solids settling

     •  Designing embankments for proper impermeability and
        stability to minimize seepage

     •  Construction of diversion and conveyance systems  below the
        downstream toe of pond retention dam to collect,  treat (if
        necessary), and release or pump seepage back  to the
        retention pond

     •  Removing clarified water from points near top of  pond
        water surface

     •  Returning clarified water to preparation plant for
        re-use.

     An excellent coal storage pollution preventive measure is the use  of
bins, silos, or hoppers as storage facilities instead of  open piles.  More
detailed descriptions of the pollution control  techniques associated with
preparation plants are available in EPA (1976)  and W.A. Wahler and
Associates (1978).

     Permit area groundwater must be analyzed along with  the  surface water.
The trace element analysis generally must  include those elements listed in
Section 4.17 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form,  as
                                    5-185

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previously discussed in Section 5.7.6.1.  EPA may require additional  trace
element analyses if appropriate, or may reduce the number of trace  element
analyses listed in Section 4.17 of the Form if the operator demonstrates  in
writing that certain trace elements are not present or do not  pose  an
ecological hazard to surrounding biota or pose a threat  to human health
(Torrey 1978, EPA 1976a).

     Coal processing wastes are not to be placed in valley fills (30  CFR
816.71) or head of hollow fills (816.72).  They may be placed, however, in
other excess spoil fills, if the processing wastes are demonstrated not to
form acid or toxic components in leachate.  Alternative  coal processing
waste disposal methods include placement  in coal processing waste banks
(816.81, .85; 817.81, .85), return to underground workings (816.88  and
817.88), and use for the construction of  dams and embankments  (816.92,  .93;
817.92, .93).  Non-coal waste disposal sites which have  the potential to
produce toxic or acid leachate are to be  operated in compliance with  all
local, State, and Federal requirements.  No solid waste  may be left at
refuse embankments or impoundment sites,  or within 8 feet of any outcrop  of
coal or coal storage area (30 CFR 816.89 and 817.89).

     Coal processing waste can be used to construct dams arid embankments  to
impound other coal processing wastes only if the physical and  chemical
analyses of  the coal waste demonstrate to the regulatory authority  that
1) structural stability will be satisfactory (30 CFR 816.71, .93; 817.71,
.93) and 2)  such use of the waste material will not degrade the downstream
water quality (816.91, 817.91).

     Coal processing waste banks, dams, and embankments  must be constructed
with a minimum long-term safety factor of 1.5 [816.85(b), 817.85(b)].  A
sub-drainage system must be constructed to intercept groundwater (817.83,
816.83).  The waste material must be compacted in layers 24 inches  thick  or
less, with 90% of maximum dry density as  determined by standard highway
(AASHTO) specifications [816.85(c)].  The waste must be  covered by  a  minimum
of 4 feet of cover that is not toxic or acid-forming [816.85(d)] in a manner
that does not impede flow from sub-drainage systems.  All leachate  and
surface runoff must satisfy effluent standards (816.42,  817.42).  USOSM   .
performance  standards for erosion, sediment, and water pollution control  are
to be met (816.41-2, .45-6, .52,  .55; and corresponding  Subsections of
Subchapter 817).  All banks, dams, and embankments are to be revegetated  in
the manner of other surface mined lands (816.111-.117).  If 4  feet  of
non-toxic material are not readily available or would require  extensive
disturbance  of pristine areas, then the regulatory authority may approve  a
thinner cover, provided that all water quality standards are maintained.
The regulatory authority also has the option to approve  1) disposal of
wastes from  outside the permit area on a mine site, and  2) modification of
disposal requirements to allow the use of dewatered fine coal  waste (that
is, wastes that pass a Standard No. 28 sieve) in construction  (816.85,
817.85).
                                   5-186

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     Dams or embankments for impounding waste materials  are  to  be  designed
so that 90% of the water stored during the design  precipitation event  is
removed within a 10-day period.  In addition to meeting  the  criteria in the
surface mining regulations, coal processing waste  banks  and  dams or
embankments must comply with existing design safety  rules  promulgated  by
USMSHA (30 CFR 77.216).

     All road embankments  are required to be constructed using  materials
which have minimal amounts of organic material, coal or  coal blossom,  frozen
material, wet or peat material, natural soils with organic matter, or  any
other material regarded as unsuitable by the SMCRA regulatory authority.
Toxic or acid-forming materials may be used to construct road embankments
for Class I roads located  on coal processing waste banks,  provided that the
operator can demonstrate that no acid will be discharged from the  coal
processing bank.  Without  exception, no acid-bearing refuse  material may be
used beyond the coal processing bank.  Other acid  or toxic materials  from
road excavations are to be disposed according to the methods previously
described (30 CFR 816.48,  .81, and  .103), and no acid  or toxic  forming
material is to be used for road surfacing for any  class  of roads (816.154,
.164, and .174).

     EPA will require the  identification of all potentially  toxic  or  acid-
forming coal processing wastes and excess spoil materials  as outlined  in
this section.  EPA expects that in the majority of permit  applications,  the
data prepared for the regulatory authority pursuant  to SMCRA and WVSCMRA
will be adequate to meet the needs of the New Source NPDES permit  review,  as
long as the special information requirements outlined  in this section  are
satisfied.

     Each mining operation that plans to construct a coal  processing  plant
or support facility outside the permit area for a  specific mine must obtain
a surface mining permit for that facility (30 CFR  785.21).   Approval  of  the
permit for such an operation presupposes that the  permit applicant has
demonstrated to the regulatory authority in writing  that all applicable
USOSM requirements will be met during the construction,  operation,
maintenance, modification, reclamation, and decommissioning  of  the coal
processing plant (30 CRF 827.12).  Specifically, the following  measures  are
mandated:

     •  Signs to be placed in the field to point out coal
        processing plant,  coal processing waste disposal area,  and
        water treatment facility (30 CFR 816.1)

     •  All roads and other transport or associated  features to be
        built, maintained, and reclaimed in accordance with
        Class I, II, and III road requirements (Sections
        816.150-.181)

     •  Any drainage modification, disturbance, or realignment  to
        be made according  to 30 CFR 816.44 specifications
                                   5-187

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     •  Sediment to be controlled by structures, if required by
        regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.45-46); discharge
        limitations to be met (816.41-.42),  together with other
        applicable State or Federal law in any disturbed area
        related to the coal processing plant or support facility

     •  All permanent impoundments to protect the hydologic
        balance during and after plant operation (816.49 and .56)

     •  Water wells (816.53) and water supply rights (816.54) to
        be protected

     •  Coal processing waste (816.81-.88),  solid waste (816.89),
        and excavated materials (816.71-73)  to be disposed
        according to the appropriate regulations

     •  Sediment and discharge control structures to be in
        accordance with 816.47

     •  Fugitive dust emission control to be provided (816,°5)

     •  Areas sensitive to fish and wildlife to be protected from
        adverse impacts (816.97)

     •  All other surface areas, including slide areas, to comply
        with 316.97

     •  Adverse impacts anticipated by the regulatory authority on
        underground mines or as a result of underground operations
        to be minimized by proper techniques which include but are
        not limited to those in 816.55 and 816.79

     •  Reclamation, revegetation, water storage, and any other
        storage facility to comply with 816.56, 816.100-.106,
        816.111-.117, and 816.131-.133

     •  All structures related to the coal processing plant to be
        in accordance with Section 816

     •  All structures located on prime farmland to meet the
        requirements outlined in Section 823.

     5.7.6.5.  In-Situ Coal Processing

     Special permanent program performance standards are required  for  the
in-situ processing of coal (30 CFR 828).  All operators who plan to  operate
in-situ coal processing must comply with 30 CFR 828.11 and 817.  Unless
approved by the regulatory authority, fluid discharges into holes or wells
are to be avoided.  Operators must minimize annular injection between  drill
                                    5-188

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hole wall and casing and must prevent  process  fluids  from  entering  surface
waters.

     All toxic, acid-forming, or  radioactive  gases,  solids,  or  liquids  which
may pose a fire, health, safety,  or other environmental hazard  as a result
of coal mining and recovery must  be treated,  confined, or  disposed  of  in
such a way as to protect the hydrologic balance, biota, and  other related
environmental values.  Process recovery fluids  are  to be controlled to
prevent horizontal flow beyond the affected area 'identified  in  the  permit
and to prevent vertical leakage into overlying  or underlying aquifers.   All
groundwater quality within the permit  area and  adjacent areas,  including
groundwater above and below the production zone, is  to be  returned  to
approximate pre-mining levels.  EPA expects that all New Source NPDES  permit
applicants will meet the current  USOSM performance  standards for 1) in-situ
or offsite coal processing, 2) preservation of  hydrologic  balance,  and
3) all other pertinent regulations including 4) any  special  requirements or
waivers approved in writing by the SMCRA regulatory  authority.

     5.7.6.6.  Exploration Practices

     Another potential source of  groundwater  and surface water  contamination
is exploration bore holes, other  drill or boreholes, wells,  and other
exposed openings associated with  coal  mines.  Holes  that have been  identi-
fied to be used for coal processing waste or water disposal  into underground
workings or to monitor groundwater conditions  are to be cased,  sealed,  or
otherwise managed under approval  of the regulatory  authority to prevent  acid
or toxic drainage and to minimize adverse environmental effects.  The  SMCRA
regulatory authority may require  temporary or  permanent sealing of  these
holes unless they are to be used  as monitoring  wells  (30 CFR 816.14-.15).
All holes are to be sealed temporarily before use and protected by  other
measures approved by the regulatory authority  (30 CFR 816.14 and WVDNR-
Reclamation Regulations 1978:  Chapter 20, Section  9.0).   After use, each
hole is to be capped, sealed, backfilled, or  otherwise managed  under
Section 816.13.  After the regulatory  authority has  approved the closing of
the hole or the transfer of waterwell  rights  (Section 816.53),  the  hole  must
be closed permanently to prevent  water access  to the underground workings
and keep acid or other toxic drainage  from entering  ground or surface  waters
(816.15).  Reclamation requirements applicable  to openings associated with
mining or with coal processing plants  are listed under 30  CFR 780.18.   The
reclamation plan is to include the description, includir^,  cross-sections and
maps, of the appropriate measures to be used  to seal or manage  mine
openings, and to plug, case, or manage exploration holes,  other bore holes,
wells, and other openings within  the permit area (816.13-.15).

     Exploration holes can be drilled, vegetation can be cleared and
grubbed, and roads may be constructed  without  regulation,  if these  opera-
tions are solely for the purpose  of timbering,  because timbering is not
regulated pursuant to the CWA.  The 1980 surface water quality  regulations
                                    5-189

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proposed by WVDNR-Water Resources and the SWRB extend  turbidity  limitations
to silvicultural operations.

     EPA will require that  all New Source coal mines and  coal  processing
plants be responsible for reclaiming or transfering water rights  for  all
openings within each NPDES  New Source permit area  in order  to  assure  negli-
gible degradation of water  quality and quantity by uncased,  unreclaimed,  or
improperly managed holes or wells in the permit area,  unless equivalent
measures are mandated by the SMCRA regulatory authority.  EPA  recognizes
that permit data requirements and design plans for the  proposed  disposal  of
coal processing wastes to underground mine workings are to  be  met:  prior to
issuance of each SMCRA permit.  EPA will require an analysis of  drainage
water from the disposal sites prior to approval of underground waste  dispo-
sal.  The chemical analysis of the water at minimum should  include, unless
otherwise demonstrated, an  analysis of the trace elements listed  in
Section 4.17 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application  Form  and
discussed in Section 5.7.6.1. of this assessment.  Potentially toxic  concen-
trations of trace contaminants may require additional  trace contaminant
analysis of 1) waste piles  and/or 2) alternative disposal methods.

     5.7.6.7.  Other AMD Control Measures
     The primary reaction during AMD  formation is the oxidation  of  reduced
pyritic material; therefore, the less time pyritic material  is exposed  to
air and water, the less acid will be  formed.  The geochemistry of acid  mine
drainage formation is complex, and ongoing research  is  beginning to shed
light on the numerous and as yet poorly  identified environmental conditions
which may affect the amount and rate  of  acid production in  the soil over-
burden, coal refuse piles, underground mines, surface water,  and groundwater
(Verbally, Dr. John J. Renton, WVGES, to Mr. John Urban, July 11, 1980;
Torrey 1979).

     Even after potentially acid-forming material has been  covered  in
accordance with the regulations previously described, oxygen  may be
transported to the pyrite by winds and by molecular  diffusion from  air  and
water in the soil.  On slopes subject to prevailing  winds,  the wind pressure
on the spoil surface increases as the slope increases in steepness,
resulting in a greater depth of oxygen movement into steeply  sloped spoil
areas (Doyle 1976).

     Molecular diffusion occurs where there is a difference  in oxygen
concentration between two points, such as the spoil  surface  and  some point
within the spoil.  The rate of oxygen transfer is strongly  dependent on the
phase of the fluid and is generally higher in the gaseous state.  For
example, oxygen diffusion through air is approximately  four  orders  of
magnitude (10,000 times) as rapid as  through water (Doyle 1976).  A thin
layer (several millimeters) of water, then, may act  as  an effective barrier
against exposure of pyrite to oxygen.  Dry, cracked  soil may  be  ineffective
as an oxygen barrier.
                                   5-190

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     Artificial barriers  can be  successful,  at  least  during the first few
years, but their installation and maintenance costs may  be  prohibitive or
may restrict them to  special conditions.  Relatively  high-cost  surface
sealants such as lime, gypsum, sodium silicate,  and latex have  been tried,
but these usually require  repeated  applications  and to  date have shown only
marginal effectiveness.

     Permanent water  barriers also  can  be effective oxygen  barriers for
underground pyritic material (Doyle  1976).   Experimental methods also have
been suggested to prevent  AMD:

     •  Fly ash disposal  in underground workings on spoil  (Adams
        1971)

     •  Silicate treatment (EPA  1971)

     •  Various inert gas  atmospheres to minimize  oxidation of
        pyrites (EPA  1971).

     Treatment measures  for AMD  in  some situations must  be  employed because
the absolute prevention  of acid  formation is not yet  demonstrably attainable
under all field conditions.  Alternative  treatment measures may be employed
separately or in conjunction with one another and  with  the  prevention tech-
niques previously described.  Treatment measures vary from  simple and
inexpensive to complex and costly systems, depending  on  site conditions and
the quality and quantity  of AMD  to  be treated.   The most complex treatment
usually is developed  at  underground  mines, where AMD  quality can pose
severe, long-term problems at fixed  discharge points.   Erosion  and sediment
control measures including water diversion structures  that  prevent water
from coming into contact with acid-forming materials  or  transport the water
quickly through the area can reduce  the total volume  of  water that requires
treatment.  Diversions and treatment measures can be  used both  during and
after mining and reclamation operations.

     Simple batch handling methods,  such  as  spraying  ponds  with hydrated
lime slurries and hand or  drip feeding  of neutralizing  agents into ponds or
channels sometimes are used.  Prefabricated  neutralizing units  capable of
continuous operation  require no  electrical power and    le.ully  use soda ash
or sodium hydroxide.  Whereas these  first two methods  i-.,ually are applied
for simple, low pH problems, more complex and ext>ens :  .•  r --ut -alization
systems are adopted for  high acidity or excess> ve  levels ',. iti. \ or other
soluble metals.  Generally included  in  these systems  are f  A, ilit^o3 for flow
equalization (holding ponds), acidity neutralization,  iron  oxidation
(aeration), and solids removal (mechanical clarifiers  or earthen settling
basins, with coagulant addition  if  necessary).   Many  variations to this
basic system exist, and  various  alkali  reagents  are used, although lime is
the predominant reagent.   Where  neutralization  is  not  required, excessive
concentrations of iron and suspended solids  can  be reduced  by aeration and
sedimentation.
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     Neutralization is the most widely used method  of  acid mine  drainage
treatment.  Potential advantages of a properly maintained neutralization
system are:

     •  Removal of acidity and addition of alkalinity

     •  Acceptable pH of discharge water

     •  Reduction or removal of heavy metals, which  are
        precipitated at neutral or alkaline pH (>7.0;  Figure  5-11)

     •  At high pH (>9), iron precipitates as ferric hydroxide

     •  Sulfate can be removed from highly acidic mine drainage
        when enough calcium ion is added  to exceed  the solubility
        of calcium sulfate (Doyle 1976).

     Disadvantages of neutralization treatment of acid mine drainage are:

     •  Hardness may be increased

     •  Sulfate reduction may be inadequate (sulfate
        concentrations usually exceed 2,000 mg/1)

     •  Final iron concentration rarely is less  than 3 to 7 mg/1

     •  A waste sludge of potentially toxic and  acid-forming
        material must be removed and disposed

     •  Total dissolved solids usually increase  to  levels
        unacceptable under New Source NPDES limitations.

     The standard neutralization process  involves adding an alkaline
reagent, mixing and aerating the liquid (coal preparation plants),  and
removing precipitates.  In order of decreasing popularity, the standard
reagents employed by mine operators are:  lime,  limestone, anhydrous
ammonia, soda ash, and sodium hydroxide.  The water  pumped from  a  pit or
from underground workings can be treated  by connecting a  lime slurry tank to
the suction end of the pump so that the pump not only  draws the  acid mine
drainage to the lime-filled tank, but acts as the mixing  agent  for  the lime
and water.  The discharge should pass through and be retained in a  settling
pond to reduce suspended precipitates.  Chemical  flocculants  can be added to
the pond in order to reduce water retention time within the pond yet
effectively settle fine particles.  Commercial equipment  is available with
automatic pH control, but these systems require  additional maintenance by
operators.

     Limestone is cheaper and produces a  lesser  volume of denser sludge than
lime.  It is difficult to raise pH above  6 with  limestone.  Limestone is
ineffective in removing iron from water when the  iron  is  present primarily
                                     5-192

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                     5-193

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as ferrous compounds.  The dissolution of  acid-forming materials  takes  place
on particles of pyrite, but the neutralization reaction  takes  place  on  the
particles of limestone.  The resultant precipitate  in time  coats  the
limestone and effectively seals it from further reaction with  the  acid
solution.

     Anhydrous ammonia can be economically  attractive because  it  allows
simplified operation and maintenance.  One  drawback  is higher  reagent cost
than lime or limestone.  Ammonia-neutralized  acid mine drainage may  contain
levels of ammonia toxic to fish and other  aquatic biota.  It also  may
increase nitrate levels in receiving waters  and accelerate  the eutrophica-
tion process.  Ideally, anhydrous ammonia  treatment  is utilized under
specialized conditions involving small volumes of AMD where  the treated
water can be applied to spoil banks as irrigation water  with little  or  no
direct discharge to waterways.

     Soda ash can be an adequate temporary  treatment  for small flows.   Its
major disadvantage is lack of pH control.   At very high  flows  the  system may
undertreat the AMD.  Soda ash cost also exceeds the  cost  of  lime  or
limestone.

     Sodium hydroxide can be used in remote  locations and is best  suited for
small flows in conjunction with a settling  pond.  Sodium hydroxide is
appreciably more expensive than lime or limestone.

     Lesser known and usually more expensive  mitigative  measures  in  addition
to those previously described are:

     •  Ion exchange (EPA 1972)

     •  Combination of limestone-lime neutralization  of  ferrous
        iron acid mine drainage (EPA 1978)

     •  Flocculation and clarification (EPA 1971)

     •  Microbiological treatment (EPA 1971)

     •  Reverse osmosis demineralization  (EPA 1972)

     •  Rotating disc biological treatment  (EPA 1980).

     Treatment costs and iron removal efficiencies  vary  among  the  several
alternative AMD treatment processes and are  affected by  the  oxidation state
of the iron to be treated.  Limestone alone  is considered irifeasible for
neutralization of AMD when the concentration of ferrous  iron (Fe+^)  j_s
in excess of 100 mg/1.  The first example  in Table  5-26  illustrates  the
effectiveness of limestone treatment with  and without oxidation of ferrous
iron.  Limestone alone was capable of reducing the  total  iron  concentration
only from 270 to 150 mg/1 at a cost of $0.12  per  1,000 gallons.   Following
injection of hydrogen peroxide (H202) to  oxidize  the  ferrous iron, the
                                     5-194

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total iron concentration of 270 mg/1 was reduced to 6.2 mg/1  at  a  total
reagent cost of only $0.05 per 1,000 gallons.

     The use of coagulants can improve effluent quality at  about $0.10
additional cost per thousand gallons above the cost of limestone neutrali-
zation alone.  Example 2 (Table 5-26) shows  that a total  iron concentration
can be reduced from 230 to 0.9 mg/1 at a cost of about $0.22  per  L,000
gallons by limestone neutralization combined with extended  aeration,  sludge
recycling, and coagulant addition.

     Lime (calcium hydroxide, also known as  hydrated  lime)  neutralization  at
present is the most common treatment process for AMD.  This process  is
effective regardless of the oxidation state  of the iron.  Lime most  commonly
is used for treating ferrous iron, because it is 30% more expensive  than
limestone where the iron is already in the ferric state.  Example  3  illus-
trates the effectiveness of lime treatment with coagulant addition for iron
removal.  Iron is removed more efficiently at higher  pH.  An  initial concen-
tration of 280 mg/1 total iron was reduced to 2.1 mg/1 and  10.0 mg/1 total
iron by lime neutralization to pH 8 and pH 7, respectively.   Lime  treatment
produces a sludge easier to handle than limestone neutralization.  A
combination limestone-lime treatment that treats total iron concentrations
of 290 mg/1 to produce 1.4 mg/1 in the effluent can reduce  reagent cost by
30% as compared with lime neutralization alone ($0.09 versus  $0.12 per  1,000
gallon; Examples 4A and 4B, Table 5-26).

     The data in Example 5 (lime-soda treatment) are  from a full-scale  plant
in Altoona, PA.  The AMD treated at this plant is dilute, with total iron
concentration of only 17 mg/1.  The total treatment cost  (including  amorti-
zation and operation) was approximately $0.40 per 1,000 gallons, not
including sludge disposal.  Alumina-lime-soda treatment (Example 6)  can
reduce total iron from 100 mg/1 to 0.3 mg/1, but the  reagent,  costs are
almost $0.90 per 1,000 gallon.

     Reverse osmosis (Example 7) and ion exchange (Example  8)  also can
produce consistent total iron concentrations less than 1  mg/1.   The  total
costs for ion exchange are similar to those  for reverse osmosis  and  range
from $0.75 to $2.00 per 1,000 gallon (Wilmoth and Scott 1975).   Sludge and
brine disposal is a significant additional cost for all of  the treatment
processes discussed here.

     The treatment processes illustrated in  Table 5-26 that produce  an
effluent meeting NPDES New Source standards  are lime  neutralization  plus
coagulant (#3A and #4B), combination lime-limestone neutralization (#4A),
alumina-lime-soda neutralization (#6), and ion exchange (#8).  The limestone
treatments, even with H202 oxidation, did not meet NPDES  New  Source
standards for iron or manganese (#1A and #1B).  Limestone with extended
aeration, sludge recycling, and coagulant did not meet the  manganese
limitation (#2), nor did lime neutralization only to  pH 7 with coagulant
(#3B).  The lime-soda treatment resulted in  a pH slightly in  excess  of  the
                                      5-196

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New Source  limitation,  and might  be  authorized  for use (#5).   Reverse
osmosis alone did not raise the pH sufficiently to meet  the NPDES New Source
minimum (#7).

     One controlled mining procedure,  which  is  growing in popularity due to
its pollution control value,  is down-dip mining (Figure  5-12).   Drift mines
developed to the up-dip enter a coal  seam  which rises from the horizontal,
whereas down-dip mines  enter  coal seams which descend,   Up-dip mines drain
mine discharge water by gravity toward entryways,  and down-dip mines drain
inward away from entrances.   The  up-dip mine accrues  low drainage-related
operating costs during  mining but potentially high environmental costs
following abandonment.   Little or no  pumping is necessary to  clear the mine
of water, and minimum energy  is needed to  transport the  coal  out of the
mine.  When such a mine  is abandoned,  however,  the drift mouth must be
sealed to control the continuing  drainage,  and  all unavoidable drainage from
the abandoned mine must  be controlled  and  may have to be treated indefi-
nitely in order to meet  standards and  protect receiving  water quality.
Although down-dip mines  have  higher  operating costs (pumping  water and coal
haulage), they allow pre-planned  flooding  of the mine after closure with
accompanying lower hydraulic  heads,  if mine seals  are used.   Low hydraulic
heads on mine seals are  a great advantage  in obtaining effective seals and
subsequent  total mine flooding.   In  areas  with  no  past underground mines,
this technique can be successful.  Caution must be used  in areas where, due
to incomplete mapping and past mining  practices, inadequate barriers may be
left which  cannot withstand mine  pool  hydraulic pressures.  In many
instances, deep minable  seams  are steeply  pitching and below  drainage in
this Basin, so even up-dip mines  may  require water to be pumped out of mine
workings, and little, if any  hydraulic head may develop  on mine seals.

     Mines  developed on the up-dip but reached  through shafts or sloped
entryways present different opportunities  for mine drainage control.  As the
lowest section of the mine is  worked  out,  the mined-out  area  with its
unconsolidated gob is allowed  to  become inundated  with water  that previously
was pumped  from the mine and  treated  at the  surface.   As development and
extraction continue on  the up-dip, the mine pool is allowed to advance
upward to cover additional gob, until  the  level of the mine pool stabilizes
and an equilibrium is reached  between  the  mine  pool and  the local hydrologic
regime.

     This condition potentially inundates  the acid-producing  materials in
the gob and thus prevents the  formation of acid mine  drainage by isolating
the pyrites or other deleterious  gob  material from oxygen. The water level
in the mine pool may fluctuate seasonally, however, and  thereby provide
opportunities for oxidation of pollutants  into  a water-soluble form.  Mine
pools typically drain continuously through fractures  or  other voids and thus
potentially may contaminate surface  receiving waters  and aquifers located
stratigraphically below  the mine.

     Mine inundation or  flooding  is  the primary purpose  of installing
hydraulic mine seals.   Seals  form an  impermeable plug in mine openings which
discharge, or are expected to  discharge, mine water.   In this manner when
                                    5-197

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                 PRECIPITATION
     A.  PRE-MINING  CONDITION
                          PRECIPITATION
     B.  UP-OIP MINING
                             PRECIPITATION
STREAM
   C. DOWN-DIP  MINING
 Figure 5-12 HYDROGEOLOGIC CYCLE  AND MINE  DRAINAGE
             (after Resource Extraction and  Handling Division
             1977)

-------
the mine is flooded, and acid mine  drainage  formation  is  retarded  by
excluding air contact with pyritic  material.  Various  hydraulic  mine seals
can be employed by underground mine operators,  including  single  and  double
bulkhead, gunite, and clay seals.   Detailed  descriptions  of  specific mine
seal types, as well as other water  pollution prevention and  control
procedures for underground mines are reviewed by  Skelly and  Loy  (1973)  and
Michael Baker (1975).

     Mine seal effectiveness varies from  site to  site.  Problems arise  from
inadequate coal barriers between adjacent mines and  the coal outcrop,  dis-
junctive roof and floor integrity (fractures, faults,  etc.),  and mine seal
leakage, particularly where the seal is anchored  into  the roof,  ribs, and
floor of the mine.  There are also  numerous  other local geologic,  hydrolo-
gic, and mining conditions which can preclude the successful impounding of
water.

     In addition to hydraulic seals, dry  and air  seals  can be utilized.  Dry
seals are designed to prevent entrance of air and water into a mine  by
plugging openings with impermeable  materials where little or no  hydrostatic
head is expected.  Air seals involve closing all  openings that permit air
entry into a mine using impermeable materials.  One  entry is provided with
an air trap that allows water to discharge,  but in theory prevents air
entry.  Problems arise when air enters a mine through  fractures,  joints,
faults, and fissures in response to atmospheric changes and  with
infiltrating water.  Mine conditions may  change if there  is  subsidence.

     Discharges are expected to meet the New Source  effluent  limitations
described in Section 4.2.1.  Attainment of the Nationwide standards  in  many
instances will be sufficient to protect water quality  and uses from  the
potential adverse impacts of AMD.   In  lightly buffered  watersheds  with
significant biota and where inadequate flow  is  available  to  dilute mine
effluent, operators may have to employ the more complex available  treatment
technologies in order to meet State in-stream iron limitations and to
protect sensitive biota (see Section 5.1.).
                                   5-199

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           6.0.  EPA NEW SOURCE NPDES PROGRAM NEPA REVIEW SUMMARY
     EPA intends to implement the New Source NPDES permit program in the
most efficient manner possible by minimizing duplication of  effort with
other agencies as long as NEPA and CWA responsibilities are  met  fully.  To
this end EPA will maximize reliance on in-place  institutional mechanisms  to
achieve coordination.

     In particular, EPA is arranging with WVNDR  to receive a copy of each
State mining permit application at the earliest  possible point in the State
review process.  In this way EPA will be able to  initiate NPDES  and NEPA
review prior to formal receipt of a New Source NPDES permit  application.
EPA hopes to be able to identify and resolve environmental issues early,  so
that applications can be moved to public notice  promptly following the
receipt of a formal application.

     This section of the SID presents summary sheets that outline the
central NEPA concerns and EPA responses, by individual resource.  Additional
data that will facilitate interagency coordination also are  set  forth in
this section.  The summaries highlight important  aspects of  the  mechanisms
developed in the SID and should be used in conjunction with  the  more
detailed information presented in other sections  of this document.
                                    6-1

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Resource:  Water Resources

Data Sources:

     General Data

     EPA, USGS, WVDNR-Water Resources, and WVGS have water quality  data.

     High quality and lightly buffered streams as designated by WVDNR-
       Water Resources were mapped on Overlay 1 (Sheet 2 of 2) of the
       1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets.  Public and  private
       organizations are listed in Table 6-1.

     Permit-Specific Data

     WVDNR-Reclamation permit applications include results of  the chemical
       analysis of two water samples taken for each receiving  stream, one
       upstream and one downstream from the proposed mine discharge  point.
       Data on water quality and quantity are required by USOSM
       (30 CFR:779.15, .16; 816.51, .52,  .54; and 783.16).

     Where mine discharges are proposed to streams used  for public  water
       supplies or to lightly buffered streams, EPA will require  that, base-
       line water quality survey data be submitted from once-per-week
       sampling over a four week period.  This monitoring must include  a
       low-flow period in July, August, or September and must  measure the
       following parameters:  streamflow, temperature, specific conductance,
       pH, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total  iron,  dis-
       solved iron, total manganese, sulfate, hardness,  acidity,  alkalinity,
       and heavy metals that exist in the toxic overburden at  levels that
       potentially could be toxic.

     The EPA-required monitoring program  for discharges  into waterbodies used
       for water supply (optional for mines within 1.5 miles of any  active
       water supply well) requires that certain parameters be  tested  in
       addition to those required by the USOSM and State programs,  although
       at a reduced frequency.  Overall,  requirements  are quite similar.
       Therefore the applicant readily can prepare a sampling  program which
       satisfies the requirements of all  three agencies.

Significance:

     Water is an essential resource for humans and aquatic and terrestrial
       wildlife.  Removal or pollution of water supplies seriously  affects
       both human residents and aquatic biota.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     EPA will review the surface water and groundwater protection and
       monitoring plans as proposed by the applicant to  comply with
       30 CFR:816.51, .52, and 817.51,  .52 and WVDNR-Reclamation  Regulations
       20-6, 7A.02, .03, and .04.  EPA will determine whether  these  programs
       are sufficient to protect the water quality of  surface  and underground
       water resources.

                                     6-2

-------
     A continuing monthly groundwater quality monitoring  program  as  described
       in Section 5.1 may be required by EPA from all  operators of mines
       within a 1.5-mile radius of  any  active water  supply well,  if  ground-
       water impacts are identified as  potentially problematic.

     Similarly, surface mining may be kept at least  200 feet  away  from  any
       water supply well or spring, especially those located  downhill from
       the mine.

     AMD prevention and control measures (see SID Section 5.7.) also may  be
       mandated, if not already required by the SMCRA  regulatory  authority.

Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:

     If a high quality stream is to be  affected by drainage  from  the mine
       site, EPA will notify WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
                                     6-3

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Table 6-1.  Aquatic Resources Data Sources.

                                  CONTACT  LIST
                  Person/Agency

State of West Virginia

   Robert Miles
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Chief
   Charleston WV  (304) 348-2771

   Bernie Dowler
   WVDNR - Wildlift Resources,  Fish Management
   Charleston WV  25305  (304)  348-2771

   Frank Jernejcic
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Fishery Biologist
   Fairmont WV  26554  (304)  366-5880

   Gerald E.  Lewis
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Fishery Biologist
   Romney WV  26757  (304) 822-3551

   Dan Ramsey, Don Gasper
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Fishery Biologists
   French Creek WV  26218  (304)  924-6211

   James E. Reed, Jr.
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Fishery Biologist
   MacArthur WV  25873  (304) 255-5106

   Michael Hoeft
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Fishery Biologist
   Point Pleasant WV  25550  (304)  675-4380

   David Robinson
   WVDNR - Water Resources, Chief
   Charleston WV  (304) 348-2107

   Lyle Bennett
   WVDNR - Water Resources
   Charleston WV  (304) 348-5904

   William Santonas
   Department of Natural Resources, Supervisor
   Game and Fish Planning & Biometrics
   311-B Percival Hall
   West Virginia University
   Morgantown WV  26506  (304)  599-8777
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
Ohio/Little Kanawha
North Branch Potomac
Elk, Ohio/Little Kanawha
Coal/Kanawha, Guyandotte
Coal/Kanawha, Guyandotte
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
                                        6-4

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Table 6-1.  Aquatic Resources Data Sources (continued).
                  Person/Agency

State of West Virginia

   Howard Scidmore
   WVDNR - Division of Reclamation
   Charleston WV  (304) 348-3267

   Dr. Ronald Fortney
   WVDNR - HTP, Director
   Charleston WV  (304) 348-2761

   H. G. "Woodie" Woddrum
   WVDNR - Wildlife Resources,  Chief of Research
   Charleston WV  (304) 348-2761
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
Universities

   Dr. Donald Tarter
   Marshall University
   Department of Biology
   Huntington WV  25701  (304)  696-2409

   Drs. Jay Stauffer,  Charles Hocutt
   Appalachian Environmental Laboratory
   University of Maryland
   Frostburg State College Campus
   Frostburg MD  21532  (301) 689-3115
All Basins
All Basins
Federal Agencies

   Huntington USAGE
   Federal Building,  P.O.  Box 2127
   Huntington WV  25721   (304) 529-5536

   Pittsburgh USAGE
   1000 Liberty Avenue
   Pittsburgh PA  15222   (412) 644-6800

   Baltimore USAGE
   P.O. Box 1715
   Baltimore MD  21203

   Bill Mason
   USFWS - Eastern Energy  and Land  Use Team
   Box 44
   Kearneysville WV  25430  (304) 725-2061
Coal/Kanawha, Gauley,
Elk, Ohio/Little
Kanawha

Ohio/7.itte t-  awha
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
                                        6-5

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Table 6-1.  Aquatic Resources Data Sources (concluded).
                  Person/Agency
Federal Agencies
   Interstate Commission on the Potomac Basin
   1055 1st Street
   Rockville MD  20850  (304) 340-2661

   US Forest Service
   180 Canfield Street
   Morgantown WV  25606  (304) 599-7481

   Appalachian Regional Commission
   1666 Connecticut Drive
   Washington DC  20235  (202) 673-7849

   USDA - SCS
   Federal Building
   75 High Street
   Morgantown WV  (304) 599-7151

   USFWS
   P.O. Box 1278
   Elkins WV  (304) 636-6586
Basin Applicability
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins-
All Basins
Private
   West Virginia Coal Association
   1340 One Valley Square
   Charleston WV  25301

   Friends of the Little Kanawha
   P.O. Box 14
   Rock Cave WV  26234
All Basins
Ohio/Little Kanawha
   Rick Webb
   West Virginia Mountain Streams  Monitors
   202 Second Street
   Sutton WV  (304)  765-2781

   Trout Unlimited West Virginia Council
   Ernest Nester, Chariman
   Box 235
   Alloy WV  (304) 337-2357
All Basins
All Basins
                                        6-6

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Resource:  Aquatic Biota in Biologically Important Areas

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Fish species of concern and their locations are available  from
       WVDNR-HTP.

     Fish surveys and recreation RUN WILD fishery data are recorded by
       WVDNR-Wildlife Resources on the computer program.  Fish  surveys and
       trout streams locations not on the WVDNR-Wildlife Resources computer
       can be obtained directly from either the WVDNR-Wildlife  Operations
       Center in Elkins, or the appropriate district Fishery Biologist.
       Additional fish survey data are available from the USAGE, American
       Electric Power Company, and Dr. Donald Tarter (Marshall  University) in
       Huntington, West Virginia.  Drs. Stauffer and Hocutt of  the
       Appalachian Environmental Laboratory (University of Maryland) have
       extensive, current Statewide stream sampling information for West
       Virginia.  Virginia Polytechnic Institute (Blacksburg) staff
       (Drs. Cherry, Garling, Hendricks, Ross, and Ney) have a  variety of
       published and unpublished reports on the fish resources  of West
       Virginia.

     Aquatic macroinvertebrate data for some of the water of West Virginia
       are available from Dr. Tarter (Marshall University), the
       WVDNR-Wildlife Resources computer file, and district Fishery Biolo-
       gists.  Trout streams, fish sampling stations, fish sampling stations
       with high diversity, aquatic macroinvertebrate sampling  stations, mac-
       roinvertebrate sampling stations with pollution intolerant species,
       and Biologically Important Areas (BIA's) are shown on Overlay 1
       (Sheet 1 of 2) of the 1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets.
       Sources are in Table 6-1.

     Permit-Specific Data

     EPA will inform all applicants for mines to be located within Category I
       BIA's (see SID Section 2.2.) immediately upon receipt of their
       application that a minimum of 20 week pre-operational baseline fish
       and macroinvertebrate sampling data is required for t!ie  stream(s) to
       which they plan to discharge, unless a report prepared "
       WVDNR-Wildlife Resources that contains equivalent data it, available
       for the streams.  Original data collection should include at a minimum
       one upstream control station and one downstream station  for each
       potentially affected stream, with periodic sampling for  fish and
       macroinvertebrates during the 20 week period using equipment and
       techniques suitable for the water body, under the supervision of an
       experienced aquatic biologist (see SID Section 5.2.).

     In Category II BIA's, EPA will require environmental surveys to define
       the specific aquatic resources of streams to receive effluents from
       mining operations.  Each survey is to be designed to define species
       composition, assess susceptibility to mining of the species found, and
       determine appropriate mitigative measures to protect what is found.

                                     6-7

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     Each original survey in a Category II BIA is  to  include  a  review  of
       current literature, discussion of probable  impacts, and  methods to
       avoid those impacts.  Sampling similar to or more rigorous  than that
       required for Category I BIA's is appropriate.

     Data on water quality in all BIA's also will  be  required by EPA  from  the
       applicant prior to permit issuance.  These  data are to include  one
       four-week period that includes low-flow conditions as  found in  July,
       August, or September.  Chemical sampling is to be coordinated with  the
       aquatic biota sampling program, utilizing the  same control  station
       upstream from and one station downstream from  the mine discharge and
       at least one station on all other water bodies proposed  to  receive
       runoff from the mine.  Prior to mining, samples are to be collected
       weekly during the low-flow period and at least monthly at other times
       as required by the SMCRA regulatory authority  to  identify seasonal
       variation.  Parameters to be monitored are  temperature,  specific
       conductance, pH, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total
       iron, dissolved iron, total manganese, sulfate, hardness, acidity,
       alkalinity, and heavy metals that exist in  the toxic overburden and
       could be potentially toxic.  Water quality  data collected to accompany
       any other State or Federal permit application may be submitted  to EPA,
       provided they include the requisite information.

Significance:

     Aquatic biota are an important recreational and  natural  resource.  They
       also are valuable as indicators of stream health  and water  flow.  The
       loss of these biota could result in the long-term degradation  of the
       aquatic environment.

     The original data collected in some instances may indicate that  the
       aquatic biota of an area are not diverse or sensitive, and  that water
       quality already is degraded.  In these instances  the area may  be
       declassified from BIA status.  In other instances data may  indicate
       extremely sensitive, unique, or rare and endangered species which may
       require stringent protection from mining impacts.

Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:

     In Category I BIA's a 1 mg/1 total iron concentration in-stream  standard
       will be imposed by EPA, along with a continuing program  of  quarterly
       bio-monitoring to be conducted concurrently with  mining.  The
       bio-monitoring program will be similar to the  survey required  prior to
       mining and will be a condition of permit issuance.  This sampling is
       to be continued until active mining is completed  or until it can be
       determined that no detrimental effects are  occurring.

     A report is to be forwarded by the mine operator to EPA  comparing quan-
       titatively the results obtained at the control stations  prior  to
       mining with what was found during the monitoring  program.
                                     6-8

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     Prompt followup action is necessary to ensure that possible  irreversible
       environmental damage will not occur.  As soon as an apparent downward
       trend is identified in any of the appropriate indicators  (e.g., bio-
       mass, species diversity, species numbers, etc.), intensive sampling is
       to be initiated immediately by the operator to determine whether
       environmental damage actually has occurred or whether the observed
       downturn was a result of a sampling anomaly or statistical error.  If
       significant environmental damage is verified, mining activities must
       be either modified or halted if further harm is to be prevented.
       Restocking may be required if significant environmental damage
       occurs.

     Mitigations for Category II BIA's (see SID Section 5.2.4.) will be
       dependent upon the findings of the environmental survey required  prior
       to permit issuance.  It is anticipated that, if a permit  to mine  is
       issued, at a minimum the 20 week aquatic biota sampling program will
       be required.

     Water quality sampling programs will be required in all BIA's on a  bi-
       monthly basis measuring specified parameters in conjunction with  the
       biological sampling.

Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:

     The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 (P.L. 89-72) requires EPA
       to consult and coordinate with the USFWS when streams and other water
       bodies are altered.  Input from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  also will be
       sought in sensitive areas.
                                     6-9

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Resource:  Aquatic Biota in Unclassifiable Areas

Data Sources:

     General Data .

     None available for use in the SID (see SID Section 5.2.3).

     Consult sources listed in Table 6-1.

     Permit-Specific Data

     One-time, intensive fish and raacroinvertebrate sampling by professional
       biologist of streams potentially affected by mining is required  for
       NPDES New Source permit, unless equivalent data become available  (see
       SID Section 5.2.3.).

Significance:

     The required sampling will enable EPA to determine whether the streams
       are to be treated as BIA's or as non-sensitive.  Significant resources
       then  can be protected appropriately.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Nationwide NPDES standards will apply to non-sens'itive areas.  BIA's
       will receive additional protection, as detailed in SID Section 5.2.

Resource-Specific Coordination:

     Applicant may contact WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and other sources of
       data.

     EPA will send copy of applicant's report to WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
                                    6-10

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Resource:  Special Terrestrial Vegetation Feature, Outstanding Tree, or
       Virgin Forest Stand

Data Sources:

     General Data

     WVDNR-HTP Data Bank (ongoing survey).

     Labeled "SL" on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).

     Data gaps are substantial, and agencies should be consulted  for updated
       information.  Public and private organizations are listed  in
       Table 6-2.

     Permit-Specific^ Data

     Chapter 3 data from USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form,
       if completed, will provide adequate information for WVDNR-HTP for
       determination of significance and will serve as an excellent vehicle
       for agency comment.

     At minimum, the biological data outlined in the USOSM Draft  Experi-
       mental Permit Application Form (Chapter 3) should be secured from
       applicants for New Source NPDES permits to increase the probability
       that currently unknown resources are identified prior to mining.

Significance:

     Species proposed for Federal classification as endangered or threatened
       with extinction are included in the WVDNR-HTP data along with species
       that are at the limit of their range or poorly known in West
       Virginia.  Some of the data are very old.  Additions and deletions
       are expected over time (see SID Section 2.3.).  The significance of
       each known feature shown on the inventory in the vicinity  of a
       proposed discharge can be commented upon by WVDNR-HTP.  Populations
       of significant plants also exist in unknown locations, so  applicants'
       data should be reviewed by the agencies identified below.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Seek early WVDNR-HTP review of data for permits to mine scarce eco-
       systems (caves, wetlands, shale barrens, sandstone or limestone
       cliffs; see SID Section 5.3.).

     Avoid disturbance of special vegetation, outstanding trees,  and virgin
       forest stands and their hydrologic setting where possible.

     Provide buffer strip at least 100 feet wide surrounding special feature
       to be preserved.

     Provide controlled post-mining public access to these remnants of West
       Virginia's natural heritage.

                                    6-11

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     Transplant special vegetation temporarily or permanently to protected
       suitable habitats.

     Reestablish special vegetation following mining and reclamation.

Resource-Specific Coordination:

     Primary reliance on WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, WVDNR-HTP, and USFWS  for
       identification of depth of study required and specific mitigative
       measures on individual mine sites.

     Coordination should be accomplished adequately if USOSM Draft Experi-
       mental Permit Application Form is implemented; if not, EPA may
       require equivalent information from applicants as part of New Source
       NPDES information.
                                    6-12

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Resource:  Wetland

Data Sources:

     General Data

     WVDNR-HTP Data Bank (survey in progress).

     USGS Topographic Maps (wetland symbol on 1:24,000 Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of
       2) quadrangles.

     WVDNR-Wildlife Resources Streambank Surveys.

     Wetland areas are mapped on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).
       Public and private organizations are listed in Table 6-2.

     (In future:  USFWS National Wetland Inventory maps)

     Permit-Specific Data

     SMCRA Application (30 CFR 779.16, 783.13:  streams, lakes, ponds,
       springs;  779.19, 783.20:   plant communities; 779.20, 783.21:  fish
       and wildlife habitats; 779.21, 783.22:  soils).

     USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Applications Form Questions 3.28, 3.29
       (also 3.18, 3.19, and fish/wildlife questionnaire).

Significance:

     Few, scattered wetlands, very scarce in West Virginia (see SID
       Section 2.3.3.3).

     EPA policy requires maximum protection of wetlands (44 FR 4:
       1455-1457, January 5, 1979).

     CWA Section 404 requires USAGE permit to place fill in wetlands.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Delete  all proposed mining operations from wetland.

     Insure  continuation of hydrologic regime of wetland.

     Provide undisturbed buffer strip (100 feet wide) around wetland (cf.
       30 CFR 816.57; 817.57).

     Reestablish wetland hydrology following mining.

     Replant wetland vegetation following mining (cf. 30 CFR 816.44, 817.44;
       816.97, 817.97).
                                    6-13

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Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:

     Potential major overlap with SMCRA permanent regulatory program.

     Consolidated application authorized for NPDES and Section 404 CWA
       permits (40 CFR 124.4; 45 FR 98:  33487, May 19, 1980).

     If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate wetland
       assessment is required, if wetlands are discussed therein.

     If no EIS or EA is prepared, a Floodplain/Wetlands Assessment must be
       distributed for public and interagency review,  with public notice to
       appropriate A-95 Clearinghouses (44 FR 4:  1455-1457, January 5,
       1979).  Clearinghouses are listed in SID Table 4-8, Section 4.4.2.
       This Assessment can be attached to the New Source NPDES permit public
       notice.

    Agency input expected from:   USFWS, USDA-SCS, USAGE, WVDNR-Water
       Resources, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, USOSM.
                                    6-14

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Table 6-2.  Terrestrial Resources Data Sources.

                                  CONTACT LIST
                  Person/Agency

State of West Virginia

   Robert Miles
   WVDNR-Wildlife Resources,  Chief
   Charleston WV  25305  (304) 348-2771

   Peter Zurbuch, Assistant Chief, Research
   James Rawson, Wildlife Planner
   WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
   P.O. Box 67
   Elkins WV  26241  (304) 636-1767

   Dr. Ronald Fortney, Director
   WVDNR-HTP
   1800 Washington Street E
   Charleston WV  25305  (304) 348-2761

   William Chambers
   WVDNR-Reclamation
   1800 Washington Street E
   Charleston WV  25305  (304) 348-3267

State Agencies

   Asher Kelly, Jr., State Forester
   WVDNR-Forestry
   1800 Washington Street E
   Charleston WV  25305  (304) 348-2788

   Gary D. Strawn, District Biologist
   WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
   Drawer C
   Romney WV  26757  (304) 822-3551

Federal Agencies

   Floyd Wiels
   US Forest Service
   180 Canfield Street
   Morgantown WV  25606  (304) 599-7481

   Bill Tolin, Chris Glower
   US Fish and Wildlife Service
   P.O. Box 1278
   Elkins WV  (304) 636-6586
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
Wildlife populations,
endangered species,
mitigations
All Basins
Terrestrial resources
of special interest
in West Virginia

All Basins
All Basins
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
Forest harvest on state
and private lands
All Basins
                                       6-15

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Table 6-2.  Terrestrial Resources Data Sources (continued).


                  Person/Agency                       Basin  Applicability
Federal Agencies

   Norman R. Chupp,  Area Manager
   US Fish and Wildlife Service
   Area Office
   100 Chestnut Street, Room 310
   Harrisburg PA  17101  (717)  782-3743

   William Mason
   US Fish and Wildlife Service
   Eastern Energy and Land Use  Team
   Route 3, Box 44
   Kearneysville WV   25430  (304)  725-2061

   Dale K. Fowler
   Tennessee Valley  Authority
   Division of.Land  and Forest  Resources
   Norris TN  37828   (615) 494-9800

   Craig Right, State Conservationist
   USDA, Soil Conservation Service
   Federal Building
   75 High Street
   Morgantown WV  25606  (304)  599-7151

   Paul Nickerson, Endangered Species Specialist
   US Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 5
   One Gateway Center,  Suite 700
   Newton Corner MA   02158  (617)  965-5100,  ext.  316

   Tom O'Neil
   US Army Corps of  Engineers,  Huntington  District
     Environmental Studies
   Plan Formulation  Department  (PD-S)
   Federal Building
   P.O. Box 2127
   Huntington WV  25721  (304)  529-5639

   US Army Corps of  Engineers,  Pittsburgh  District
   1000 Liberty Avenue
   Pittsburgh PA  15222  (412)  644-6800

   US Army Corps of  Engineers,  Baltimore District
   P.O. Box 1715
   Baltimore MD  21203
All Basins
Endangered species
All Basins
Reports on revegetation,
fish and wildlife,
literature
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
Coal/Kanawha, Gauley,
Elk, Ohio/Little Kanawha
Ohio/Little Kanawha
North Branch Potomac
                                       6-16

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Table 6-2.  Terrestrial Resources Data Sources (continued).
                  Person/Agency

Regional Agencies

   Dr. E. A. (Tony) Joering, Assistant Director
   Ohio River Basin Commission
   Suite 208-220
   36 E. Fourth Street
   Cincinnati OH  45202  (513) 684-3831
Basin Applicability
Wetlands
Universities

   Dr. Gordon Kirkland
   Shippensburg State College
   Department of Biology
   Shippensburg PA  17257  (717) 532-1407

   Dr. Mary Etta Might, Dr. N. Bayard Green,
     Dr.  Dan Evans
   Marshall University
   Department of Biological Sciences
   Huntington WV  25701  (304) 696-6692 (Right)
                         (304) 696-2376 (Green)
                         (304) 696-3170 (Evans)

   West Virginia University
   Morgantown WV
   College of Arts and Sciences
   Department of Biological Sciences
     Dr.  Jesse Clovis  (304) 293-3979
   •  Dr.  Earl L. Core
     Dr.  Roy B.  Clarkson

     Dr.  Charles Baer  (304) 293-4517

   College of Agriculture and Forestry
   Division of Forestry
   Wildlife Management Section  (304) 293-4797
     Dr.  Robert  C.  Whitmore
     Dr.  David E.  Samuel

     Dr.  George Hall
All Basins
Mammals
All Basins
M amma 1 s-H i gh t
Amphibians and reptiles-
  Green
Flora and endangered
  species of plants-Evans
Flora-aquatics
Flora
Flora, endangered species
  of plants
Ecosystems, wetlands
Birds
Effects of mining on
  wildlife
Birds
                                       6-17

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Table 6-2.  Terrestrial Resources Data Sources  (concluded).


                  Person/Agency                       Basin  Applicability

Private Agencies

   Dr. Juan J. Parodiz                                All  Basins
   Carnegie Museum of National History                Invertebrates
   Department of Invertebrates
   4400 Forbes Avenue
   Pittsburgh PA  15213  (412) 622-3268

   Mr. Leslie Hubricht                                All  Basins
   4026 35th Street                                   Snails
   Meridian MS  39301

   Ed Maguire, Director                               All  Basins
   The Nature Conservancy-West Virginia Field Office   Information  on Nature
   1100 Quarrier Street, Room 215                     Conservancy  Holdings
   Charleston WV  25301  (304) 345-4350               (also  in WVDNR-HTP  files)
                                       6-18

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Resource:  Special Terrestrial Wildlife Feature

Data Sources:

     General Data

     WVDNR-HTP Data Bank (ongoing survey).

     Labeled "SA" on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1  (Sheet 1 of 2).

     RUN WILD EAST-WV computerized inventory (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources).

     Data gaps are substantial, and agencies should be consulted  for updated
       information (see SID Section 2.3.6.).  Public and private
       organizations are listed in Table 6-2.

     Permit-Specific Data

     SMCRA applications must contain wildlife  information as required by  the
       regulatory authority (30 CFR 779.20; 783.21) and a plan  to enhance or
       minimize damage to wildlife (30 CFR 816.97; 817.97).

     USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form  (Section  3.30-3.40)
       requires that wildlife advisory review  be completed  prior  to
       regulatory authority permit review.  A reclamation and wildlife
       enhancement plan (Questions 8.11-8.25)  is to detail  the  applicant's
       proposed measures.

Significance:

     More than 50 species are considered to be of  special interest by
       WVDNR-HTP because they are uncommon, declining, or poorly  known  (see
       SID Section 2.3.).  These species may be encountered in  locations
       other than those reported by WVDNR, so  applicants' data  should be
       reviewed by the agencies identified below.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
     Applicant to inform WVDNR-HTP early of planned habitat disturbance.

     Capture and relocate animals to suitable  protected habitat or to zoo.

     Restore animals to mined site after suitable  habitat is restored.

     Report  promptly the presence of any Federally classified endangered
       species.*

     Locate  roads so as to minimize adverse effects.*

     Fence roads and guide wildlife to underpasses.*

     Exclude wildlife from ponds having toxic  materials.*
*Mandated,  to the extent  possible using  the  best  technology  currently
     available, by the USOSM permanent program performance standards
     (30 CFR 816.97 and 817.97)

                                    6-19

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     Maintain, restore, enhance riparian vegetation.*

     Avoid or restore stream channels.*

     Avoid persistent pesticides.*

     Suppress fires.*

     Select and distribute post-mining vegetation because of wildlife value.*

     Diversify post-mining cropland with contrasting habitat.*

     Provide greenbelts in developed post-mining uses.*

     (For further elaboration and examples, see SID Section 5.5.)

Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:

     Coordination should be accomplished adequately if USOSM Draft
       Experimental Permit Application Form is implemented; if not, EPA
       should require equivalent information from applicants as part of New
       Source NPDES permit application.

     Primary reliance on WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, WVDNR-HTP, and USFWS for
       identification of depth of study required and specific mitigative
       measures on individual mine sites.
*Mandated, to the extent possible using the best technology currently
     available, by the USOSM permanent program performance standards
     (30 CFR 816.97 and 817.97).
                                    6-20

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Resource:  Air Quality

Data Sources:

     General Data

     WVAPCC  annual reports summarize Statewide monitoring  at established
       stations (see SID Section 2.4.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     SMCRA regulatory authority may require on-site measurement  of
       precipitation and wind.

     WVAPCC  requires permit for preparation plants (see SID
     Section 4.1.4.13.).

     Coal preparation plants with thermal dryers  that would exceed EPA
       thresholds for PSD review (see SID Section 4.2.3.) must perform
       on-site meteorological data collection and modeling analyses.

     WVDNR-Water Resources discharge permit applications for preparation
       plants include air pollution control information (see SID
       Section 4.1.4.12.).

Significance:

     Air quality impacts from preparation plants must be reviewed by WVAPCC
       in accordance with the SIP.   Major stationary sources of regulated
       pollutants must undergo PSD review by EPA.  Fugitive dust control
       measures to minimize local dust impacts are mandated by USOSM
       permanent program regulations (see SID Section 5.4.1.).  Hence air
       impacts should be of minimal significance  for NPDES permit NEPA
       review.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     As long as USOSM requirements for dust control are implemented, no
       special NPDES permit conditions are necessary.  Otherwise, EPA will
       mandate measures as outlined in SID Section 5.4.1.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     None necessary.
                                    6-21

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Resource:  Noise Levels

Data Sources:

     General Data

     None available (see SID Section 5.4.2.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     EPA will require operational noise projections where there  are  sensitive
       receptors (campgrounds, residences, schools) within  1 mile.

     Blasting noise and vibration plan data must be developed  for SMCRA
       permit application and for WVDNR-Reclaination.

Significance:

     Blasting noise is controlled by WVDNR-Reclamation,  arid permanent  program
       standards have been issued by USOSM.

     Haul truck noise on public highways  is controlled by EPA  through
       interstate vehicle noise limits.

     Construction, surface mining, and mine facility operation noise  levels
       may affect sensitive receptors adversely within 1 mile.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     No EPA controls on blasting or vibration are necessary as long  as
       current State and Federal controls  are in effect.

     No controls on public highway truck noise are necessary under the NPDES
       permit program.

     Limitations on hours and seasons of  facility operation or on facility
       design or siting may be necessary  following NPDES NEPA  review  to
       protect sensitive receptors closer  than 1 mile to permit  areas.
       Applicants will be asked to forecast noise levels at nearby sensitive
       receptors as part of NPDES New Source permit information.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Based on public notice review comments, EPA may impose operational
       limitations to protect nearby sensitive receptors.
                                    6-22

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Resource:  National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District

Data Sources:

     General Data

     National Register of Historic Places (listed sites and eligible sites)
       is published in Federal Register during February with updates usually
       on the second Tuesday of the month.

     State Historic Preservation Officer and State Archaeologist  (WV
       Department of Culture and History, Charleston) maintain data files.

     Shown (solid triangles) on Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2) of the 1:24,000
       scale environmental inventory map sets (solid triangles).

     Data gaps are significant (see SID Sections 2.5.2. and 2.5.4.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     The USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
       known eligible or listed sites be identified in permit applications
       (30 CFR 779.12; 783.12) and protected during mining (30 CFR 780.31;
       784.17)

     EPA will require applicants to survey mine sites and permit  areas not
       previously disturbed by mining to identify currently unknown sites
       [pursuant to 36 CFR 800.4(a)], if requested by the SHPO.   The site
       inspection report by a qualified archaeologist will be forwarded to
       the SHPO for the determination of National Register eligibility for
       any significant resource.

Significance:

     The approval of any Federal, State, or local agency that administers a
       site eligible for or listed on the National Register must  be given
       before a SMCRA permit can be issued to any operation that  would affect
       the site directly or indirectly  [30 CFR 761.12(f)].  General agency
       obligations are outlined in the  regulations of the Advisory Council on
       Historic Preservation (36 CFR 800; 44 FR 21:  6068-6081, January 30,
       1979).

Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:

     Mitigative measures to preclude or offset adverse impacts on National
       Register sites will be suggested most appropriately by the agencies
       that administer the individual sites, the SHPO, and the Advisory
       Council on Historic Preservation.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Potential overlap with action of regulatory authority pursuant to
       SMCRA.
                                    6-23

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State Historic Preservation Officer and State Archaeologist will be
  given the opportunity to review and comment on each New Source permit
  application.

If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate request for
  Advisory Council comments is necessary, provided that impacts and
  mitigations concerning the eligible or listed National Register site
  are documented fully.

If no EIS or EA is prepared, formal consultation, including opportunity
  for public participation, must be made with any administering agency,
  the SHPO, and the Advisory Council concerning any anticipated direct
  or indirect impacts on an eligible or listed National Register Site
  prior to permit issuance (36 CFR 800.4).   This consultation may be
  part of the New Source NPDES permit public notice.
                               6-24

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Resource:  Non-National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District

Data Sources:
     General Data

     Files of State Archaeologist (locations not provided or mapped on
       Overlay 1).

     Published literature (open triangles on Overlay  1, Sheet 1 of 2).

     Files of State Historic Preservation Officer (locations not provided or
       mapped).

     Data gaps are substantial (see SID Sections 2.5.2. and 2,5.4.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     The USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
       all sites on and near the permit area that are known to State or
       local archaeological and historical agencies be described in the
       permit application (30 CFR 779.12; 783.12).  Such sites are to be
       protected when mine plans are developed and implemented (30 CFR
       780.31; 784.17).

     EPA will provide the SHPO with opportunity to comment on each New
       Source NPDES permit application.  If a site inspection report by a
       qualified archaeologist on a mine site not previously disturbed by
       mining is requested by the SHPO, the applicant's report will be
       forwarded to the SHPO for determination of National Register
       eligibility for any significant resource (see  SID Sections 2.5.2.,
       4.2.11. ,  and 5.7.2.).

Significance:

     The significance of most recorded sites in State files is not known,
       and such sites generally are not mapped in the EPA inventory.  Hence
       the SHPO's comments on each application will be considered carefully
       by EPA.

Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:

     Delete resource site from permit application to  avoid direct
       disturbance.

     Preserve undisturbed buffer area to minimize indirect impacts.

     Salvage resource by site excavation and/or other appropriate
       recording.

     Donate artifacts to appropriate institutions.
                                    6-25

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     Financially support analyses and exhibitions.

     Specific measures should be suggested by the SHPO and State.
       Archaeologist for individual permits.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Potential overlap with action of regulatory authority pursuant  to
       SMCRA for known sites.

     Findings from site inspection by qualified archaeologist should be
       forwarded to the SHPO and State Archaeologist for review and
       comment, and then, if appropriate, forwarded to the US Secretary  of
       the Interior for determination of eligibility for the National
       Register.

     Agencies that administer any identified resource should be notified  and
       given the opportunity to comment on the New Source NPDES public
       notice.
                                    6-26

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Resource:  Primary and Secondary Visual Resources

Data Sources:

     General Data

     WNDNR-HTP and WVDNR-Parks and Recreation have  lists  of  primary  visual
       resources (see Figure 2-30 and Table 2-45 in SID Section 2.5.).

     Primary visual resources are mapped on Overlay 1  (Sheet  1 of 2).

     Substantial data gaps exist for primary and secondary visual
       resources.

     Permit-Specific Data

     Known National Register cultural and historic  resources  on and  adjacent
       to each permit area must be described and identified  in SMCRA permit
       applications (30 CFR 779.22; 783.12), together with all present  and
       proposed land uses on adjacent areas (30 CFR 779.22;  782.23).  Maps
       must show the locations of public parks, cultural  resources,  and
       historic resources on and adjacent to the permit area  (30 CFR 779.24;
       783.24).

S Lgnificance:

     Primary visual resources (waterfalls, unusual  geological features,
       scenic overlooks in State Parks and along roadways, recreational
       lakes, forests, State Parks, and Public Hunting areas; see SID
       Section 2.5.) are subject to short-term degradation during mining
       that is visible by users of the resource.  Long-term  degradation may
       result from unsuccessful reclamation.

     EPA will assess visibility of proposed facilities near  known resources
       in order to curtail adverse mining impacts on primary  visual
       resources (see SID Section 5.7.).

     Mining applicant must demonstrate to EPA that  adverse impacts will not
       accrue to visual resources within view of proposed facilities.

     Secondary visual resources (attractive landscapes) may  be considered by
       EPA for protection following public notice review.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     USOSM requirements pursuant to SMCRA may be adequate to  protect  primary
       visual resources and to demonstrate protective measures satis-
       factorily to EPA.
                                    6-27

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     Additional buffer strips in strategic  locations may  screen  unattractive
       facilities from view by primary visual resource viewers/visitors.

     In highly sensitive locations, EPA may require mining by  underground
       rather than surface methods to protect primary visual resources.

Resource-Specific Coordination:

     EPA expects comments from appropriate  State and Federal land management
       agencies during the public notice review period.
                                    6-28

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Resource:  Macroscale Socioeconomic and Transportation Conditions

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Mining and non-mining unemployment data by county are compiled by
       WVDES.

     National consumer price indices are compiled by USBLS.

     Permit-Specific Data

     Total number of mine employees from NPUES Application (Short Form C).

Significance:

     Major increases in mining employment may affect the ability of local
       governmental units to provide socioeconomic services.   If population,
       employment, dwelling units, or the need for developed land for a
       single mine application exceeds the cutoff values in SID
       Section 5.6.2.1., or if the cumulative effects exceed these cutoff
       values, EPA will request comments from the appropriate RPDC
       (Figure 6-1; Table 6-3).  When significant transportation issues  are
       identified during the public comment period, additional
       transportation-related data listed in SID Section 5.6.2.2. will be
       requested from the applicants and forwarded to the RPDC and other
       relevant transportation agencies as listed in SID Section 5.6.2.2.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     State, Federal and local governmental programs to assist in providing
       housing are listed in Section 5.6.5.3.  Measures to counteract high-
       way impacts by WVDH are discussed in Section 5.6.6.1.

     Applicants may be required to develop socioeconomic mitigations through
       NPDES permit conditions, including the measures listed in
       Sections 5.6.5.1. and 5.6.5.2.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     When employment index exceeds values in SID Section 5.6.2.1., EPA will
       request comments from appropriate RPDC.

     RPDC, WVDH, and local agencies may comment on public notice.
                                    6-29

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6-30

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   Table  6-3.   Directory  of Regional Planning  and  Development  Councils of
     West Virginia  (WVGOECD 1979a).
 ii
in
 IV
 VI
VII
VIII
                            Council

                   Region One Planning
                   and Development Council
Region Two Planning
and Development  Council
                   B.C.K.P. Regional
                   Intergovernmental  Council
Region Four Planning
and Development  Council
                   Mid-Ohio Valley
                   Regional Council
Region Six Planning
and Development  Council
                   Region Seven Planning
                   and Development Council
                   Region Eight Planning
                   and Development  Council
     Executive Director

Michael B.  Jacobs
East River  Office  Building
P. 0. 1442
Princeton,  WV 24740
304/425-9508

Michael Shields
1221 Sixth  Avenue
Huntingdon, WV  25701
304/529-3375 or 3358

Michael J.  Russell
1426 Kanawha Boulevard East
Charleston, WV  25301
304/344-2541

Larry D. Bradford
500 B Main  Street
Summersville,  WV 26651
304/872-4970

Terry Tamburini
925 Market  Street
Parkersburg, WV 26101
304/485-3801

Dennis Poluga (Acting)
201 Deveny  Building
Fairmont, WV  26554
304/366-5693

James P. Gladkosky
Upshur County Courthouse
Buckhannon, WV  26201
304/472-6564

Lawrence E. Spears
5 Main Street
Petersburg, WV  26847
304/257-1221
 IX
XI
                   Eastern Panhandle
                   Regional Planning  and
                   Development  Council
                   Bel-0-Mar Regional
                   Council and Interstate
                   Planning Commission
                   B-H-J Regional  Council
                   and Metropolitan Planning
                   Commission
                                       J.R. Hawvermale
                                       121 West King Street
                                       Martinsburg, WV  25401
                                       304/263-1743

                                       Wil liam Phipps
                                       2177 National Road
                                       P. 0. 2086
                                       Wheeling, WV  26003
                                       304/242-1800

                                       John R. Beck
                                       814 Adams Street
                                       Steubenville, Ohio  43952
                                       614/282-3685
                                                6-31

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Resource:  Adjacent Land Uses

Data Sources:

     General
     USGS high-altitude photography-based 1970's land use and land  cover map
       at 1:250, 000-scale.

     USGS Topographic Maps (7.5 minute quadrangles), various dates.

     Permit-Specific Data

     Map of all structures within 0.5 mile and identity of  surface  owners
       within 500 feet are in current WVDNR-Reclamation mining permit.

     Identity of landowners and structures within 1,000 feet, if  blast  is
       proposed, is in WVDNR surface mining permit applications.

     NPDES applicants will be asked to identify surface owners, managers,  or
       individuals responsible for each sensitive land use  (see
       Section 5.6.2.3.) located within 2,000 feet of the boundary  of  the
       proposed operation.

     SMCRA permanent program regulations require the identification of  the
       following land uses next to new mines:
               cemeteries within 100 feet;
               public buildings (schools, churches, and community
               or institutional buildings) within 300 feet;
               occupied residences within 300 feet;
               public roads within 300 feet.

Significance:

     Many types of land use impacts are possible from mining operations.

     SMCRA prohibits mining within a given distance to certain land uses as
       listed in Section 5.6.2.3.   The SMCRA regulatory authority may  ban
       mining when it is incompatible with existing land use plans,  damaging
       to important or fragile historic, cultural, scientific, or aesthetic
       values, would result in substantial loss of water supply or  food or
       fiber productivity, or would affect natural hazards  that could
       endanger human life.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Specific mitigative measures designed for significant  impacts  identi-
       fied during EPA permit review may be imposed on the  applicant as
       NPDES permit conditions if appropriate.
                                    6-32

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Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:

     To assure that proposed New Source mining activity does not  generate
       significant adverse land use impacts, EPA will  send  a copy of  the
       NPDES public notice to each manager of a sensitive use within
       2,000 feet of the permit area, unless proof  of  notification by the
       applicant is provided to EPA that these persons already have been
       notified pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA.
                                    6-33

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Resource:  Floodplains

Data Sources:

     General Data

     USHUD, FEMA, USGS.

     Areas mapped on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 2 (Sheet 2 of 2).

     See SID Section 2.7.3. for list of available mapped quadrangles.

     Permit-Specific Data

     SMCRA application must contain data on streams (30 CFR 779.16; 779.25;
       783.17, 783.25) and on affected hydrologic area (30 CFR 779.24,
       283.24).

Significance:
     As almost the only flat sites in many areas, floodplains in West
       Virginia are the prime locus for settlements, industrial activity,
       and transportation networks.

     Floodplains in West Virginia are subject to frequent flooding  as  a
       result of thunderstorms.

     Coal  facilities and spoil or waste piles are subject to damage if
       situated in floodplains, and can cause significant water pollution,
       especially the  "blackwater" from coal fines  in waste piles.

     Public safety in  floodplains downstream can be endangered if mining
       accidentally causes temporary damming of water, as by landslides,
       with subsequent bursting of dams.

     Executive Order 11988 requires EPA to minimize floodplain disturbance.

Potential Mitigations  and Permit Conditions:

     Require proposed  facilities to be relocated to alternative
       non-floodplain  area, if available.

     Require relocation of coal waste piles outside floodplain (USOSM
       requires that diversions around coal waste piles be designed to
       accommodate the 24-hour, 100-year flood [30 CFR 816.92; 817.92]).

     Require that structures in floodplain be designed to withstand
       flooding.

Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:

     Potential overlap with USOSM-administered SMCRA regulatory program
       (USDI procedures to comply with Water Resource Council Guidelines  are
       in Part 520, Chapter 1 of the Department of the Interior Manual; 44
       FR 120: 36119-36122, June 20, 1979).
                                    6-34

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If an EIS or EA  is  prepared  and  circulated,  no separate floodplain
  assessment is  required,  if  floodplains  are  discussed  therein.

If no EIS or EA  is  prepared,  a Floodplain/Wetlands  Assessment must be
  distributed  for public and  interagency  review,  with public notice to
  appropriate  A-95  clearinghouses  (44  FR  4:   1455-1457, January  5
  1979).  Clearinghouses are  listed  in SID Table  4-8, Section 4.4.2.
  This  assessment can be attached  to the  New  Source NPDES permit public
  notice.

Agency  input expected from:   USAGE,  FEMA, USGS, USFWS,  USDA-SCS, and
  WVDNR-Water  Resources.
                               6-35

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Resource:  State Lands

Data Sources:

     General Data

     WVDNR-Forestry and WVDNR-Parks and Recreation administer State Forests
       and State Parks, respectively.

     WVDNR-Wildlife Resources administers Public Hunting and Fishing Areas,
       Public Fishing Areas, and Public Hunting Areas.

     WVDNR Public Lands Corporation must approve mining on State-owned
       Public Hunting and Fishing Areas and in State Forests (see
       SID Section 2.6.1.5.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     SMCRA permit applications require identification and mapping of public
       parks on and adjacent to permit areas (30 CFR 779.24; 783.24) and
       plans to minimize adverse effects must be developed (30 CFR 780.31;
       784.17).

Significance:

     WVDNR controls the exploitation of coal resources on State-owned lands.
       Mining is prohibited in State Parks and limited to underground
       extraction in State Forests.  State land management agencies can
       suggest ways to avoid or minimize adverse effects from mining adjac-
       ent to the State lands, and special conditions may be inserted into
       permits by the SMCRA regulatory authority or by EPA.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     EPA will consider mandating permit conditions suggested by State land
       management agencies, if adverse impacts have not been avoided or min-
       imized as a result of other permit reviews.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     State land management agencies will have opportunity to comment on each
       NPDES public notice.
                                    6-36

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Resource:  Federal Lands

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Authorized boundaries of Federal land are indicated on the USGS
       Topographic Maps (7.5 minute quadrangles) and highlighted on
       Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).

     Permit-Specific Data

     The same data must be developed for SMCRA surface mining permit
       applications to USOSM for coal mining on Federally-owned lands as  for
       non-Federal lands, including mine plans in accordance with USOSM
       performance standards (30 CFR 741.13).

Significance:

     SMCRA permits cannot be issued by USOSM until consultation with USGS
       regarding minerals recovery and with the surface managing agency
       regarding special requirements that may be necessary to protect
       non-mineral resources in the area.  Both the USGS and the surface
       managing agency must consent before the SMCRA permit can be issued by
       USOSM.  Hence special New Source NPDES conditions other than those
       related to water resources and aquatic biota seldom will be
       necessary.

Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:

     EPA and USOSM expect to conclude Memoranda of Understanding that spell
       out the details of interagency coordination (see SID Section 4.3.1).
       EPA expects to recommend water-related conditions to USOSM for New
       Sources on Federal lands.  USOSM is expected to perform the lead-
       agency role for NEPA compliance.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     To be accomplished according to the forthcoming Memoranda of
       Understanding.
                                    6-37

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Resource:  Soil Subject to Erosion

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Soil series most prone to erosion are listed in Section 2.7.4.

     Published soil surveys when available; USDA-SCS offices when  soil  sur-
       veys are not published.

     Permit-Specific Data

     USOSM permanent program requires soil survey, erosion control measures,
       and plans to restore and revegetate soil, supported by test results
       for proposed mine soils.

Significance:

     Soil erosion is a major potential adverse  impact of uncontrolled
       mining.  New Source mines that meet USOSM performance standards  are
       expected to minimize soil erosion.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Erosion control measures are discussed at  length in the SID
       (Section 5.7.1.) and in USOSM performance standards (30 CFR 816  and
       817).  As long as specific measures in compliance with USOSM  stan-
       dards are proposed, no special NPDES permit conditions are necessary.
       In the absence of USOSM controls or as a result of permit review, EPA
       may impose requisite measures under CWA and NEPA.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Obtain SMCRA/WVSCMRA permit application.
                                    6-38

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Resource:  Steep Slopes

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Shown on SID Figure  2-45, Section 2.7.

     Permit-Specific Data

     Topography tied into on-ground  surveys must be detailed  on  drawings  and
       cross-sections in response to the USOSM permanent  program regula-
       tions .

Significance:

     Runoff  control, erosion prevention, and  surface  stability are  most
       difficult to achieve on steep slopes.

Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:

     Special performance standards for slopes steeper than 20° (36%) are
       mandated by USOSM regulations as discussed  at  length  in SID
       Section 5.7.2.  Additional measures may be  imposed following
       case-by-case review:
             •  Imposition of USOSM steep-slope standards  on  slopes
                 14° (25%) and greater.
             •  Imposition of static  design safety  factor  of  1.5  on
                 backfill to preclude slope failure that  could
                 exacerbate erosion, alter streamflow,  pose  a
                 hazard to public safety, or  adversely  affect the
                 appearance of an area.
             •  Where reclamation is  to approximate original
                 contour:
                    Mandate that permanently  retained roads  do not  cause
                      steepening of  final slopes beyond original grade
                 -  Mandate that downs lope haul  road  embankments below  the
                      bench be removed following mining
                 -  Mandate that roads to be  preserved  near  the  top of  the
                      highwall have  ditches and  other drainage structures
                      adequate to prevent infiltration  into  the  backfill.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Obtain  SMCRA permit application.
                                    6-39

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Resource:  Prime Farmlands

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Soil series classified by USDA-SCS as prime farmlands are listed in SID
       Table 2-82 (Section 2.7.4.).

     Prime framland areas for all counties with USDA-SCS published soil
       surveys have been mapped on Overlay 2 (Sheet 2 of 2).

     Permit-Specific Data

     USOSM permanent program requires map with labeling of all soils on
       permit area including prime farmlands (Section 5.7.3.1.).

Significance:

     Prime farmlands are the most productive soils available for agricul-
       tural use.  When they have been in agricultural use prior to mining,
       they must be restored and returned to agricultural use following
       mining pursuant to SMCRA.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     USOSM regulations require special handling and restoration of prime
       farmland on the sites of mines and mining facilities.  No further
       mitigations are necessary for prime farmlands treated as required by
       USOSM.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     No specific coordination required.  SMCRA regulatory authority must
       consult with USDA-SCS through State Conservationist, concerning
       adequacy of operator's proposed farmland restoration.  Applicant must
       consult SCS district offices for unpublished soils mappings if the
       county soil survey is not published (mapping is in process in several
       Basin counties).
                                    6-40

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Resource:  Significant Non-Prime Farmlands

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Not mapped at present  (see SID Section 2.7.4.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     USOSM requires that all soils be mapped and  labeled  in  each  permit
       application.  Comments on public notice may  address significance of
       local soil.

Significance:

     EPA policy requires special consideration for  more types  of  farmland
       than the USOSM regulations address.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Apply USOSM prime farmland requirements for  restoration of additional
       farmlands where appropriate.

     Require that operator  avoid impacts  or restore  off-site prime  farmlands
       downslope from surface mine site or within subsidence area of
       underground mine.

     Require reconstruction of facilities that qualify  for EPA concern and
       farming or other applicable post-mining land  use (see SID
       Section 5.7.3.2.) .

     Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

       None required.
                                    6-41

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Resource:  Unstable Slopes

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Mapped information not available.  Potential problem landforms are
       illustrated in Figure 5-6 (see SID Section 5.7.5.).

     Problem strata:  Monongahela, Dunkard, and Conemaugh red shales

     Problem soil series in West Virginia:  Brooke, Brookside, Clarksburg,
       Culleoka, Dormont, Ernest, Guernsey, Markland, Upshur, Vandalia,
       Westmoreland, Wharton, and Zoar in general (Lessing et al.  1976);
       Cardi et al. (1979) provide a partial, though more specific  list,
       which includes Clarksburg, Ernest, and Meckesville soils  along with
       the Gilpin-Culleoka-Upshur soil association in a subject  to  slippage
       category.

     Permit-Specific Data

     USOSM requires detailed plans with maps and cross-sections  to  assure
       post-mining slope stability.

Significance:

     Unstable slopes historically have produced significant  adverse impacts.
       USOSM permanent program regulations are expected to eliminate most
       problems.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     In general, USOSM permanent program regulations are  adequate.  EPA must
       impose equivalent measures if USOSM requirements are  not
       enforceable.

     Disallow permanent spoil placement below bench on outcrops  of  problem
       strata or on problem soils (as defined above).

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Obtain SMCRA permit application.
                                    6-42

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Resource:  Lands Subject to Subsidence

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Subsidence potential is severe where underground mines  are  less  than
       150 feet deep; moderate, 150-300 feet; and  slight >300  feet  (see  SID
       Section 5.7.5.).

     Permit-Specific Data

     Extent of subsidence, control measures, notification of surface  owners,
       and buffer areas without mining are to be addressed in  SMCRA permit
       application (see SID Section 5.7.5.).

Significance:

     Subsidence is a potentially significant impact of underground mining.
       USOSM requirements are expected to eliminate most subsidence problems
       from future mining operations, at least  in  the short-term.   Subsi-
       dence may exacerbate long-term water quality problems (AMD)  following
       mine abandonment.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions

     None necessary, provided USOSM permanent program regulations are  in
       effect.  EPA must impose equivalent measures if USOSM requirements
       are not enforceable.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination

     Obtain SMCRA permit application.
                                    6-43

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Resource:  Lands Capable of Producing Acid Mine Drainage

Data Sources:

     General Data

     Potentially toxic overburden is widespread in the Basin and is mapped
       generally on Overlay 3.

     Permit-Specific Data

     USOSM permanent program requires detailed overburden, surface water,
       and groundwater information (see SID Section 5.7.6.).  EPA will
       review these data prepared for SMCRA applications.

     EPA will review original, on-site geologic data based on core or high-
       wall  samples separated horizontally by no more than 3,300 feet where
       potentially toxic seams are present, unless appropriate available
       substitute data are supplied by the applicant.  Analyses are to  be
       made according to EPA-approved methods (see SID Section 5.7.6.).
       Samples spaced no more than 2,000 feet apart are recommended and may
       be required.

     Where permit review indicates possible significant metals contamina-
       tion, metals analyses of surface water, groundwater, overburden, or
       processing wastes may be required (see SID Section 5.7.6.).

     EPA will require overburden analyses of any red dog proposed for use as
       road  surface material.

     USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form Chapter 4 outlines
       detailed data required for coal preparation plants and potentially
       toxic processing wastes.  EPA will review these data as prepared for
       SMCRA applications.

Significance:

     AMD is  one of the major potential, long-term, adverse impacts of mining
       on water resources.  The detailed analyses and mitigative measures
       proposed by mine operators in response to USOSM permanent program
       regulations will be reviewed in detail by EPA.

Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:

     Should USOSM performance standards for surface reclamation and under-
       ground spoil disposal  (see SID Sections 5.7.6.2. and 5.7.6.3.) not be
       enforceable, equivalent measures will be imposed by EPA.

     Should USOSM performance standards for coal processing waste disposal
       (SID Section 5.7.6.4.) and in-situ coal processing (SID Section
       5.7.6.5.) not be enforceable, equivalent measures will be imposed by
       EPA.
                                    6-44

-------
     NPDES New Source effluent limitations may be sufficient as minimum
       discharge water quality requirements for streams without significant
       biota.  Biologically Important Areas identified by EPA (see SID
       Sections 2.2. and 5.2.) may require maximum in-stream iron
       limitations of 1 mg/1 as special permit conditions that necessitate
       effluent treatment beyond the Nationwide limitations or other special
       mitigations to protect sensitive biota.  Likewise, discharges to
       trout streams may require a high degree of treatment to meet the
       proposed 0.5 mg/1 State stream limitation for total iron.

Specific Resource-Related Coordination:

     Obtain SMCRA permit application.
                                    6-45

-------
Appendix A
Aquatic Biota

-------
APPENDIX A:  AQUATIC BIOTA
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                                                                                       A-16

-------
Figure A-1
FISH SAMPLING  STATIONS  IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (WVDNR-Wild life  Resources 1980, Stauffer and Holcutt I960)
                                          0       10
                                            WAPORA, IMC.
                           A-17

-------
Table  A-2.   Descriptions  of  stations  sampled by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  (WVDNR-
  Wildlife  Resources  1980).   Refer to Figure A-l.
Lewis
Station

  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
  6
  7
  8
  9
 10
 11
 12
 13
 14
 15
 16
 17
 18
 19
 20
 21
Rand-   22
 olph   23
       24
       25
       26
       27
       28
       29
       30
       31
       32
       33
       34
       35

Upshur 36

       37

       38

       39
       40
       41
       42
       43
       44
       45
       46
       47
       48
       49
       50
       51
       52
       53
       54
       55
       56
       57
       58
       59
                              Stream
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Right Fork of Stonecoal Creek
Right Fork of Stonecoal Creek
Right Fork of West  Fork River
Skin Creek
Skin Creek
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
Stonecoal Creek
Stonecoal Creek
Stonecoal Tailwaters
Stonecoal Tailwaters
Freeman's Creek

Big Run of Gandy
Big Run of Gandy
Big Run of Gandy
Cabin Fork of First Fork  of  Shavers
Elkwater Fork
First Fork of Glady
First Fork of Shavers  Fork
Gandy Creek
Gandy Creek
Gandy Creek
Glade Run of Shavers Fork
Glady Fork of Dry Fork
Glady Fork of Dry Fork
Hatchery Fork of  Shavers  Fork

Left Fork of Right  Fork of Buck-
  hannon
Left Fork of Right  Fork of Buck-
  hantion
Left Fork of Right  Fork of Buck-
  hannon
Lambert Run of Shavers Fork
Lambert Run of Shavers Fork
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Little Black Fork
Little Black Fork
Little Black Fork
Middle Fork
Middle Fork of Tygart  River
Middle Fork River
Middle Fork River
Mowry Run
Ralston Run
Ralston Run
Red Creek
Red Creek
Riffle Creek
                                                            Location
9.6 miles from mouth
17.6 miles from mouth
21.2 miles from mouth
23 miles from mouth
.4 mile from mouth
11.5 miles from mouth
85.5 miles from mouth
3.5 miles from mouth
7.5 miles from mouth
55.8 miles from mouth
62.5 miles from mouth
67.4 miles from mouth
68 miles from mouth
77 miles from mouth
81.1 miles from mouth
87.5 miles from mouth
4.8 miles above mouth
6 miles above mouth
6.8 miles above mouth
7.7 miles above mouth
1.8 miles above mouth

0.5 mile above mouth
1.0 mile above mouth
1.5 mile above mouth
.7 mile above mouth
4 miles above mouth
4.5 miles above mouth
.3 mile above mouth
13.6 miles from mouth
14.1 miles from mouth
14.6 miles from mouth
0.9 mile from mouth
17 miles from mouth
20 miles from mouth
.2 mile from mouth

3.25 miles from mouth

5.0  miles from mouth

5.5 miles from mouth

.2 mile from mouth
1 mile from mouth
8 miles from mouth
8 miles from mouth
8 miles from mouth
10.5 miles from mouth
12.0 miles from mouth
13.25 miles from mouth
.1 mile from mouth
.2 mile from mouth
1.5 miles from mouth
16.6 miles from mouth
18.7 miles from mouth
22.4 miles from mouth
6.7 miles from mouth
.7 mile from mouth
3 miles from mouth
5 miles from mouth
.3 mile from mouth
6 miles from mouth
3.5 miles from mouth
                                                                                   Stream Code
MW 31
MW 31
MW 31
MW 31
MW 38 G
MW 38 G
MW 55
MW 46
MW 46
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW 38
MW 38
MW 38
MW 38
MW 36

MC 6 OT 8
MC 6 OT 8
MC 6 OT 8
MC S 50
MT 74
MC 60 K
MC S 50
MC 60 T
MC 60 T
MC 60 T
MC 54 3
MC 60 K
MC 60 K
                                                                             MCS

                                                                             MTB 31 F

                                                                             ^ITB 31 F

                                                                             MTB 31 F

                                                                             MCS 49
                                                                             MCS 49
                                                                             MTB 32
                                                                             MTB 32
                                                                             MTB 32
                                                                             MTB 32
                                                                             MTB 32
                                                                             MTB 32
                                                                             MCS 13
                                                                             MCS 13
                                                                             MCS 13
                                                                             MTM
                                                                             MTM
                                                                             MTM
                                                                             MTM
                                                                             MT 74A
                                                                             MT 78
                                                                             MT 78
                                                                             MC 600
                                                                             MC 600
                                                                             MT 66
                                                                                                         Sampling
                                                                                                           Date
9/26/73
9/24/74
8/02/66
8/19/66
7/02/68
it/12/67
11/05/64
10/11/67
10/11/67
7/11/74
10/11/68
10/09/68
5/31/70
10/15/68
8/29/71
11/05/64
5/15/7Q
7/27/68
11/05/79
11/05/79
10/23/79

8/03/60
10/18/60
10/18/60
8/26/75
6/20/68
7/08/75
8/26/75
9/00/63 ,
1963    '
1963
8/11/60
8/01/75
8/01/75
8/26/75

9/12/78

9/12/78

10/21/64

8/27/75
8/26/75
10/21/64
11/15/77
7/29/78
7/29/78
7/29/78
7/29/78
5/08/70
6/20/60
5/08/70
6/24/75
9/17/68
9/18/68
9/20/68
6/19/68
9/29/63
9/20/63
8/05/68
8/17/68
6/20/68
                                                      A-18

-------
  Table  A-2.   Descriptions of stations sampled (continued).
                                Straara
       Station
  Rand-  60        Right Fork of Buckhannon
   olph  61        Right Fork of Buckhannon
         62        Shavers Fork of Cheat River
         63        Shavers Fork of Cheat River
         64        Shavers Fork of Cheat River
         65        Shavers Fork
         66        Shavers Run
         67        Shavers Run
         68        Shavers Run
         69        South Fork of Red Creek
         70        South Fork of Red Creek
         71        South Fork of Red Creek
         72        South Fork of Red Creek
         73        Spring Br of South Fork
         74        Tygart River
         75        Tygart River
         76        Tygart River
         77        Tygart River
         78        Tygart River
         79        Upper Lick Pond
         80        Upper Lick Pond
         81        West Fork Glady
         82        West Fork Glady
         83        Windy Run
         84        Windy Run
         85        Big Run of Tygart
         86        Big Run of Tygart
         87        Big Run of Tygart
         88        Devil Run
         89        Devil Run
         93        Dry Fork of Black Fork River
         94        Dry Fork of Black Fork River
         95        Dry Fork of Black Fork River
         96        East Fork of Glady
         97        East Fork of Glady
         98        East Fork of Glady
         99        Laurel Run
        100        Beech Run
        101        Phillips Camp Run
        102        Morgan Camp Run

 Upshur 103        Buckhannon River
        104        Buckhannon River
        105        Buckhannon River
        106        Buckhannon River
        107        Buckhannon River
        109        French Creek
        110        Left Fork of Buckhannon River
        111        Left Fork of Buckhannon River
        112        Left Fork of Buckhannon River
        113        Middle Fork of Tygart River
        114        Middle Fork River
        116        Middle Fork River
        117        Middle Fork River
        118        Middle Fork River
        119        Right Fork of Middle Fork River
        120        Right Fork of Middle Fork River
        121        Right Fork of Middle Fork River
        122        Right Fork of Middle Fork River
        123        Right Fork of Middle Fork River
        124        Sand Run
        125        Sand Run

Barbour 126        Tygart River
        127        Bear Camp Run
        128        Bear Camp Run
        Location              Stream Code

5.5 miles from mouth          MTB 31
7.5 miles above mouth         MTB 31
59.7 miles above mouth        MCS
63.0 miles above mouth        MCS
64.5 miles above mouth        MCS
15.1 miles from mouth         MCS
3.6 miles from mouth          MT 61
4.2 miles from mouth          MT 61
5.5 miles from mouth          MT 61
0 mile                        MC 6004
.5 mile from mouth            MC 6004
1.8 miles from mouth          MC 6004
2. 3 miles from mouth           MC 6004
.1 mile from mouth            MC 6004
112.1 miles from mouth        MT
113.6 miles from mouth        MT
114.1 miles from mouth        MT
124.7 miles from mouth        MT
127.7 miles from mouth        MT
.1 mile from mouth            MCS 28
2 miles from mouth            MCS 28
2 miles from mouth            MC 60 K 16
3 miles from mouth            MC 60 K 16
3.2 miles from mouth          MT 79
3.5 miles from mouth          MT 79
3.5 miles from mouth          MT 81
3.7 miles from mouth          MT 81
4.5 miles from mouth          MT 81
.5 mile from mouth            MTM 4
1 mile from mouth             MTM 4
0.8 mile above Route 33       MC 60
1.4 miles above Route 33      MC 60
2.0 miles above Route 33      MC 60
2 miles above Route 33        MC 60 K 17
3.5 miles above Route 33      MC 60 K 17
6 miles above Route 33        MC 60 K 17
.1 mile above mouth           MT 39
.5 mile above mouth           MTB 32 H
.2 mile above mouth           MTB 32 I 1
.1 mile above mouth           MTB 32 1

20.4 miles above mouth        MTB
28,5 miles from mouth         MTB
29 miles from mouth           MTB
36 miles from mouth           MTB
36,5 miles from mouth         MTB
5 miles from mouth            MTB 18
.8 mile from mouth            MIB ^2
1 mile from moutl              MTE 1r
5.0 miles from mouth          MTB 32
18.7 miles from mouth         KTM
6.7 miles from mouth          M-"M
1.3 miles from mouth          MTB 27
1.3 miles from mouth          MTB 27
1.3 miles from mouth          MTB 27
2.5 miles above mouth         MTM 11
3.5 miles above mouth         KTM 11
5 miles above mouth           MTM 1"
6.5 miles above mouth         K "M 11
10.5 miles above mouth        MTM 11
5 miles above mouth           MTB 7
6 miles above mouth           MTB 7

31.7 miles above mouth        MT
.25 mile above mouth          MTB 32 D
.37 mile above ,i. .,t'i          MTB )2 D
Sampling
  Date

 10/22/64
 9/20/78
 8/27/75
 8/27/75
 8/27/75
 7/26/67
 7/28/58
 10/11/60
 6/28/58
 8/17/68
 8/01/60
 8/01/60
 8/01/60
 7/25/69
 8/22/64
 8/22/64
 8/22/64
 6/20/68
 11/16/63
 6/26/64
 7/26/64
 7/09/75
 7/08/75
 7/18/60
 9/01/62
 9/03/63
 9/03/63
 9/03/63
 2/08/74
 2/08/74
 7/05/77
 7/05/77
 7/05/77
 7/08/75
 7/08/75
 7/08/75
 11/2/77
 11/15/77
 11/6/79
 11/6/79

 9/26/74
 6/13/63
 10/27/64
 6/13/63
 10/27/64
 10/29/64
 7/21/78
 .10/22/64
 7/21/78
 9/17/68
 9/20/68
 9/28/78
 5/7/79
 5/10/79
 10/13/78
 10/13/78
 8/OV65
 8/03 ( 5
 8/02/65
 4/16/76
 4/16/76

 10/28/65
 10/22/79
 10/22/79
                                                          A-19

-------
                   Descriptions  of  stations  sampled  (continued).

                                Stream                          Location
                                                                   Stream Code
                                                                                         Sampling
                                                                                           Date
  Rand- 129
   olph
        130
        131

        132
        133

        134
        135

        136

        137

        138
        139
        140
        141
        142

        143

        144
        145
        146

 Taylor 147

        148

Preston 149

        150
        151
        152
        153
        154
        155

        156
        157

        158

        159
        160

        161

        162
        163

        164
        166
        167

        168
        169
        170
        171
        172
Dry Fork of Cheat River

Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River

Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River

Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River

Dry Fork of Cheat River

Dry Fork of Cheat River

Laurel Fork of Dry Fork
Laurel Fork of Dry Fork
Laurel Fork of Dry Fork
Gandy Creek of Dry Fork
Laurel Fork

Laurel Fork

Elk Run of Laurel Fork
Elk Run of Laurel Fork
Elk Run of Laurel Fork

Tygart River

Wickwire Creek

Saltlick Creek

Wolf Creek
Wolf Creek of Cheat River
Wolf Creek
Wolf Creek
Roaring Creek
Rhine Creek

Laurel Run
Laurel Run

Laurel Run

Flag Run
Elsey Run

Daugherty Run

Daugherty Run
Cheat River

Cheat River
Cheat River
Buffalo Creek

Little Sandy Crrek
Big Sandy Creek
Big Sandy Creek
Big Sandy Creek
Booths Creek
.8 mile above Rt.  33 bridge
and 22.5 miles above mouth
.8 mile above Rt.  33 bridge
1.4 miles above Rt.  33 bridge
and 23 miles above mouth
1.4 miles above Rt.  33 bridge
2.0 miles above Rt.  33 bridge
and 23.6 miles above mouth
2.0 miles above Rt.  33 bridge
3.6 miles above Rt.  33 bridge
.2 mile below Job
5.2 miles above Rt.  33 bridge
1.5 miles above Job
3.1 miles below Rt.  33 bridge
near Old Mill
At mouth of Camp Five Run
.75 mile below Camp Five Run
1.5 miles above Camp Five Run
2 miles below Swallow Rocks
4 miles below Laurel Fork     MC 60 N
  Campground-Stone Camp Trail
2nd Wildlife Clearing below    MC 60 N
  Campground
.75 mile above mouth
1 mile above mouth
1.25 mile above mouth

22 miles above mouth          TM
Tygart Lake tailwaters
4 miles above mouth           MT 8

.7 mile above mouth at Iron    MC 32
Bridge
2.0 miles above mouth         MC 36
2.0 miles above mouth
1/4 mile below Amboy Rd.      MC 36
6.0 miles from mouth          MC 36
7.5 mile from mouth           MC 18
2.5 mile above mouth          MY 4
Cathedral State Park
at mouth                      MC 12 A
.5 mile above mouth off       MC 12 A
Route 44/1
2.5 miles above mouth at
  Rt. 73 bridge               MC 12 A
.3 mile from mouth            MC 33 A
2.5 miles above mouth on      MC 20
  Rt. 45/3
.5 mile above mouth below     MC 19
  fly ash pile
6 miles from mouth            MC 19
54 miles above mouth          MC
Seven Island area

35.4 miles from mouth         MC
1 mile off Rt. 50  on          MG 33
  Rt. 72 South
4.4 miles from mouth          MC 128
.1 mile from mouth            MC 12
1.5
13.3 miles from mouth         MC 12
5.5 miles above mouth         MW 2
  at Eldora
7/11/79

7/07/76
7/02/79

7/07/76
7/02/79

7/07/76
7/07/76

7/07/76

7/08/76

6/19/77
6/19/76
6/19/76
7/08/76
7/09/79

7/09/79

6/19/76
6/19/76
6/19/76

8/13/74

9/12/79

9/11/79

7/29/78
3/25/76
7/29/78
3/29/62
8/14/59
6/12/80

9/16/60
9/16/79
9/16/79
3/30/t.
6/13/80

7/7/JG

8/14/59
9/6/73

7/15/80
9/23/59
8/30/78

8/15/59
9/23/j9
9/17/77
8/15/59
10/23/75
                                                            A-20

-------
  Table A-2.   Descriptions  of  stations  sampled  (concluded).
 County

 Marion  173
         174
         175
         176
         177
         178
         179
         130
         131

 Barbour 132

         183
         184

         185
         186
         187

 Tucker  188
         189
         190

         191

         192

         193
         194

         195
         196

 Monon-  197
  gahela 198
         199

         200

         202
         203
         204
         205
         206

Harrison 207
         208
         209
         210

         211

         212

         213

         214

         215
         216
         217
              Stream

Dent Run Lake
Whiteday Creek
Whiteday Creek
Whiteday Creek
Whiteday Creek
Paw Paw Creek
Paw Paw Creek
Buffalo Creek
Buffalo Creek

Mill Run

Brushy Fork
Laurel Fork

Laurel Run
Devil Run
Middle Fork River

Cheat River
Horseshow Run
Horseshow Run

Mill Run of Blackwater

Mill Run of Blackwater

Elklick  Run of Black Fork
Clover Run of Cheat River

Clover Run of Cheat River
Dry Fork

Cheat Lake (Lake Lynn)
Cheat Lake (Lake Lynn)
Morgan Run

Blaney Hollow

W Va. Fork Dunkard Creek
Miracle Run
Dunkard Creek
Deekers Creek
Days Run

Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Elk Creek

Elk Creek

West Fork River

Gnatty Creek

Gnatty Creek

Little Tenmile Creek
Brushy Fork
Issacs Creek
                                                               Location
6 miles from mouth
7 miles from mouth
10 miles from mouth
14 miles from mouth
5.5 miles from mouth
3.0 miles above mouth
3.2 miles from mouth
3.1 miles from mouth
                                                                                     Stream Code
                             M 16
                             M 16
                             M 16
                             M 16
                             M 22
                             M 22
                             M 23
                             M 23

                             Mt  23 F
1 mile above mouth just
  above Co.  Rt.  26
4.2 miles above  mouth         MT 23  C
1st bridge,  1.0  mile
  above mouth
.3 mile upstream from mouth   MT 32
.5 mile from mouth            MTM 4
2.5 mile from mouth           MTM

27 miles from mouth           MC
9 miles from mouth            MC 54
Horseshoe Rec. Center         MC 54
4.1 miles above  mouth
200' above Rt. 32, 2.2 miles
  above mouth
on access road to golf course
  and 1.0 mile above mouth
1.4 miles above  mouth         MC 60  C
4 miles above mouth at the    MC 51
  Mt. Zion Bridge
.5 mile above mouth           MC 51
1/2 mile above Red Run
Cheat Backwater Cove
2 miles above mouth in       MC  2
  Daniell Hollow
2.5 mile above mouth on       MC  2  B
  Rt. 69/9
11 miles from mouth          M 1 F
2 miles from mouth           M 2 E
24 miles from mouth          M 1
6.4 miles from mouth         M 8
3 miles from mouth           M 10

3.9 miles from mouth         MW  31
3.6 miles from mouth         MW  31
3.4 miles from mouth         MW  31
Upper end - at 57, 16 miles  MW  21
  above mouth
Haymond Rocks - 10 miles
  above mouth
35 miles above mouth
  Hartland Pool
8.5 miles above mouth
  bottom of Gum Mt.
5 miles above mouth at
  Peeltree
  3 miles from mouth
8
1.5 miles from mouth
1.5 miles from mouth
                              MW 21

                              MW

                              MW 21 M

                              MW 21 M

                              MW 13 B
                              MW 21 G
                              MW 29
Sampling
  Date

 8/7/75
 10/09/70
 7/19/60
 10/09/70
 8/08/62
 6/26/63
 6/17/74
 10/14/59
 10/14/70

 8/06/79

 9/04/79
 8/21/75

 11/7/77
 2/08/74
 8/20/63

 9/22/59
 3/29/62
 9/5/79

 8/31/79

 8/31/79

 7/13/78
 7/13/78

 7/13/78
 9/10/77

 10/23/74
 10/23/74
 8/07/79

 8/07/79

 8/26/59
 8/16/62
 5/17/62
 8/16/62
 8/26/59

 9/24/74
 9/24/74
 9/23/74
 8/5/75

 8/5/75

 10/17/74

 8/5/75

 8/5/75

 5/25/6'
 6/17/63
 6/17/63
                                                        A-21

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Table  A-3.   Fish  species  collected  in  the  Monongahela River  Basin,  West Virginia,.
   1976 and 1977  (concluded).
         Note:
                     Station
                                                 Stream Location
                        1
                        2
                        3
                        4
                        5
                        6
                        7
                        8
                        9
                       10
                       11
                       12
                       13
                       14
                       15
                       16
                       17
                       18
                       19
                       20
                       21
                       22
                       23
                       24
                       25
                       26
                       27
                       28
                       29
                       30
                       31
                       32
                       33
                       34
                       35
                       36
                       37
                       38
                       39
                       40
                       41
                       42
                       43
                       44
                       45
                       46
                       47
                       48
                       49
                       50
Dry Fork
Dry Fork
Cheat  River
Cheat  River
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Tygart Valley River
Tygart Valley River
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Sh ave rs Fo rk
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Glady Fork
Gandy Creek
Gandy Creek
Laurel Fork
West Fork Glady
East Fork Glady
Horseshoe Run
Horseshoe Run
Clover Run
Teter Creek
Leading Creek
Leading Creek
Leading Creek
Craven Run
Chenoweth Creek
Birch Run
Middle Fork Run
Middle Fork Run
Mill Creek
Beaver Creek
Tygart Valley River
Mill Creek
Stewarc Creek
Tygart Valley River
Elkwater  Fork
Becky Creek
Riffle Creek
Tygart Valley River
Shavers Run
Stalnaker Run
Files Creek
Tygart Valley River
Shavers Fork
                                              A-24

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-------
Table A-5.  Number of macroinvertebrate taxa present and percent of individuals
  in each of three sensitivity categories (data from FWPCA 1968).   The
  sensitivity categories were those of Mason et al. 1971, Weber 1973, and
  Lewis 1974.
                                     % of Individuals  in each Sensitivity Class

Station        Number of Taxa
   1
   2
   3
   5
   8
  10
  11
  15
  16
  17
  21
  23
  26
  35
  36
  37
  38
  41
  42
  44
  46
  47
  48
  49
  50
  51
  52
  53
  54
  55
  56
  65
  66
  68
  70
  73
  77
  78
  79
  82
  83
  84
  85
 5
11
11
 7
10
12
12
 5
 3
 5
 2
 4
 1
19
 8
 4
 2
16
14
 5
 1
 2
 2
12
 3
10
 5
 6
 4
 3
 1
 2
 6
 4
 7
 6
 3
 8
 0
 1
 1
 2
 3

Sensitive
31
53
65
23
62
78
98
14
12
6.2
100
92
0
75
5
67
0
52
53
12
0
0
66
63
22
83
13
3
4
7
0
0
74
11
4
1
1
51
0
0
0
0
1

Tolerant
46
40
35
56
38
22
8
67
18
15
0
8
100
25
36
22
75
48
9
85
100
100
33
34
78
16
74
94
96
71
100
2
26
52
85
75
54
48
0
0
0
94
13
Very
Tolerant
23
7
0
21
0
0
0
18
70
23
0
0
0
0
59
11
25
0
38
3
0
0
0
3
0
1
13
3
0
21
0
98
0
37
11
24
45
1
0
100
100
6
86
                                   A-32

-------
Table A-5.   Number of macroinvertebrate taxa present (concluded).
                                     % of Individuals in each Sensitivity Class
                                                                        Very
Station        Number of Taxa        Sensitive        Tolerant        Tolerant
  91                  1                  0              100               0
  92                  0                  000
  93                  9                 27               51              21
  94                  4                  8               92               0
  95                  2                  6               94               0
  97                  2                  0                1              99
  98                  7                 33               59               8
 100                  2                  06              94
 108                  2                  70              93
 109                  4                  44              92
 111                  3                  9               91               0
 113                  2                  0               20              80
 114                  3                  3                8              89
 116                  3                  0               62              38
 120                  8                 63               30               7
                                    A-33

-------
        Table A-6.   Diversity values and number of macroinvertebrate  taxa found during
          1970  to  1979 at  31  stations  in the Monongahela River  Basin  (file  data,
          Pittsburgh  District, USAGE).
Station

   I
   6

   9


  10



  11



  12



  13


  14

  15



  16
  Date

4/20/76
4/21/75

4/20/76
4/21/75

4/21/75

4/20/76

9/15/70
10/20/70
10/20/70
5/16/72
5/16/73
4/23/74
4/22/75

9/15/70
10/21/70

4/23/74
4/23/73
9/15/70
10/22/70
10/22/70
5/4/72
5/2/78
5/7/79

6/18/79

5/3/72
5/16/73

4/23/74
4/3/72
4/24/73

4/24/73
3/4/78
6/18/79

5/3/72
4/24/73
4/23/74

5/17/73
4/23/74

4/23/74

4/23/74
5/3/78
6/18/79

9/15/70
10/21/70
5/4/72
4/23/73
4/23/74
4 22 75
Diversity  Average  (Range)

   0.89  (0 -  1.67)
   0.46  (0 -  1.37)

   0.90  (.696 - 1.047)
   0.77  (0 -  1.50)

   0.58  (0 -  .918)

   2.22  (1.84 - 2.48)
                                          1.73 (1.56
                                          2.19 (1.98
                                          2.21 (1.76
                                          1.22 (.182
                                          2.03 (1.30
                                          2.27 (1.79
             - 1
  93)
2.49)
2.55)
1.63)
2.61)
2.68)
                                          1.50 (1.09  -  2.29)

                                          2.16 (1.88  -  2.43)
                                          2.70 (2.69  -  2.90)
                                               (1.75
                                               (2.60
   2.04
   2.75
   1.58  (1.42
   1.87  (1.65
   2.80  (2.55
   2.26  (1.79
   3.24  (3.21
   3.84  (3.67
 .45)
 ,92)
 .73)
 ,01)
  94)
 .81)
  27)
 ,99)
   0.33 (0  - 1.0)
   1.41  (1.08 - 1.81)
   1.42  (1.06 - 1.60)

   2.45  (1.83 - 2.82)
   2.98  (2.69 - 3.30)
   3.02  (2.91 - 3.21)

   2.17  (1.70 - 2.55)
   3.05  (2.71 - 3.44)
   2.06  (1.76 - 2.34)

   2.09  (1.40 - 2.48)
   1.75  (1.62 - 1.88)
   2.50  (1.95 - 2.88)

   1.96  (1.54 - 2.75)
   2.41  (2.31 - 2.50)

   2.52  (2.19 - 2.84)

   2.84  (2.57 - 3.01)
   2.61  (2.44 - 2.69)
   2.14  (1.41 - 2.58)

   1.67  (1.39 - 1.84)
   3.07  (2.93 - 3.25)
   2.01  (1.18 - 2.91)
   1.38  (0  - 2.31)
   2.43  (1.66 - 3.10)
   2.57  (2.19 - 2.93)
Number of  Taxa Average  (Range)

        2.3  (1-5)
        1.7  (1-3)

        2.3  (2-3)
        1.7  (1-3)

        1.7  (1-3)

        7.3  (4-9)

        13.7  (13-14)
        15.0  (14-16)
        11.4  (10-14)
        9.0  (8-11)
        7.3  (3-10)
        9.3  (7-12)
        9.3  (7-13)

        19.0  (19)
        13.0  (10-16)

        11.0  (9-15)
        8.3  (7-11)
        13.5  (13-L4)
        21.3  (18-25)
        13.7  (12-16)
        9.3  (4-16)
        14.7  (13-17)
        18.5  (15-22)

        1.0  (1-2)

        7.7  (7-9)
        8.7  (6-10)

        13.3  (11-16)
        12.0  (9-16)
        15.3  (12-19)

        11.7  (6-16)
        17.7  (15-21)
        14.5  (13-16)

        7.3  (6-9)
        7.7  (5-10)
        15.3  (14-16)

        5.0  (3-8)
        6.3  (6-7)

        14.5  (14-15)

        14.0  (11-17)
        10.0  (8-13)
        7.7  (4-10)

        7.0  (5-8)
        21.0  (16-24)
        7.0  (4-11)
        3.3  (1-6)
        11.3  (5-16)
        16.0  (15-16)
                                                     A-34

-------
       Table A-f.   Diversity values  and  number of macroinvertebrate  taxa  found during
          1970  to  1979 at 31  stations in  the Monongahela  River  Basin  (continued).
Station

  17
  18



  19

  20

  21


  22

  23
  24
  25
  26

  27

  28
  Date

10/20/70
5/16/72
5/16/73
4/23/74
4/22/75
5/3/78
6/18/79

9/15/70
10/20/70
10/20/70

10/7/71

10/7/71

4/25/74
10/6/71

5/17/72

5/17/72
6/21/72
5/15/73
6/6/73
4/25/74
4/22/75
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/28/70
10/28/70
10/5/71

5/1/72
5/15/73
4/25/74
4/23/75
8/5/70
8/27/70
8/27/70
9/17/70
10/29/70
10/29/70
10/5/71

8/27/70
8/27/70
9/17/70
10/28/70
10/28/70

10/5/71

10/5/71

5/2/72
5/14/73
4/25/74
8/4/70
8/26/70
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/28/70
10/28/70
Diversity Average _(Range)_

   1.28 (1.13 -  1.53)
   2.03 (1.50 -  3.03)
   1.39 (.95  - 1.96)
   1.29 (.59  - 2.06)
   1.83 (1.67 -  2.03)
   1.45 (.69  - 2.15)
   2.10 (1.6  - 2.36)

   1.80 (1.57 -  2.02)
   2.01 (1.93 -  2.09)
   0.79 (.49  - 1.13)

   1.98 (1.29 -  2.60)

   1.63 (1.24 -  2.15)

   2.97 (2.69 -  3.43)
   2.84 (2.74 -  2.90)

   2.59 (2.22 -  3.16)

   2.20 (1.50 -  3.02)
   2.58 (2.53 -  2.63)
   2.48 (2.44 -  2.54)
   1.74 (1.50 -  2.19)
   2.67 (2.52 -  2.93)
   2.63 (2.33 -  2.82)
   2.47 (1.97 -  2.98)
   1.88 (1.52 -  2.19)
    .97 (.97)
   l.U (.33  - 1.66)
   1.19 (0 -  2.32)

   2.62 (2.0  - 3.11)
   2.91 (2.28 -  3.37)
   2.95 (2.56 -  3.33)
                                Number of Taxa Average  (Range)
                                           3.11  (2.74 - 3,
                                           3.20  (3.20)
                                           2.48  (2.48)
                                           3.13  (3.00 - 3.
                                           2.93  (2.93)
                                           2.89  (2.61 - 3,
                                                (2.72 - 3.
2.84
               34)
                  26)

                  16)
                  02)
2.34 (1.73 -  2.86)

2.12 (2.11;
2.69 (2.64 -  2.73)
2.33 (2.33)
2.73 (2.67 -  2.78)
3.14 (3.05 -  3.23)

2.06 (1.72 -  2.68)

1.16 (.98  - 1.50)

2.86 (2.75 -  3.04)
2.20 (1.90 -  2.61)
1.78 (.61  - 3.28)
3.41 (3.41)
3.05 (2.96 -  3.14)
3.67 (3.67)
3.54 (3.47 -  3.60)
3.89 (3.8)
3.54 (3.19 -  3.87)
                                         17.7 (13-21)
                                         7.7 (5-12)
                                         9.3 (7-11)
                                         5.7 (2-11)
                                         12.3 (9-19)
                                         10.3 (7-15)
                                         10.7 (7-18)

                                         13.0 (8-18)
                                         11.0 (9-13)
                                         5.0 (3-8)

                                         6.6 (5-8)

                                         5.4 (4-7)

                                         15.7 (11-22)
                                         10.7 (8-12)

                                         7.5 (4-11)

                                         7.0 (3-12)
                                         22.5 (21-24)
                                         11.0 (8-14)
                                         16.0 (10-19)
                                         11.3 (7-16)
                                         10.7 (9-14)
                                         10.7 (8-13)
                                         5.0 (3-6)
                                         8.0 (8)
                                         4.3 (2-6)
                                         3.3 (1-6)
     (4-11)
10.7 (9-12)
14.0 (10-1.7)
12.3 (11-14)
10.0 (10)
19.0 (19)
12.0 (11-13)
18.0 (18)
20.0 (20)
16.3 (13-19)
7.7 (4-11)

9 (9)
12.5 (11-14)
18 (18)
19.5 (19-20)
14.7 (13-16)

6.0 (4-8)

2.7 (2-3)

11.7 (9-13)
10.3 (8-14)
8.7 (4-17)
17.0 (17)
12.5 (12-13)
20.0 (20.0)
25.0 (24-26)
33.0 (33)
19.3 (17-24)
                                                       A-35

-------
        Table  A-fi.   Diversity  values  and  number  of  macroinvertebrate taxa  found during
           1070 to 1979  at  31 stations  in  the  Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
Station
                     Date
                     Diversity Average  (Range)
                                 Number of Taxa Average (Range)
  29
  30
  31
   32


   33

   34


   35


   36

   37
5/18/72
A/25/73
6/7/73
4/25/74
10/5/71

5/2/72
4/25/73
4/25/74
8/6/70
8/26/70
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/27/70
5/10/71

5/18/72
4/25/73
6/7/73
9/11/73
10/11/73
4/25/74
8/6/70
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/27/70
10/5/71

5/2/72
5/15/73

4/25/74

5/2/72
5/15/73

5/2/72
5/15/73

10/5/71

8/5/70
8/27/70
8/27/70
9/17/70
10/29/70
1.21 (.69  -  1.73)
1.52 (.50  -  2.51)
3.43 (3.14 - 3.73)
1.65 (1.58 - 1.79)
.91 (0 - 2.73)

1.83 (.93  -  2.57)
3.18 (2.72 - 3.53)
3.51 (3.25 - 3.69)
3.39 (3.39)
3.05 (3.05)
2.60 (2.40 - 2.79)
2.87 (2.87)
3.34 (3.13 - 3.51)
2.29 (1.0  -  3.10)
 .23 (0 -  .91)
 .64 (0 -  1.0)
1.48 (1.15 -  1.94)
 .43 (.43)
1.04 (1.04)
1.0 (0  - 1.50)
2.43 (2.43)
2.24 (2.15 -  2.32)
2.32 (2.32)
1.01 (.49  - 1.32)
0.50 (0 -  1.50)
2.43 (1.85 - 2.93)
3/27 (2.88 - 3.62)

2.49 (2.29 - 2.65)

2.43 (2.36 - 2.54)
 .42 (0 - 1.25)

 .59 (0 - .95)
0 (0)

60 (0  - 1.79)

3.33 (3.33)
3.0 (2.86 - 3.08)
2.32 (2.32)
2.50 (2.31 - 2.59)
2.78 (2.70 - 2.84)
5.8 (3-7)
5.7 (2-10)
21.0 (14-25)
3.3 (3-4)
2.7 (1-7)

9.0 (7-10)
18.7 (15-22)
21.3 (21-22)
21.0 (21)
20 (20)
13 (6-11)
20 (20)
27.0 (22-33)
6.0 (2-9)

1.2 (1-2)
1.7 (1-2)
9.0 (8-10)
10 (10)
8.0 (8)
2.3 (1-3)
7 (7)
5.0 (5)
8.0 (8)
6.0 (3-8)
1.3 (1-3)

12.0 (8-15)
14.7 (11-17)

8.3 (7-10)

7.3 (6-9)
1.3 (1-3)

2.0 (1-3)
0.3 (1)

1.3 (1-4)

15.0 (1.5)
21.0 (18-24)
8.0 (8.0)
19.7 (18-22)
22.7 (22-24)
                                                      A-36

-------
     Figure A-2

     MACROINVERTEBRATES  SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA
     RIVER BASIN  (Tarter 1976, FWPCA 1968, Pittsburgh USAGE)
                                                  • 35
•  Tarter SAMPLING STATION

•  FWPCA SAMPLING STATION

A  USAGE ( PITTSBURGH DISTRICT)
*  SAMPLING STATION
\
                                                  o        to
                                                     WAPORA, INC.
                                  A-37

-------
A-38

-------
Appendix B
Terrestrial Biota

-------
APPENDIX B.  TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
              B-l

-------
                       APPENDIX B.  TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
               1.0.  ECOLOGICAL REGION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

     The ecological setting of the Monongahela River Basin has been
described in several ways.  Two systems, Bailey (1976) and the ecological
regions system used by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, are described in  this
section.

1.1.  ECOREGIONS SYSTEM OF BAILEY

     The ecoregions system developed by Bailey is based on both  physical  and
biological components, including climate, vegetation type, physiography,  and
soils.  Ecological associations with related characteristics within  a  geo-
graphic region can be grouped into an ecosystem region, or ecoregion.  The
system was designed as a  tool for planning and data organization and analy-
sis.  It originally was developed by the USFS for use in the National
Wetlands Inventory presently being conducted by the USFWS.  The  USFS also
uses it for analysis under the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974, and in the preparation of assessments required by  the
1980 Resources Planning Act (Bailey 1978, US Bureau of Land Management
1978).  The system consists of a hierarchical classification scheme  with
nine levels or categories:

        Domain
        Division
        Province
        Section
        District
        Landtype association
        Landtype
        Landtype phase
        Site.

     It has been applied  to the Appalachian Region by Bailey and Cushwa
(1977) in the form of a preliminary map on which information has been  shown
to the fifth level of classification (District).  An adaptation  of the West
Virginia section of that map for the Monongahela River Basin ard several
other major river basins  is shown in Figure B-l.  The key to the   ^erical
designations indicated on the map is given in Table B-l.

     This preliminary map is intended to be revised after review and testing
procedures.  Such procedures currently are being performed to the  fifth
level for birds using data collected by the USFWS Patuxent Wildlife  Research
Center in Maryland (USFWS, EELUT 1979b).  Similar testing will be  done  for
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals by the TVA in cooperation with the USFWS
(Verbally, Mr. Charles T. Cushwa, USFWS, EELUT, to Ms. Kathleen  M. Brennan,
November 30, 1979).
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     The remaining four  levels of the hierarchy  (Landtype Associations,
Landtype, Landtype Phase, and Site) will be applied  to  the Appalachian
Region in subsequent revisions so that  the map will  become useful  for  more
localized investigations.  As can be seen in Figure  B-l, the  present
system cuts across drainage basins at the fourth  (Section) and  fifth
(District) levels, and thus must be modified, or  a separate system
developed, for handling  information  on  aquatic  resources  (Verbally, Mr.
Charles T. Cushwa, USFWS, EELUT, to Ms. Kathleen M.  Brennan,  November  30,
1979).

1.2.  ECOLOGICAL REGIONS SYSTEM OF WVDNR

     The WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, uses a classification system that
consists of six ecological regions as a  framework  for  the  preparation  of
descriptions of wildlife habitats and occurrences  (Figure B-2).  For some
species, such as grouse, several ecological regions  are combined for
planning and research purposes (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b).   The
boundaries of these regions roughly parallel the  seven  physiographic
provinces (mountain and valley systems) of West Virginia that were described
by Wilson et al. (1951), but differ in  that the  ecological region  boundaries
follow county boundaries.

     The descriptions of these regions  prepared  by Wilson  primarily covers
topography, drainage patterns, geological strata,  and mineral resources.
The report in which they were presented  is the summary  report of a wildlife
habitat mapping project, and the forest cover information  and wildlife
habitat descriptions'are discussed in Sections 2.3.
                  2.0.  VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

     The two regional systems of Braun  (1950)  and Kuchler  (1964),  and  the
Statewide categorization by Core (1969) are described  in this  section  to
provide an overview of the types of  forest  that  are  present  in the various
parts of the Monongahela River Basin.  The boundaries  of the  forest types
within each system are shown  in Figures B-3, B-4, and  B-5; and a comparison
of these classification schemes with the ecoregion system  of  Bailey (1976)
is given in Table B-2.

2.1.  BRAUN (1950)

     Braun characterized the  typical upland native vegetation of the entire
Basin as mixed mesophytic forest.  The mixed mesophytic  forest is  a complex
association with many species of trees; no  single tree species
preponderates.  Typical species present in this  association  are:

beech                                 sweet buckeye      black cherry
tuliptree                             oaks               cucumber  tree
basswood                              hemlock            white ash
sugar maple                           birch              red  maple
chestnut (prior to the chestnut       sour  gum          hickories.
          blight of early 1900's)
                                      B-5

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2.2.  KUCHLER (1964)

     In a study of potential natural vegetation  in  the United  States,
Kuchler (1964) identified four vegetation types within the Monongahela River
Basin (Figure B-4).  The predominant type throughout  the  Basin was  the mixed
mesophytic forest, which potentially could cover 70%  of its  area.   This  type
includes a variable mixture of sugar maple, buckeye,  beech,  tuliptree, White
oak, northern red oak, and basswood as important species.  A northern
hardwoods type, which includes sugar maple, beech,  birch, and  hemlock,
potentially occupies the southeastern 20% of the Basin.   Small  areas of
northeastern spruce-fir forest characterized by  balsam fir and  red  spruce,
potentially occur at higher elevations in less than 10% of the  Basin.  The
northwesternmost  corner (less than 5%) of the Basin potentially is  occupied
by the Appalachian oak forest type, which contains  primarily white  oak and
northern red oak  along with many other species as minor components.

2.3.  CORE (1966)

     Core's analysis of West Virginia vegetation divided  the Monongahela
River Basin into  two vegetation types on the basis  of physiographic
conditions (Figure B-5).  The eastern two thirds of the Basin  are within the
Allegheny Mountain and Upland Physiographic Section,  which is  characterized
by the northern hardwood forest.  The most abundant tree  species are sugar
maple, beech, and yellow birch.  Associated species include  red maple, white
ash, black cherry, sweet birch, and American elm.

     The western  third of the Monongahela River Basin is  in  the Western  Hill
Physiographic Section which is characterized by  a central hardwood  forest.
This type in turn can be divided locally on the basis of  the moisture
content of the forest soils.  The dry (xeric) subdivision includes
predominantly oak forests and typically is found on the drier  areas such as
ridgetops and upper slopes.  The moderately moist (mesic) subdivision  exists
on north-facing slopes and in coves.  The species composition  of the mexic
subdivision of Core (1966) is similar to that described by Braun  (1950)  for
the mixed mesophytic forest.  The wet (hydric) subdivision exists in
floodplains, in bottomlands, and along streams.  It includes willows,
sweetgum, sycamore, silver maple, and river birch.  The hydric  type occurs
infrequently in the Gauley River Basin because the  Valley bottoms and
floodplains are limited to narrow bands along streams and rivers.

     The US Forest Service (1960),  in mapping the general forest  cover  in
the United States, identified most of the Monongahela River  Basin as part of
the central hardwood forest region  (Figure B-6).  The eastern  third of  the
Basin was assigned to the northern  forest region.   The US Forest Service
(1968) subsequently mapped the major forest types of  parts of  West  Virginia,
which included the Monongahela River Basin in more  detail (Figure B-7).
Three forest types were recognized within the Monongahela River Basin,  the
oak-poplar association covered approximately 80%, forming most  of the Basin.
The eastern and southern 20% was typed as the maple-beech-birch association
with the spruce-balsam fir type occupying approximately 5% of  the
mountainous section.
                                    B-ll

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Figure B-6
FOREST REGIONS OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(USFS I960)
                                                I
                                              M LES
                                         0       10
                                           WAPORA, INC.
                          B-12

-------
Figure B-7

MAJOR FOREST REGIONS OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(USFS 1968)
OAK-YELLOW POPLAR


BEECH - BIRCH - MAPLE


SPRUCE-FIR
                                            0        10
                                              WAPORA, INC.
                            B-13

-------
     The Monongaheal River Basin was mapped by the Appalachian Regional
Commission (1977) as having four forest types (Figure B-8).  The  forest
types are oak-hickory, maple-beech-birch,  spruce-fir and  longleaf
pine-slashpine.  The ARC mapping includes  a large non-forested area  in the
west-central portion of the Basin.

     Mapping of the Monongahela River Basin was  also performed by
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources in 1976 (Figure B-9).  Their results show about  8%
of the Basin with an oak-hickory and an Appalachian mixed hardwood forest
type.  A cherry-maple type covers about 15% of the Basin  in  the  southeastern
corner and in small areas in the northeastern and southwestern corners of
the Basin.  Also, about 5% of the Basin is covered by spruce-fir  forest in
the southeastern section.

  3.0.  SPECIES OF VERTEBRATES KNOWN OR LIKELY TO BE PRESENT IN  THE  BASIN

     The distribution of amphibian, reptile, and mammal species  within the
Basin is presented in Tables B-3 and B-4.  Species of vertebrates considered
to be endangered, threatened, or of special interest in West Virginia are
indicated with an asterisk (*).  Information on  the species  of vertebrates
proposed to be added to the list is not available at present.  A draft
report on rare and endangered animals in West Virginia has been  prepared  by
WVDNR-HTP and currently is being reviewed  by WVDNR-Wildlife  Resources.  The
list of species approved by the State will not be available  until the report
has been published by WVDNR-HTP.

                                4.0.  BIRDS

     The families of birds found in the Basin are given in Table  B-5.  The
number of species known or expected to occur in  each family  in the Basin
also is indicated.  Specifically significant birds are listed in
Table B-6.
                                     B-14

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Figure B-8
FOREST TYPES OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (ARC 1977)
       SPRUCE- FIR

       LONGLEAF PINE - SLASH PINE

       OAK - HICKORY

   :v-,1  MAPLE - BEECH - BIRCH

   J^3  NONFOREST AREA
                                B-15

-------
Rgure B-9
EXISTING FOREST TYPES OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR  1976)
      CHERRY- MAPLE


      OAK - HICKORY


      SPRUCE-FIR


      APPALACHIAN MIXED  HARDWOODS
                             B-16

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Table B-3.  Amphibians and reptiles known or expected to occur in the
  Monongahela River Basin (Conant 1975 and Green 1978).  Nomenclature
  is  that of Green (1978).  Those species indicated with an asterisk (*)
  are considered to be special animals of scientific interest by WV-DNR
  Heritage Trust Program and are species from a preliminary proposed
  State threatened and endangered list; the numbers following these
  species indicate the number of entries in the Heritage Trust Program
  (1978b) for the Basin.
     COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Amphibians
     Hellbender
     Mudpuppy
     Jefferson salamander
     Spotted salamander
     Marbled salamander

     Red-spotted newt
     Northern dusky salamander
     Mountain dusky salamander
     Appalachian seal salamander
     Red-backed salamander
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
Necturus maculosus
Ambystoma j effersonianum
Ambys toma maculaturn
Ambystoma opacum

Notophthalmus viridescens
Desmognathus fuscus
Desmognathus ochrophaeus
Desmognathus monticola
Plethodon cinereus
     Ravine salamander
    *Cheat Mountain salamander
     Slimy salamander
     Wehrle's salamander
     Four-toed salamander

     Northern spring salamander
     Northern red salamander
    *Green salamander
     Northern two-lined salamander
     Long-tailed salamander

    *Cave salamander
     American toad
     Fowler's toad
    ^Northern cricket frog
     Northern spring peeper

     Gray treefrog
     Mountain chorus frog
     Bullfrog
     Green frog
     Eastern wood frog

     Northern leopard frog
     Pickerel frog
Plethodon richmondi
Plethodon netting!  -9
Plethodon glutinosus
Plethodon wehrlei
Hemidactylium scutaturn
Gyrinophilus porphyriticus
Pseudotriton ruber
Aneides aeneus   -10
Eurycea bislineata
Eurycea longicauda

Eurycea lucifuga
Bufo americanus
Bufo woodhousei fowleri
Acris crepitans
Hyla crucifer
Hyla versicolor
Pseudacris brachyphona
Rana catesbeiana
Rana clamitans melano ta
Rana sylvatica

Rana pipiens
Rana palustris
                                   B-17

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Table B-3.  Amphibians and reptiles known or expected  to  occur  in the
  Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
     COMMON NAME
Reptiles
     Common snapping turtle
     Stinkpot
     Eastern box turtle
    *Wood turtle
    *Map turtle

     Eastern painted turtle
     Midland painted turtle
     Eastern spiny softshell
     Northern fence lizard

     Five-lined skink

     Queen snake
     Northern water snake
     Northern brown snake
     Northern red-bellied snake
    *Eastern ribbon snake

     Eastern garter snake
     Eastern earth snake
    *Mountain earth snake
     Eastern hognose snake
     Northern ringneck snake

     Eastern worm snake
     Northern black racer
     Eastern smooth green snake
     Black rat snake
     Black kingsnake

     Eastern milk snake
     Northern copperhead

     Timber rattlesnake
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Chelydra serpentina
Sternotherus odoratus
Terrapene Carolina
Clemmys insculpta
Graptemys geographica
-2
Chrysemys picta
Chrysemys picta marginata
Trionyx spiniferus
Sceloporus undulatus
  hyacinthinus
Eumeces fasciatus

Natrix septemvittata
Natrix sipedon
Storeria dekayi
Storeria occipitomaculata
Thamnophis sauritus  -2

Thamnophis sirtalis
Virginia valeriae
Virginia valeriae pulchra  -4
Heterodon platyrhinos
Diadophis punctiitus edwardsi

Carphophis amoenus
Coluber constrictor
Opheodrys vernalis
Elaphe obsoleta
Lamporpel tis getulus niger

Lampropeltis traingulus
Agkistrodon contortrix
  mokasen
Crotalus horridus
                                  B-18

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 Table B-A.  Mammals known or likely to occur in  the Monongahela River Basin,
   West Virginia.  Those species indicated with an asterisk  (*) are considered
   to be  animals of scientific interest by the WV Heritage Trust Program and
   species  from a preliminary proposed state threatened and  endangered list;
   the number  following the species indicates the number of  entries on the
   Heritage Trust Program printout for that species in the Basin (Burt and
   Grossenheider 1976; WVDNR 1973, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources  1977).  Species
   marked with a cross (+) are of negligible scientific interest for the con-
   sideration  of possible new source coal mining  activity in the Monongahela
   River  Basin, West Virginia.
  COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
  Opossum
  Masked shrew
  Smoky shrew
 *Longtail shrew
 *Northern water shrew

  Least shrew
  Shorttail shrew
 *Starnose  mole
  Hairytail mole
*+Little brown bat

*+Keen Myotis
 *Indiana myotis (endangered Federal)
*+Small-footed myotis
  Siver-haired bat
*+Eastern pipistrel

  Big brown bat
  Red bat
  Hoary bat
  Evening bat
 *Western big-eared bat

 *Black bear
  Raccoon
 *Fisher
 *Least weasel
  Longtail weasel

  Mink
 *River otter
 *Spotted skunk
  Striped skunk
  Red fox
Didelphis marsupialis
Sorex cinereus
Sorex fumeus
Sorex dispar
Sorex palustris

Gyptotis parva
Blarina brevicauda
Condylura cristata
Parascalops breweri
Myotis lucifugus"-3^
             _ Q
Myotis keeni  J
Myotis sodalis ~1
Myotis subulatus ~->
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Pipistrellus subflavus ~

Eptesicus fuscus
Lasiurus borealis
Lasiurus cinereus
Nycticeius humeralis
Plecotus townsendT "^
Ursus americanus
Procyon lotor
Martes pennant!
Mustela rixosa
Mustela frenata
Mustela vision
Lutra canadensis
                 -4
                -2
                 -1
Spilogale putorius
Mephitis mephitis
Vulpes fulva
                                   B-19

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Table B-i4. Mammals known or likely to occur in the Monongahela River Basin
           (concluded).
    COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
    Gray Fox
    Bobcat
    Woodchuck
    Eastern chipmunk
    Southern flying squirrel
   *Northern flying squirrel
    Red squirrel
    Gray squirrel
  *+Eastern fox squirrel
    Beaver
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Lynx rufus
Marmota monax
Tamias striatus
Glaucomys volans
Glaucomys sabrinus  -3
Tatniasciurus hudsonicus
Sciurus carolinensis
Sciurus niger  -4
Castor canadensis
    Eastern harvest mouse
    Deer mouse
    White-footed mouse
    Eastern woodrat
   *Southern bog lemming

    Boreal red-backed vole
    Meadow vole
   *Yellownose vole
    Pine vole
    Muskrat
Reithrodontomy.s humulis
Peromyscus maniculatus
Peromyscus leucopus
Neotoma floridana
Synaptomys cooperi  -7

Clethrionomys gapperi
Microtus pennsylvanicus
Microtus chrotorrhinus  -11
Pitymys pinetorum
Ondatra zibethica
   *Porcupine
   *Meadow jumping mouse
    Woodland jumping mouse
    Norway rat
    Black rat
Erethizon dorsatum  -2
Zapus hudsonius  -2
Napaeozapus insignis
Rattus norvegicus
Rattus rattus
    House mouse
    Snowshoe hare
    Eastern cottontail
   *New England cottontail
    Whitetail deer
Mus musculus
Lepus americanus
Sylvilagus floridanus
Sylvilagu.s trail  ' f ionalis
Odocoileus virgin.anus
-3
                                   B-20

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Table B-5.  Bird families represented by one or more members in the
  Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia.  The number of species known or
  expected to occur in each family is indicated in parentheses (Hall 1971,
  WVDNR-HTP 1978a).
          Gaviidae - Loons (2)
          Podicipedidae - Grebes (3)
          Phalacrocoracidae - Cormorants (1)
          Ardeidae - Herons and Egrets (10)
          Anatidae - Ducks, Geese, and Swans (29)
          Cathartidae - Vultures (2)
          Accipitridae - Hawks and Eagles (10)
          Pandionidae - Osprey (1)
          Falconidae - Falcons (3)
          Tetraonidae - Ruffed Grouse (1)
          Phasianidae - Bobwhite and Ring-necked pheasant (2)
          Meleagridae - Turkey (1)
          Gruidae - Sandhill crane (1)
          Rallidae - Rails and Gallinules (7)
          Charadriidae - Plovers (5)
          Scolopacidae - Sandpipers and related birds (17)
          Phalaropodidae - Phalaropes (2)
          Laridae - Gulls and Terns (8)
          Columbidae - Doves (2)
          Cuculidae - Cuckoos (2)
          Tytonidae - Barn owl (1)
          Strigidae - Owls (7)
          Caprimulgidae - Whippoorwill and nighthawk (2)
          Apodidae - Chimney swift (l)
          Trochilidae - Ruby-throated hummingbird (1)
          Alcedinidae - Belted kingfisher (1)
          Picidae - Woodpeckers and related birds (9)
          Tyrannidae - Flycatchers and related birds (11)
          Alaudidae - Horned lark (1)
                                     B-21

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Table B-5.  Bird families represented by one or more members in the
  Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia (concluded).
          Hirundinidae - Swallows (6)
          Corvidae - Crows and related birds (4)
          Paridae - Chickadees and Titmouse (3)
          Sittidae - Nuthatches (2)
          Certhiidae - Brown creeper (1)
          Troglodytidae - Wrens (6)
          Mimidae - Mockingbird, Catbird, and Thrasher (3)
          Turdidae - Thrushes and related birds (7)
          Sylviidae - Kinglets (3)
          Motacillidae - Water pipit (1)
          Bombycillidae - Waxwings (2)
          Laniidae - Shrikes (2)
          Sturnidae - Starling (1)
          Vireonidae - Vireos (6)
          Parulidae - Warblers and related birds (39)
          Ploceidae - House sparrow (l)
          Icteridae - Blackbrids, grackles, orioles, and other related
                      birds (10)
          Thraupidae - Tanagers (2)
          Frir.gillidae - Grosbeaks, sparrows, and related birds (35)
          TOTAL SPECIES = 277
                                    B-22

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Table B-6.  Birds considered to be special animals of scientific interest in
  West Virginia by the WVDNR-HTP (1978c).
          Black vulture
          oshawk
          Golden eagle
          Marsh hawk
          Southern bald eagle (endangered-Federal)
          Osprey
          Pigeon hawk (Merlin)
          Peregrine falcon (endangered-Federal)
          King rail
          Virginia rail
          Yellow rail
          Upland sandpiper
          Common snipe
          Short-billed marsh wren
          Kirtland's warbler (endangered-Federal)
          Button's warbler
          Swainson warbler
          Backman's sparrow
          Lark sparrow
          Hens low's sparrow
          Dickcissel
                                     B-23

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Appendix C
Reclamation Techniques

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APPENDIX C.  RECLAMATION TECHNIQUES
                  C-l

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                    APPENDIX C.  RECLAMATION TECHNIQUES

         1.0.  DESCRIPTION OF MULTIPURPOSE PONDS AND CATTAIL  SWAMPS

     The mitigation of impacts  from surface mining may  include  the develop-
ment of multipurpose ponds and cattail swamps during the reclamation of a
mine site.  Multipurpose ponds  and cattail swamps provide  a habitat  for a
variety of wildlife.  These structural mitigations are  illustrated in Figure
C-l.  The design of the multipurpose pond includes aquatic  vegetation in
which birds such as redwinged blackbirds and yellow-throats can nest; an
"island" formed of rocks to provide a resting area for  ducks,  gulls, terns,
and other migratory birds; a rope or cable suspended over  the  pond that
serves as a perching site; and  terraced sides with shallow water that
attract shorebirds and wading birds.  Although  the primary  sources of food
are aquatic invertebrates and plant material, fish can  be  stocked in the
pond for both recreational fishing and as a food source  for terns, king-
fishers, herons, egrets, and other birds.  The  steep side  option shown in
Figure C-l prevents the growth  of emergent vegetation on that  side.   This
provides a breeding and feeding area for panfish and also  allows fishermen
access to the edge of the pond  and facilitates  casting.

     The cattail swamp shown in Figure C-l can  have  an  optional rock island
with a T-shaped perch to provide a resting area. Cattails  will  invade the
swamp by means of airborne seeds, but the process can be accelerated by
scattering several dozen plants around the water edge after construction.
The swamp will have a relatively brief life span of  approximately 15 to 20
years, but will provide valuable habitat for a  number of species during that
period and a rich soil after it is filled as a  consequence  of  natural
processes.

     Waterfowl nesting rafts can be constructed to provide  some of the
habitat needs of wildlife (Figure C-l).  The waterfowl  nesting  raft  normally
is anchored to the bottom of a  sediment pond by two weights but is able to
rise and fall with changes in the water level because of the  difference in
weight of the two anchors.  A mesh roof covered with straw also can  provide
shelter.  Based on the present  cost of construction  of  such rafts ($10.00),
it is estimated that the annual cost of production per  duckling could be
less than $0.50 after a five-year period, and approximately $0.05 in future
years (Brenner and Mondak 1979).

     Special approval must be granted by the SMCRA regulatory  authority
before sediment ponds can be preserved following mining.   If  such approval
is not granted, the ponds must  be returned to approximate  original contour.
Sediment ponds can provide habitat after the completion  of  mining if they
are maintained properly by the  surface owner.
                                     C-2

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A. Multipurpose  pond
                   steep slope option
                   orl8
                                5Om
                                                      cable
B.  Swamp
                         as wide as possible
C. Waterfowl nesting  raft
           FLOOD  POOL
                   NORMAL  POOL
                          Water Level
          Pulley
Pulley
                Bottom
                                        Pulley/
                                                       Wafer Level
                            Q Pulley
                                             Weight
                      Bottom
  Figure C-l EXAMPLES  OF STRUCTURAL  MITIGATIONS  FOR
             TERRESTRIAL  BIOTA (A and B from Allaire I979a;
             C from Brenner and  Mondak 1979)
                                 C-3

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                        2.0.   REVEGETATION  TECHNIQUES

2.1.  ESTABLISHMENT OF  VEGETATION

2.1.1.  Seedbed Preparation

     Ideally,  the mine  site  should  be  prepared  for  revegetation so that
adverse physical conditions  are  ameliorated.  However,  Krause (1971) has
suggested  that  it is  less  expensive to plant  species  that can tolerate
adverse conditions than to correct  these conditions before  planting.

     Adverse physical conditions can be  corrected by  grading and by the use
of  soil amendments.   Grading should optimize  the  slope,  moisture retention,
friability, and stability  of the spoil,  while simultaneously burying toxic
materials  and replacing topsoil  (Bogner  and Perry 1977,  Bown 1975, Curtis
1973, Glover et al. 1978, Miles  et  al.  1973,  Riley  1973).  Some investiga-
tors have  suggested that topsoiling sometimes is unnecessary because the
spoil is adequately fertile  (Mathtech  1976).  Others  have stated that the
underlying strata may be more  fertile  than the A horizon, therefore these
lower strata should be  stockpiled and  redistributed  (Bogner and Perry 1977,
Krause 1973, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).   Some researchers  have suggested that
compaction of  spoil through  final grading  is  an  adverse  impact that
outweighs  the benefits  of grading.   They advocate either no final grading or
some type  of ripping  activity  to maintain  or  add relief  to  the spoil surface
(Chapman 1967, Glover et al.  1978,  Potter  et  al. 1951, Riley 1963, 1973,
Vimmerstedt et  al. 1974).  Haigh (1976)  noted that  recent research on
regrading  of spoil banks in  northeastern Oklahoma has  indicated that
sediment yields in river systems may have  been  increased substantially
because of the removal  of internal  drainage obstructions provided by furrows
between the ridges of unreclaimed land.

2.1.2.  Soil Amendments

     Much  research has  been  done on soil amendments,  although documentation
of  the practical use  of many of these  amendments in the  mining industry is
limited.  Mineral or  organic treatments  to enhance  fertility, friability,
stability, reaction,  and moisture retention include N-P-K fertilizers,
sewage sludge  and effluent,  lime, animal manure, earthworms,  fly ash, and
recycled organic matter from the original  vegetation  (Babcock 1973,  Bengsten
et  al. 1973a, 1973b,  Bennett et  al.  1976,  Berg  and Vogel 1973,  r'ipp et al.
1975, Haufler et al.  1978, Hinesly  et  al.  1972, McCormick and Bo.den 1973,
Master and Zellmer 1979, Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Sopper  and Kardus 1972,
Sutton 1970, Vimmerstedt and Finney 1973,  Vogel and Berg 1973,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).

2.1.3.  Species of Plants Utilized

     The species combinations, planting  rates,  and  placement  of trees,
shrubs, grasses, and  forbs depend on the restrictions  imposed by physical
factors and land use  plans.  The first  goal of  revegetation is to stabilize
                                    C-4

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the spoil rapidly and reduce erosion.  The  second  goal  of  revegetation is  to
provide a stand of vegetation that is compatible with the  long-term land use
plans for the site and the surrounding area  (Wahlquist  1976).

     The species of plants selected to stabilize the spoil must  be
compatible with physical conditions, must have  the  ability  to  germinate and
spread rapidly and to develop an adequate root  system,  and must  be  capable
of enriching the soil with humus and micronutrients.  Although the  regula-
tions prescribe a mulch, they allow for the  seeding of  a crop  of annual
grasses.  At the end of the growing season,  this nurse  crop  should  leave  an
accumulation of organic litter that will support a  subsequent  seeding  of
perennial species (Jones et al. 1975).  Some of  the species  of grasses,
forbs, shrubs, and trees that have been used  for revegetation  are listed  in
Tables 5-13, 5-14, and 5-15.  The varieties  of  these species that may  be
used are indicated in Rafaill and Vogel (1978).  More detailed information
on some of the species listed also is available  in  Chironis  (1978).

     The use of multiflora rose for revegetation is prohibited in West
Virginia by the WV Department of Agriculture, which has listed the  species
as a noxious weed because of its prolific nature and the resulting  destruc-
tion of pastureland (Verbally, Mr. Dixie Shreve, SCS, to Ms. Kathleen  M.
Brennan, WAPORA, Inc., May 14, 1980).  The use  of  autumn olive also has been
prohibited in 22 counties in West Virginia under the West Virginia  Noxious
Weed Act (WV Code, Article 19, Section 12D)  because of  its  similar  habit  of
spreading and resistance to control measures.   WVDNR- Reclamation no longer
allows monoculture (sole-species) plantings  of  black locust  as an internal
policy; nor are plantings composed only of  conifers allowed  unless  the
surrounding area is covered entirely with conifers  or the  post-mining  use  of
the land will be the production of Christmas  trees.

     Soil amendments, mulch, and seed can be  applied by conventional farm
equipment on shallow slopes (less than 20%)  or  by  airplane,  helicopter,
hydrospray, or hand application on steep slopes.  A common  approach is to
hydrospray a slurry of mulch, seed, binder,  and  fertilizer  (Grim and Hill
1974, Rafaill and Vogel 1978).

     Nearly all present revegetation efforts involve seeding of  a herbaceous
ground cover that typically is composed of a grass-legume mixture.   A
limited number of woody species also can be  seeded  directly  with the herba-
ceous species.  These include black locust,  Japanese bushclover  (bicolor
lespedeza), Virginia pine, shortleaf pine,  loblolly pine,  false  indigo
(indigo bush), and green ash (Rafaill and Vogel  1978, Zarger et  al.  1973).
When seeding woody species, it is important  to  avoid a  dense,  competitive
herbaceous nurse crop that will grow taller  than and retard  the  woody  seed-
lings (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978, Vogel and Berg 1973).  Stratification,
soaking, scarification (making cuts in the  seed),  or innoculation with fungi
(mycorrhizae) also can aid the germination  and  growth of various woody
species (Bengsten et al. 1973, Zarger et al.  1973).
                                     C-5

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     The expense and labor intensity of hand-planting woody  seedlings  has
discouraged some revegetation with trees and shrubs  (Smith 1973, WVDNR-
Reclamation 1978).  Mechanical tree planters can be  operated  only  on  slopes
under 20% that are not overly stony (Rafaill and Vogel  1978).   Krause  (1971)
described a technique in which planting guns with hollow  plastic bullets are
used.  Each bullet contains a tree seedling.

2.2.  USES OF RECLAIMED AREAS

     Post-mining land uses include commercial reforestation,  pasture,
cropland, development, and wildlife habitat.  A reclamation  plan can  include
a combination of the above uses.

2.2.1.  Reforestation

     Reforestation should emphasize stocking of species that  are commer-
cially valuable for pulpwood or sawtimber.  These include oak,  pine,  spruce,
maple, birch, poplar, sycamore, and ash (Bennett et  al. 1976).  Black locust
has limited commercial value (for fence posts or high-energy  fuel-wood;
Carpenter and Eigel 1979) but is susceptible to rot  at  an early age.   Black
locust is used to stabilize highly erodible slopes,  and also  may promote the
growth of other species of trees as a nurse planting (Ashby  and Baker  1968,
Medivick 1973).

2.2.2.  Pasture

     Pasture or forage crops can be established most efficiently with  a
herbaceous cover of grasses and/or legumes that provide nutritious  forage
and also fix nitrogen in the soil.  Pasture and hayland uses  should not  be
considered for slopes steeper than 25% (Miles et al. 1973).   Livestock
should be restricted from grazing on a revegetated area until  the  plantings
are well established (Rafaill and Vogel 1978).

2.2.3.  S pe c i a11 y Crops

     Reclaimed coal mines may be used for conventional  or specialty crops,
depending on soil conditions and relief (Jones and Bennett 1979).   In
exceptional situations, cash grain crops may be row-planted  or  broadcast on
fertile soils that are level (Bogner and Perry 1977).   Specialty crops such
as orchards, vegetables, blueberries, and blackberries  also  can be  grown
successfully (Blizzard and Shaffer 1974, Jones et al.  1979).  Beekeeping for
honey production also has been suggested as a use for  revegetated mine spoil
(Angel and Christensen 1979).

2.2.4.  Development

     Reclaimed land to be used for development may be  revegetated  with any
herbaceous cover that stabilizes the soil and does not  interfere with
subsequent development.  Turf grasses and landscape  plantings may  be
appropriate.
                                     C-6

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2.2.5.  Wildlife Habitat

     Most private woodland owners in West Virginia  stated  that  they  valued
wildlife highly in a survey conducted by Christensen and Grafton  (1966).
Wildlife habitat can be a sole land use objective or can be  combined with
other land uses.  Reforestation, pasture, cropland, and development  all can
be compatible with wildlife habitat objectives  (Allaire 1979, Rafaill and
Vogel 1978, Riley 1963).  One of the major factors  that should  control the
development of wildlife habitat is the identification  of the particular
species of wildlife desired, as was indicated by members of  the Wildlife
Committee of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency  Evaluation  (WVDNR-Reclamation
1978).

2.3.  HABITAT VALUES FOR WILDLIFE

     Most nongame species benefit by maximization of habitat diversity and
edge  (Samuel and Whitmore 1979).  This especially would include the
provision of structural diversity—vertical  stratification and  a  varied
horizontal mosaic with open water, songposts, and snags (Allaire  1979).
Maximization of habitat diversity can be accomplished  by the interspersion
of belts or clumps of shrubs and trees within open  agricultural or developed
areas, or by leaving herbaceous and shrub openings  in  forested  areas. Most
areas of the Monongahela River Basin are forested.  The openings  created by
mining activities can be important complements  to the  forest (Dudderar
1973).  Several revegetation designs that have  the  attributes described
above are presented in Figures C-2, C-3, and C-4.   These suggested planting
plans were developed specifically to provide habitat for cottontail  rabbits,
bobwhite quail, and ruffed grouse, respectively.

2.3.1.  Natural Succession

      Some investigators have suggested that  natural  succession  provides  some
of the best and most diverse wildlife habitat,  and  that cultivated plantings
cannot duplicate the benefits of this natural revegetation process (Haigh
1976, Smith 1973, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth Annual Interagency  Evalua-
tion, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).  It also has  been suggested that abandoned
mines with appreciable successional vegetation  not  be  regraded  and revege-
tated.  Because of the time required for appreciable natural revegetation,
and the requirements for spoil stabilization, it would not be  feasible to
rely  solely on natural succession for revegetation  of  newly-mined areas.
Because of the benefits associated with natural revegetation, however, it
would be advantageous to initially revegetate newly-mined  areas so that
secondary reclamation could occur from the natural  establishment  of  native
shrubs and trees.  This can be done by planting the  grass-legume  cover  less
densely than usual, so that woody plants can invade  the area.   Secondary
reclamation efforts include the planting of  woody plants three  or four years
after the herbaceous plantings (Brenner 1973, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth
Annual Interagency Evaluation, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
                                     C-7

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   »?'••• v-.',$sgssp
   :A r ;<1""v 'Ail^f&Undisturbed
         r#::A -, -.V ftsg&a
        i
       .tf  > ,  • -,- •':./J »lW»ifo
                                  /f'W^M^^^'^
                                  U  ^WS^RiSSj^pF**?
                                                         Outs lope
                                  A
                                  f
                                  Y
Hardwoods- birches, red maple etc.
Conifers- pines or'spruce
Hawthorn, crabapple, dogwoods
Sumacs
Bush honeysuckle, bicoior
   lespedeza
Bristly locust
Native honeysuckles
Clovers, alfalfa, deertongue,
   orchardgrass, switchgrass
Crownvetch or S. lespedeza & fescuej
Figure C-2 SAMPLE PLANTING  PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF COTTONTAIL
         RABBIT HABITAT ON SURFACE-MINED AREAS (Rafaill and Vogel
         1978) A = Contour strip mine; B = Mountaintop removal mine
                               c-f

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             Bench
               £# Highwall
                     or
                     upper
                     mining
    *"'&"''>  \*W&i
     S 0 -
     ^X «,1''-" v$§!&
      • A  •-.',<£ *^|&
       &\ -•  ".,-  ^^f^J
       >^?  ,     ••- (S '   ''   t{\y^ ^T'r'^r
       y/ ••:
      *?-"«•'  ^!fe
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    »"-•.    •• !l^
        «. •  %.%
      v-

Outs lope-
<•'!
                                         .Undisturbed forest
                                               Outslope
                          „
                          T
                           
                          '?'.-
                                        KEY
                               Hardwoods - ash, oaks, birch etc.
                               Conifers - pine or spruce
                               Lespedeza bicolor
                               Bristly locust, privet,
                                 viburnum

                               Crabapple, hawthorn, dogwood
                               Korean or Kobe lespedeza & orchard
                                 grass
                               Crownvetch or flatpea & grasses
                               Sericea lespedeza &. fescue _
Figure C-3 SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF BOBWHITE
        QUAIL  HABITAT ON SURFACE-MINED AREAS (Rafaill  and
        Vogel 1978) A = Contour strip mine; B= Mountaintop removal mine
                          C-9

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                                         Undisturbed forest

 A A A A A ""•- "
        !:?
 A & i A A '-  "' -
AAAA/i ...  .. :
                                   J' ••  "' *' -
                                   •  -••
                                    Hardwoods-  oaks, birch, tu'lip poplar
                                  ]f Black locust
                                    Pine
                                    Crabapple,  hawthorn, dogwoods
                                     Bris-cly locust
                                        , bush honeysuckle
                                  -.-j Clovers, birdsfoot trefoil, grasses
Figure C-4SAMPLE  PLANTING  PLAN  FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF RUFFED
         GROUSE  HABITAT ON MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL SITE (Rafaill
         and Vogel 1978)
                                c-io

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2.3.2.  Requirements of Desirable Wildlife

     Certain desirable species of wildlife, especially  game  animals,  can be
emphasized in the revegetation plan by  providing  for  their needs.   Species
commonly recognized as worthy of special attention  are  listed  in Table 5-12,
along with their habitat requirements and the  feasibility  for  inclusion of
their needs in reclamation plans.  The  feasibility  of managing the  reclaimed
mine habitat for certain species becomes apparent when  examining the
requirements of several species for food, water, cover, mating grounds,
brooding areas, home range, compatibility with  other  desired species,  and
compatibility with adjacent land uses (Rafaill  and  Vogel 1978,  Samuel  and
Whitmore 1979, USFWS 1978).  For example, the  dependence of  woodcock  on
earthworms as food prevents this species from using recently vegetated mine
spoil; the needs of wild turkeys for expansive  mature oak  forest with  small
openings, for permanent open water, and  for invertebrate food  sources  and
escape cover for poults (young) limits  their use of some mine  sites;  and the
planting of conifers and grasses in narrow, alternating strips  creates a
situation in which ruffed grouse are susceptible to predators  (Anderson and
Samuel 1980, Samuel and Whitmore 1979, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth  Annual
Interagency Evaluation, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).  Conversely,  small mine
sites that provide openings in extensive forests can  be managed to  benefit
wild turkeys; intermingled clumps of shrubs and trees with open land  can be
used to attract ruffed grouse; and the maintenance  of early  successional
stages and wildlife food plantings can  be used  to support  cottontail
rabbits, bobwhite quail, and mourning doves (Rafaill  and Vogel  1978,  Samuel
and Whitmore 1979).

2.3.3.  Maintenance Practices

     If a desired habitat type is achieved by  reclamation, it  may be
necessary to develop a maintenance program to preserve  the desirable  attri-
butes.  Open-land birds, such as bobwhite, quail, and mourning doves,  avoid
areas with heavy litter accumulations.  Therefore,  controlled  burning  of
grassland areas and discing along edges  is necessary  to maintain a  suitable
habitat for these species.  The small woodland  openings used by wild  turkeys
can be expected to be invaded rapidly by trees  unless selective herbicides,
controlled burning, or cutting are used  to remove this  growth  (Rafaill and
Vogel 1978, Samuel and Whitmore 1979).
                                    C-ll

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Appendix D
Air Quality Impact Review

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APPENDIX D.  AIR QUALITY  IMPACT  REVIEW
                   D-l

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   Appendix D.  Air Quality Impact Review of New Source Mining Operations

     Emissions of air pollutants result from all phases of surface  coal
mining and coal preparation operations.  These emissions have the capability
of affecting the air quality downwind from the mine site.  The principal
impacts on air quality generally occur from increases  in (TSP) and  fugitive
dust concentrations.  Increases in the downwind concentrations of other
criteria pollutants can occur as well.

     Not all new source coal mining operations need in-depth review for  air
quality impacts.  Sources that necessitate a review because they are
considered major stationary sources are those that have coal-related
emissions of more than 100 tons per year after application of control
technology and enforceable permit restrictions.  PSD regulations also  apply
to any stationary source designated as a major emitting facility which has
the potential to emit 250 tons per year or more of any pollutant regulated
under the Clean Air Act following application of control technology and  to
sources that locate in specific geographic areas (Section 4.2.3.).
Generally, large mining operations with more than 30 mobile and stationary
sources, mining operations with an on-site power or steam boiler, and  coal
preparation facilities with thermal dryers may fall into these categories
and can be analyzed to determine whether further study is warranted.

     To assess the potential impacts of air emissions  adequately, the
following information on each air pollution source must be obtained:

     •  Source of emissions

     •  Quantities of emissions

     •  Physical and chemical composition of emissions.

The following sections describe sources and methodologies that enable  a
reviewer to assess in general terms the potential air  pollution impact from
a major new facility.

Fugitive Dust and TSP Sources and Emissions

     Fugitive dusts are emitted from open-area sources (non-point sources)
which do not include emissions from single stacks (point sources;.   These
emissions are called "fugitive" because their exact source is often-
difficult to pinpoint.

     Fugitive dust includes respirable particles and other particles less
than 30 microns (u) in diameter which may remain suspended indefinitely.
Emission factor equations have been developed for particles of this size,
because they are most effectively captured by standard high-volume
filtration samplers [assuming a particle density of 2.0-2.5 g/cm^
(EPA 1976c)].
                                     D-2

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     Particles larger than 30 ji eventually settle out.  Those  larger  than
100 u in diameter settle within 7-10 m of their emission  source  (EPA  1976c).
The larger particles do not have so great an  impact on  air  quality  as the
smaller suspended particles, because they 36ttie out near their  source,  and
they are not respirable.

     In addition to size, the chemical composition of the dust particles
combined with prevailing wind speeds, determines how fugitive dust  emissions
will affect air quality (Cowherd et al.  1979).  Wind speeds must  be great
enough to carry the dust emissions away  from their source.  Other factors
affecting fugitive dust emissions include source activity, moisture and  silt
content of the disturbed surface material, wind direction, humidity,
temperature, and time of day.

Coal Mining and Processing Sources

     Different coal mining processes produce TSP and fugitive  dust  emissions
of varying sizes.  Processes which emit  particles in the  respirable range
differ from those producing larger particles.  Major sources contributing to
TSP and fugitive dust emissions are (PEDCO, Inc. 1976):

     •  Overburden removal

     •  Shovel/truck loading

     •  Haul roads

     •  Reclamation

     •  Blasting

     •  Truck dumping

     •  Crushing

     •  Transfer and conveying

     •  Storage

     •  Waste disposal.

     Processes producing TSP and fugitive dust emissions  that  fall  primarily
within the respirable dust range and the relative amounts they contribute
are:

     Coal transport unloading                40%
     Blasting                                30%
     Drilling                                 12%
     Coal augering                            10%
                                             92%

The remaining 8% is attributable to wind erosion.


                                      D-3

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     Fugitive dust emission  should be examined  for  each  process  individually
but can be expressed as a single emission  factor  for  the  entire  mine  when
performing in-depth analyses.  There are no  general  statements  regarding
fugitive dust emissions which can be applied to all mines,  and  emissions for
the different processes will vary from mine  to mine  (Verbally,  Bob  McClure,
Skelly & Loy, to Terri Ozaki, January 30,  1980).

Determining Fugitive Dust Emissions

     Emission factors have been developed  for certain coal  mining  and
preparation processes (Tables 5-16 to 5-18).  Table D-l  presents a  sample
work sheet that can be used  to determine the source  emissions.   To  utilize
the work sheet, the reviewer must determine  the quantity  of coal,  topsoil,
vmt (vehicle miles traveled), acres, or hours for one year's  worth  of
operation for the specific categories.  These quantities  must be obtained
from the applicant.  Next the reviewer can multiply  those quantities  by the
emission factors.  The result of this analysis will be the  .total amount of
TSP and fugitive dust generated by the proposed facility.   The  results
should be used when running  the Box Model  and then  to determine  the status
of the proposed facility.

Criteria Pollutant Sources and Emissions
     There are several other sources associated with  coal mining  and coal
preparation which emit air pollutants other than TSP.  These  sources are
generally small, but sometimes numerous,  and  should be taken  into
consideration in an assessment of potential air impacts associated  with a
New Source.  These sources include:

     •  Power boilers

     •  Incinerators and dryers

     •  Space heaters

     •  Highway vehicles

     •  Off highway, mobile sources

     •  Off highway, stationary sources

     •  Open burning (if continuous)

Emission rates for all of these sources can be  found  in the EPA AP-42
Manual.  Current supplements of this manual should be used to  determine
emission rates for the most accurate results.

Determining Ground-Level Air Pollution Concentrations

     Proposed New Source emissions can be related to  the applicable
standards.  For New Sources, the maximum  predicted ground-level air
pollution concentration cannot exceed the NAAQS's at  the plant boundary (or


                                   D-4

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within the boundary wherever the public has access).  The  plant  location and
proposed thermal dryer and power or steam boiler emissions  first  can be
compared to the thresholds presented in Section 4.2.3.  to  determine whether
or not a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD)  analysis  is
warranted.

     Before comparing the total proposed plant emissions to the NAAQS's,
these emissions must be converted into ground-level concentrations.  This
can be done by the use of a "Box Model" for area sources (that is,  sources
that do not have a large smoke stack).  Ground-level concentrations are
estimated separately from point sources (that is,  stationary  stacks),  as
discussed following the calculations for area sources.

     The "Box Model" is an area source, non-buoyant plume,  steady state
model, used to calculate ground-level concentrations at the site  boundary.
The equation for the Box Model is:
       X
        (long term)
                                  0.5
                            UL(A)
(106 pg/g)
     where:
     X is the long term increase in concentration in ug/m3
     Q is the total emission rate in g/sec
     U is the average wind speed (m/sec)
     L is the average mixing height in meters
     A is the site area in square meters.

All of the information needed for the model inputs are furnished in this
report or are available in the standard EPA reference document AP-2.   Inputs
for both U and L are given in Section 2.4.2.  The value for A is obtainable
from the NPDES permit application.  Q must be generated by the reviewer
utilizing source data presented by the applicant in the WVAPCC permit
application (Section 4.1.4.13.).  Q values for fugitive dust can be
calculated using the equations presented in Section 5.4.1.1.  Q values for
the criteria pollutants must be obtained from AP-42 in the following
manner:

     1.  Determine the number and type for a1! emitting sources
         (trucks, cars, cranes, generators, etc.) that will be
         associated with the proposed facility.  This information
         can be obtained from the applicant.

     2.  Ascertain emission rates for all identified sources from
         AP-42.  The end product of this task should be a table as
         presented in Table 5-16.

     3.  Determine the usage of each source during a one year
         period.  The reviewer must determine how many hours,
                                     D-6

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         emission rates generally in g/hour  (heavy equipment) and
         g/mile (light-duty vehicles).  Other courses, such as
         coal burning, are reported in pounds of pollutant per  ton
         of coal burned.

         As an example, a piece of heavy-duty equipment may be
         used 7 days per week, 8 hours per day for 52 weeks per
         year.  The emission rate will be applied for
         7 x 8 x 52 = 2,912 hours/year.

     4.  The total emissions in tons/year for each source must  be
         determined.  This is done by multiplying the usage of  the
         sources (from Step 3), times the emission rate of the
         source (from Step 2), times the number of sources for
         each soiree category (from step 1), times the appropriate
         cc-uversion factor.  The results of  this step should be a
         table as presented in Table 5-16.

     5.  Determine ground-level concentrations for air pollutants
         using the "Box Model" equation.  The equation as
         presented previously gives results  as a yearly average
         (long-term) for each pollutant.  Each pollutant must be
         run separately.

     The equation calculates annual averages.  Because of the steady  state
assumption in the equation, the Box Model results are conservative.
Therefore, short-term averages must be determined.  To generate 24-,  8-,  3-,
and 1-hour averages, further calculations must be made.  These  equations  are
presented below:
     •  24-hour average


                X(24 hr)

     o   8-hour average


                X( 8 hr)

     •   3-hour average


                X( 3 hr)

     •   1-hour average

                X( 1 hr)
X
 (long-term)
 L(long-term)
8760
 24
                  8760
X
 (long-term)
X
 (long-term)
8760
8760
                        [exp 0.5]
                        [exp 0.5]
                        [exp 0.5]
                        [exp 0.5]
                                     D-7

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(40) (10)6(p)
3600
	 o
     The results of this task will provide the reviewer with predicted
short-term pollutant concentrations that can be compared directly  to the
short-term NAAQS's.  If the calculated ground-level concentrations when
added to monitored ambient concentrations (obtained from Section 2.4.3. or
from the applicant) exceed the appropriate NAAQS's, a more detailed analysis
should be undertaken by the Air Programs Branch.

     To determine approximate ground-level concentrations from  point, sources
(power and steam boilers and thermal dryers) the reviewer can use  the
nomograph presented in Figure D-l.  This nomograph is based upon the
Bosanquet and Pearson equation for determining the maximum concentration
that will occur directly downwind from a facility.  This equation  can be
stated as:
                c
                 max
                at a distance X    = H
                               max   —
                                     2p
     where:
     Cmax = maximum ground level concentration, rag/m-*
     Q = emission rate of pollutant, kg/hr

     u = mean wind speed, m/sec
     n = Pi
     e - 2.71
     H = effective stack height, meters
     p = diffusion coefficient, dimensionless
     q = diffusion coefficient, dimensionless, and
     Xmax = distance from stack to maximum ground level concentrations,
            meters.

     All the information needed to use this nomograph can be  obtained  from
either the applicant or from this report.  A value for Q can be obtained
from the applicant.  A value for u can be obtained from Section 2.4.2.  The
height of the stack should be used for the H value (assuming  that the  Xmax
will occur no more than 500 meters from the plant under most  COIL  'tions).
The stack height can be obtained from the WV'TCC permit applicatit     Values
for both p and q are as follows:

     Turbulence          p          _JL_         p/q
        Low            0.02         0.04         0.50
      Average          0.05         0.08         0.63

Generally, low turbulence values should be used in steep valleys; average
turbulence values are appropriate for most other conditions.
                                      D-8

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         10—i
H U
                       I50Q-J   10-1 E 007



                        X max    0  C max
                                                      o
                                                      z

                                                      UJ
                                                      o
Figure D-1 NOMOGRAPH FOR DETERMINING  GROUND-LEVEL  CONCENTRATIONS
         FROM POINT SOURCES (Bosanquet and Pearson 1979)
                               D-9

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     The following example represents  a  typical  analysis.

          If pollutant emission rate is  500 Kg/hr.,  effective
     stack height 45 m, and mean wind  speed 5 m/sec,  what  is  the
     maximum average ground level concentration  for  low  air
     turbulence and what  is the maximum  distance from stack  to
     point of maximum ground level concentration?

          Solution:  By checking the diffusion coefficients  given
     above, note that the turbulence factor for  low  air  turbulence
     = p/q 0.5 and p = 0.02.  (1) Line 5 m/sec on u  scale  with
     500 Kg/hr on Q scale, extend line to Pivot  No.  1.
     (Figure D-l).  (2) From this point  connect  with 0.5 on  p/q
     scale and mark where line crosses Pivot No. 2 (3) Connect
     point round on Pivot No. 2 with 45  m on H scale and read
     maximum average ground level concentrations as
     1.48 mg/cu m3 where  line crosses  Cmax scale.  Convert the
     mg/cu m3 to ug/m3.  To find distance from stack to
     maximum ground level concentrations:  (4) connect 0.02  on
     p scale with 45 m on H scale and  read 1,125 meters  where line
     crosses Xmax scale.

     This process can be  repeated for  the five major criteria pollutants
(S02, NOX, TSP, HC, and CO).  If the results of  this  analysis, when
added to the ambient concentrations found in Section 2.4.3.2.  or  supplied by
the applicant from original monitoring,  come close to or exceed the NAAQS's,
a more detailed analysis by the Air Programs Branch  is warranted.

Determination of Status

     The results of these analysis should be used to determine the status of
the proposed facility (whether or not  the source is  a major  source).   To
determine the status of the proposed facility the total  emissions (in tons
per year) determined previously (Step 4) should  be added together arid com-
pared to the appropriate  standards.  If  the results  exceed the standards, an
in depth analysis by the Air Programs Branch is  warranted.
                                     D-10

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Appendix E
Acknowledgments and Authorship

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APPENDIX E.  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND AUTHORSHIP
                     E-l

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                     E.  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND AUTHORSHIP

     This SID was prepared by EPA Region III with the assistance of WAPORA,
Inc.  Numerous agencies, institutions, organizations, and individuals
contributed to the development of the SID, and the assistance of each is
gratefully acknowledged.  Special thanks are due to the many employees of
the State of West Virginia, and particularly to the staff of WVDNR, for many
courtesies extended during the collection of data presented here.

     Principal authorship responsibility for specific sections of the SID is
outlined below.  EPA input was provided chiefly by Steven A. Torok, Joseph
Piotrowski, and Evelyn Schulz (Environmental Impact Branch) and by Paul
Montney and Richard Zambito (Permits Enforcement Branch).

     Special thanks to the following WAPORA staff who were primarily
responsible for this SID:

     Susan Beal
     Wendy Cohn
     Nancy Daoud
     Diana Gent
     Jerry Gold
     Wesley Horner
     Steve Kullen
     David Lechel
     Carol Mandell
     Earl Peattie
     Holly Righter
     Jim Schmid
     Gregory Seegert
     Malcolm Sender
     Judy Wrend
                                     E-2

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                                  GLOSSARY

Abatement - The method of reducing the degree or intensity of pollution,
     also the use of such a method.

Abrader or Abrading Stone - A sandstone artifact, either grooved or
     ungrooved, used to sharpen or polish tools or ornaments  in either  their
     manufacture or during their use.

Acidity - The capacity of water to donate protons.  The symbol pH refers  to
     the degrees of acidity or alkalinity.  pH of 1 is the strongest acid,
     pH of 14 is the strongest alkali, pH of 7 is neutral.

Acid Forming Materials - Earth materials that contain sulfide mineral or
     other materials which may create acid drainage.

Acid Mine Drainage - Water with a pH less than 6.0 discharged from active or
     abandoned mines and areas affected by surface mining operations.

Acid Producing Overburden - Material that may cause spoil which upon
     chemical analysis shows a pH of 4.0 or less.  Seams commonly associated
     with such material may include, but not be limited to Waynesburg,
     Washington, Freeport, Sewickley, Redstone, Pittsburgh, Kittanning, Elk
     Lick, Peerless, No. 2 GAS, Upper Eagle, No. 5 Block, and Stockton
     Lewiston.

Active Surface Mining Operation - An operation where land is being disturbed
     or mineral is being removed and where grade release has not been
     approved.

Adena - An important culture existing from  1000 B.C. to A.D. 1, known
     mainly through burial mounds.  It centered in Ohio and West Virginia.

Air Blast - The pressure level, as measured in air, resulting from blasting
     operations.

Adze (Adz) - A ground stone tool, usually made of igneous rock, plano-
     convex in cross-section, and mounted like a hoe.  It was used for wood
     working.

Air Mass - A widespread body of air with properties that were estab  'shed
     while the air was situated over a particular region of the earth's
     surface.  The air mass undergoes specific modifications while in
     transit away from the region.

Air Monitoring - Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of
     pollutants or radioactive contamination present in the environment.

Air Pollution - The presence of contaminants in the air in concentrations
     that prevent normal dispersion of the air and interfere directly or
     indirectly with man's health, safety, or comfort or with the full use
     and enjoyment of his property.

                                    RL-1

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Air Pollution Episode - The occurrence of abnormally high concentrations  of
     air pollutants usually due to low winds and temperature inversion,
     usually accompanied by an increase in illness and death.

Air Quality Control Region - An  area designated by the Federal government
     where two or more communities in the same or different states  share  a
     common air pollution problem.

Air Quality Criteria - The levels of pollution and lengths of exposure  to it
     which adversely effect health and welfare.

Air Quality Standards - The prescribed level of pollutants in the air that
     cannot be exceeded legally during a specified time in a specified
     geographical area.

Alkaline - Having marked basic properties with a pH of more than 7.

Ambient Air - Any unconfined portion of the atmosphere.

Amorphous pyrite- A non-crystalline pyrite that is responsible for  the  bulk
     of acid mine drainage produced.

Anthracite - A high grade metamorphic coal having a semimetallic luster,
     high content of fixed carbon, high density, and burning with a short
     blue flame and little smoke or odor.  Also known as hard coal; Kilkenny
     coal; stone coal.

Anti-Degradation Clause - A provision in air quality and water quality  laws
     that prohibits deterioration of air or water quality in areas where
     pollution levels are presently below those allowed.

Approximate Original Contour - A surface configuration achieved by
     backfilling and grading of the mined area so that the reclaimed area,
     including any terracing or access roads, closely resembles the general
     surface configuration of the land prior to mining and blends into  and
     complements the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain.

Aquifer - A zone stratum or group of strata that can store and transmit
     water in sufficient quantities for a specific use.

Archaic - A time period in eastern United States prehistory cove ;ng
     approximately 7000 B.C. to 1000 B.C.., when most aborigines wt.
     collectors and small-game hunters.

Archaeology - The study of man's past by means of excavation.  Generally,
     archaeologists deal with prehistoric cultures, i.e., before written
     records.  Archaeology also confirms historical records.
                                    GL-2

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Area Mining - One of the two basic types of  surface mining where  coal  is
     mined over a broad area in gently rolling or  level  land.

Area Source - Any small individual fuel combustion source which contributes
     to air pollution, including any trancporataion sources.  This  is  a
     general definition; area source is legally  and precisely defined  in
     Federal regulations.

A-Scale Sound Level - The measurement of sound approximating the  auditory
     sensitivity of the human ear.  The A-scale  sound  level is used  to
     measure the relative noisiness of common sounds.

Artifact - Any object which has been made or modified  by man into a  tool  or
     ornament.

Ash - The non-combustible residue of burned  coal which occurs in  raw coal as
     clay, pyrite, and other mineralic matter.

Atlatl - From  the Aztec word for "spearthrower;"  a device to increase
     distance and force in throwing a spear.  In eastern United States,
     during the Archaic period, the atlatl consisted of  a wooden  shaft with
     an antler hook for inserting the butt end of  a spear on one  end,  a
     weight or "bannerstone" in the middle of the  shaft, and an antler or
     wooden handle.

Auger Mining - Mining of coal from an exposed vertical coal face  by  means of
     a power driven boring machine which employs an auger to cut  and remove
     the coal.

Awl - Any pointed tool, usually of bone or antler, used  for punching holes
     in hides and textiles for sewing purposes.  Awls, rather than needles,
     are far more common in West Virginia cultures.

Backfill - To place material back into an excavation and return the  area  to
     a predetermined slope.

Background level - With respect to air pollution,  amounts of pollutants
     present in the ambient air due to natural sources.

Bannerstone - See Atlatl.

Base Load - The minimum load of a utility, electric or gas, over  a  given
     period of time.

Bastion - A projection outward from a stockade line or wall, to enable
     defenders of a fort to cross-fire on attacking forces.

Beamer (Draw Knife) - A bone tool usually made from the  deer metapodal bone,
     with one side of the bone shaft having  a concave  worn surface.  This
     was a hide working tool used to remove  hair and make hides more
     pliable.  It is characteristic of Late  Prehistoric  cultures.
                                    GL-3

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Beds - Layers of sedimentary rock.

"Beehive" Ovens - Old-style, dome-shaped coke ovens shaped like beehives.

Benches - Discrete beds of coal within a coal seam separated by rock or
     bone.

Best Available Control Technology - A technology or technique that
     represents the most effective pollution control that has been
     demonstrated, used to establish emission or effluent control
     requirements for a polluting industry.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed
     in five days by the biological processes breaking down organic matter
     in water.  Large amounts of organic waste use up large amounts of
     dissolved oxygen; thus, the greater the degree of pollution, the
     greater the BOD.

Biota - The flora and fauna of a region.

Birdstone - A problematical artifact type  in the stylized form of a bird,
     usually made of banded slate.  These  are very rare in West Virginia,
     and appear to be Adena in this area.  They also could have been atlatl
     weights.

Bituminous Coal - The coal ranked below anthracite.  It generally has a high
     heat content and is soft enough to be ground for easy combustion.  It
     accounts for nearly all coal mined in this country.

Blocky - The structure of coal having the  normal cleat development which, in
     combination with the horizontal bedding, causes the coal to break
     naturally into large or small rectangular blocks.

Bone Coal - Very dirty coal in which the mineralic content is too high to be
     commercially valuable.   It is dull rather than bright and heavier and
     harder than good coal.   It is not related to skeletal bone.

Box Cut - A technique of contour mining where an initial cut is made and
     then successive adjacent cuts are made, placing the spoil of each in
     the preceding cut, which replaces the soil and makes reclarntion
     easier.

Buffer Zone - An undisturbed border along  or around an intermittent or
     perennial stream.
                                    GL-4

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By-Products (Residuals) - Secondary products which are commercial value  and
     are obtained from the processing of a raw material.  They may be the
     residues of the gas production process, such as coke, tar, and  ammonia,
     or they may be the result of further processing of such residues, such
     as ammonium sulfate.

Cache - A deposit of artifacts or materials for future use.  Most commonly a
     group of large blades of flint, probably blanks for future working  into
     final form.

Cairn - A pile of rock or boulders usually erected over a burial, although
     some are piled up only as a memorial.  In West Virginia these appear to
     be Middle to Late Woodland in time.

Calamites - Small to very large rushes or trees of the first Coal Age.

Calcareous - Resembling calate or calcium carbonate; associated with  lime.

Calcium Carbonate (CaC03) - A compound, often derived  from calate used to
     make lime.

Cannel Coal - Coal composed predominantly of millions  of spores along with
     plant cuticles, resins, waxes and other chemically resistent
     substances.  It is an aberration of "candle coal."  It is dull  rather
     than bright, burns cleanly with a hot flame and is a good house  fuel.

Carbon Dioxide (CC-2) - A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that  is  a
     normal part of the ambient air.  C02 is a product of fossil  fuel
     combustion, and some researchers have theorized that excess  C02
     raises atmospheric temperatures.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) - A colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas that  is a
     normal by-product of incomplete fossil fuel combustion.  CO, one of the
     major air pollutants, can be harmful in small amounts if breathed over
     a certain period of time.

Carboniferous - Coal-bearing.

Carboniferous Period - European period of geological time corresponding  to
     the American Pennsylvanian and Mississippian Periods combir^d.  This
     period is named for its numerous coal seams.

Carbonization - The coke-making process whereby coal is burned in the
     absence of oxygen so that incomplete combustion results.  The volatile
     matter is burned up and driven off as gases, tars, and oils, leaving
     the fixed carbon compounds and ash as coke.

Celt - Another chopping tool, usually of igneous rock, biconvex in cross-
     section.  This chopping tool replaces the axe in Adena times and
     thereafter is the only chopping tool.
                                    GL-5

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Chert - A general term covering hydrated siliceous oxides with conchoidal
     fracture.  Flint is a fine-grained subtype, as are chalcedony  (waxy
     feel); jasper (high iron content gives it a red to yellow color);
     agate, and others.  Chert is the material usually chipped by the
     prehistoric occupants of West Virginia into projectile points  and other
     tools.

Chipped Stone - Stone artifacts found are of two general types, chipped or
     ground.  Stone is chipped by three principal methods:  (1) percussion,
     where a hammerstone is used to rough out the artifact form; (2)
     indirect percussion, where a hammerstone is used in conjunction with an
     antler "drift", placed to remove a flake from the opposite side, used
     to further shape the artifact; (3) pressure flaking, used to remove
     fine flakes from the artifacts by applying a bone or antler "flaker" by
     hand precbure to a point opposite where a flake is to be removed.  This
     allows fine secondary chipping.

Cleat - A set of fractures or joints that cut across a coal seam, generally
     vertically or nearly so, in two directions nearly at right angles.

Coal Ages - Episodes in the geologic past that lasted for millions  of years,
     during which the commercial coal deposits of the world accumulated
     under very special conditions.  The two great coal ages occurred during
     the Pennsylvanian Period beginning about 325 million years ago and
     during the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods beginning about 135 million
     years ago.

Coal Balls - Rounded stony parcels of a few inches to several feet  across
     which occur in coal seams.  They are composed primarily of the
     carbonate minerals calcite and magnesite.

Coal Conversion - The developing technology of processing coal on a large
     scale to produce clean synthetic gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels and
     by-products.

Coal Measures - A group of coal seams.

Coal Refuse - Any waste coal, rock shale, slurry, culm, gob, boney, slate,
     clay, and related materials associated with or near a coal seam which
     are either brought above ground or removed from a mine in the  mining
     process, or which are separated from coal during the cleaning  or
     preparation operations.

Coal Series - The sequence of stages in the coal forming process through
     which coal proceeds as rank increases due to increasing changes.  The
     series is peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite, and graphite.

Coke - A high carbon material consisting of the fused ash and fixed carbon
     compounds produced by the incomplete combustion of bituminous  coal in
     the absence of oxygen.  Coke is primarily used in the steelmaking
     process as a reducing agent.
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Coke Oven - Combustion chambers in which coal is burned in the absence of
     air to make coke.

Completion of Mining - An operation where no mineral has been removed or
     overburden removed for a period of two consecutive months, unless the
     operator, within 30 days of receipt of the Director's notification
     declaring completion, submits sufficient evidence that the operation is
     in fact, not completed.

Compressions - Plant fossils in the form of thin carbon films compressed in
     the rocks, often preserving intricate details.

Conchoidal Fracture - Surface fractures in minerals or rocks which are cured
     and smoothed, exhibiting more or less concentric ridges.  Large pieces
     of glass or flint exhibit this type of fracture.

Conductance (Conductivity) - A common way to express general mineral content
     of water.  It is literally the specific electrical conductance  (or
     electrical conductivity); a measure of the capacity of water to conduct
     an electrical current under standard test conditions.  Conductivity
     increases as concentrations of dissolved and ionized constituents
     increase.  It is actually measured as resistance (in millionths of an
     ohm) but reported as micromhos (the reciprocal of millionths of an
     ohm).

Continuous Miners - Modern coal mining machines which use a wide variety of
     cutting-head configurations to mine coal rapidly and continuously
     without using explosives.

Contour Mining - One of two basic types of surface mining in which coal is
     mined around a hillslope following the outcrop or crop line.  The name
     is taken from contour plowing which is a technique for farming  sloping
     lands.

Controlled Placement - The method of surface mining by which the site is
     prepared and the overburden removed, manipulated and replaced by
     mechanical means in such a manner as to achieve and maintain
     stabilization in accordance with the approved pre-plan.

Cord-Marked - A surface treatment of pottery of eastern United t> "tes (and
     much of the Northern Hemisphere).  The result of impressing ..   damp
     pottery vessel with a cord-wrapped paddle before firing.

Cretaceous Period - The last period of the Mesozoic Era which began  135
     million years ago.  It marked the beginning of the second Coal Age
     which persisted on into the ensuing Tertiary Period.
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Criteria Pollutants - Six pollutants identified prior to the passage of  the
     Clean Air Act Amendments which now have established Ambient Air Quality
     Standards.

Crop Coal - The coal at the outcrop or along the crop line.

Crop Line - An imaginary line that marks the intersection of a coal seam
     with the surface.

Crosscuts - Short entries that connect the large parallel entries, thus
     isolating small blocks of coal.

Cross-Section - A graphic representation of a hypothetical vertical "cut"
     through some portion of the Earth's crust which shows the relationships
     of the rocks.

Culture - As this term is used by archaeologists and anthropologists it
     refers to a specific way of life, socially handed down, of a particular
     society of people, or to the entire social inheritance of mankind  as  a
     whole (human culture).  For the archaeologist, a culture is a recurrent
     assemblage of artifacts and other traits which is seen on several
     different archaeological sites, e.g., Fort Ancient Culture.  Usually  no
     ethnic or tribal association can be made with a culture since most  are
     prehistoric; and then, there may not be a one-to-one association with
     tribes.  For instance it is definitely known that to some extent the
     Delaware and Five Nation Iroquois shared a common culture and physical
     type, but they are different tribes, speaking different languages.

"Cut" - In surface mining, a "cut" is:  (1) a linear excavation removing the
     overburden along the length of the property to be mined; (2) a
     restricted, generally rectangular excavation as used in the box-cut
     method.

Cut Fill - Overburden or other material removed from an elevated portion of
     a road or bench deposited in a depression in order to maintain a
     desired grade.

Decibel - The unit of measurement of the intensity of sound.

Declining - Any species of animal which, although still occurring in
     numbers adequate for survival, has been greatly depleted and Continues
     to decline.  A management program, including protection or habitat
     manipulation, is needed to stop or reverse decline.
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"Damps" - A collective term for the various noxious, poisonous, flammable,
     explosive, and asphyxiant gases which occur naturally or as the result
     of fires and explosions in underground mines.

Deep Mining - Underground raining; the mining of coal rock, or minerals  from
     underground, as opposed to surface mining.

Depletion - The withdrawal of water from surface or ground water reservoirs
     at a rate greater than the rate of replenishment.

Design Storm - Predicted rainfall of given intensity,  frequency, and
     duration.

Developed - Development of a coal mine involves the establishment of a
     network ^f entries which eventually isolates panels of coal.  Once
     panels have been established development  is complete.

Devonian Period - The fourth period of the Paleozoic Era which began about
     400 million years ago.  It marked the flourishing of the fishes and  the
     appearance of the first forests.

Director and/or His Authorized Agent - The Director of the Department of
     Natural Resources, Deputy Directors, the  Chief of the Division of
     Reclamation, the Assistant Chiefs of the  Division of Reclamation,  and
     all duly authorized surface mining reclamation supervisors or
     inspectors and inspectors-in-training.

Discharge - The rate of flow of a spring, stream, canal, sewer, or conduit.

Discoidal - A puck-like stone artifact found on  Late Prehistoric sites,
     usually with concave sides, and sometimes having  a central perforation.
     It was probably used in the game of Chunky, played with sticks, where
     the object was to hit the discoidal (or chunky stone) into the opposite
     team's goal.

Disturbed Areas - Those lands which have been  affected by surface mining
     operations.

Diversion Ditch - A designed channel constructed for the purpose of
     collecting and transmitting surface runoff.

Downs lope - The land surface between the projected outcrop of the  .  .'est
     coal seam being mined and the valley floor.

Drag Lines - Large earth-moving machines with  a single movable  boom in the
     front.  They differ from power shovels in that the "bucket" is
     supported and controlled by large chains  rather than a rigid boom.
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Drainage Basin - The land area from which water drains  into  a river,  stream,
     or other watercourse or waterbody.

Drift Mine - One of the three types of underground mines.  Entries  are
     driven horizontally directly into the coal seam  from the outcrop.

Drill - Usually a chipped flint tool  for making perforations.  These  were
     probably mounted for use.  Bases are varied with straight based  drills
     (no expansion), expanded base drills and T-shaped  bases.  A  perforator
     is usually a much smaller tool,  and may have been  used  without further
     mounting.

Drill Bench - A bench constructed for the purpose of  settling up  and
     operating drilling equipment.  Also consists of  roads and other
     disturbed areas incidental to construction.

Driving - The process of tunneling through or mining  coal to produce
     entries, rooms, and crosscuts.

Dry Seals - One of  two types of mine  seals in which drainage is completely
     blocked off, as opposed to wet seals.

Dustfall Jar - An open mouthed container used to collect  large particles
     that fall out  of the air.  The particles are measured and analyzed.

Earthwork - A wall  of earth erected in geometrical  forms  especially by
     Woodland Indians.  The Adena Culture built circular  earthworks,  usually
     with an interior "moat" or depression.  Hopewellian  earthworks were
     more elaborate, with circles, squares, and octagons.  Earthworks
     usually are found in conjunction with mounds.  The purpose of  these was
     usually ceremonial, although a few examples may  be defensive.

Ecosystem - The interaction of living things with each  other and  their
     habitat, forming an integrated unit or system  in nature, sufficient
     unto itself with a balanced  assortment of  life forms.

Effluent - Any water flowing out  of an enclosure or source to a surface
     water or groundwater flow network.

Electrostatic Precipitator - Apparatus affixed  to the giant  smoke stacks of
     coal-fired power plants which takes advantage  of the natura1  static
     electric charge on fly ash particles to remove the fly  ash from  the
     stack gas and  to collect it.

Emission Factor - The average amount  of a pollutant emitted  from  each type
     of polluting source in relation  to a specific  amount of material
     processed.

Emission Inventory  - A list of air pollutants emitted into a community's
     atmosphere, in amounts (usually  tons) per  day, by  type  of source.  The
     emission inventory is basic  to the establishment of  emission
     standards.
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Emission Standard - The maximum  amount  of  a  pollutant  legally  permitted to
     be discharged from a single source, either mobile  or  stationary.

Endangered - Any species, subspecies  or sub-population  of  animal  which is
     threatened with extinction resulting  from very  low or declining
     numbers, alteration and/or  reduction  of habitat, detrimental
     environmental changes, or any combination of the above.   Continued
     survival in this state is unlikely without  implementation of special
     measures.

Enhanced Oil Recovery - A variety of  techniques  for  extracting additional
     quantities of oil from a well.

Entries - Tunnels in an underground coal mine, generally laid  out in some
     regular ^Ltern, which are constructed  (driven) during the course of
     mining.  They serve as haulageways, manways, and  air  courses for
     ventilation.

Ephemeral Stream - A stream which flows less than one month per year in
     direct response to precipitation.

Erodability Factor - The "k" factor in  soil  loss equations.  The  amount of
     soil which erodes from a standard  experimental  plot of bare  soil  under
     standard conditions of slope, rainfall, etc.  It varies with the
     physical characteristics of the  soil.

Estuaries - Areas where the fresh water meets salt water.   For example,
     bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons.  Estuaries  are
     delicate ecosystems; they serve  as nurseries, spawning, and  feeding
     grounds for a large group of marine life and provide  shelter and  food
     for birds and wildlife.

Eutrophication - Overfertilization of a water body due  to  increases  in
     mineral and organic nutrients, producing an abundance of  plant  life
     which uses up oxygen, sometimes  creating an environment hostile to
     higher forms of marine animal life.

Extirpated - The condition existing when any species of animal has
     disappeared, as a part or full time resident, from the State.   (This  is
     different from the word "extinct," which means  the total  l^ss  of  the
     species in the world).

Face - The wall across an entry, crosscut, room, or  an  entire  panel  (in the
     case of longwall mining), which  is the  scene of active raining.
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Fecal Coliform Bacteria - A group of organisms common to the  intestinal
     tracts of man and other mammals.  The presence of fecal  coliform
     bacteria in water is an indicator of pollution and of potentially
     dangerous bacterial contamination.

Final Working - Mining on the retreat; recovery of the last coal  in  a deep
     mine or panel by pulling pillars.

Fireclay - See Underclay.

Fixed Carbon - The stable carbon compounds in a given coal which  remain,
     with ash, upon combustion in the absence of oxygen and after volatile
     matter has been driven off (see Carbonization).

Flake Knife - A knife consisting of a primary flake either unmodified or
     with secondary chipping.  Well-made, parallel-sided prismatic flake
     knives are characteristic of Hopewellian Culture in the  Ohio Valley.

Flaking Tools - Usually made of bone or antler, and used for  removing fine
     chips from artifacts by hand, by applying pressure opposite  the point
     where a flake should be removed.

Flint - A fine-grained siliceous rock, used by archaeologists as  a
     subcategory of "chert."  However, it should be pointed out that
     geologists sometimes use the term to designate only the  dark-colored
     siliceous rocks.

Floodplain - The land area bordering a river which is subject to  flooding,
     typically once every 100 years.

Floodway - The riverbed and immediately adjacent lands needed to  convey high
     velocity flood discharges.

Floodway Fringe - Lands immediately adjacent to floodways which are  subject
     to flooding, but which are not needed for high velocity  flood discharge
     and are flooded less frequently and for shorter durations than
     floodways.

Floor - The rock (usually underclay) immediately beneath a coal seam which
     is revealed in the course of deep or surface mining.  It is  also called
     "bottom."

Flora - A collective term for the plant life of a given environment  in a
     given interval of time.

Flue-Gas Desulfurization - The use of a stack scrubber to reduce  emissions
     of sulfur oxides.
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Fluidized Bed - This results when gas  is blown upward  through  finely  crushed
     particles.  The gas separates the particles so that the mixture  behaves
     like a turbulent liquid.  This process  is being developed  for  coal
     burning for greater efficiency and environmental  control.

Fluted Projectile Point - A spear point type characteristic of  the
     Paleo-Indian period.  It is distinguished by the  presence  of long
     channel flakes or grooves (flutes) removed  from each  face  of the point.
     These are usually very well chipped, with the base and lower sides
     ground off to minimize cutting of the attaching cords.

Fly Ash - Small fused particles of coal ash  produced during combustion in
     coal-fired plants.  Fly ash would be expelled with the stack gas out
     the smoke stacks if it were not gathered by electrostatic
     precipitators.  It has become a valuable raw material  for  fired  brick,
     light-weight aggregate, and other uses.

Folsum Point - A specialized subtype of fluted point,  named after a site  in
     New Mexico.  These are shorter, broader, and have "flutes"  extending
     almost the entire length of the point.

"Fool's Gold" - See Pyrite.

Formation - The basic rock unit.  Groups are composed  of formations which,
     in turn, may contain members.

Fort Ancient - A Culture in the Middle Ohio Valley, taken  from the  name  of  a
     large site in Ohio.   The Culture  existed from A.D. 1000 to  1675;
     however, by an error in its naming, the type site is  more
     representative of earlier Hopewell Culture.

Fossil Fuels - Coal, oil, and natural  gas; so-called because they are
     derived from the remains of ancient plant and animal  life.

Geothermal - Pertaining to heat within the earth.

Genus - A taxonomic category that includes groups of closely related
     species; the principle subdivision of a family.

"Gob" - The collective name generally  applied to waste material,   -uch as
     "slate," parting material, rock,  and seme coal, which  is  pr.   ~ed  in
     the course of coal mining and preparation:  (1) the material  'ti  a
     coal-mine refuse pile; (2) the same materials underground  in a mine;
     (3) the collapsed overburden behind a longwall operation  or where
     pillars have been pulled in an underground  mine.

"Gob Piles" - See Coal Refuse.

Gorget (gor'-jet) - An ornament having two or more perforations.  These  are
     most frequently made of stone (commonly banded slate), but  some  are
     bone and shell.  Concave-sided and expended-center types  are typical in
     Adena; rectangular and pentagonal types are more  frequent  in Hopewell.
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Graphite - A very soft gray to black mineral composed of pure carbon.   It  is
     combined with clay to make the "lead" in pencils due to its  softness
     and "slipperiness."  It is also used as a dry lubricant and  is  the
     completely metamorphosed end-member of the coal series.

Graver - A small flint tool having an extremely sharp point formed by
     chipping and used for engraving.  They were characteristic of
     Paleo-Indian cultures.

Greenhouse Effect - The potential rise in global atmospheric temperatures
     due to an increasing concentration of C02 in the atmosphere.  C02
     absorbs some of the heat radiation.

Gross Energy Demand - The total amount of energy consumed by direct  burning
     and indirect burning utilities to generate electricity.  Net energy
     demand includes direct burning of fuels and the energy content  of
     consumed electricity.

Ground Stone Tools - The other method of working stones besides chipping  is
     by pecking, grinding, and polishing.  A rough form is pecked out with a
     hammerstone, then, by use of sandstone abraders or sand and water, the
     artifact is brought to final form by a slow-grinding and polishing
     process.

Groundwater - The supply of fresh water under the earth's surface in an
     aquifer.

Hammerstone - A relatively unmodified pebble showing pecking marks  from use
     as a hammer or percussion tool.  Pitted hammerstones have one or more
     shallow pits on one or more sides, probably to ease holding  the stone
     while using it.

Heading - An entry (see Entries).

Headwaters - The place where a river originates.

Hematite - A form of iron ore often found in sandstones of West Virginia.
     An amorphous form of this was much used by Indians for artifacts and  as
     a source of red pigment (ocher), since it is generally a blood-red
     color.  Adena people made celts, cones, and hemispheres of hematite.

Highwall - The man-made cliff produced in the course of surface mining  which
     remains after mining in some instances.

Hinge Line - An imaginary line separating the Northern and Southern
     Coalfields which marks a relatively coal-poor strip between  the two.
     Southeast of this line the coal measures thicken relatively  rapidly;
     toward the northwest they thin very gradually.
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Hoes - Tools made of shell or chipped  stone  for  either  cultivating  crops  or
     root-grubbing purposes.  Shell hoes are made by making  a  large
     perforation through  a freshwater  clam shell; chipped  stone hoes  are
     notched, and usually thin in cross-section, and will  show signs  of
     earth polish on the  bit end.  Such hoes, made  of  flint,  are  found  in
     central and southern West Virginia.

Hopewell - An important culture  in eastern United States which centered  in
     Illinois and Ohio, but influenced almost all of the Indian cultures  of
     the East.  It is known best by the elaborate richly endowed  burial
     mounds and earthworks.  The culture began by 500 B.C. in  Illinois,  but
     did not reach its peak until about A.D. 1 in Ohio.  Its  influences  were
     still being felt by A.D. 900.

Horsetails - See Scouring Rushes.

Hydrologic Balance - The  relationship  between the quality  and  quantity  of
     inflow storage and outflow  in a hydrologic  unit such  as  a drainage
     basin, aquifer, soil-zone,  lake,  or reservoir.  It encompasses the
     quality and quantity relationships between  precipitation, runoff,
     evaporation, and the change in ground and surface water  storage.

Ice Ages - Those intervals of the geologic past  during which  continental  ice
     sheets covered large areas  of the Earth's surface.

In-Migration - The movement of people  into a city or region.

In-Situ Processing - In-place processing of  fuel by combustion without
     mining.  Applies to  oil, shale, and coal.

Incising - The forming of a linear impression on pottery (while clay  is
     still damp; if done  after firing  it is referred to as "engraving"),
     shell, bone, and stone.  Incised  pottery is most  characteristic  of  Late
     Prehistoric Cultures, though some is found  earlier.

Inspection - A visual review of  prospecting, surface,  or other mining
     operations to ensure compliance with any applicable law,  rules,  and
     regulations under jurisdiction of the Director.

Intermittent Stream - A stream or portion of a stream  that flows
     continuously for at  least one month r   the  calendar year  as  o   ""suit of
     groundwater discharge or surface  runoff.

Interstreatn Use - Use of water which does not require withdrawal  or
     diversion from its natural  watercourse.  For example, the use  of water
     for navigation, waste disposal, recreation, and support  of fish  and
     wildlife.
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Lanceolate Projectile Point - "Lance-formed" point  type, having  no  stem or
     notch, with the maximum width about the middle of the point.   These are
     an early Archaic Point type, and may be descended from  the  fluted
     point.

Leachate - A liquid that has percolated through soil, rock,  or waste  and has
     extracted, dissolved, or suspended materials.

Lepidodendron - The largest trees, with Sigillaria, of the  first  Coal Age;
     giant cone-bearing plants of a primitive group, the lycopods  (not  true
     conifers); these trees reached as much as 100  feet  in height  and
     several feet through their bases; they bore spirally-arranged, grass-
     like  leaves on diamond-shaped leaf cushions which have  led  to  the  name
     "scale tree"; related to modern-day crows foot and  club moss.

Lightly Buffered Stream - Any stream or its tributaries  that contains  less
     than  15 ppm methyl orange alkalinity (to pH 4.5) and has a  conductivity
     of less than 50 micro M40.

Lignite - Brown coal which is the lowest-rank coal  in the coal series.   Only
     peat, which is not coal, is lower in rank.

Limited - Any species of animal occurring in limited numbers due  to a
     restricted or specialized habitat or at the perimeter of its historic
     range.

Lithified - Sediment which is consolidated into rock by  compaction  and
     cementation.

Loading - The progressive burial of sediment or rock, naturally,  by
     sediment, which results in compaction.  The pressures,  and  attendant
     heat  thus produced, under very deep burial become so great  that  the
     effects fall into the realm of metamorphism.

Log Tomb - A log crypt found in some burial mounds.  A burial was  surrounded
     by logs, sometimes a single tier, sometimes several, and roofed  over
     with  either logs or bark.  This is most characteristic  of the  Adena
     Culture in West Virginia.  In excavations, these usually appear  as
     outline casts of the logs, because usually the logs themselves have
     rotted away, and only an imprint of the bottom of the log remains.

Longwall - A type of underground coal mining in which the equipment is  set
     up along the end of a panel so that the mining machinery "shears"  coal
     continuously from the very long face with each pass as  it is  drawn back
     and forth.
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Low-Sulfur Field - See Southern Coalfield.

Luster - The appearance of a mineral or rock in reflected  light.  Luster
     ranges from dull, to vitreous (glassy), to brilliant.  Some minerals
     such as pyrite have a metallic luster.

Main Entries, "Mains" - The primary set of multiple entries in  a coal mine
     which are driven first.  Subordinate entries are driven  also from
     these.

Marcasite - See Pyrite.

Mast - Nuts, berries, and seeds accumulating on the forest  floor, often
     serving as food for animals.

Metallurgical-Grade - Bituminous coal of high purity  (especially low  sulfur
     and low phosphorus) which readily produces a strong coke upon
     carbonization.

Metamorphism - The process whereby rocks are progressively  and  variously
     altered, both chemically and physically, due to natural heat,
     pressure, and chemical solutions in the Earth's  crust.

Methane - Natural gas or "swamp gas" having the formula CH4.

Mica - A naturally occurring mineral which is found as books  of transparent
     leaves or plates; often called isinglass.  Used  for ornamental purposes
     by the Indians who cut various designs in mica.  Most was  probably
     secured from North Carolina.

Minable Reserve - The total tonnage of minable coal estimated from the best
     data available.  Minable includes coal down to a thickness of 28 inches
     with sufficient purity to be considered commercially valuable now or
     when the more valuable beds have been depleted.

Mine Props - Wooden posts that are used to support the roof in  underground
     mines.

Mine-Refuse Piles - See Coal Refuse.

Mine Seals - Concrete barriers constructed at the mouth of  abandoned  drift
     mines which prevent the formation of acid mine drainage by preventing
     access of air to the pyritic materials.

Mineral Face - The exposed vertical cross-section of  the natural coal seam
     or mineral deposit.

Mining on the Retreat - See Final Working.

Mississippian - The fifth period (system) of the Paleozoic Era which  began
     355 million years ago.  It essentially corresponds to the Early
     Carboniferous Period of Europe.
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Mississippian Pattern - This is opposed to the "Woodland Pattern,"  and  is
     characterized by intensive farming, settled village life, and  a number
     of specific artifact traits, temple mounds, and priest cults.  It  was
     born about A.D. 900 in the middle of the Mississippi Valley, hence the
     name, and spread over much of eastern United States by historic time.

Mixing Height - The vertical distance through which air pollutant emissions
     can be mixed and diluted.

Modified Box Cut - See Box Cut.

Monongahela Culture - One of many mixtures of the Mississippian and Woodland
     Patterns.  Found in western Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia
     between A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1675.

Mountaintop Removal - Surface mining operations that remove entire  coal
     seams running through the upper fraction of a mountain, ridge, or  hill
     be removing all of the overburden and creating a level plateau or
     gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining and where equal or
     more intensive land use is proposed.

Multiple Entries - Several (4 to 8) parallel entries, which are driven
     during development to serve as the main haulageways, access routes, and
     air courses for the mine.

National Ambient Air Quality Standards - According to the Clean Air Act of
     1970, the air quality level which must be met to protect the public
     health (primary standards) and welfare (secondary standards).

Natural Drainway - Any water course or channel which may carry water to the
     tributaries and rivers of the watershed.

New Source Performance Standards - Standards set for new facilities to
     ensure that ambient standards are met and to limit the amount  of a
     pollutant a stationary source may emit over a given time.  Clean Water
     Act NSPS also are referred to as New Source Effluent Limitation.

Nitric Oxide (NO) - A gas formed mostly from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen
     when combustion takes place under high temperature, as in internal
     combustion engines.  NO is not itself a pollutant; however, in the
     ambient air it converts to nitrogen dioxide, a major contributor to
     photochemical smog.

Nitrogen Dioxide (N02) - A compound produced by the oxidation of nitric
     oxide in the atmosphere which is a major contributor to photochemical
     smog.

Niche - A specific habitat delimited by a restricted range of ecological
     conditions.
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NOX - Nitrogen oxide, either nitrogen dioxide or nitrogen oxide,  also
     referred to as nitric oxides.

No Discharge Policy - The policy which prohibits discharge of  any harmful
     substance into a water body.  Strictly applied, the policy would  forbid
     discharges which are within the capacity of a water body  to  assimilate
     and render harmless.

Noncrystalline Pyrite - See Amorphous Pyrite.

Nonpoint Source - The diffuse discharge of waste into a water body which
     cannot be located as to specific source, as with sediment, certain
     agricultural chemicals, and mine drainage.

Northern Coalfield - The coalfield of northern West Virginia which lies
     northwest of the hinge line.  It contains 19 minable coal seams the
     most important of which is the great Pittsburgh coal.  These northern
     coals are higher in sulfur and ash and lower in heating value than
     their southern counterparts.

Oil Shale - A finely grained sedimentary rock that contains an organic
     material, kerogen, which can be extracted and converted to the
     equivalent of petroleum.

Operation - The permit area indicated on the approved map submitted by the
     operator, or an area where land is being disturbed or mineral is being
     removed.

Organic Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs in complex organic compounds  in coal.
     It is, with pyritic sulfur, the prime source of sulfur in coal.

"Orphaned" - Abandoned, unreclaimed strip-mined land.

Outer Spoil or Outer Slope - The disturbed area extending from the outer
     point of the bench to the extreme lower limit of the disturbed land.

Overburden - The rock and soil (collective) overlying a coal seam.

Overburden Wheels - Huge earth-moving machines used for area mining where
     the overburden is unconsolidated.  At the end of one boom is a large
     revolving wheel with several "buckets" which continually  scoop up the
     overburden, placing it on a continuous conveyor belt which carries it
     to a second boom for distribution it to the spoil bank.
                                   GL-19

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Paddle and Anvil Method - A pottery making technique used  over much  of  the
     New World.  A stone or "anvil" is held inside the  pot being built  up,  a
     coil of clay added to the vessel wall, and then a  paddle applied on the
     outside to flatten and fuse the coil to the preceding coil.   Invariably
     the paddle is roughened in some manner, by either  wrapping  it (with
     cords, fabric, roots, thongs) or carving it (grooves, cross grooves, or
     complicated designs).  The result is that most pottery of eastern
     United States has a surface texture of some nature, save when they go
     over the  finished pot and smooth the outside surface.  The  only other
     method of pottery making of any import in West Virginia is modeling,
     which is  rare.  The potter's wheel was never used  any place in  the New
     World.

Paleo-Indian - The first major culture in the New World, known mainly
     through "fluted points."  It dates back at least 10,000 years.

Palisade - See Stockade.

Panel Entries - Multiple entries driven between the "sub-mains," isolating
     huge panels of coal.

Panels - Huge  blocks of coal isolated by the "sub-mains" and panel entries
     as a coal mine is developed.  It is from these 2,000  x 600-foot panels
     that the most coal is recovered.

Particulates - Fine solid or liquid particles in the air or in an  emission.
     This can  include dust, smoke, fumes, mist, spray,  and fog.

Partings - Beds of rock or bone, sometimes called "binders," within  a coal
     seam that separate the various benches of coal.

Peak Runoff - The maximum flow at a specified location  resulting from a
     design storm.

Peat - A deposit of incompletely decomposed plant remains  which  accumulated
     under cover of stagnant water.

Peat Moss - Peat in a dried form used for mulch by gardeners.

Pendant - An ornament with one perforation, probably suspended from  the
     neck.  Usually made of stone, but some shell and bone example  are
     known.  These are most common in the Late Prehistoric, but  occur in
     other earlier cultues.

Pennsylvanian - The sixth period (system) of the Paleozoic Era which began
     325 million years ago.  It is also the first Coal  Age and corresponds
     to the Late Carboniferous Period of Europe.

Perennial Stream - A stream or portion of a stream that flows continuously;
     also known as a permanent stream.
                                   GL-20

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Period - A fundamental unit of geologic  time,  generally  having  a duration of
     tens of millions of years, and characterized by certain major  events in
     Earth history.  Eras  are composed of  periods of geologic  time  which, in
     turn, are composed of epochs.

Permian Period - The last  period of the Paleozoic Era which began 270
     million years ago.  It marked the end of  the first  Coal Age and the
     demise of many ancient plant and animal groups.

Pestle - A stone grinding  tool for pulverizing corn, seeds, nuts, or roots.
     Most in West Virginia are cylindrical in  shape, although  rare  bell-
     shaped ones having a  flared base may  occur.

Petrified - Literally "made into rock;"  plant  or  animal  parts  naturally
     preserved (fossilized) in shape, volume,  and minute  cellular detail  by
     mineralization (chemical implacement  of or replacement by  mineral
     matter).

Petrochemical Feedstocks - Petroleum used  as an industrial raw  material to
     manufacture goods such as chemicals,  rather  than as  an energy  source.

pH - A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a  material, liquid,  or  solid.
     pH is represented on  a scale of 0 to  14 with 7 representing a  neutral
     state, 0 representing the most acid,  and  14  the most alkaline.

Pick and Shovel - Primitive (unmechanized) mining practices which utilized
     muscle power and animals.

Pillaring - The process of pulling pillars during the final working.

Pillars - Large rectangular columns of coal which are left between  rooms
     during mining to support the roof and are pulled or  removed during the
     final working.

Plant Fossils - The remains or traces of Coal  Age plants  preserved  in  the
     rock.  These are most commonly thin carbon films (compressions) of
     fossil leaves found in the "slate"  roof rock.  Some  are exquisitely
     preserved; trunks, twigs, and seeds are also preserved, often  in
     sandstone.

Platform Pipe - A pipe form having a bowl  sitting upon a  flat  or t *rved
     broad base which extends beyond the bowl  in both directions.   rtiis form
     is characteristic of  the Hopewellian  Cultures  of the Ohio  Valley,  and
     infrequently is found with well-wrought animal effigies carved around
     the bowl.

Pleistocene - That epoch of the Quarternary Period  which  corresponds to the
     Ice Age, excluding the Recent Epoch of geologic time, or  that  time
     subsequent to the Ice Age.
                                   GL-21

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Point Source - In air pollution, a stationary source of a  large  individual
     emission, generally of an industrial nature.  Also, a specific  site
     from which wastewater is discharged into a water body and which can  be
     located as to source, as with effluent, treated or otherwise,  from a
     municipal sewage system, outflow from an industrial plant,  or  runoff
     from an animal feedlot.

Portals - Surface facilities for access to the main shafts of large,
     well-established underground mines.

Post-Mold (hole) - The spot left in the ground where a post has  once  been
     set, and then rotted away.  The organic content discolors the  soil in
     the post-mold area, and this can be discerned by careful, examination,
     thus providing house outlines, stockade lines, etc.

Pottery Sherd (Potsherd) - Any fragment of a pottery vessel; shard  is more
     commonly used in European archaeology.  Through the analysis of  pottery
     sherds, archaeologists can learn much about prehistoric ceramic
     cultures by means of the different styles of temper,  form,  and
     decoration.

Power Shovels - Small to enormous earth-moving machines with two movable
     booms, one with a "bucket" at its end.  They may weigh thousands of
     tons and be capable of moving hundreds of tons of overburden at  a
     single giant "bite."

Pre-Inspection - A preliminary survey and a field review by the  Director  or
     his authorized agent of a pre-plan, and the proposed  area to be
     disturbed.

Pre-Plan - The total application submitted to the Director including the
     application form, mining and reclamation plan, drainage plan, blasting
     plan, planting plan, maps, drawings, data, cross sections,  bonds and
     other information as required.

Preparation Plants - Plants that crush, size, clean, and blend raw  coal to
     produce a product of desired purity, depending upon the market
     specification.  These plants also dispose of the "gob" and  load  the
     coal for transportation.

Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) - Pollution  standards  that
     have been set to protect air quality in regions that  are already
     cleaner than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

Prime Farmlands - Land defined by USDA-SCS based on soil quality, growing
     season, and moisture supply needed to produce sustained high crop
     yields using modern farm methods.
                                   GL-22

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Primitive Areas - Scenic  and Wild  areas  in  the National  Forests  that  were
     set aside and preserved from  timber  cutting, mineral  operations,  etc.
     from 1930-39 by Act  of Congress.  These  areas  can be  added  to the
     National Wilderness  Preservation  System  established in  1964.

Producer Gas Water Gas  (Blue Gas)  - Low  Btu gases produced by  the  reaction
     of steam with coal or coke which  are used as supplemental fuels  by
     industry and in the  coal  by-product  industry.

Projectile Point - Any  tip end of  a missile which is  buried.  Most
     frequently these are made of  a rock  such as  flint,  but  some bone  and
     antler points are  known,  and  even bamboo slivers have been used.
     Archaeologists frequently refrain from calling a point  either an arrow
     or spear point, since it  is difficult  to determine  type.  Larger  forms
     are probably spear heads  and  smaller ones arrowheads, but this  is not
     always a reliable  criterion.  The bow  and arrow  probably was  introduced
     into West Virginia in Middle  or Early  Woodland times; prior to  that
     time, the spear and  spear thrower were the principal  weapons.

Prospecting - The use of  excavating equipment in  an area not covered  by  a
     surface mining permit for the purpose  of removing the overburden  to
     determine the location, quantity, or quality of  a natural coal  deposit
     or to make feasibility studies, or  for any other purpose.

Pulling - Gradual and systematic mining  of  the pillars during  final working
     which recovers the last minable coal and allows  the roof  to collapse
     into the mined-out area.

Punching Machines - Now outdated mining machinery which  used a mechanically
     operated pick to undercut coal so it could be  "shot down."

Pyrite - Strictly, a brassy-appearing, iron-sulfide mineral, sometimes
     called "fool's gold."  In coal terminology it  also  includes the
     iron-sulfide mineral, marcasite,  which is greenish-gray in color. Both
     minerals have the  composition FeS2.

Pyritic Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs in the  iron-sulfide  minerals,  pyrite  and
     marcasite, in coal.  It occurs with  organic  sulfur, the prime source of
     sulfur in coal.

Quaternary - The last and current  period  of geologic  time  which began  about
     a million years ago.  It  is essentially  a synonym for the Ice Age,
     which marked the appearance of man.

Rank - An expression of the degree of  metamorphism  of coal.  For West
     Virginia coal, rank  is essentially  an  expression of relative  proportion
     of fixed carbon.  Rank increases  during  metamorphism  as volatile  matter
     naturally is driven  off in the coal-forming  process.  Hence,  higher
     rank reflects greater metamorphism.
                                   GL-23

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Recharge Capacity - The ability of the soils and the underlying meterials  to
     allow precipitation to infiltrate and reach saturation zone.

Reclamation - The procedure of restoring surface-mined  land more  or  less  to
     the original contour and establishing some sort of vegetative cover  on
     the recontoured land.

Recoverable Reserve - The best estimate of the total tonnage of the  minable
     reserve that will ultimately be recovered, generally in the  range  of
     60% of the minable reserve.  The remaining approximately 40% goes
     unrecovered because of limitations in mining technology, geologic
     conditions, subsidence, drilling of oil and gas wells, and other
     factors.

"Red Dog" - The red to pinkish material (clinker) that  results  from  the
     burning of coal-mine refuse piles.

Reducing Agent - The reverse of an oxidizing agent.  Coke serves  to
     chemically reduce iron ore (various oxides of iron), liberating the
     metallic iron from oxygen in the ironmaking process.

Reference Area - Land units of varying size for the purpose of measuring
     groundcover, productivity, and species diversity.

Reserves - Resources of known location, quantity, and quality which  are
     economically recoverable using available technology.

Resin Bolt - A relatively recent improvement of the conventional  roof bolt.
     Instead of relying upon physical anchoring of the  bolt, synthetic  resin
     is injected into the bolt hole, and upon hardening it anchors the  bolt
     securely and bonds the roof rock, thus strengthening it.

Rib - The wall of a room, entry, or crosscut.

Rock Dusting - The practice of "dusting" finely ground  limestone  powder onto
     the exposed coal (primarily the rib) in underground coal mines  to  allay
     the danger of explosion.  The rock dust adheres to the coal, and  in  the
     case of some "shock" stirring up coal dust in the mine, a  like  amount
     of rock dust also is stirred up, thus rendering the dust-air mixture
     nonexplosive.

Rock Unit - Geologic units which, because of their unique rock  type,
     mineralogy, or fossil content are traceable or mappable over some
     distance, and are readily distinguishable from units above or below.

Roof - Also called "top."  It is the rock immediately above a coal seam
     which is revealed in the course of deep mining and, hence, forms  the
     ceiling of rooms, entries, or crosscuts.
                                   GL-24

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Roof Bolting - The technique of supporting the roof  in  an underground mine
     by drilling holes into the roof and then inserting long steel bolts up
     to several feet in length.

Room and Pillar - The traditional method of deep mining for coal  in  the US
     in which rooms are mined from the coal, leaving pillars to support the
     roof.  The pillars are removed in the final working.

Rooms - In the room and pillar method of mining, these  are the large,
     parallel, rectangular areas, separated by pillars, from which coal in
     the panels has been mined.

Runoff - Streamflow unaffected by artificial diversions, storage, or other
     works of man in or on the stream channels, or in the drainage basin or
     watershed.

Scraper - Any tool used for scraping purposes.  These were usually made of
     chipped flint.  All cultures have use for scraping tools, but some
     specialized types are restricted to certain cultures, with the  end
     scraper characteristic of Paleo-Indian, Armstrong, and Fort Ancient
     Cultures.

Seam - A bed of coal or other valuable mineral of any thickness.

Secondary Burial - Burial of human remains after the flesh has decayed.
     This may be a bundle burial, where most of the  bones are gathered up
     and deposited in a pit or mound; scattered bone fragments in mound
     fill; or an urn burial, where the bones are placed in a pottery
     vessel.  Historically, on the Plains and among  the Huron, this  was
     practiced by first exposing the body in a tree, then gathering  up the
     clean bones and depositing them in an ossuary.  Among the Choctaw, a
     special bone picking caste existed who cleaned  the bones of  the dead.

Sediment - Unconsolidated natural earth materials deposited chemically or
     physically by water, wind, ice, or organisms.

Sediment Control Structure - A barrier, dam, ditch,  excavation, or other
     structure placed in a suitable location to form a  silt or sediment
     basin.

Sedimentary Rock - A rock formed by the gradual accumulation of sediment,
     usually in successive layers or beds, over a long  period of  time.

Seed Ferns - Small to very large fernlike plants, some  of which were trees
     of the first Coal Age that bore naked seeds.  Also called gymnosperms.

Scouring Rushes (Horsetails) - Small modern rushes of the genus Equisetum,
     which are descendants of the once mighty sphernopsid group of the first
     Coal Age.
                                   GL-25

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Shaft Mine - One of the three types of underground mines  constructed
     vertically down to the coal seam, where the coal is  deeply buried.

Shaman - A religious-medical practitioner found in many cultures  and best
     seen in and named from Siberian tribal groups.  In the eastern United
     States the shaman was one of the leading figures of  any society until
     the rise of the Mississippian Pattern.  Their power  usually was derived
     from visions which bestowed upon them special gifts, but sometimes  they
     could inherit their power.  Probably most burial mounds were erected
     originally as monuments to a shaman.

"Shoot Down" - The use of explosives to fragment and dislodge coal from  a
     face that has been undercut.

Shot Holes - Holes drilled in rock or coal, in either deep or surface
     mines, for the purpose of "loading" and "blasting" with explosives.

Sigillaria - The largest trees, with Lepidodendron, of the first Coal Age.
     These differed from Lepidodendron basically in the configuration and
     arrangement of the leaf cushions in more or less vertical rows.

Siltation - The deposit of sediment to surface waters due to erosion, as a
     result of the activities of man.

Siltation Ponds - Ponds that are constructed to intercept silt-laden runoff
     to prevent siltation of natural surface waters.

Site-Specific - Phenomena which occur under certain conditions at a
     particular site but which would not necessarily occur at another site.

Sizable Quantity of Water - Accumulation of storm or any  other water in
     excess of 5,000 cubic feet not provided for in the pre-plan.

"Slate" - A misnomer for the gray to black siltstone or sTiale (sedimentary
     rock) of the Coal Measures.  The term mostly applies to the roof rock
     of a coal seam, also called "draw slate" or "draw rock."  It only
     resembles the true slate used for roofing, which is  a metamorphic
     rock.

"Slate Dumps" - See Coal Refuse.

Slope Mine - One of the three types of underground mines.  An incl red shaft
     is constructed down to the coal seam, when the coal  is of moderate
     depth.

Slurry Pipeline - A pipeline that conveys a mixture of liquids and solids.
     The primary application proposed is to move coal lon^ distances (over
     300 miles) in a water mixture.
                                   GL-26

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Soapstone - A soft and carvable rock composed  largely of  talc  plus
     impurities.  It was used by Late Archaic  peoples to  make  stqne vessels,
     and by others for pipes and ornaments.  It  is  found  in various spots  in
     the Piedmont of eastern United States.  Steatite is  a special variety
     of soapstone.

Solution Mining - The extraction of soluble minerals  from subsurface  strata
     by injection of fluids, and the controlled  removal of mineral-laden
     solutions.

Southern Coalfield - The coalfield of southern West Virginia which lies
     southeast of the hinge line.  It is also  called  the  Low-Sulfur
     Coalfield.   It contains 43 minable coal seams.   Southern  coals are
     metallurgical-grade coals, low in sulfur  and ash and high in heating
     value.

Spoil Pile Spoil Bank - The accumulations of excavated overburden in  an
     active or "orphaned" strip mine.

Spores - Tiny, single-celled reproductive bodies, similar to pollen grains,
     by means of which most coal swamp plants  of the  first Coal Age
     reproduced.

Stable Air - An air mass that remains in the same position rather than
     moving in its normal horizontal and vertical directions.  Stable air
     does not dispense pollutants and can lead to air pollution.

Stack - A smokestack.

Stack Gas - The mixture of gases expelled by the giant smokestacks of our
     power plants.

Stack Scrubber - An air pollution control device that usually  uses a  liquid
     spray to remove pollutants such as sulfur dioxide or particulates  from
     a gas stream by absorption or chemical reaction.  They are also  used  to
     reduce the temperatures of emissions.

Stationary Source - A pollution emitter that is  fixed rather than moving.

Steam Coal - Coal suitable for combustion in boilers.  It is generally  soft
     enough for easy grounding and less expensive than metallurgical  coal  or
     anthracite.

Steatite - See Soapstone.
                                   GL-27

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Stockade - A high fence or palisade surrounding a fort or village.
     Stockades were constructed by placing vertical poles in the ground
     either side by side or some distance apart, and then filling  the  spaces
     with brush, wickerwork, or "wattle and daub."  Most Late Prehistoric
     sites are stockaded villages, indicating much warfare.

Stormwater - Any water flowing over or through the surface of the  ground
     caused by precipitation; generally surface runoff.

Strip Bench or "Bench" - The floor of an active contour mine; also the
     man-made terrace left after reclamation of some contour-mining  jobs.

Strip Mining - Almost exclusively refers to the surface mining of  coal.  Two
     basic methods are area mining and contour mining.

Strip Pit - The excavation between the high-wall and spoil bank of an  active
     or "orphaned" strip mine.

Stripping Ratio - The amount of overburden removed for every ton of  ore
     obtained.

Subbituminous - The lowest rank category of bituminous coal which  is  just
     above lignite in rank.

"Sub-Mains" - Multiple entries driven, generally at right angles,  from the
     "mains."

Subsidence - The gradual or abrupt collapse of the overburden over a coal
     mine (active or abandoned) which affects the surface.

Sulfate Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs as calcium sulfate (CaSO^) in  coal and
     is a minor source of sulfur.

Sulfur - Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms:  pyritic and organic  sulfur
     which are by far the dominant sulfur forms, and sulfate sulfur, which
     is relatively unimportant.

"Sulfur Balls" - Small to sometimes very large spheroi-i-1, elliptical, or
     irregular masses, or beds, of pyrite in coal.

Sulfur Dioxide - A poisonous gas having the composition S02.  It .is
     produced as an air pollutant when coal containing sulfur is burned.

Surface Effect of Underground Mining Operation - Surface mining operations
     where lands are disturbed including but not limited to roads, drainage
     systems, mine entry excavation, above ground work areas such  as
     tipples, coal processing facilities, and other operating facilities;
     also, waste work and spoil disposal areas and mine waste; impoundments
     or embankments which are incident to mine openings or reopenings.
                                   GL-28

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Surface Mining - The mining of coal, rock, or minerals  from  surface
     excavations.

Sustained Yield - In the case of groundwater aquifers,  the quantity  of water
     which can be withdrawn annually without, over a  period  of years,
     depleting the available supply.

Swamp Forests - The vast swamps of the Coal Ages  that were flooded forests
     rather than marshes or boggy areas.

"Swamp Gas" - See Methane.

Swing Fuel - A fuel that plays a key role during  the  transition  from
     exhaustible to inexhaustible fuels.  Coal is viewed by  many  as  the
   .  swing fuel during the transition.

System - The rocks (collective) laid down and preserved during a  period  of
     geologic time.

Tempering - A grog or binder used in pottery clay to  minimize cracking as
     the result of expansion when the pot is fired.   Various crushed
     materials are used for temper.  In West Virginia,  crushed granitic
     rock, limestone, flint, other rock, clay particles, and shell are
     found.  Elsewhere, hair, bone, and grass also have been used.

Temple Mound - A mound of earth in the eastern United States erected to
     serve as the base for a temple of the house  of an  important  person  in
     the society.  These were frequently added to, and  were  built up by
     layers, with a new building erected with each new  addition.  The idea
     probably stems from the stone pyramids of Middle America, as these  also
     were used as the bases for temples.

Tertiary Period - The first of two Cenozoic Periods that began 66 million
     years ago.  It included the latter part of the second Coal Age  and  saw
     the establishment of essentially all modern  plant  and animal groups.

Threatened Species - Any species or subspecies of wildlife which  is  not  in
     immediate jeopardy of extinction, but is vulnerable because  it  exists
     in such small numbers or is so extremely restricted throughout  all  or  a
     significant portion of its range that it may become endangered.

Timbering - Setting of mine props to support the  roof over entries and
     elsewhere in the mine.  Now they are largely replaced by roof bolting.

Ton Mile - Movement of 1 ton of material for a distance of 1 mile.

Toxic Forming Materials - Earth materials or wastes.  When acted  upon by
     air, water weathering; or microbiological processes,  they are likely to
     produce chemical or physical conditions in soils,  air,  or water that
     are detrimental to the environment.
                                   GL-29

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Toxic Mine Drainage - Water that  is discharged  from  active,  abandoned,  and
     other areas affected by surface mining operations which contains  a
     substance which, through chemical  action or  physical  effects,,  is  likely
     to kill, injure, or impair biota commonly  present in  the  area  that
     might be exposed to it.

Transportation Sector - Includes  five subsectors:  1)  automobiles;
     2) service trucks; 3) truck/bus/rail  freight; 4)  air  transport; and
     5) ship/barge/pipeline.

Tree Ferns - Huge ferns common in the first Coal  Age with  trunks  perhaps  10
     to 20 feet high bearing huge fronds (leaves) as long  or longer than  the
      trunks.

Tubular Pipe - An artifact type characteristic  of Adena, usually  made  of
     Ohio pipestone (fire clay) and consisting  of a  straight tube,  bored  out
     except  for a "blocked end" which has  only  a  small perforation. These
     may or may not be tobacco pipes, because they also might  be  tools  in
     the Shaman's kit.

Underclay Fireclay - The bed of clay that  underlies  most coal  seams which
     served  as the soil for the earliest plants of each coal swamp. It is
     called  fireclay because the material  is sometimes pure  enough  to  be
     "fired" to make brick, tile, or other ceramic products,.

Undercut - The technique of undercutting a coal seam at its  base  so that  it
     can be  "cut" down by hand or "shot down" using  explosives.

Unit Train - A system for delivering coal  in which a string  of cars with
     distinctive markings and loaded to capacity  is  operated without service
     frills  or stops along the way  for  cars to  be cut  in and out.

Valley or Head-of-HoHow Fills - A  controlled earth  and rock fill across  or
     through the head of a valley or hollow to  form  a  stable,  permanent
     storage space for excess surface mine overburden.

Ventilated - A mine is continually  flushed with fresh  air  to carry  away
     poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and coal dust, and  to supply
     fresh air for breathing.  This is  accomplished  by means of  powerful
     fans which draw mine air out of the mines  and draw fresh  air into  and
     through the entire mine.

Volatile Matter - The compounds in  a given coal that can be  driven  off  by
     combustion in the absence of oxygen (see Carbonization).  These come
     off as  tars, oils, and gases.

Volatiles -  Gases such as methane,  hydrogen, and  ammonia given off  in  the
     coal-forming process as the mass is progressively altered chemically
     and physically.  It is also  a  collective term for the gases, tars, and
     oils given off in the coke-making  or  carbonization process.
                                   GL-30

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WAPORA - WAPORA, Inc., the environmental consulting  firm hired by EPA Region
     III to assist in the preparation of the SID and EA/FONSI.

Water Gas - See Producer Gas.

Watershed - A geographic area which drains  into a particular water body  (see
     Drainage Basin).

Water Table - The upper level of an underground water body.

Wattle and Daub - A type of house construction found over much of the world
     in warmer climates.  Vertical poles were inserted  into the  ground,  mats
     hung over these poles, and then mud daubbed over the mats and allowed
     to dry in the sun.  Usually a thatched roof is  used with this house
     type.  In eastern United States, wattle and daub houses became  popular
     in the southeastern States in Late Prehistoric  times; they  made an
     appearance in West Virginia in the Fort Ancient Culture.  Archaeologic-
     al evidence for such houses usually is in the  form of post-mold
     patterns, fire-hardened mud daub, with mat impressions, and rare finds
     of burnt thatch.

Western Coal - Can refer to all coal reserves west  of the Mississippi.   By
     US Bureau of Mines definition it includes only  those coalfields west of
     a straight line dissecting Minnesota and running to the western tip of
     Texas.  Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota have the largest reserves.

Wet Seals - One of two types of mine seals  in which  a drainpipe  permits
     restricted flow of water from a sealed mine.

Woodland Pattern - A generalized cultural pattern applied to those cultures
     occupying the Woodlands of eastern United States and being  semi-
     sedentary, and semi- or non-agricultural.  This is opposed  to the
     Mississippian Pattern which is agricultural and sedentary.  All of  the
     Cultures in West Virginia, save Fort Ancient,  Monongahela,  and Paleo-
     Indian can be considered Woodland Cultues.

"Yellow Boy" - The red, yellow, or orange coating on stream beds where acid
     mine drainage flows or has flowed.  It consists primarily of iron
     oxides and hydroxides.
                                   GL-31

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METRIC CONVERSIONS


Sym


mm
m
cm

in
yd
mi

g
kg
t
oz
Ib
sh tn


ml
1
oz
qt

N
Ib

kPa
psi

METRIC CONVERSION TABLE

When you know: You can find:


millimeters
meters
kilometers

inches
yards
miles3

grams
kilograms
tons"
ounces
pounds
short tonsc


mill iliters
liters (1 dm3
ounces"
quarts

newton
pound

kilopascal
pound/in

Length

inches
yards
miles

millimeters
meters
kilometers
Mass
ounces
pounds
short tons0
grams
kilograms
tons°
Liquid Measure

ounces
quarts
milliliters
liters
Force
pound
newton
Pressure or Stress
pound/in
kilopascal

If you
Sym multiply by:
i

in
yd
mi

iran
m
km

oz
Ib
sh tn
g
kg
t


oz
qt
ml
1

Ib
N

psi
kPa



0.039 370
1.093 6
0.621 39

25.400
0.914 40
1.609 3

0.035 273
2.204 6
1.102 3
28.350
0.453 59
0.907 18


0.033 813
1.056 7
29.574
0.946 35

0.224 81
4.448 2

0.145 04
6.894 8

a'JS Statute b!000 kg C2000 Ib dUS
METRIC PREFIXES
Fac-
tor
1012
9
10

106
3
10
*\
102
101
ID'1

10~Z
ID'3
f.
10 6
io-9
-12
10 ^
10

10~18

Prefix
tera

gi'ga

mega

kilo

hecto
deka
deci

centi
milli

micro
nano

pico
femto

atto

Syra
T

G

M

k

h
da
d

c
m


n

P
f

a
Examples :

1 km = IO3 m
= 1000 m
1 mn\ = 10 m
= 0 001 m

Temperature
Celsius - "C °C = 5/9 (T-32)
kelvin - K K = °C + 273.15
Fahrenheit - °F °F = 9/5 (°C) + 32
Water Body Water
freezes temp boils
°C -40 -20 0 20 37 60 80 100
' 1
1 1 'I
°F -40 0 32 80 98.6 180 212
         GL-32

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                            MASTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aaronson, T.  1970.  Problems underfoot:  Environmental effects of
     underground mining and of mineral processing.  Environment 12
     (November); 16-29.

Ackenheil & Associates Geo Systems, Inc.  1973.  Evaluation of pollution
     abatement techniques applicable to Lost Creek and Brown's Creek
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Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and E. Eisentrout.  1971.  Reclamation of acidic
     coal-mine spoil with fly ash.  Report of Investigations 7504.  USBM,
     Washington DC, 29p.

Adams, Lowell W. and Aelred D. Geis.  1978.   Effects of highways on wildlife
     populations and habitats.  Phase 1:  Selection and evaluation of
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Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and D.W. Gillmore.  1972.  Coal mine spoil and
     refuse bank reclamation with powerplant fly ash.  Compost
     Science 13(6):20-26.

Addair, John.  1974.  The fishes of the Kanawha River system in West
     Virginia and some factors which influence their distribution.  Ph.D.
     dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus OH, 224p.

Adkins, Howard G., Steve Ewing, and Chester E. Zimolzak, eds.  1977.  West
     Virginia and Appalachia:  Selected readings.  Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co.,
     Dubuque IA, 199p.

Adkins, James R., N. Islam, and M. S. Baloch.  1976.  Comprehensive survey
     of the New River Basin.   Vol. I:  Inventory.  WVDNR-Water Resources,
     Charleston WV, 207p.

Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations.  1977.  State
     limitations on local taxes and expenditures.  Doc.  No. A-64.
     Washington DC, 63p.

Aguar, Charles E.  1971.  Mining and reclamation as related to State,
     regional and national land use plans, goals and requirements.
     Rehabilitating drastically disturbed surface mined lands symposium
     proceedings.  Georgia Surface Mined Land Use Board, Macon GA, 11-14.

Aharrah, Ernest C.  1971.   Growth of pinus resinosa (red pine) on strip-mine
     spoils in relation to mineral analysis of soil and foilage.  Ph.D.
     dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.  University Microfilms
     International, Ann Arbor MI, lOOp.
                                   BB-1

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Aharrah, Ernest C., and R. T. Hartman   1973.  survival and growth of red
     pine on coal spoil and undisturbed soil in western Pennsylvania.  In:
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Ahmad, M. U.  1970.  A hydrological approach to control acid mine pollution
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Ahmad, Moid (editor).  1971.  Acid mine drainage workshop.  Proceedings of a
     workshop, 2-6 August 1971.  Ohio University, Athens OH, 167p.

Ahmad, Moid U.  1974.  Coal mining and its effect on water quality.  In
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     Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor MI, 49-56.

Ahnell, Gerald.  1977.  The effect of Pittsburgh coal mining on ground-water
     levels in Monongalia County, West Virginia.  Masters thesis, West
     Virginia University, Morgantown WV.

Ahnell, Gerald and Henry W. Rauch.  1978.   The effect of underground coal
     mining on water wells in Monongalia County, West Virginia.  Abstract.
     Ground Water 16 (5):358.

Akamatsu, Muriel C. L., ed.  1977.  Research needs related to acid mine
     water.  Proceedings of workshop, 10-12 November 1976.  West Virginia
     University, Water Research Institute, Morgantown WV, 118p.

Akers, David J.  1978.  Leaching rates of coal associated metals.  Tech.
     Report 157.  West Virginia University, Coal Research Bureau,
     Morgantown WV, 5p.

Akers, Davis J. , Jr., Jerry L. Coalgate, and Richard B. Muter.  1974.  Gob
     pile stabilization and reclamation.  Report No. 96.  West Virginia
     University, Coal Research Bureau, Morgantown WV, 21p.

Akers, David J., Barry G. McMillan, and Joseph W. Leonard.  1978.  Coal
     minerals bibliography.  NTIS FE-2692-5.  West Virginia University, Coal
     Research Bureau, Morgantown WV, 222p.

Akintola, Jacob 0.  1973.  Analysis of rural landuse in the Monongahela
     River Basin.  West Virginia University, Masters thesis, Morgantown WV,
     186p.

Akintola, Jacob, Dale Colyer, and Wayne Weber.  1975.  Rural land use in the
     Monongahela River Basin.  Bulletin 641.  West Virginia University,
     Agricultural Experimental Station, Morgantown WV, 39p.

Albers, William E.  1978.  ARC seminars preview coal problems.
     Appalachia 12(1): 9-18.
                                   BB-2

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Albrecht, Jean and Diane Smith.   1976.  Reclamation  and  revegetation  of
     strip mined land:  A selected bibliography  of publications in  the
     University of Minnesota Forestry Library.   NTIS PB-268  478.  University
     of Minnesota, St. .Paul MM, 21p.

Alderman, John K., and William M. Smith.   1977a.  Acid mine  drainage:  The
     problem and the  solution.  Coal Mining and  Processing 14(18):  66-68,
     87-88.

Alderman, John K., and William M. Smith.   1977b.  A  political history of
     acid mine drainage in West Virginia.  Report No. 139.   West Virginia
     University, Coal Research Bureau, Morgantown WV, lOp.

Aleem, M. I. H.  1974.  Metabolic capabilities of sulfur oxidizing  bacteria
     and their role in water pollution.  Kentucky Water Resources Institute,
     Lexington, Kentucky, 137p.   Prepared  for the Office of  Water Research
     and Technology, Washington DC.

Allaire, Pierre N.  1978.  Reclaimed surface mines:  New potential for some
     North American birds.  American Birds 32(1):3-5.

Allaire, Pierre N.  1979a.  The avifauna of reclaimed surface mined lands:
     Its composition and role in  land use  planning.  Ph.D. dissertation,
     University of Louisville, Louisville KY, 223p.

Allaire, Pierre N.   1979b.  Coal mining reclamation  in Appalachia:  Low cost
     recommendations  to improve bird/wildlife habitat.  In:  Swanson, Gustav
     A., tech. coord.  The mitigation symposium:  A  national workshop on
     mitigating losses of fish and wildlife habitats, 16-20  July 1979.  Gen.
     Tech.  Rept.  RM-65.  USFS, Rocky Mountain Forest & Range Experiment
     Station, Ft. Collins CO, 245-251.

Allaire, Pierre N.   In press.  Noteworthy  species (including Franklin' s
     gull)  in Bell County.  The Kentucky Warbler, 5p.

Allen, Durward L.  1978.  The enjoyment of wildlife.  In:  Brokaw,  Howard
     P., ed.  Wildlife and America.  CEQ, Washington DC, 28-41.

Allen, Ethel D.  1951.  Key to the order of common free-living protozoa
     found  in Kanawha Valley, West Virginia.  In:  Proceedings of the WV
     Academy of Science, 210-212.

Allen, Natie, Jr.  1973.  Experimental multiple  seam mining  and reclamation
     on steep mountain slopes.  In:  Resource and Applied Technical
     Symposium on Mined-Land Reclamation Proceedings, Bituminous Coal
     Resources, Inc.  Monroeville PA, 98-104.

Allen, R. H., Jr. and W. R.  Curtis.  1975.   A photographic technique for
     monitoring erosion on strip mined lands.   Photographic Applications in
     Science, Technology, and Medicine 10(4):29-31.
                                   BB-3

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Allen  Rufus H., Jr. and D. A. Marquis   1970.  Effect of thinning on height
     and diameter growth of oak and yellow-poplar saplings.  USDA Forest
     Service Resource Paper NE-173.  NE.  Forest Exp. Sta., Upper Darby PA,
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Allen, Rufus H. and William T. Plass.  Influence of fertilizer on shrub
     lespedezoon acid spoils.   Tree Planters' Notes 26(4);12-13.

Allen, Thomas J. and Jack I. Cromer.  1977.  Whitetailed deer in West
     Virginia.  Bulletin No. 7.  WVDNR- Wildlife Resources, Charleston WV,
     66p.

Allen, Thomas J., Thomas Dotson, Joseph Rieffenberger, and James Pack.
     1978.  West Virginia big game bulletin.  WVDNR-Wildlife Resources,
     Elkins WV, 37p.

Allton, David.  1979.  Valuing outdoor recreation benefits: An annotated
     bibliography.   Vance Bibliographies, Konticello 1L, 39p.

Ambionics, Inc.  1974.   Remote sensing of coal mine pollution in the Upper
     Potomac River Basin.  Washington DC, 70p.

American Automobile Association.  1979.   Tour book:  Mid-Atlantic.  Falls
     Church VA, 224p.

American Electric Power Service Corp.  1979.  Comments to proposed EPA water
     quality standards for Ohio River.  Canton OH, 56p.

American Public Works Association.  1973.  Rail transport of solid wastes.
     Chicago IL, 153p.

American Ornithologists' Union.  1957.  Checklist of North American birds,
     5th ed.  Ithaca NY, 691p.

American Ornithologists' Union.  1973.  Thirty-second supplement to the
     checklist of North American birds.   The Auk 90:411-419.

American Ornithologists' Union.  1976.  Thirty-third supplement to the
     checklist of North American birds.   The Auk 92:875-879.

Amick, D.P. and W.W. Beverage.  1974.  Interim soil survey, Randolph County,
     Volume I and Volume II.  USDA-SCS,  Elkins WV.

Ammons, John T.  1973.   Interactions of some chemical properties due to
     liming acid surface mine soils.  Unpublished Masters Thesis, West
     Virginia University, Morgantown WV, 61p.

Ammons, Nellie P.  1937.  A manual of the liverworts of West Virginia.
     Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh PA, 239p.
                                   BB-4

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Anderson, Arthur T. and Jane Schubert.  1974.  Demonstration of ERTS-1
     analog and digital techniques applied to strip mining in Maryland and
     West Virginia.  National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard
     Space Flight Center, Greenbelt MD, 19p.

Anderson, Arthur T. and Jane Schubert.  1976.  ERTS-1 data applied to strip
     mining.  Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 42(2): 211-219.

Anderson, A. T., D. T. Schultz, and W. Buchman.  1975.  Landsat inventory of
     surface-mined areas using extendible digital techniques.  National
     Aeronautics and Space Administration.  Goddard Space Flight Center,
     Greenbelt MD, 23p.

Anderson, C. E. and J. M. Briggs.  1979.  Planning erosion control for coal
     mining and reclamation.  J. of Soil & Water Conservation 34(5):234-236.

Anderson, James E. and Charles E. Tanner.  1978.  Remote monitoring of coal
     strip mine rehabilitation.  EPA-600/7-78-149.   EPA, Environmental
     Monitoring & Support Lab., Las Vegas NV, 58p.

Anderson, James R., Ernest E. Hardy, John T. Roach, and Richard E. Witmer.
     1976.  A land use and land cover classification system for use with
     remote sensor date.  Professional Paper 964.  USGS, Washington DC,
     28p.

Anderson, Roger J. and David E. Samuel.  1980.  Evaluation of reclaimed
     surface mines as wild turkey brood range.  Presented at the Fourth
     National Wild Turkey Symposium, 2-5 March 1980.  Little Rock AR, 17p.
     & App.

Anderson, S., C. Cushwa, P. Risser, K. Ware, C. Whitehurst, and D.
     Schweitzer.  1977.  Alternatives for predicting responses of
     terrestrial wildfauna populations and habitats to surface mining.
     Draft.  USFWS, EELUT, Kearneysville WV, 28p.

Andren, A. W., et al., 1975.  Atmospheric input and geochemical cycling of
     selected trace elements in Walker Branch Watershed.  Environmental
     Sciences Division Publication No. 728, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
     Oak Ridge TN.

Andreuzzi, Frank C.  1976.  Reclaiming strip-mined land for recreational use
     in Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania:  A demonstration project.
     Information circular 8718.  USBM, Washington DC, 21p.

Andrus, Cecil D.  1978.  Annual report of the US Secretary of the Interior
     under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977.  USDI,
     Washington DC, 51p.
                                   BB-5

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Angel, P. N. and C. M. Christensen.  1979.  Honey production on reclaimed
     strip mine spoil.  In: J. Luchok, J. D. Cawthon, and J. M. Breslin,
     eds.  Hill lands: Proceedings of an international symposium held in
     Morgantown WV, 3-9 October 1976.  West Virginia University, Morgantown
     WV, 708-711.

Anonymous.  Undated(a).  Comments received from review of final
     environmental impact statement for the R. D.  Bailey Lake project.  16p.

Anonymous.  Undated(b).  Discussion of the Guyandotte River.  4p.

Anonymous.  Undated(c).  Pleasants Power Station,  Units 1 and 2:
     Environmental report.  Variously paged.

Anonymous.  Undated(d).  Preparation of snail mammal study skins.  2p.

Anonymous.  Undated(e).  West Virginia state parks and forests.  Charleston
     WV, 31p.

Anonymous.  Undated(f).  Wild mammals now known in West Virginia.

Anonymous.  1964.   Operation greenearth.   Coal Age 69(1):43.

Anonymous.  1964.   Guides to efficient strip mining.  Coal Age
     69(7):202-221.

Anonymous.  1966.   Subsidence engineer's handbook.  National Coal  Board,
     Great Britain.

Anonymous.  1967.   Mining's green-thumb:   mine plan for total resource
     management.  Engineering and Mining Journal 168(7):77-82.

Anonymous.  1968.   West Virginia D-J Project F-ll-R-7, Job No. 6:  Tailwater
     study, July 1, 1967 through June 30, 1968.  12p.

Anonymous.  1971a.  Reclamation   US Steel is involved.  Coal Age
     76(4):66-71.

Anonymous.  1971b.  Agency accuses Koppers of polluting Ohio River from West
     Virginia unit.  Wall Street Journal, 24 March 1971.

Anonymous.  197Ic.  Air pollution in the Marietta-Parkersburg area:  A case
     history.  Ohio State Law Journal 32(1):58-107.

Anonymous.  1971d.  Along the Ohio:  A test of will.  Chemical Week
     108(6) :47-78.

Anonymous.  1974a.  Consolidated Coal growing grass on high acid refuse.
     Canadian Mining Journal 95(9):14.
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Anonymous.  I974b.  Reclamation factors to keep in mind when planning a
     surface mine operation.  Coal Age 79:87.

Anonymous.  1974c.  Native hardwoods part of experimental seeding.  Green
     Lands 4(3):22.

Anonymous.  1975a.  A geological traverse of West Virginia: Parkersburg to
     Harpers Ferry.  WV Geological Survey Newsletter  19:55.

Anonymous.  1975b.  Long-term coal investigation defines aims and
     objectives.  WV Geological Survey Newsletter 19:12.

Anonymous.  1975c.  New plaster hydrosprayed onto coal  refuse smothers fires
     or aids revegetation.  Coal Age 80.

Anonymous.  1975d.  Technological innovations abound  in coal mountains of
     Appalachia.  Coal Age 80.

Anonymous.  1976a.  Coal resources and pollution-potential study supplies
     information on coal and coal mining.  WV Geological Survey Newsletter
     20:14-15.

Anonymous.  1976b.  Debris avalanches in part of the Valley and Ridge
     Province of West Virginia.  WV Geological Survey Newsletter 20:55.

Anonymous.  1976c.  Study measures surface mining.  Green Lands 6(2):46-48.

Anonymous.  1977a.  AMC and NCA testify on surface mining legislation.
     Mining Congress Journal 63(2):100-107.

Anonymous.  1977b.  Coal resources and pollution-potential study requires
     integration of geological activities.  Mountain  State Geology 1:46-47.

Anonymous.  1977c.  Geologic hazards and land use were topics of the I.C.
     White Memorial Symposium.  Mountain State Geology  1:46-47.

Anonymous.  1977d.  Housing improvement sought.   Coal Age 82(2):23.

Anonymous.  1978.  The Appalachian Development Conference, Moorehead State
     University, 19-21 June 1978.   Frankfort KY, 59p.

Anonymous.  1979a.  Critical habitat reproposed for Virginia big-eared bat.
     Endangered Species Technical Bulletin 4(9):4,6.

Anonymous.  1979b.  Two bats protected as endangered.  Endangered Species
     Technical Bulletin 4(12):10-11.

Anonymous.  1979c.  Ending acid mine water pollution.  Ground Water Age
     14(1):25,40.
                                   BB-7

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Anonymous.  1980.  Agency expands W coal mining studies.  EPA Alert
     Middle Atlantic Environment 7(L):6-8.

Anthis, Richard A., Hans A. Panofsky, John J. Cahn, and Albert Rango    1975.
     The atmosphere.  Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co., Columbus OH, 339p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1969.  Acid mine drainage in Appalachia.
     US Government Report A-U7519.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1970.  Research and demonstration of
     improved surface mining techniques, Commonwealth of Kentucky:  Final
     environmental impact statement.  NTIS PB-202 861.  Kentucky Dept.  of
     Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation, 9p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1971.  1971 annual report of the
     Appalachian Regional Commission.  By the Commission, Washington DC,
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Appalachian Regional Commission.  1972.  Appalachia: An economic report.
     Trends in employment, income and population.  Washington DC, 153p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1973.  Manpower report for the Appalachian
     coal industry.  By the Commission, Washington DC.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1976a.  Catalog of research of energy,
     environment, and natural resources funded by the ARC.  Washington  DC.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1976b.  Appalachia today:  Issues and
     problems.  Appalachia 10(2), 72p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1977a.  1976 annual report, including
     transition quarter.  Washington DC, 75p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1977b.  Appalachia:  A reference book.
     Washington DC, 80p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1977c.  Appalachia:  Goals, objectives,
     and development strategies.  Washington DC, 64p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1977-1980.  Appalachia:  Journal of the
     Appalachian Regional Commission  Monthly.  Washington DC, variously
     paged.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1978.  Appalachia:  Goals, objectives, and
     development strategies.  Supplement 1:  Resolutions adopted December
     1977.  Washington DC, 16p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1979a.  Abstracts:  State Appalachian
     development plans and investment programs for fiscal year 1979.
     Washington DC, 81p.
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Appalachian Regional Commission.  1979b.  Appalachia:  A reference book.
     2nd ed.  Washington DC, 92p.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1979c.  Appalachia  into the 80's:  A
     conference on energy and health care cost containment, held at
     Binghamton, NY, 22-24 October 1979:  Panel recommendations  and
     transcripts of panel sessions.  Washington DC, 8 vols.

Appalachian Regional Commission.  1979d.  Research program:  Prospectus for
     FY 1980.  Washington DC, 18p.

Appel, D. N., and W. L. MacDonald.  1976.  Endo-polygalacturonase production
     by selected isolates of Ceratocystis ulmi.  Proceedings of  the American
     Phytophathological Society 3:323.  (Abstract.)

Applied Science Laboratories, Inc.  1971.  Purification of mine  water by
     freezing.  USGPO, Washington DC.  US Environmental Protection Agency,
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Applin, James S., and Donald C. Tarter.  1977.  Caddisflies in genus
     Ryacophila in West Virginia (Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae).
     Entomological News 88(748):213-214.

Aratas, Andrew A., 1959.  Ecology of muskrats in strip-mine ponds in
     southern Illinois.  J. of Wildlife Management 23(2):177-186

Arbib, Robert.  1979.  The Blue List for 1980.  American Birds
     33(6):830-835.

Argonne National Laboratory.  1976.  Balanced program plan:  Analysis for
     biomedical and environmental research.  Volume 3.  Coal extraction,
     processing, and combustion.  Energy Research and Development
     Administration, Argonne IL, 74p.

Argonne National Laboratory.  1977.  Water pollution impacts of  the National
     Energy Plan.   NTIS ANL/IAPE/TM-78-4.  Argonne IL, 85p.

Arkle, Thomas J., 1974.  Stratigraphy of. the Central Appalachians.  USGSA
     Special Paper 148,  5-30.

Arkle, Thomas J. et al.  1979.   The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
     (carboniferous) systems in the United States - West Virginia and
     Maryland.  USGS Professional Paper 1110-D, 35p.

Armiger, Walter H., J.  Nick Jones, and Orus L. Bennett.  1976.   Revegetation
     of land disturbed by strip mining of coal in Appalachia.  ARS-NE-71.
     USDA Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville MD, 38p.
                                   BB-9

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Arthur D. Little, Inc.  1969.  Ohio River Basin comprehensive survey,
     Appendix B:  Projective economic study.  Vol. 3. USAGE, Ohio River
     Div., Cincinnati OH, variously paged.

Ashby, W. Clark, Clay Kolar, Mary L. Guerke, Christine F. Pursell, and Janet
     Ashby.  1978.  Our reclamation future:  The missing bet on trees.  Doc.
     No. 78/04.  Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, Chicago IL,
     99p.

Ashby, William C. and Malchus B. Baker, Jr.  1968.  Soil nutrients and tree
     growth under black locust and shortleaf pine overstori.es in strip-mine
     plantings.  J. of Forestry 66(1):67-70.

Ashby, William C., Malchus B. Baker, Jr., and John B. Casteel.  1966.
     Forest cover changes in .strip-mine plantations.  Tree Planters' Notes
     76 (April):17-20.

Ashton, Peter M. and R. C. Underwood.  Non-point sources of water pollution.
     Proceedings of a southeastern regional conference.  Virginia
     Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg VA, 3L4p.

Aspen Systems Corp.  1979.  Land and natural resources management:  Analysis
     of selected Federal policies, programs, and planning mechanisms.  NTIS
     PB-292 500.  CEQ, Washington DC, variously paged.

Atlantic Richfield Oil Co.  1975.  Permit application for Black Thunder
     Mine to Wyoming Dept. of Environmental Quality, Div. of Air Quality.
     Los Angeles CA.

Attaway, Leland D., Robert V. Steele, Kristine A. Brook, John A.
     Christerson, David A. Kikel, Joe D. Kuebler, Barbara M. Lupatkin, Chung
     Shing Liu, and Thomas 0. Peyton.  1979.  Possible future environmental
     issues for fossil fuel technologies.  Final Report.  DOE/ET/2880-1.
     USDOE, Assistant Secretary for Energy Technology, Washington DC, 221p.

Auchmoody,  L.  R.  1973.  Response of yellow poplar, red oak, and basswood to
     fertilization in West Virginia.  Abstract.  Amm. Soc. of Agronomy/Crop
     Science Soc. of America/Soil Science Soc.  of America Joint Annual
     Meeting,  11-16 November 1973.  Soil Science Divisions Abstracts, 137p.

Augustine,  Marshall T.  1966.  Using vegetation to establish critical areas
     in building sites.  Soil Conservation 32(4):78-80.

Aurelio, Isaac C. and Kenneth L. Carvell.  Undated.  Common mosses of West
     Virginia.  USDA, Charleston WV, 15p.

Aurelio, Isaac C.  1974.  The mosses of West Virginia.  Unpublished Ph.D.
     dissertation, West Virginia University, Morgantown WV, 405p.
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Averitt, Paul.  1970.  Stripping-coal resources of  the United States—
     January 1, 1970.  US Geological Survey Bulletin  1322, Reston VA, 34p.

Avery, Michael and R. Kent Schreiber.   1979.  The Clean Air Act:  Its
     relation to fish and wildlife resources.  FWS/OBS-78/20.8.  USFWS,
     Office of Biological Services, Washington DC,  14p.

A. W. Martin Associates, Inc.  1975.  Relationship between underground mine
     water pools and subsidence in the  northeastern Pennsylvania anthracite
     fields.  King of Prussia PA, variously paged.

Axetell, Kenneth, Jr.  1978.  Survey of fugitive dust from coal mines.
     NTISPB-283 162.  EPA, Region 8, Denver CO, 114p.

Ayensu, Edward S., and Robert A. DeFilipps.   1978.  Endangered and
     threatened plants of the United States.  The Smithsonin Institution and
     the World Wildlife Fund, Inc., Washington DC, 403p.

Babcock, A.  1973.   Fly ash achieving dramatic success in reclaiming coal
     waste piles.  Coal Age 78:88-89.

Babcock, Al.  1972.  Spoil, gob, and fly ash  produce  plant-supporting soils.
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Bailey, Robert G.  1978.  Description of the  ecoregions of the United
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Bailey, Robert G. and Charles T. Cushwa.  1977.  Preliminary map of
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Baker-Wibberley & Associates,  Inc.  1977.  Underground mine drainage
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Ballou, S. W.  1976.  Socio-economic aspects of surface mining:  Effect of
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Baloch, M. S., E. N. Henry, and W. H. Dickerson.   1971.  Streamflow
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Barnhisel, R. I. and A. L. Rotromel.  1974.  Weathering of  clay  minerals by
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Barry, Frank J.  1965.  Federal and State regulations and the legislative
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Becker, R. Michael.  1975.  Archaeological testing in the Stonewall Jackson
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Beranek, Bolt & Newman, Inc.  1975.  Noise control in surface mining
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Berg, William A.  1973.  Evaluation of P and K soil fertility tests on
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Berg, W. A. and E. M. Barrau.  1972.  Composition  and  production  of  seedings
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Brant, Russell A. and R. M. DeLong.  1960.  Coal resources of Ohio.  Ohio
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Brinkman, G.  1963.  Land reclamation.  Mining Equipment News 15(11):10.

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Brookman, G. T., J. J. Binder, P. B  Katz,  and W. A. Wade, III.  1979.
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Cardi, Vincent P.  1973.  Strip-mining and the 1971 West Virginia Surface
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Caudill, Harry M.  1973.  My land is dying.  E. Button & Co., New York NY,
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Chang, Mingteh and Richard Lee.  1975.   Representativeness of watershed
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Chapman, A. G.  1967b.  How strip-land grading affects tree survival and
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Christensen, Wallace W. and A. Edwin Grafton.   1966.  Characteristics,
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Clemer, G.  1976.  An  archaeological survey of the Grand Prairie in East-
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Gage, Stephen T. and J. B. Truett.  1977.  Appalachian mineral resource
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Georgia State University, Environmental Research.   1974a.  Economic  survey
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Gillespie, William H. and John A. Clendening.  1964.  West Virginia geology,
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Gleason, V. E., compiler.  1978.  Bibliography on disposal of refuse from
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Glenn-Lewin, David C., Gregory Fay, and Steven D. Cecil.  1976.
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Glover, Ralph P. and Bruce G. Hansen.  1972.  The secondary forest  industry
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Glover. Ronald L.  1972  Stabilization of sanitary landfills by injection
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Good, Paul.  1967.  Kentucky's coal beds of sedition.  Nation 2.05(6):
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Goodwin, Richard H., and W.A. Niering.  1975.  Inland wetlands of the United
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Gordon, C. C.  1975.  Conifer tree damage in the vicinity of large
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Grandt, Alten F.  1974.  Reclamation problems  in  surface mining.  Mining
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Graybill, Jeffrey R.    1978.  Archeological reconnaissance  of  flood
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Greenbaum, Margaret E.  1975.  Kentucky coal reserves:  Effects on coal
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Grim, Elmore C. and Ronald D. Hill.   1974.  Environmental protection in
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Grimely, G. P.  1910.  County reports and maps, Pleasants, Wood, and Ritchie
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Grube, Walter E., Jr., and R.C. Wilmoth.  1976.  Disposal of sludge from
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Guilday, John E.  1971.  Biological and archaeological analysis of bones
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Guilday, John E. and Harold W. Hamilton.  1978.   Ecological significance of
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Gunnett, John W. 1975.  Regional aspects of mine planning to increase
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Haigh, Martin J.  1976.  Environmental problems associated with reclamation
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Hall, George A.  1971.  The list of West Virginia birds.  The Redstart
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Halliburton Services.   1973.  Development  of an  economic/environmental plan
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Hare, C. E.  1957.  Geology  of the Coopers Rock  State Forest and Mont
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Harker, Donald F., Gina Gignte, and Sally  Brazinski.  1980.  Evaluation of
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Haufler, Jonathan B., Robert L. Downing, and Burd S. McGinnes.  1978.
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Haught, Oscar L.  1964.  Oil and gas report on Braxton and Clay Counties,
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Haught, Oscar L.  1968.  Geology of the Charleston Area.  Bulletin 34.
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Hayden, R. S., D. 0. Johnson, and J. D. Henricks.  1979.  Sampling and
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Haynes, Ronnie J. and Jeffrey M. Klopatek.  1979.  Reclamation of abandoned
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Heddleson, Milford R.,  Edward P. Farrand, and Ralph W. Ruble.  1964.   Strip
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Hedrick, H. G.  and H.  A.  Wilson   1956.   The rate  of  carbon dioxide
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Hegener, W. D.   1967.   An evaluation of  primary  productivity in the
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Heine, Walter N., and  W.E. Guckert.   1973.   A new  method of surface coal
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Hemmmings, E. Thomas.   1978.  Exploration of an  early Adena mound at Willow
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Hemmings, E. Thomas and Earl L.  Core.   1972.   Archaeological evidence for
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Hempel, John C.  1975.  Caves of  Monroe  County.  West Virginia Speleological
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Hendricks, Michael L.,  S. L. Markham, C.  H.  Hocutt, and  J.  R.  Stauffer
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Hennen, R. V. and D. B. Reger.  1914.  County reports and maps, Logan and
     Mingo Counties.  WVGES.  776p.                                                 -

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Herdendorf, Charles E. and E. H. Stonsbery, eds.   1973.  Final report:
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Herrick, Arthur J.  1965.  The natural areas project:  A summary  of data to
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Herricks, E. E.  1975.  Recovery of streams from chronic pollutlonal stress
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Herricks, E.E., et al.  1975.  Hydraulic and water quality modeling of
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Herricks, E. E. and J. Cairns, Jr.  1974.  Rehabilitation of streams
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Herricks, E. E., J. Cairns, Jr., andV. 0. Shanholtz.  1974.  Preplanning
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Hibbard, Walter R., Jr.  1978.  Environmental impact of mining.   In:
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Hibbard, Walter R., Jr.  1979.  Policies and constraints for major expansion
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Hidalgo, Robert V. and John J. Renton   1970.  The use of pelletized samples
     for X-ray diffraction analysis of clay minerals in shale.  C-12.
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Higgins, Tom.  1973.  The planning and economics of mined-land use for
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Hill, Jack K.  1965.  Social and economic implications of strip mining in
     Harrison County.  Masters thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus OH.

Hill, Lawrence W.   1960.  How precipitation affects strip-mine pond water
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Hill, Paul, Bill Cremeans, Mary Beth Rousch, and Donald Tarter.  Undated.
     State records  for the family Phygancidae in West Virginia.  (Insecta:
     Trichoptera).  Abstract.  Marshall University, Huntington WV.

Hill, Ronald D.  1969.  The effectiveness of mine drainage pollution control
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Hill, Ronald D.  1970.  Elkins mine drainage pollution control demonstration
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Hill, R. D.  1971.  Restoration of a terrestrial environment - the surface
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Hill, Ronald D.  1973a.  Reclamation and revegetation of 640 acres of
     surface mines—Elkins, West Virginia.  In:  R. J. Hutnik and G.  Davis,
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Hill, Ronald D.  1973b.  Water pollution from coal mines.  Paper presented
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Hill, R. D.  1974.  Overview of use of carbonate rocks for controlling acid
     mine drainage.  Paper presented at the Tenth Forum on Geology of
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Hill, R. D.  1976.  Methods for controlling pollutants.  Paper presented at
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     USEPA, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Resource
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Hill, Ronald D. and Elmore C. Grim.  1975.  Environmental factors in surface
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Hill, Ronald D., Ken R. Hinkle, and Russ S. Klingersmith.   1977.
     Reclamation of orphan mined land with municipal sludges:  Case  studies.
     Presented to symposium on municipal wastewater and  sludge recycling  on
     forest land and disturbed Land.  Philadelphia PA, 43p.

Hill, Ronald D., and J. F. Martin.  1972.  Elkins mine drainage pollution
     control demonstration project - an update.  In:  Proceedings  of the
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Hill, R. D., and A. Montague.  1976.  The potential for  using sewage sludges
     and compost in mine reclamation.  USEPA, Industrial Environmental
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Hill, R. D., and R. C. Wilmoth.  1971.  Limestone treatment of acid  mine
     drainage.  Society of Mining Engineers, AIME, Transactions
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Hill, R. D., R. C. Wilmoth, and R. B. Scott.  1971.  Neutrolosis treatment
     of acid mine drainage.  USEPA, Water Quality Office, Cincinnati OH,
     14010—05/71, 13p.

Hinchman, Roy R.  1979.  New and promising plant materials  and techniques
     for mined land reclamation in the eastern United States.  Unpublished
     data presented before the 6th symposium on surface  mining and
     reclamation (Coal Conference and Expo. V, Louisville, KY, 23-25 October
     1979, sponsored by the Natl. Coal Assn.).

Hindal, Dale F. , L. R. Schreiber, and A. M. Townsend.  1976.  Pathogenicity
     and cultural chracterization of six sector variants of Ceratocystis
     ulmi. (Abstract.)  In:  Proceedings of the American Phytopathology
     Society, Vol. 3, 327.

Hinesly, T. D., R. L. Jones, and B. Sosewitz.  1972   Use of waste treatment
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Hittman Associates, Inc.  1975a.  Assessment of environmental impact of
     steep slope raining:  Baseline data survey, quarterly report 1.  For
     Surface Mining and Reclamation Assn.  Columbia MD,  45p.

Hittman Associates, Inc.  1975b.  Baseline data environmental assessment  of
     a large coal conversion complex-  Interim report 1, June 1973 through
     August 1974.  R&D Report No. 101.  For USERDA, Washington DC, 2 vols.

Hittman Associates, Inc.  1975c.  Assessment of environmental impact of
     steep slope mining, final baseline survey report.   Prepared for West
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Hittman Associates, Inc.  1976a.  Erosion and  sediment  control:   Surface
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     EPA-625/3-76-006a&b.  EPA, Washington DC, 102p.

Hittman Associates, Inc.  1976b.  Assessment of environmental impact of
     steep slope mining  quarterly  report 3, baseline data  survey.  Prepared
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Hivick, Fonda R.  1972.  Ecological  factors contributing  to the distribution
     of certain aquatic plants in Cheat Lake.  Unpublished MS thesis, West
     Virginia University, 84p.

Hobba, William A. , Jr.  1976.  Groundwater hydrology of Berkeley  County
     West Virginia.  WVGES, Morgantown WV, 21p.

Hobba, William A., Jr., Eugene A. Friel, and James L. Chisholm.   1972.
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     Bulletin 3.  WVGES, Morgantown  WV, llOp.

Hocutt, C. H. , R. F. Denoncourt, and J. R. Stauffer, Jr.  1978.   Fishes of
     the Greenbrier River, West Virginia, with drainage history of  the
     Central Appalachians.  J. of Biogeog. 5:59-80.

Hocutt, C. H., R. F. Denoncourt, and J. R. Stauffer.  1979.  Fishes of the
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Hocutt. C. H. and J. R. Stauffer.   1976.  Final report, a survey  of the
     fishes of the Gauley River, West Virginia.  University of Maryland,
     Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies, Appalachian
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Hoffman, D. C., R. W. Briggs, and S. R. Michalski.  1979.  Management of
     coal preparation fine wastes without disposal ponds. -EPA-600/7-79-007.
     Dravo Corp., for EPA, Industrial Environmental Research Lab., Research
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Hoffman, Glenn J., R. B. Curry, and  G. 0. Schwab.  1964a.  Annotated
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Hoffman, Glenn J., G. 0. Schwab, and R. B. Curry.  1964b.  Slope  stability
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Hoffman, I.,  F. J. Lysy, J- P. Morris, and K. E. Yeager.  1972.   Survey of
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     171p.
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Holland, Frank R.  1973.  Wildlife benefits from strip-mine reclamation.
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Holsinger, John R., Roger A.  Baroody, and David C.  Culver.  1976.   The
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Holzworth, George C.  1972.  Mixing heights, wind speeds, and potential  for
     urban air pollution throughout the contiguous United States.   EPA,
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Hooper, R. G.  1973.  Bird density and diversity as related to vegetation in
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Hooper, R. G., and H. S. Crawford.  1969.  Woodland habitat research for
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Horizons Incorporated.  1970.  Treatment of acid mine drainage.  Federal
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Horn, Martin L.  1968.  The revegetation of highly acid spoil banks in the
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Horn, Victor T.,  and J. K. McGuire.  1960.  The climate of West Virginia.
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Home, J. C. , B.  P. Baganz, and F. T. Caruccio.  1978.  Depositional models
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     American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, December 1978,
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Home, J. C. , J.  C. Perm, and B. P. Baganz.  1976.   Sedimentary response to
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     Geological Society of American Abstracts with Progress.
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Home, J. C. , J.  C. Perm, and J. P. Swinchatt.  1974.  Depositional model
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     Carboniferous of southeastern United States.  Garrett Briggs,  ed.
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Horvath, D. J. and R. A  Koshut.  1979.  Proportions of several elements
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Howard, Herbert A.  1971.  A measurement  of  the  external  diseconomies
     associated with bituminous coal  surface mining,  eastern Kentucky,
     1962-67.  University  of New Mexico Natural  Resources Journal
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     Garden City NY, 633p.  (partial  volume).

Howland, John W.   1973.  New tools and  techniques  for  reclaiming  land.  In:
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HRB-Singer, Inc.   1974.  Environmental  and natural  resources program design
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HRB-Sing^r  Inc. ,  et al.   1977.  Atlas  of environmental  and natural
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Huckabee , J. W.  ,  C. P. Goodyer  and  R. D. Jones.   1975.  Acid rock in the
     Great Smokies:  Unanticipated impact on aquatic biota of road
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Hudson,  Charles H.  1971.  Experience of  the Highway Department in
     revegetting slopes and drastically disturbed  sites.  Georgia Highway
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Hughes, Arthur M.  and David R. Maneval.   1975.  Project  proposal  for
     surface-mined land enhancement (SMILE).  Federal  Energy Administration,
     Washington DC, 65p.

Hull, William J.   1979.  Fifty years  on the Ohio.   Water Spectrum 11(4):
     15-23.

Hundemann, Audrey  S. , ed.  1978.  Surface mining, Part 1-  Strip mining.
     Citations from the Engineering Index database, 1970-Sept. 1978.
     NTIS/PS-78/1165.  Natl. Technical  Information  Service, Springfield VA.
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Hundemann  Audrey  S. , ed.  1980a.  Coal mine waste:  Citations from the NTIS
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Hunt, Clifford F., and W. E. Sopper.  1973.  Renovation of treated municipal
     sewage effluent and digested liquid sludge through irrigation of
     bituminous coal strip mine spoil.  Pennsylvania State University Sch.
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Hunter, Barry B. and W. J. Thomas.  1975.  Isolation and existence of
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Hurst, Mary B.  1935.  Social history of Logan County  West Virginia,
     1765-1923.  Thesis, Columbia University, New York NY,  80p,

Hutchins, John C. and Charles E. Ettinger   1979.  Development of methods to
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Hutnik, Russel J. and Grant Davis, eds.  1973.  Ecology and reclamation of
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Hydrotechnic Corp.  1979.  U.S. EPA mine drainage treatment and costing
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Hyslop, James   1964.  Some present day reclamation problems: an
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ICF, Inc.  1977.  Energy and economic impacts of H.R. 13950 (Surface Mining
     Control and Reclamation Act of 1976).   NTIS PB-274 632 and PB-274 633
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Imhoff, Edgar A., Thomas 0. Friz, and James R. LaFevers.  1976.   A guide to
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Imhoff, Edgar A., William J. Kockelman, Joseph T. O'Connor  and James R.
     LeFevers.  1978.  Integrated mined-area reclamation and land use
     planning, Vol. 2:   Methods and criteria for land use and resources
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Inghram, J. W.  1953.  The Tompkins Farm Site.  West Virginia Archaeologist
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Inghram, J. W., S.  Olafson, and E. V.  McMichael   1961.  The Mount Carbon
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Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin.  1979.  Toxic and
     hazardous substances in the Potomac Basin:  Proceedings of the 1978
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Islam, M. N. and M. S. Baloch.  1973.  Comprehensive survey of the
     Greenbrier River Basin.  Vol. 2, Part 2:  Economic base study.
     WVDNR-Water Resources, Charleston WV, 13p.

Islam, M. N. , M. S. Baloch, and E. N. Henry.   1970.  Comprehensive survey of
     the Elk River Basin.  Vol. 2:  Economic base study.  WVDNR-Water
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Isom, B. G.  1969.  The mussel resources of the Tennesee River.  Malacologia
     7(2-3):397-425.

IU Conversion Systems.  1974.  Technical and economic evaluation of recycled
     industrial secondary products for the preparation of synthetic highway
     building aggregates.  NTIS PB-242 576.  ARC, Washington DC, 48p.

Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1976a.  Draft report, EIS methodologies
     for New Source NPDES permits regulating the West Virginia surface coal
     mining industry.   For EPA, Region III, Berwyn PA, variously paged.

Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1976b.  Preliminary draft report  on New
     Source NPDES permits for the West Virginia surface coal mining
     industry.  For EPA, Region III, Berwyn PA, 142p.

Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1976c.  Preliminary draft report  on
     sensitive environmental areas tht may be affected by the West Virginia
     surface coal mining industry.  For EPA, Region III, Berwyn PA, 127p.

Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1977.  Final report on environmental
     aspects of the New Source NPDES permit program for the West Virginia
     surface coal mining industry.  For EPA, Region III, Berwyn PA, 219p.

Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1978a.  Cultural resources of the
     Bethlehem mines twenty mile complex.  Draft report.  For Betz,
     Converse, Murdoch, Inc.  Berwyn PA.

Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1978b.  Environmental impact assessment
     guidelines for New Source surface coal mines.  For EPA, Berwyn PA,
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Jack McCormick and Associates, Inc.  1979.  New Source NPDES permits and
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Jackson, Lloyd G., II, John B. Koch, Alan D. Moats, and Thomas A. Vorbach.
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Jensen, Richard E.  1970.  Archaeological survey of the Rawlesburg Reservoir
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Karr, James R.  1968.  Habitat and avian diversity on strip-mined land.  The
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Kienzler, J. M. 1971.  Woody plant utilization by beaver in naturally acid
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Kirkland, Gordon L.,  Jr.  1975.  Notes on the Cloudland deer mouse in West
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Lewis, Gerald E.  1974.  Observations on the chain pickerel in West
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Lippert, George and Linda Butler.  1976.  Taxonomic  study of Collembola of
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Lugar, M. E.  1967.  Water rights law and management in West Virginia -
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Marquess, Lawrence W.  1976.  The Federal Water Pollution Control Act
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Mason, W. T., Jr., P. A. Lewis, and J. B. Anderson.   1971.
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Miller, Paul R. and Joe R. McBride.   1975.  Effects  of  air pollutants  on
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Mitchell, William B. , Stephen C. Guptill, K. Eric Anderson, Robin G.  Fegeas,
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Moore, John R., R. A. Bohm, J. H. Lord, F. K. Schmidt-Bleek, and G. A.
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Morris, L. M.  1973.  Coal in Monongalia County.  WVGES, Morgantown WV,
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Morris, J.S. and R. W. Taylor.  1978.  A survey of the freshwater mussels
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Mountain Community Union and Save Our Mountains, Inc.  1976.  You can't  put
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Mountain West Research, Inc   1975.  Construction worker profile.  Denver
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Mountain West Research, Inc.  1979a.  Fact book for western coal/energy
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Mountain West Research, Inc.  1979b.  A guide to methods of coal/energy
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Moyer, Donald D. and Daniel I. Green.  1978.  Data sources in selected state
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Mullen, C. Joe, and Daniel I. Green.  1979.  Data source directory of state
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Muller, Thomas J.  1969.  Regional economic stagnation in an expanding
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     University.  University Microfilms, Ann Arbor MI, 363p.
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Mumford, R. E. and W. C. Bramble.  1973.  Small mammals on surface-mined
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Munro, John.  1979.  Map cross reference system for West Virginia Project
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Munson, James S. and Joel P. Brainard.  1977.  The energy situation in  the
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Muschett, F. Douglas.  1977.  Coal development  in Montana: Economic and
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Musser, John J.  1963.  Description of physical environment and of
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Myhra, David.  1975.  Colstrip, Montana...the modern company town.  Coal Age
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Nace, R. L., and P. P. Bierber.  1958.  Groundwater resources of Harrison
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National Academy of Sciences.  1975b.  National materials policy:
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National Academy of Sciences, Academy Forum.  1977.  Coal as an energy
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National Aeronautics & Space Administration.  1976a.  LANDSAT image of
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National Aeronautics & Space Administration.  1976b.  LANDSAT image of
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National Air Pollution Control Administration and West Virginia Air
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National Assn. of Conservation Districts.  1978.  Non-Federal natural
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National Assn. of Conservation Districts.  1979b.  Tuesday Letter, Jan. 30,
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National Assn. of Counties/lnternatl.  City Management Assn.  1978.  The
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National Coal Assn. , sponsor.  1973.  Papers presented before (First)
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National Coal Assn., sponsor   1974.  Papers presented before the Second
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National Coal Assn., sponsor.  1975.  Papers presented before the Third
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National Coal Assn. and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.  1976a.  Third
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National Coal Assn. and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.,  sponsors.   1976b.
     Papers presented before the Fourth Symposium on Surface Mining and
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     Louisville KY, 276p.

National Coal Assn. and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.   1976c.  Sixth
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National Coal Assn. and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.   1977a.  Papers
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National Coal Assn. and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.   1977b.  Papers
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National Coal Association and Bituminous Coal Research,  Inc.  1977c.
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National Committee for the Defense of Political Prisoners.  1970.  Harlan
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National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration.  1977.  Climate of West
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NPS (National Park Service).  1973.  Preparation of environmental
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National Technical Information Service.  1976.  Surface mining part I.
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National Wildlife Federation.  1979.  Agenda of 26th Annual Conservation
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The Nature Conservancy.  Undated.  The Nature Conservancy preserve
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Nesler, Thomas P. and Roger W.  Baldwin.  1977.  Water quality guidelines for
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Nichols, L. E., Jr. and F. J. Bulow.  1973.  Effects of acid mine drainage
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North, E. Lee.  1979.  Redcoats, redskins, and red-eyed monsters - West
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NUS Corporation, Cyrus W. Rice Division.  1971.  The effects of various gas
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NUS Corp.  1977.  Coal mining cost models - underground mines.  Prepared for
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Nutter, John B. and Franklin Pelurie.  1977.  An approach to managing and
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Off Lee of Energy, Minerals and Industry.  1976.  Proceedings of a national
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Oglebay Institute.  Undated(a).  Outreach: Oglebay Institute services for
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Ohio River Basin Commission.  1972.  Kanawha River comprehensive basin study
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Ohio River Basin Commission.  1973.  Inventory, water and related land
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Ohio River Basin Commission.  1979a.  Big Sandy/Guyandotte River Basins
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Ohio River Basin Commission.  1979b.  The Ohio River Basin: The .regional
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Ohio River Basin Commission.  1980.  Water assessment for Monongahela
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Ohio River Basin Survey Coordinating Committee.  1970.  2020 A.D.: The next
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Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission.  1975.  Review of the
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Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission.  1977a.  Assessment of water
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Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission.  1977b.  Ohio River main
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Ohio State University Research Foundation.  1968.   Potential of strip-mined
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Ohio State University and Ohio Academy of Science.  1964.  A symposium on
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Olem, Harvey and Ruchard Unz.  1980.  Rotating disc biological treatment of
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Orr, James W.  1977.   Why's and how's of vegetation management.  In:
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Ott, Donald W.  1978.  Comparative analyses of adjacent vegetated and bare
     strip-mine spoils.  Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee,
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Otte, J. A., and M. Boehlje.  1975.  Model to analyze the cost of strip
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     Resources Research Institute, Ames IA, 19p.
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Owen, P. T., et al. , compilers.  1979.  An inventory of environmental impact
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Ozmlna, D. J.  1974.   Wildlife management techniques applied to surface mine
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Pack, James C.  Undated.  Turkey stocking records, 1970-1978.  WVDNR-
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Palmer, Richard N.  1975.  Non-point pollution in the Potomac River Basin.
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Palya, Shelby Z., compiler.  1978.  List of USBM publications and articles,
     January 1 to December 31, 1977, with subject and author index.  US
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Paone, James, John L. Morning, and Leo Giorgetti.  1974.  Land utilization
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Parker, Larry A.  1973.  Water quality assessment for the Ohio River main
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Parodiz, Juan.  1980.  By letter, Dr. Juan J. Parodiz, Carnegie Museum of
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Parsons, J.D.  1968.   The effects of acid strip-mine effluents on the
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Patchen, Douglas G.  1968.  The technique of X-ray radiography.  Some
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Pauley, Michael J.  1979.  The National Register of Historic Places in West
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PD-NCB Consultants Ltd., and Dames and Moore.  1976.  Research study of
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Shoupp, William J.  1972.  The interaction of thermal  and acid mine water
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Sizer, Leonard.  1973.  Exploratory projections of the population of the
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Skelly & Loy.  1973a.  Mine drainage pollution watershed survey, northern
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Skelly & Loy.  1973b.  Processes, procedures, and methods to control
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Skelly & Loy.  1976a.  Development of new mining systems for highwall or
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Skelly & Loy.  1976b.  Economic evaluation of small surface coal mines in
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Skelly & Loy.  1977a.  Design and evaluation of cross-ridge mountaintop
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Skelly & Loy.  1977b.  North Branch Potomac River Basin mine drainage study,
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Skelly & Loy/Zollman Assoc.  1973.  Preparation  of  plans  and  specifications
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Skinner, William F.  1972.  The interaction of sewage, thermal,  and  acid
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Sly, George R. 1976.  Small mammal  succession on strip-mined  land in Vigo
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Smith, Dixie R. , tech. coord.  1975.   Proceedings of the  symposium on
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Smith, D. L.   1979.  Drawings of typical West Virginia surface mines.  In:
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Smith, Edward J. and Jan L. Sykora.  1976.  Early developmental  effects of
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Smith, H. G., H. H. Morse, G. E. Bernath, L. E.  Gillogly,  and W.  M.  Briggs.
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Smith, J. Owens.   1978.   Preservation  of endangered species through  State
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Smith, Michael J.  1972.  A study of runoff from small rural watersheds  in
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Smith, Richard M.  1973.  Choosing topsoil to fit the needs.  Green Lands
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Smith, Richard M., W. E. Grube, Jr., T. Arkle, Jr., and A. A. Sobek.   1974,
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Smith, Richard M., Walter E. Grube, Jr., and John R. Freeman.  1975.   Better
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Smith, Richard M., Eric Perry, and John R. Freeman   1977.  Each  root  tells
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Trimble, G. R. , Jr., James H. Patric, John D. Gill,  George H. Moeller,  and
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US Army Corps  of Engineers, Huntington District.   1968b.   Economic  profiles
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US Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District.  1975d.  Kanawha River
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US Army Corps of Engineers, Pittsburgh District.   1975a.   Floodplain
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US Army Corps of Engineers, Pittsburgh District.   1975b.   Floodplain
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US Bureau of Mines.  1976b.  Reclaiming  strip-mined lands  for  recreational
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US Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh Mining and Safety Research Center.  1976.
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US Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.  1968.  Development of water  resources in
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US Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.  1973.  Proceedings of the national
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US Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.  1975a.  New River Gorge Study.  107p.

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US Bureau of Outdoor Recreation.  1976.  Final environmental statement,
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     FES 76-42.  Philadelphia PA, 148p.
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US Bureau  of Reclamation.   1974.  Reclamation  research  in  the  seventies:
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1971.  General population  characteristics,  West
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1972.  Detailed housing  characteristics  of  West
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1977a.  Federal-State cooperative  program for
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1977b.  Population estimates and projections.
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1977c.  West Virginia state and  county data book:
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1979.  Current population  reports:  Federal-State
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US Bureau  of the Census.   1980.  Census of wholesale trade   West  Virginia.
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US Congress, Senate, Committee  on Interior and Insular Affairs.  1971a-  The
     issues related to surface mining, 92nd Congress, 1st  Session.
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.  1971b.
     Legislative proposals  concerning surface mining of coal, 92nd Contress,
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US Congress, Senate, Committee  on Interior and Insular Affairs.  1972a.
     Hearings, 92nd Congress, 1st Session, S. 1498,  S. 2455, and S. 2777,
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US Congress, Senate, Committee  on Interior and Insular Affairs.  1972b.
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.   1973a.
     Regulation of surface mining operations, hearings (13-16 March 1973),
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs,
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     mining and reclamation, hearings (30 April 1973).  USGPO, Washington
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.   1973c.
     Coal surface mining and reclamation, 93rd Congress, 1st Session.
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.   1973d.
     Factors affecting the use of coal in present and future energy markets,
     93rd Congress, 1st Session.  Committee print serial 93-9 (92-44) USGPO,
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.   1973e.
     Surface Mining Reclamation Act of 1972, report to accompany  S. 425,
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US Congress, Senate, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs.   1974.
     Energy policy papers.  Senate Committee print serial 93-43 (92-78).
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     DC, 353p.                                                                    "

US Congress.  1977.  Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977,
     P.L. 95-87.  95th Congress, August 3, 1977.  30 USC 1201, 91 Stat. 445.
     a. Text of act  b. House Report 95-318 (Committee on Interior and
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US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment.  1979a.  The direct use of
     coal:  Prospects and problems of production and combustion.
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US Congress Office of Technology Assessment.  1979b.  The direct  use of
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US Department of Agriculture.  1968.  Restoring surface-mined land.  USDA
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US Dept. of Energy.  1980.  Draft environmental impact  statement,  solvent
     refined coal-Il demonstration project, Ft. Martin, Monogalia  County,
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US Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration.  1978a.  National
     coal model—coal supply curves.  Technical Memorandum.
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US Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration.  1978b.  Synopsis of
     energy facts and projections.  From the  1978 annual report to Congress.
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US Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration.  1979a.  Bituminous
     coal and lignite distribution, calender  year 1978.  DOE/EIA-0125/4078.
     Washington DC, 85p.

US Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration.  1979b.  Bituminous
     and subbituminous coal and lignite distribution, January-June,  1979.
     DOE/EIA-0125/2079, Order No. 702.  Washington DC,  90p.

US Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration.  1979c.  EIA
     publications directory and supplement.   DOE/EIA-0149 and 0149/2.
     Washington DC, 2 vols.

US De:pt. of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology Center.  1978.
     Publications on coal, petroleum and natural gas research, 1943-1977.
     Morgantown WV, 164p.

US Dept. of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology Center.  1979a.  Open file
     information, Eastern Gas Shales Project.  Draft.   Morgantown WV, 33p.

US Dept. of Energy, Morgantown Energy Technology Center.  1979b.
     Unconventional gas recovery program:  Information  file.  Morgantown WV,
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US Dept. of Energy,- Office of Planning Coordination   1978.  Roles and
     responsibilities of energy-related environmental organizations.
     DOE/EV-0026.  Washington DC, 92p.

US Dept. of Energy, Office of Technical Programs Evaluation.  1978.
     International coal technology summary document.  NTIS DOE/PE-0010.
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US Dept. of Housing & Urban Development.  Undated.  Rapid growth from energy
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US Dept. of Housing & Urban Development, Office of Community Planning &
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US Dept. of Housing & Urban Development.  1979.  Procedure for  floodplain
     management and the protection of wetlands; implementation  of Executive
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US Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.  1979.  Handbook of labor
     statistics 1978.  Bulletin 2000.  Washington DC, 618p.

US Dept. of Labor, Employment & Training Administration.  1979.  Area trends
     in employment and unemployment, January-April 1979.  Washington DC,
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US Dept. of the Interior.  1966.  Study of strip and surface mining in
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US Dept. of the Interior.  1967a.  Benthic biology, Kanawha River Basin,
     North Carolina, West Virginia.  FWPCA, Ohio Basin Region, variously
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US Dept. of the Interior.  1967b.  Surface mining and our environment.
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US Dept. of the Interior.  1968.  Results of 1967 lock chamber fish sampling
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US Dept. of the Interior.  1970.  Hydrologic influences of strip mining.  US
     Geological Survey Professional Paper 427, Reston VA.

US Dept. of the Interior.  1971.  Proposed legislation to provide for the
     cooperation between the Federal Government and the States with respect
     to environmental regulations for mining operations, and for other
     purposes.  Washington DC, 16p.

US Dept. of the Interior, Task Force to Study Coal Waste Hazards.  1972.
     Preliminary analysis of the coal refuse dam failure at Saunders, West
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US Dept. of the Interior, Water Resources Scientific Information Center.
     1975.  Acid mine water: A bibliography.  Washington DC, 564p.

US Dept. of the Interior and US Dept. of Agriculture.  1970.  Environmental
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US Dept. of Transportation.  1978.  Rail transportation requirements for
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US Energy Research & Development Administration.  1976a.  A National plan
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US Energy Research & Development Administration, Technical Information
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  Undated.  NPDES application for permit
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1970.  Treatment of acid mine drainage
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  197la.  Flocculation and clarification
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  197lb.  Mine spoil potnetials for water
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1971c.  Noise from construction
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1972.  Reverse osmosis demineralization
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1973a.  Processes, procedures, and
     methods to control pollution resulting from all construction activity.
     Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC, EPA 430/9-73-007.  234p.

US Environmental Protection Agency.  1973b.  Processes, proc dures, and
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1974a.  Polluted ground water:
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1974b.  Mine spoil potentials for soil
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1975a.  Environmental impact assessment
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1975b.  Development documents for
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1975c.  Review of mining and
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1975d.  Criteria for developing
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1975e.  Inactive and abandoned
     underground mines:  Water pollution prevention and control.
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1976a.  Quality criteria for water,
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1976b.  Compilation of air pollutant
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1976c.  Development document for
     interim final effluent limitations guidelines and new source
     performance standards for the coal mining point source category.                A
     Office of Water and Hazardous Materials.  EPA 44b/l-76/057-a,                   "
     Washington DC, 288p.

US Environmental Protection Agency.  1976d.  Erosion and sediment control:
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1976e.  Extensive overburden potentials
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1976f.  Environmental assessment of
     surface mining methods:   head-of-hollow fill and mountaintop removal.
     Monthly Progress Report, 31 July 1976.  Region III, Philadelphia PA,
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1977a.  Annotated bibliography for
     water quality management.   Fourth edition.  Water Planning Division,
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1977b.  Nonpoint source control
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US Environmental Protection Agency.  1979a.  EPA publications bibliography:
     Quarterly abstract bulletin.  Washington DC.
US Environmental Protection Agency.
     Sandy River Basin, 1979.

US Environmental Protection Agency.
     Guyandotte River Basin, 1979.

US Environmental Protection Agency.
     Kanawha River Basin, 1979.

US Environmental Protection Agency.
     River Basin, 1979.

US Environmental Protection Agency.
     Potomac River Basin, 1979.
1979b.   STORE! water quality data,  Big


1979c,   STORE! water quality data,


1979d.   STORE! water quality data,


1979e.   STORE! water quality data,  Ohio


1979f.   STORE! water quality data,
US Environmental Protection Agency, Air Pollution Control Office.  1971.
     Mount Storm, West Virginia-Gorman, Maryland, and Luke, Maryland-Keyser,
     West Virginia, air pollution abatement activity.  Pre-conference
     investigations.  Pub. No. APTD-0656.  Research !riangle Park NC,
     variously paged.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Div. of Water Planning.  1979.
     Annotated bibliography for water quality management.  6th ed.
     Washington DC, variously paged.

US Environmental Criteria Assessment Office.  1978.   Altitude as a factor in
     air pollution.  EPA, Research !riangle Park NC, variously paged.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial Environmental Research
     Laboratory.   1977.  Elkins mine drainage pollution control
     demonstration project.  EPA-600/7-77090.  Cincinnati OH, variously
     paged.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial Environmental Research
     Laboratory.   1979.  Mining pollution control reports.  Cincinnati OH,
     lOp.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning &
     Standards.  1976.  Compilation of air pollutant emission factors, 2nd
     ed.  Reserach !riangle Park NC, variously paged.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement and General
     Counsel.  1973.  Kanawha River investigation of water quality and water
     pollution control practices, Vol. 2: Reports of industrial
     investigations on seven industries.  NTIS PB-259 499.  Washington DC,
     variously paged.

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US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Federal Activities.  1978.            .
     Guidelines for the preparation of an environmental impact assessment           f
     report for new source fossil-fueled steam electric generating
     stations.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Federal Activities.  1979a.
     Environmental impact assessment guidelines for new source surface coal
     mines.  No. 130/6-79-005.  Washington DC, 155p.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Federal Activities.  1979b.
     Environmental impact guidelines for new source underground coal mines
     and coal cleaning facilities.  No. 130/6-79-001.  238p.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Noise Abatement & Control
     1977.  Toward a national strategy for noise control.   Govt. Printing
     Office, Washington DC.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Enforcement.  1979.  A
     guide to new regulations for the NPDES permit program.  C-l.
     Washington DC, 26p.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Region III.  Undated.   Supplemental
     information form for new source coal mining review.  Philadelphia PA,
     variously paged.

US Environmental Protection Agency, Region III.  1973.  The status of active
     deep mines in the Monongahela River Basin.  Work Document No. 46.              m
     Wheeling WV, 129p.

US Environmental Protection Agency and Council on Environmental Quality.
     1979.  Federal financial assistance for pollution prevention and
     control.  Washington DC, 28p.

US Environmental Protection Agency and National Oceanographic and
     Atmospheric Administration.  1977.  General reference guide, surface
     mining:  Environmental information resources for state and local
     elected officials.  NTIS PB-278 684.  90p.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.   Undated.  Unpublished maps of vegetation, land
     use, and wetlands, prepared for projects in West Virginia.  (Scale:
     1:24,000).  Elkins WV.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.   1954.  Wetland inventory of West Virginia.  US
     Department of the Interior, Office of River Basin Studies, Boston MA,
     mimeographed, 19p.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.   1969.  Ohio River Basin comprehensive, survey.
     Appendix G:  Fish and wildlife resources.  USAGE, Ohio River Div.,
     Cincinnati OH, 74p.
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US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1977.  Preliminary assessment of  fish and
     wildlife resources associated with alternative reservoir  complex
     location E of the Gauley River hydropower authorization  study.  50p.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1978.  Preliminary assessment of  the fish and
     wildlife resources of the Tug Fork River Sub-Basin.  Elkins WV,
     variously paged.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1979a.  Acquisition of lands for  the Canaan
     Valley National Wildlife Refuge, West Virginia:  Final environmental
     impact statement.  Washington DC, variously paged.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1979b.  Endangered and threatened wildlife and
     plants; listing of Virginia and Ozark big-eared bats as endangered
     species, and critical habitat determination.  44 FR 69206-69208 (Nov.
     30).

US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1979c.  Endangered species (pamphlet).
     Washington DC.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1979d.  List of endangered and threatened
     wildlife and plants (republication).  44 FR 3636-3654.

US Fish & Wildlife Service.  1979e.  Second draft addition to  the list of
     endangered and threatened wildlife and plants with incorrect when
     listed numbers.  Washington DC, lOp.

US Fish & Wildlife Service, Eastern Energy & Land Use Team.   1978.  Mined
     land reclamation for  fish and wildlife in the eastern United States.
     FWS/OBS-78/95.  Kearneysville WV, 13p.

US Fish & Wildlife Service, Eastern Energy & Land Use Team.  1979a.
     Highlights Notice, Summer, 1979.  Kearneysville WV, 8p.

US Fish & Wildlife Service, Eastern Energy & Land Use Team.  1979b.
     Highlights, November-December.  Kearneysville WV, 7p.

US Forest Service.  1962.  Strip-mine reclamation - a diges.   (Rev. 1964)
     USDA For. Serv. East. Reg. and Soil Conserv. Soc.  Am., Upper Darby PA,
     69p.

US Forest Service.  1970a.  Monongahela National Forest, fact  sheet - Dolly
     Sods scenic area.  Elkins WV, unpaged brochure.

US Forest Service.  1970b.  Coal mining, the situation and its management
     (in the) Monongahela National Forest.  US Department of Agriculture,
     Elkins WV, 4p.

US Forest Service.  1972.  Forest Service research finds ways  to revegetate
     strip-mined land.  Forestry Science in the Service of Man (News
     Bulletin) No. 15.  Upper Darby PA, 4p.
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US Forest Service.  1975a.  Revegetation research in the eastern Kentucky
     coal fields.  NTIS PB-262 494.  For ARC.  KYDNREP, Frankfort KY, 324p.

US Forest Service.  1975b.  Research and demonstration of improved surface
     mining techniques in eastern Kentucky:  Revegetation.  NTIS PB-262 494.
     Berea KY, 324p.

US Forest Service.  1977.  Final environmental statement and land management
     plan for the Monongahela National Forest.  Milwaukee WI, 446p.

US Forest Service.  1978a.  Cranberry Wilderness study area, Monongahela
     National Forest,  West Virginia.  Washington DC, 32p.

US Forest Service.  1978b.  Strategies for protection and management of
     floodplain wetlands and other riparian ecosystems:  Proceedings of
     symposium, 11-13 December 1978, Callaway Gardens GA.  GTR-WO-12.
     Washington DC, 410p.

US Forest Service.  1979a.  Wildlife habitat management for the national
     forests in West Virginia.  Elkins WV, 30p.

US Forest Service.  1979b.  User guide to vegetation:  Mining and
     reclamation in the west.  Ogden UT, 85p.

US Forest Service, Eastern Region.  1969.  Management plan, Spruce Knob
     National Recreation Area-Seneca Rocks, Monongahela National Forest.  US
     Department of Agriculture, 23p.

US Forest Service, Eastern Region.  1977.  Draft environmental impact
     statement and land management plan for the Monongahela National Forest.
     USGPO, Region 5-1, 750-359/14.  Variously paged, 239p.

US Forest Service, Eastern Region.  1978a.  Draft plan and environmental
     impact statement:  Upper Shavers Fork Sub-Unit, Monongahela National
     Forest.  Milwaukee WI  222p.

US Forest Service, Eastern Region.  1978b.  Northern Appalachian-New England
     state supplement to USFS environmental statement, roadless area review
     and evaluation 11 (RARE II).  Milwaukee WI, 144p.

US Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.  Undated.
     Forestry research helps mine spoils turn green.  Forestry Science Story
     No. 12.  Upper Darby PA, 4p.

US Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.  1974.  To heal
     the scars.  NE-INF-18-74.  Upper Darby PA, 15p.

US Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.  1978.  The
     forest resources of West Virginia.  Broomall PA, 103p.
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US Forest Service, Southern Region.   1977.  Timber management plan,
     Jefferson National Forest, West  Virginia, and Kentucky:  Draft
     environmental impact statement.  Roanoke VA, 85p.

US Forest Service and West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources..   1979.
     Wildlife habitat management for  the national forests  in West Virginia.
     Washington DC, 30p.

US General Accounting Office.  1973.  Federal and State efforts to control
     water pollution caused by acid drainage from mines.  NTIS PB-257 291.
     Washington DC, 61p.

US General Accounting Office.  1977a.  Actions needed to improve  the  safety
     of coal mine waste disposal sites.  CED-77-82.  Washington DC, 75p.

US General Accounting Office.  1977b.  US coal development - promises,
     uncertainties.  EMD-77-43.  Washington DC, variously paged.

US General Accounting Office.  1979a.  Issues surrounding  the Surface Mining
     Control and Reclamation Act.  CED-79-83.  Washington DC, 45p.

US General Accounting Office.  1979b.  Alternatives to protect property
     owners from damages caused by mine subsidence.  CED-79-25.  Washington
     DC, 41p.

US Geological Survey.  1965-1978a.  Water resources data for West Virginia.
     Charleston WV, variously paged.

US Geological Survey.  1967 and 1975.  Federal coal ownership maps for
     Arlee, Beach Hill, Goshen, Hacker Valley, and Robertsburg quadrangles,
     West Virginia.

US Geological Survey.  1978a.  Land use and land cover and associated maps.
     Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC.

US Geological Survey.  1978b.  Water-resources investigations in West
     Virginia, 1978.   Charleston WV,  5p.

US Geological Survey.  1979.  Water resources data for Ohio, water year
     1978.  Vol. 1:  Ohio River Basin.  Water-Data Report OH-78-1.
     Columbus OH, 383p.

US Geological Survey, Water Resources Division.  1964.  Surface water
     records of West Virginia.  Charleston WV, 118p.

US Geological Survey and the Bureau of Land Management.  1976.  Surface
     management of Federal coal resources (43 CFR 3041) and coal mining
     operating regulations (30 CFR 211), final environmental statement.  US
     Department of the Interior,  Washington DC, variously paged, 676p.
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US Geological Survey and National Park Service.  Undated.  The river and the
     rocks:  The geologic story of Great Falls and the Potomac River Gorge.          t
     Reston VA, 46p.

US Geological Survey and US Bureau of Mines.  1968.  Mineral resources of
     the Appalachian region.  Professional Paper 580.  Washington DC, 492p.

US Government Printing Office.  1979.  Minerals and mining.  Subject
     Bibliography 151.  Washington DC, 25p.

US Heritage Conservation & Recreation Service.  1979a.  Land conservation
     and preservation techniques.   Washington DC, 75p.

US Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service.  1979b.  The National
     Register of Historic Places.   45 FR 54:17486-7627.

US House of Representatives, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs,
     Sub-committee on Mines and Mining.  1971.  Interior Department mines
     and mining orientation briefing (19 May 1971), 92nd Congress, 1st
     Session.  USGPO, Washington DC, 132p.

US House of Representatives, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs,
     Sub-committee on Mines and Mining.  1972.  Regulation of strip mining,
     hearings (20 September - 30 November 1971), 92nd Congress, 1st Session,
     on H.R. 60 and related bills.  USGPO,  Washington DC, 890p.

US House of Representatives.  1975.  Surface Mining Control and Reclamation          |
     Act of 1975:  Report of the Committee  on Interior and Insular Affairs,          "
     together with additional, dissenting,  and separate views, to accompany
     HR 25.  House Report No. 94-45.  Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC,
     211p.

US House of Representatives.  1977.  Potomac River:  Hearings and markup
     before the subcommittee on bicentennial affairs, the environment, and
     the international community;  and the committee on the District of
     Columbia.  Serial No. 94-20.   Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC,
     815p.

US House of Representatives.  1980.  Railroad coal rates and public
     participation:  Oversight of ICC decisionmaking.  Report, together with
     separate views, by the subcommittee on oversight and investigations of
     the committee on interstate and foreign commerce, 96th Congress, 2nd
     sussion.  Committee Print 96-IFC 40.  Govt. Printing Office, Washington
     DC, 157p.

US House of Representatives, Committee on Government Operations.  1977.
     Strip-mining and the flooding in Appalachia: Hearing before the
     Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources Subcommittee, 26 July 1977
     Govt. Printing Office, Washington DC,  108p.
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US House of Representatives, Committee on the District  of  Columbia.   1976.
     Potomac River: Hearings on water supply, water pollution, water  rates,
     and water conservation.  Washington DC.

US Library of Congress, Environmental Policy Division.  1970.  The economy,
     energy, and the environment; a background study prepared  for the  use  of
     the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United  States.
     Legislative Reference Service, Washington DC, 131p.

US Mining Safety and Health Administration.  Preparation plant data for West
     Virginia.  19 November 1979.  Unpaginated.

US Office of Business Economics, Regional Economics Division, Department of
     Commerce and Office of Appalachian Studies, Army Corps  of Engineer.
     1968.  Development of water resources in Appalachia.  Appendix E,
     economic base study.  US Department of th Army, Cincinnati OH, 171p.

US Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry.  1976.  Proceedings of a
     national conference on health, environmental effects, and control
     technology of energy use.  US Environmental Protection  Agency, Office
     of Research and Development.  EPA 600/7-76-002, Washington DC, 340p.

US Office of Surface Mining Reclamation & Enforcement.  1977.  Surface
     mining reclamation and enforcement provisions:  Final rules.  42  FR
     62639-62716 (12/13/77).

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1978.  Abandoned
     mine land reclamation program provisions:  Procedures & requirements.
     43 FR 49932-49952, October 25, 1978.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979a.
     Determination of significance for proposed implementing rules to
     coordinate Title V and NPDES permitting activities.  Memorandum  to Joan
     M. Davenport, Asst. Sec., Energy & Minerals.  Washington DC, 4p.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979b.  MOU between
     USDI and the EPA regarding coordination of water quality  related
     permitting of surface coal mining and reclamation  activities.  Draft.
     Washington DC, 24p.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979c.  Surface
     coal mining and reclamation operations:  Permanent regulatory program.
     44 FR 14902-15463.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979d.  Permanent
     regulatory program of the SMCRA of 1977:  Final regulatory analysis.
     OSM-RA-1.  Washington DC, 145p.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979e.  Surface
     coal mining and reclamation operations:  Interim and  permanent
     regulatory program.  44 FR 77440-77458, December 31,  1979.
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US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979f.  The
     determination of the probable hydrologic consequences (of surface
     mining and reclamation) and statement of the results of test borings or
     core samplings:  Draft handbook for data collection and analysis.
     Charleston WV, 45p.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1979g.
     Implementation of program policies for Federal, State, and Indian
     abandoned mine land reclamation under Title IV of the SMCRA of 1977.
     Draft environmental statement.  OSM-EIS-2.   Washington DC, variously
     paged.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1980a.  USOSM
     proposes changes in civil penalty provisions.  News release.   USDI,
     Washington DC, lp.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1980b.  Abandoned
     mine reclamation program:  Final guidelines for reclamation programs
     and projects.  45 FR 14810-14819.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement.  1980c.
     Implementation of program policies for Federal, State, and Indian
     abandoned mine land reclamation under Title IV of the SMCRA of 1977.
     Final environmental statement.  OSM-EIS-2.   Washington DC, variously
     paged.

US Office of Surface Mining Regulation & Enforcement.  1980d   Permanent
     regulatory program; prime farmlands grandfather provisions; surface
     coal mining and reclamation operations, experimental practices.  45 FR
     25990-26001,  April 16, 1980.

US Office of Surface Mining Regulation & Enforcement.  1980e.  Coal mining
     and reclamation operations, Part 1:  The determination of the probable
     hydrologic consequences; Part 2:  The statement of the results of test
     borings or core samplings:  A handbook.  Washington DC, variously
     paged.

US Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation & Enforcement, USBLM, and USGES.
     1979.  MOU, BLM-GS-OSM:  Management of Federal coal.  Washington DC,
     43p.

US Public Health Service.   1962.  US Public Health Service Drinking Water
     Standards, 1962.  USPHS Publication No. 956.  Washington DC.

US Senate, Committee on Energy & Natural Resources.  1979.  A bill (S.1699)
     to amend Title VI of the Powerplant & Industrial Fuel Use Act of 1978
     to provide financial and technical assistance to states, local
     governments,  and regional agencies to promote the establishment of
     consolidated programs  to mitigate certain adverse social and economic
     impacts caused by major energy developments, and for other purposes.
     Washington DC, 66p.
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US Senate, Committee on Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on energy,
     nuclear proliferation & Federal Services.  1978.  Energy impact
     assistance act of 1978 (S.1493):  Hearing, August 18, 1978 (includes
     copy of bill).  Washington DC, 138p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1979-1980.  Unpublished data.  Boone,
     Braxton, Cabell, Calhoun, Clay, Doddridge, Gilmer, Kanawha, Lewis,
     Lincoln, Logan, McDowell, Mercer, Mingo, Nicholas, Pleasants,
     Pocahontas, Putnam, Ritchie, Roane, Summers, Tyler, Upshur, Wayne,
     Webster, Wetzel, and Wyoming Counties in West Virginia.

US Soil Conservation Service.  Variously dated.  National soils handbook.
     Part 1:  Policy guide.  Part 2:  Procedure guide.  Washington DC.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1959.  Soil survey of Preston County, West
     Virginia.  Washington DC  49p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1960.  Soil survey of Marshall County, West
     Virginia.  Washington DC, 49p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1961.  Soil survey of Jackson and Mason
     Counties, West Virginia.  Washington DC, 127p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1965.  Soil survey of Monroe County, West
     Virginia.  Washington DC, 138p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1967a.  Soil survey of Tucker County and part
     of northern Randolph County, West Virginia.  Washington DC, 78p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1967b.  Supplement to soil classification
     system (7th approximation).   Washington DC, 207p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1968.  Soil survey of Barbour County, West
     Virginia.  Washington DC, 65p

US Soil Conservation Service.  1968-1973.  Checking the impact of mining
     Reprints from Soil Conservation Magazine.  Washington DC, variously
     paged.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1969.  Kanawha Basin comprehensive study:
     land stabilization problems area study,  Coal River sub-basin and
     adjacent watersheds.  US Soil Conservation Service, Princeton WV, 22p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1970a.  Soil survey of Wood and Wirt
     Counties, West Virginia.  Washington DC, 160p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1970b.  West Virginia soil and water
     conservation needs inventory.  Morgantown WV, 189p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1972.  Soil survey of Greenbrier County, West
     Virginia.  Washington DC, 96p.
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US Soil Conservation Service.  1974a.  Elk Creek watershed, Harbour,
     Harrison, and Upshur Counties, West Virginia: Environmental statement
     for watershed protection and flood protection.  Morgantown WV, 129p.

US Soil Conservation Service  1974b.  Erosion and sediment control handbook
     for urban areas.  Morgantown WV, 154p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1974c.  Interim soil survey, Randolph County,
     West Virginia..  Elkins WV.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1974d.  Lost River subwatershed of the
     Potomac river watershed, Hardy County, West Virginia:  Final
     environmental impact statement.  Morgantown WV, 112p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1974e.  Soil survey of Brooke, Hancock, and
     Ohio Counties, West Virginia.  62p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1974f.  Project plan for Potomac headwaters
     resource conservation and development region.  Morgantown WV, 129p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1975a.  Interim soil survey of Harrison
     County, West Virginia.  Elkins WV, 65p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1975b.  North and South Mill Creek
     subwatershed, Grant, Pendleton, and Hardy Counties, West Virginia:
     Final environmental impact statement.  Morgantown WV, 122p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1975c.  Soil survey of Fayette and Raleigh
     Counties, West Virginia.  Washington DC, 76p.

U
US Soil Conservation Service.  1975d.  Elk Creek watershed environmental
     statement.  EIS-WS-(Adm.)-75-l-(F)-WV.  Morgantown WV, 150p.

US Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff.  I975e.  Supplement to the
     soil survey of Marshall County, West Virginia.  Series 1957, No. 4,
     13p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1976.  Draft watershed plan and draft
     environmental impact statement:  Hackers Creek Watershed, Lewis,
     Harrison, and Upshur Counties, West Virginia.  Morgantown WV, variously
     paged.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1977a.  Interim soil survey maps, Marion
     County, West Virginia, Vol. 2.  Washington DC.

US Soil Conservation Service.  1977b.  Interim soil survey maps, Monongalia
     County, West Virginia, Vol. 2.  Washington DC.
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US Soil Conservation Service and USAGE.  1973.  Pocatalico River Basin  joint
     survey, Roane, Jackson, Putnam and Kanawha Counties, West Virginia:
     Final environmental statement; interim report.  NTIS EIS-WV-73-1420-F.
     Washington DC, 64p.

US Soil Conservation Service.  [No date.]  Interim soil survey maps,
     Monongalia County, West Virginia, volume II.

US Water Resources Council.  1978.  Floodplain management guidelines for
     implementing EO 11988.  FR 43:29-83 (10 February 1978).

US Works Progress Administration.  1941.  Writers' program: West Virginia.
     New York NY, 559p.

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     Urbana IL, 3Op.

University of Kentucky, Inst. for Mining and Minerals Research.  1975.
     Kentucky energy resource utilization program.  Lexington KY, 39p.

University of Kentucky, Inst. for Mining and Minerals Research.  1976a.  A
     Kentucky energy resource utilization program.  Lexington KY, 64p.

University of Kentucky, Inst. for Mining and Minerals Research.  1976b.  The
     future of surface-mined lands.  Lexington KY, 35p.

University of Kentucky, College of Engineering.   1979.  Current publications
     list, Institute for Mining and Minerals Research.  Lexington KY.

University of Maryland, School of Law.  1972.  Legal problems of coal mine
     reclamation:  A study in Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West
     Virginia.  Washington DC, 236p.

University of Newcastle upon Tyne.  1971-1972.  Landscape reclamation.  IPC
     Sci. and Tech. Press Ltd., Guildford, Surrey, England, 220p.

University of Pittsburgh, Graduate Center for Public Works Administration.
     1972.  The effects of strip-mining upon navigable waters and their
     tributaries:  Discussion and selected bibliography.  NTIS AD-749 802.
     For USAGE.   Pittsburgh PA, 94p.

University of Tennessee, Energy, Environment & Resources Center.  1979.
     Publications list, Appalachian Resources/Coal Project.  Knoxville TN,
     3p.

Unseld, Charles T., Denton E. Morrison, David L.  Sills, and C. P. Wolf, eds.
     1979.  Sociopolitical effects of energy use and policy.  Study of
     nuclear and alternative energy systems, Supporting Paper 5.  National
     Acad. of Sci., Washington DC, 511p.
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Updegraff, Karl F., and Jan L. Sykora.  1976.  Avoidance of  lime-neutralized
     iron hydroxide solutions by coho salmon in the laboratory.
     Environmental Science and Technology 10( 1)-.51-54.

URS Research Company.  1971.  Recreation potential in the Appalachian
     Highlands:  A market analysis.  Research Report 14.  ARC, Washington
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UU National Coal Board.  1975.  The subsidence engineers handbook.   Hip.

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     recommendations.  In: Ralph E. Good, et al., eds., Freshwater wetlands:
     Ecological processes and management potential.  Academic Press, New
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van der Leeden, F.  1973.  Groundwater pollution features of Federal and
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     Survey Information Series No. 4.   West Virginia University, Cooperative
     Extension Service, Morgantown WV, 14p.

van Eck, Willem A.  1977b.  Land use potentials, Jefferson County.   Soil
     Survey Information Series No. 7.   West Virginia University, Cooperative
     Extension Service, Morgantown WV, 16p.

van Eck, Willem A.  1977c.  Land use potentials, Mason County.  Soil Survey           ™
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Van Zele, Roger E.  1979.  Regional analysis of energy development impacts
     and responses:  Some research methods, results, and needs.  In: Unseld,
     Charles T., et al., eds.  Sociopolitical effects of energy use and
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     character of recovery of aquatic communities from the effects of
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Werner, Hberhard.  1972.  Development of solution features, Cloverlick
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West Virginia Aeronautics Commission.  1979.  Annual report.  Charleston,
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West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.  1974.  Annual report.
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West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.  1975.  Annual report.
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West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.  1976.  Annual report.
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West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.  1978.  Annual report.
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West Virginia Coal Association.  1975.  West Virginia  coal facts, 1975.
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West Virginia College of Graduate Studies.  Undated.  Land use projections
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West Virginia Dept.  of Agriculture.  Undated.  Rare and endangered plant
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     profile.  Charleston WV, 46p.

West Virginia Dept.  of Commerce, Industrial Development Division.  1974.
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West Virginia Dept. of Education.  I978a.  Educational statistical  summary
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West Virginia Dept. of Education.  1978b.  Sixty-fifth report (24th annual
     report) of the State Superintendent of Schools, for the period July  1,
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West Virginia Dept. of Education.  1979.  Information sources useful  for
     planning manpower and vocational programs in West Virginia.
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West Virginia Dept. of Employment Security.  Undated.  Directory of
     publications dealing with labor market information.  Charleston  WV,
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West Virginia Dept. of Employment Security.  1974.  West Virginia labor
     force estimates, small labor areas:  Annual averages 1971-1974,
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West Virginia Dept. of Employment Security.  1976a.  West Virginia  labor
     force annual averages 1970-1975, hours and earnings 1972-1975.   R&S
     series 128B.  Charleston WV, 35p.

West Virginia Dept. of Employment Security.  1976b.  Employment and earning
     trends annual summary.  LER series 103J.  Charleston WV.

West Virginia Dept. of Employment Security.  1978.  West Virginia,  1978
     industrial rate survey.  Charleston WV, 128p.

West Virginia Dept. of Health.  1977.  Public health statistics of West
     Virginia.  31st annual report.  Charleston WV, HOp.

West Virginia Dept. of Highways.  1977.  West Virginia statewide traffic
     zone profile report and atlas.  Charleston WV, 781p.

West Virginia Dept. of Highways.  1979.  Alternate estimate of coal haul
     road needs.  Charleston WV, 27p.

West Virginia Dept. of Highways, Statewide Planning Div.  1979a.  Coal haul
     road study:  Summary report.  Charleston WV, 16p.

West Virginia Dept. of Highways, Statewide Planning Div.  1979b.  Coal haul
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West Virginia Dept. of Mines.  1951, 1961, 1968, 1969, 1970a, 1971a,  1972a,
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West Virginia Dept. of Mines.  1977.  Annual report and directory  of mines.
     Charleston WV, 398p.

West Virginia Dept. of Mines.  1978.  Annual report and directory  of mines.
     227p.

West Virginia Dept. of Mines.  1979.  Coal company master file.  Report No.
     DM 05P1.  Unpaginated.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  Undated.  West Virginia state
     parks and forests.  Charleston WV, 31p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  Undated.  West Virginia youth
     conservation program handbook.  Sears, Roebuck & Co., St. Davids PA,
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Game and Fish.   [No date.]
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1970.  Reclamation handbook.
     Charleston WV, 54p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1973.  Comprehensive survey of
     Potomac River basin, Vol. I Inventory.  Division of Water Resources,
     Charleston WV, 220p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1974.  West Virginia high quality
     streams, third edition.  Division of Wildlife Resources, Charleston WV,
     47p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1975a.  Annual interagency
     evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West Virginia.  Division of
     Reclamation, Charleston WV, 54p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1975b.  Drainage handbook for
     surface mining.  Division of Planning and Development, and Division of
     Reclamation in cooperation with Soil Conservation Service, USDA,
     Charleston WV, variously paged, 136p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1977.  Publications list, October
     4, 1977.  Charleston WV, 8p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1978.  Surface mining reclamation
     regulations, Chapters 20-26, Series 7.  Charleston WV, 84p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1967.
     West Virginia water quality network.  Charleston WV, 36p.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1972.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1973.
     West Virginia water quality network, compilation of data 1969.
     Charleston WV, 151p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1974.
     West Virginia acid mine drainage study in North Branch Potomac River
     Basin.  Charleston WV, 77p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1975.
     Draft basin water quality management plan for the Kanawha River Basin.
     Charleston WV, 615p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976a.
     Basin water quality management plan for the Big Sandy-Tug Fork River
     Basin.  Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976b.
     Basin water quality management plan for the Guyandotte River Basin
     Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976c.
     Basin water quality management plan for the Ohio River Basin.
     Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976d.
     Draft basin water quality management plan for the Little Kanawha River
     Basin.  Charleston WV, 201p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976e.
     Draft basin water quality management plan for the Monongahela River
     Basin.  Charleston WV, 536p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976f.
     Draft basin water quality management plan for the Potomac River Basin.
     Charleston WV, 257p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1976g.
     Comprehensive survey of the Monongahela River.  Charleston WV, 5 vols.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.  1977a.
     Administrative regulations of the State of West Virginia for water
     quality criteria on inter- and intrastate streams.  Charleston WV, 44p.
     Also cited as SWRB 1977.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div  of Water Resources.  1977b.
     Basin water quality management plan for the Monongahela River Basin:
     Addendum.  Charleston WV, unpaginated.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1977c.
     Comprehensive survey of Mill Creek Basin, Vol. 1: Inventory.
     Charleston WV, 97p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1977d.
     Comprehensive survey of the Middle Island Creek Basin, Vol. 1:
     Inventory.  Charleston WV, 197p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1977e.
     Comprehensive survey of Pocatalico Creek Basin, Vol. 1:  Inventory.
     Charleston WV, 72p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1977f.
     West Virginia water quality status assessment, 1971-1976.  Charleston
     WV, partial volume.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1979a.  Annual report for
     1978-1979.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1979b.  Fourteenth annual
     interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West Virginia.
     Charleston WV.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources.  1980.  Publications list,
     February  1, 1980.  Charleston WV, 9p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Forestry.   1977.  The
     primary forest industry of West Virginia, 1977.  Charleston WV, 85p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Planning and Development,
     and Div.  of Reclamation.  1975.  Drainage handbook for surface mining.
     Charleston WV, 135p.

West Virginia Dept  of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.  1975.
     Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
     Virginia.  Charleston WV, 54p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.  1976.
     Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
     Virginia.  Charleston WV, 73p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.  1977.
     Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
     Virginia.  Charleston WV, 59p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.  1978a.
     Thirteenth annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in
     West Virginia.  Charleston WV, 76p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.  1978b.  West
     Virginia  surface mining reclamation  regulations, Chapter 20-6.  Series
     VII
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.   1979.
     Fourteenth annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation  in        m
     West Virginia.  Charleston WV.   128p.                                           ^

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation.   1980.
     Fourteenth annual interagency evaluation tour  of surface mine
     reclamation in West Virginia.  Charleston WV,  128p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1978a.
     Comprehensive survey of the Coal River Basin,  Vol. 1:  Inventory.
     Charleston WV, 78p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1978b.
     Comprehensive survey of the Bluestone River Basin, Vol. 1:  Inventory.
     Charleston WV, lOlp.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources.   1980.
     Proposed administrative regulations of the State of West Virginia  for
     water quality standards on inter- and intrastate streams.   Charleston
     WV, 71p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div, of Wildlife Resources.
     Undated.  Hunter numbers, days hunted, and game harvest data for
     1970-1971 and 1975-1976 hunting  seasons.  Unpublished data  from mail
     survey questionnaires.  Elkins WV.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.                 t
     [1921.]  Checklist of West Virginia fishes.  West Virginia  Department           "
     of Natural Resources, Charleston WV, 9p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.   1970.
     Landowner survey.  Unpublished final report for Project FW-4-R-1.
     Elkins WV.

West Virginia Dept  of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     1973a.  Species status and recommendations for the West Virginia
     wildlife resources plan:  Fishery section.  Elkins WV  variously
     paged.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resourves.
     1973b.  Inventory of wildlife resources of West Virginia.   West
     Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Elkins.  First edition,
     variously paged.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     197Aa.  Species status and recommendations for the West Virginia
     wildlife resources plan:  Vol. 3, Terrestrial  section.  Elkins WV,
     variously paged.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     1974b.  West Virginia high quality streams.  3rd ed.   Charleston WV,
     47p.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.   1975.
     West Virginia trout fishing guide.  Charleston WV, 24p.

West Virginia Dpt. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     [1977].  Checklist of mammals and nongame birds.  West Virginia
     Department of Natural Resources, 5p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.   1977.
     Today's plan for tomorrow's wildlife:  A strategic plan for  fish,  game,
     and non-game management, 1975-1985.  Charleston WV, 59p.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     1978a.  A summary of wildlife and fish information for West  Virginia,
     Vols.  1-4.  Elkins WV.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     1978b.  West Virginia stream map.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.   1979.
     West Virginia high quality streams.  Charleston WV, 44p.

West Virginia Dept  of Natural Resources, Div  of Wildlife Resources.
     1980a.  Unpublished data on harvest of game species in West  Virginia
     during the 1979-1980 hunting season.  Elkins WV.

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
     L980b.  1979 West Virginia big game bulleting.  Elkins WV, 54p

West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Heritage Trust Program.  1980.
     Unpublished information on species, habitats, and natural features of
     special interest in West Virginia.  Charleston WV.

West Virginia Geological Survey.  Undated.  Geologic map of West  Virginia.
     2 sheets, scale 1:250,000.

West Virginia Geological Survey.  1919.  Map, Fayette County, general and
     economic geology.  1 sheet, scale, 1:62,500.

West Virginia Geological Survey.  1920.  Maps, Nicholas County, showing
     topography and general and economic geology.  2 sheets, scale
     1:62,500.

West Virginia Geological Survey.  1921.  Maps, Tucker County, showing
     topography and general and economic geology.  2 sheets, scale
     1:62,500.

West Virginia Geological Survey.  1931.  Map, Randolph County  general  and
     economic geology.  1 sheet, scale, 1:62,500.

West Virginia Geological Survey.  1956.  Geology and econmic resources  of
     the Ohio River Valley in West Virginia.  West Virginia Geological
     Survey 22, 408p.
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West Virginia Geological Survey.  1973-1977.  Publications of the WVGES.
     Morgantown WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Geological & Economic Survey.  1979.  Mountain State geology.
     Morgantown WV, 42p.

West Virginia Governor's Disaster Recovery Office and Regional Development
     Councils.  1978.  Potential temporary housing sites: Lincoln, Wayne,
     Kanawha, Fayette, McDowell, Mercer, Raleigh, Summers, Wyoming, Mingo,
     and Logan Counties.  USHUD No. H4295.  Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development.  1978.
     Summary of state land use policy.  Draft.   Charleston WV, 51p.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development.  1979a.
     Directory of regional planning and development councils.  Charleston
     WV, 89p.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development.  1979b.
     The status of planning in West Virginia counties and municipalities.
     Charleston WV, 109p.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development   1979c.
     West Virginia state development plan.  Charleston WV, 269p.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development.  1979d.
     Directory of state resources.  Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development.  1980.
     1980 statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan:  Inventory
     section.  Preliminary draft.  Charleston WV, 18-112.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Federal-State Relations, Outdoor
     Recreation Division.  1975.  Statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation
     plan.  Prepared in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of
     Natural Resources.  [Charleston WV].  Variously paged  263p.

West Virginia Governor's Office of Federal-State Relations.  1974.  Catalog
     of map sources.  Charleston WV, 74p.

West Virginia Health Systems Agency.  1979.  The health systems plan and
     annual implementation plan for West Virginia.  Charleston WV, variously
     paged.

West Virginia Historic Commission.  1967.  West Virginia highway markers,
     historic, prehistoric, scenic, geological.  Revised Edition.
     Biggs-Johnston-Withrow, Beckley WV, 263p.

West Virginia Legislature.   1849, as amended to 1973.  Dams or obstructions
     in watercourses; penalty.  In: West Virginia Code annotated, Sec.
     61-3-47.  Charleston WV, 161-162.
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West Virginia Legislature.  1877, as amended to 1967.  Boom companies.  In:
     West Virginia Code annotated, Sees. 31-3-1 through 31-3-11.
     Charleston WV, 131-137.

West Virginia Legislature.  1939.  Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
     Commission.  In:  West Virginia Code annotated, Sees. 29-1D-1 through
     29-1D-6.  Charleston WV, 239-245.

West Virginia Legislature.  1967.  1967 Surface Mining Act.   In: Code of
     West Virginia, Chapter 20, Article 6.  Charleston WV,  30p.

West Virginia Legislature.  1972, as amended to 1978.  Coal Refuse Disposal
     Control Act.  In: West Virginia Code annotated.  Sees.  20-6C-1 through
     20-6C-8.  Charleston WV, 201-207, 1979 Supp.:48.

West Virginia Legislature.  1973.  Dam Control Act.  In: West Virginia Code
     annotated, Sees.  20-5-D-l through 20-5-D-14.   Charleston WV, 153-161.

West Virginia Mountain Stream Monitors.  1980.  Public meeting:  coal
     mining in the Little Kanawha River Basin.

West Virginia Office of Health Planning & Evaluation  Health Statistics
     Center.  1978.  1978 vital statistics.  Charleston WV,  120p.

West Virginia Railroad Maintenance Authority.  1978.  State rail plan.
     Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Region I Planning & Development Council.  1977.  Overall
     economic development program, McDowell, Mercer, Monroe, Raleigh,
     Summers, and Wyoming Counties.  Princeton WV,  159p.

West Virginia Region I Planning & Development Council.  1978.  Regional
     housing plan for Region I.  Preliminary draft.  Princeton WV, 130p.

West Virginia Region I Planning & Development Council.  1979.  Regional
     development program  McDowell, Mercer, Monroe, Raleigh, Summers, and
     Wyoming Counties.   156p.

West Virginia Region II Planning & Development Council.  1979.  Regional
     development plan.   Partial volume.  Huntington WV, 25p.

West Virginia Region III Intergovernmental Council.  1977a.   Region III
     clean water program, Vol. 2:  The environmental report.  Draft final
     report.  Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Region III Intergovernmental Council.  1977b.   Region III
     clean water program, Vol. 6;  The drainage report.  Draft final report.
     Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Region III Intergovernmental Council.  1977c.   Region III
     clean water program, Vol 5:  The industrial wastewater report.   Draft
     final report.  Charleston WV, variously paged
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West Virginia Region IV Development Council.  1978a.  Land use plan.
     Summersville WV, 214p.

West Virginia Region IV Development Council.  1978b.  Region IV housing
     element.  Summersville WV, 54p.

West Virginia Region IV Planning & Development Council.  1978c.  Regional
     development plan.  Summersville WV, unpaginated.

West Virginia Region IV Planning & Development Council.  1979.  Region IV
     regional development plan.  Summersville WV, 193p.

West Virginia Region VI Planning & Development Council.  1979a.  OEDP update
     and annual report, 1979.  Summersville WV, 99p.

West Virginia Region VI Planning & Development Council.  1979b.  The
     regional development plan 1979-1980.  Fairmont WV, 87p.

West Virginia Region VII Planning & Development Council.  1977.  Population
     forecast for Region VII.  Buckhannon WV, 51p.

West Virginia Region VII Planning & Development Council.  1978a.   Region VII
     development program, 1978-1979.  Buckhannon WV, 224p.

West Virginia Region VII Planning & Development Council.  1978b.   Regional
     land use plan.  Task Report No. 3-LU.  Buckhannon WV, 93p.

West Virginia Region VII Planning & Development Council.  1979a.   Project
     priority list.  Buckhannon WV, 5p.

West Virginia Region VII Planning & Development Council.  1979b.   Region VII
     development program 1979-1980.  Buckhannon WV, 210p.

West Virginia Region VIII Planning & Development Council.  1979.   Region
     VIII development plan:  Annual Report.  Petersburg WV,  145p.

West Virginia Regional Intergovernmental Council.  1978a.  Housing plan,
     Region III:  Boone, Clay, Kanawha, and Putnam Counties.   Charleston WV,
     128p.

West Virginia Regional Intergovernmental Council.  1978b.  Land use plan,
     Region III:  Boone, Clay, Kanawha, and Putnam Counties.   Charleston WV,
     261p.

West Virginia Research League, Inc.  1978.  A comparison of  State tax
     burdens imposed upon the coal industry, West Virginia and selected
     states.  Charleston WV, 193p.

West Virginia Scenic Rivers Task Force.  1973.  Birch River  A pilot study.
     9p.
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West Virginia Speleological Society.  1977.  The WVSS story.  Also,
     publications on West Virginia caves and karst available from the WVSS.
     Barrackville WV, 2p.

West Virginia, State of.  1965.  West Virginia statistical handbook.

West Virginia, State of.  1979a.  West Virginia county data.  Charleston WV,
     unpaginated.

West Virginia, State of.  1979b.  Preliminary state health plan.
     Charleston WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Surface Mine Drainage Task Force   1979.  Suggested guidelines
     for method of operation in  surface mining of areas with potentially
     acid-producing materials.  In:  Green Lands, Summer 1979, by WVSMRA
     Charleston WV, 21-40.

West Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn.   Undated a.  Nobody does it
     better.  Charleston WV, 5p.

West Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn   Undated b   The role of
     surface mining:  Environment, economy, energy.  Charleston WV, 5p.

West Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association.  1974.  Procedure
     for obtaining a surface mining permit in West Virginia.  Charleston WV,
     L40P

West Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn.   1977-78.  Surface mining
     in the '70's.  Green Lands 7:4.  Charleston WV, 59p.

West Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Assn , and West Virginia Coal
     Assn.  1980.  Proceedings of "Surface Mining for Water Quality."
     Bridgeport WV, variously paged.

West Virginia Travel Division.  [No date ]  Camping in West Virginia.  West
     Virginia Department of Commerce, Charleston WV, unpaged.

West Virginia University, Agricultural Experiment Station.  1970.  West
     Virginia climate in relation to weather sensitive industry.  Bulletin
     591T.  26p.

West Virginia University, Bureau of Business Research.  1965.   Climate   In:
     West Virginia statistical handbook.  Morgantown WV, 3-8.

West Virginia University, Bureau of Business Research.  1977.   West Virginia
     travel 1976-77:  Dramatic growth demonstrates travel's potential for
     future economic development.  Morgantown WV, 8p.

West Virginia University, Bureau of Business Research.  1978.   West Virginia
     travel 1977-78'  Partner in statewide economic development.  Morgantown
     WV, 8p.
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West Virginia University, Bureau of Business Research.  1976   West Virginia
     travel:  Continuing to prosper.  Morgantown WV, 8p.

West Virginia University, Coal Research Bureau.  1979.  Publications list.
     Morgantown WV, lip.

West Virginia University, Dept. of Civil Engineering   1974   West Virginia
     special traffic generators study, phase 1:  Executive summary report,
     Planning Project 02.  Morgantown WV, 13p.

West Virginia University, Div. of Plant Sciences.   1971.  Mine spoil
     potentials for water quality and controlled erosion.  For EPA
     Morgantown WV, partial volume.

West Virginia University, Office of Publications/University Relations.
     1978.  West Virginia University directory:  Faculty-staff-students,
     1978-79.  Morgantown WV, variously paged

West Virginia State Water Resources Board.  Undated.  Requirements governing
     the discharge of sewage, industrial wastes, and other wastes into the
     waters of the State.  Chapter 20, Articles 5 and 5A, Code of West
     Virginia, Charleston WV, variously paged.

Wheeler, Wilson H.  1962.  Reclamation of strip mined land in Pennsylvania.
     In:  Proceedings of the PA Dept. Health Nat. Symp. on Control of Coal
     Mine Drain.  Harrisburg PA, 4:71-73.

Wheeler, Wilson H.  1965.  Progress in reclamation with forest trees.  In:
     Proceedings of the PA State Univ. Coal Mine Spoil Reclam. Symp.
     University Park PA, 111-116,

Wheeling Park Commission.  1979.  Oglebay.  Wheeling WV, 6p.

Whitaker, G. A. , E. R. Roach, and R. H. McCuen   1976.  Inventorying
     habitats and rating their value for wildlife species.  In:  Proceedings
     of the southeastern assn. of fish & wildlife agencies, 30:590-601.

Whitcomb, Robert F.  1977.   Island biogeography and "habitat islands" of
     eastern forest.  American Birds 31(1):3-5.

White, Elizabeth L. and William B.  White.  1979.  Quantitative morphology of
     land forms in carbonate rock basins in the Appalachian Highlands.
     Geological Society of  America Bulletin, Part I, 90:385-396.

The White House.  1979a.  Fact sheet on the President's (energy) program.
     Washington DC, 28p.

The White House.  1979b.  The President's program for United States energy
     security:  The Energy Security Corporation.  Washington DC, 43p.

White  I. C.  1910a.  County reports and maps, Ohio, Brooks, and Hancock
     Counties.  WVGES, Morgantown WV, 378p.
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White, I. C.  1910b.  County reports and maps, Plesants, Wood and Ritchie
     Counties.  WVGES, Morgantown WV, 352p.

Whitesell, Dale E.  1964.  Reclaim for game.  Ohio Conservation Bulletin
     28(4):18-20.

Whitmore, Robert C.  1978.  Managing reclaimed surface mines in West
     Virginia to promote nongame birds.  In:  D.  E. Samuel, et. al.  Surface
     mining and fish/wildlife needs  in the eastern United States
     Proceedings of a symposium.  FWS/OBS-78/81.

Whitmore, Robert C.  1979.  Short-term change in vegetation structure and
     its effect on grasshopper sparrows in West Virginia.  The Auk
     96(3):621-625.

Whitmore, Robert C.  1980.  Reclaimed surface mines as avian habitat islands
     in the eastern forest.  American Birds 34(1):13-14.

Whitmore, Robert C. and George A. Hall.  1978.  The response of passerine
     species to a new resource:  Reclaimed surface mines in West Virginia.
     American Birds 32(1) 6-9.

Wiens, John A.  1973.  Pattern and process in grassland bird communities.
     Ecological Monographs 43:237,270.

Wilbur Smith & Associates.  1973.  Steubenville-Weirton area transportation
     study:  The recommended plan.  Tech. Report 5.  lOp.

Wilderness Committee  West Virginia Highlands Conservancy.  1973a.  The
     Dolly Sods area - 32,000 acres in and adjacent to the Monongahela
     National Forest, WEst Virginia.  Fourth Edition, mimeographed, by the
     Conservancy, Huntington WV, 75p.

Wilderness Committee, West Virginia Highlands Conservancy.  1973b.  Otter
     Creek.  Fourth Edition.  West Virginia Highlands Conservancy
     Huntington WV, 31p-

Wilhm, J. L.  1970.  Range of diversity index in benthic macroinvertebrate
     populations.  J. of the Water Pollution Cont. Fed.  42(5):221-224.

Wilkey, Michael and Stanley Zellmer   1979.  Land reclamation at abandoned
     deep coal mines.  J. of the Environmental Engineering Div., ASCE
     105(EE5):843-853.

Wilkins, Gary R.  Cultural ecology of prehistoric mountaintop sites in the
     Kanawha River Basin, West Virginia.  Masters thesis, University of
     Arkansas.

Wilkins, Gary R.  1978.  Prehistoric mountaintop occupations of Southern
     West Virginia.  In:  Archaeology of eastern North America, Volume
     6:13-41.
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Willard, Dan.  1978.  Land use changes resulting from strip mining  in  the
     ORBES region.  Ohio River Basin energy study, Urbana IL, unpaginated.

Williams, E. G., and M. L. Keith.  1963.  Relationship between  sulfur  in
     coals and the occurrence of marine roof beds.  Economic Geology
     58:720-29.

Williams, George P.  1967.  Roads, slides, and check dams.  In:  Proceedings
     of the Ky. Dep. Nat. Resour. Strip Mining Symp., Frankfort KY, 4p.

Williams, George P., Jr.  1973.  Changed  spoil dump shape increases
     stability on contour strip mines.  In:  Proceedings of the Res. and
     Appl. Tech. Symp.  on Mined Land Reclam.  Bituminous Coal Research,
     Inc., Monroeville  PA, 243-249.

Williams, George P., Jr.  1979.  Wood chips for dust control on surface-mine
     haul roads.  Forest Service Research Note NE-277.  USFS, Northeastern
     Forest Experiment  Station, Broomall PA, 16p.

Williams, John A.   1976.  West Virginia:  A bicentennial history.  W.  W.
     Norton & Co.,  New  York NY  212p.

Williams  Roger L.  1971.  Reclamation:  How much and when.  Georgia Surface
     Mined Land Use Board, Macon GA, 2, 8-9.

Williamson, Ralph K.  1978.  Followup on  trees:  Conservationists  in West
     Virginia looked at the long-term effects of planting trees to reclaim
     surface mine sites.  Soil Conservation 43(10):9.

Willis, Beverly A.  1976.  Socioeconomic problems facing industry  include
     inadequate housing   Coal Mining and Processing June:62-84.

Willson, Mary.  1974.   Avian community organization and habitat structure.
     Ecology 55:1017-1029.

Wilmoth, Benton N.  1966.  Groundwater in Mason and Putnam Counties, West
     Virginia.  Bulletin 32.  WVGES, Morgantown WV, 152p.

Wilmoth, R. C.  1973.   Applications  of reverse osmosis to acid mine drainage
     treatment.  US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
     Development, National Environmental Research Center  Cincinnati OH,
     Environmental  Protection Technology Series EPA-670/2-73-100,  157p.

Wilmoth, Roger C.   1977.  Limestone  and lime neutralization of  ferrous iron
     acid mine drainage.  NTIS PB-270 911.  EPA, Ind. Euv. Res. Lab.,
     Cincinnati OH, 94p

Wilmoth, Roger C.,  and  R. D. Hill.   1970.  Neutralization of high  ferric
     iron acid mine drainage.  US Department of the Interior, Federal  Water
     Quality Administration, Robert  A. Taft Research Center.  Water
     Pollution Control  Research Series 14010 ETV 08/70.  USGPO, Washington
     DC, 42p.
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Wilmoth, R. C  , and J. L. Kennedy.   1976.   Combination limestone-lime
     treatment of acid mine drainage.   USEPA,  Industrial Environmental
     Research Laboratory, Crown Mine Drainage  Control  Field Site,  Rivesville
     WV, 37p.

Wilmoth, R. C., and J. L. Kennedy.   [No date.]   Treatment options  for acid
     mine drainage control.  USEPA, Office  of  Research and Development,
     Industrial Environmental Research  Laboratory,  Cincinnati  OH,  unpaged

Wilmoth, R. C., D. G. Mason, and H. Gupta.   1972.   Treatment of  ferrous  iron
     acid mine drainage by reverse  osmosis.  USEPA,  Norton Mine  Drainage
     Field Site, Norton WV, and Rex Chainbelt,  Inc., Milwaukee WI,  unpaged.

Wilmoth, R. C., and R. B. Scott.  1974.  Use of  coal mine refuse and  fly ash
     as a road base material.  USEPA, National Environmental Research
     Center, Industrial Waste Treatment Research Laboratory Mining
     Pollution Control Branch, Corwn Field  Site, Rivesville WV,  1BB040
     10/74B, unpaged.

Wilmoth, Roger C. and Robert B. Scott.   1976.   Water recovery  from  acid  mine
     drainage, EPA, Cincinnati OH,  6p.

Wilmoth, R. C., R. B. Scott, and E.  F   Harris.   1977.   Application  of ion
     exchange to acid mine drainage treatment.   USEPA,  Industrial
     Environmental Research Laboratory,  Cincinnati  OH,  unpaged.

Wilmoth, R. C., R. B. Scott, and J. L.  Kennedy.  1977.   Investigation of ion
     exchange treatment of acid mine drainage.   USEPA,  Industrial
     Environmental Research Laboratory,  Cincinnati  OH,  22p.

Wilson, Carroll L.  1980.  Coal—bridge to  the future    Report of  the World
     Coal Study.  Ballinger Publishing  Co , Cambridge  MA,  247p.

Wilson, H. A.  1951.  Strip mine spoils - they can  be  reclaimed.  WV  Univ.
     Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 349(1) :8-9.

Wilson  H. A.  1957.  Effect of vegetation  upon aggregation in strip  mine
     spoils.  Soil Sci.  Soc. Am. Proc.  21:637-640

Wilson, H. A.  1961.  Rhizosphere bacteria  of  some  strip-mine  vegetation.
     WV Acad. Sci. Proc. 33:15-20.

Wilson, H. A.  1965.  The microbiology  of strip-mine spoil  WV  Univ.  Agric.
     Exp.  Stn. Bull. 506T, Morgantown WV, 44p.

Wilson, H. A., and H. G. Hedrick.   1957.  Carbon dioxide evolution  from  some
     strip mine spoils.   Appl. Microbiol. 5(1):17-21.

Wilson, H. A. , and H. G. Hedrick.   1957-58.  Some qualitative  observations
     of the microflora in a strip mine  spoil.   WV Acad.  Sci. Proc.  35-38
                                   BB-185

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Wilson, H. A., and H. G. Hedrick.  1959-1960.  Extractable  sulfates and iron
     in strip mine spoil acid spots.  WV Acad. Sci. Proc. 31-32:21

Wilson, H. A., and G  Stewart.  1955.  Ammonification  and nitrification in a
     strip mine spoil.  WV Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 379T, Morgantown WV,
     16p.
Wilson, H. A. and Gwendolyn Stewart.  1956.  The number of  bacteria,  fungi,
     and actinomycetes in some strip-mine spoil.  Bulletin  388T.   West
     Virginia University. Agricultural Experiment Station   Morgantown WV
     15p.

Wilson  H. A. and David A. Zuberer.  1976.  Some microbiological  factors
     associated with surface-mine reclamation.  Bulletin 645T.  West
     Virginia University, Agricultural Experiment Station,  Morgantown WV,
     19p.

Wilson, H. Lee, Carroll M. Smithson, Robert Kletzly, Theodore R.  Samsell,
     Remit Kruse, and Gordon Hubbard.  1951.  Cover mapping and  habitat
     analysis.  Unpublished final report, Federal Aid  in Wildlife
     Restoration Project 21-R.  Conservation Commission of  West Virginia,
     221p. & 116p. supplement.

Wiltsee, Herbert L.  1965.  A proposed interstate mining compact.   In:
     Proceedings of the Ky. Dept. Nat. Resour. Strip Mine Reclam.  Symp.
     Frankfort KY, 31-35.

Winger, P. V.  1978.  Fish and benthic populations of  the New River
     Tennessee, 190-202.  In:  D. E. Samuel, J. R. Stauffer, C. H.  Hocutt,
     and W. T. Mason [eds.].  Surface mining and fish/wildlife needs  in the
     eastern United States.  USFWS FWS/OBS-78/81.

Wolf, C. P.  1979.  Recommendations  for future research on  the
     sociopolitical impacts of energy.  In:  Unseld, Charles T.,  et al. ,
     eds.  Sociopolitical effects of energy use and policy.  Study of
     nuclear and alternative energy  systems.  Supporting paper 5,  Natl.
     Acad. of Sci,, Washington DC, 377-415.

Wollitz, R. E.  1972.  The effect of acid mine drainage on  the limnology of
     a small impoundment in southwest Virginia.  Proc. S. E. Assoc. of  Game
     and Fish Comm.  26:442-460.

Woodley, R. A., and S. L. Moore.  1967.  Pollution control  in mining  and
     processing of Indiana coal.  Water Pollution Control Federation
     Journal.  39(1):41-49.

Woodring,  S. M.  1977.  Aerial and satellite imagery of West Virginia.
     Bulletin 14.  WVGES, Morgantown WV, 96p.
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Wood, Francis A. and Stanley P. Pennypacker.  1975.  Evaluation  of  the
     effects of air pollution on vegetation in the Mt. Storm, West
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                                ADDENDUM
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                                   189

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Fortney, Ronald H.  1978.  Testimony on S. 1820 (The National Diversity Act)
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 Koon, J. M. 1977.  The chemical water quality  of  the Monongahela River Basin
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                                190

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Lohman, S. W.  1972.  Groundwater hydraulics.   US Geological Survey
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Sisselman, Robert (ed.), 1978.E/MJ operating handbook of mineral under-
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                                   191

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US Bureau of Mines.  1977.   All coal mines with latitude and longitude
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US Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service.   1967.  Soil survey
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 US Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service.  1975e.  Soil
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                                   192

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US Department of Agriculture,  Soil Conservation Service.   1977a.   West
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                                   193

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                                 194

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                                  195

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                                 196

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