903R81001
•A.
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION DOCUMENT
to the
Areawide Environmental Assessment
for Issuing New Source NPDES Permits
on Coal Mines in the
Monongahela River Basin,
West Virginia
Prepared by:
US Environmental Protection Agency
Region III
Sixth and Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106
With the Assistance Of:
WAPORA, Inc.
Berwyn, Pennsylvania 19312
February 1981
U.S. EPA Region HI
.Regional Center for Environmenta
Information
,-. 1650 Arch Street (3PM52)
"hiladelphia, PA 19103
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\
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION III
GTH AND WALNUT STREETS
PHILADELPHIA. PENNSYLVANIA 19106
February 1981
TO ALL INTERESTED AGENCIES, PUBLIC GROUPS, AND CITIZENS:
Enclosed is a revised copy of the Supplemental Information Document (SID) to
the Areawide Environmental Assessment for Issuing New Source Coal Mining
NPDES Permits in the Monongahela River Basin in West Virginia. This
revision is in the new format used for the recently published SID's for the
Elk, Guyandotte, Coal/Kanawha, Ohio, and Potomac River Basins. The most
significant technical changes made to this SID include new water quality and
aquatic resource data, visual impacts and socio-economic impacts analysis.
The Gauley SID is being revised under separate cover. Detailed information
on known environmental resources potentially affected by new source coal
mining activity is included in this SID and forms the technical basis for
the designations of the Potentially Significant Impact Areas specified in
the Areawide Environmental Assessment. The Permit Review Program specified
in this document formally began with NPDES permit applications received
after December 31, 1980.
Due to the continual acquisition of new environmental information from
site-specific permit application and new federal and state studies, this
document will be updated as new data becomes available. New data may be
submitted to EPA's Enforcement Division (3EN23) at any time for
consideration in the new source NPDES permit review process.
Sincerely yours,
O.GL4.
Georges D. Pence, Jr., Chief
Environmental Impact Branch
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables v
List of Figures ix
List of Acronyms xiii
1.0. Introduction 1-1
2.0. Existing Conditions
2.1. Water Resources and Water Quality
2.1.1. Surface Waters
2.1.2. Groundwater Resources
2.2. Aquatic Biota
2.2.1. Stream Habitats
2.2.2. Biological Communities
2.2.3. Erroneous Classification
2.3. Terrestrial Biota
2.3.1. Ecological Setting
2.3.2. Vegetation and Flora
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features
2.3.5. Data Gaps
2.4. Climate, Air Quality, and Noise
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the Basin
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality
2.4.4. Noise
2.5. Cultural and Visual Resources
2.5.1, Prehistory
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources
2.5.3. History
2.5.4. Identified Historic Sites
2.5.5. Visual Resources
2.6. Human Resources and Land Use
2.6.1. Human Resources
2.6.2. Land Use and Land Availability
2.7. Earth Resources
2.7.1. Physiography, Topography, and Drainage
2.7,2. Steep Slopes and Slope Stability
2.7.3. Floodprone Areas
2.7.4. Soils
2.7.5. Prime Farmland
2.7.6. Geology
2.8. Potentially Significant Impact Areas
3.0. Current and Projected Mining Activity
3.1. Past and Current Mining Activity in Basin
3.1.1. Surface Mining
3.1.2. Underground Mines
3.1.3. Preparation Plants
3.2. Mining Methods in the Basin
3.2.1. Surface Mining Methods
3.2.2. Underground Mining Methods
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-56
2-77
2-77
2-81
2-94
2-97
2-97
2-100
2-107
2-116
2-120
2-123
2-123
2-124
2-145
2-156
2-159
2-160
2-169
2-170
2-186
2-186
2-205
2-207
2-279
2-295
2-295
2-298
2-305
2-305
2-311
2-312
2-339
3-1
3-1
3-3
3-3
3-18
3-21
3-21
3-44
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Page
3.2.3. Coal Preparation 3-72 *
3.2.4. Abandonment of Coal Mining Operations 3-76
3.2.5. Coal Mining Economics 3-77
3.3. The National Coal Market: Demand Issues ' 3-93
3.3.1. General Trends in Market Demand 3-94
3.3.2. Specific Trends in Market Demand by End-Use 3-95
3.3.3. Effects of Legislation and Regulations on 3-101
the Coal Market
4.0. Regulations Governing Mining Activities 4-1
4.1. Past and Current West Virginia Regulations 4-1
4.1.1. Outline History of State Mining Regulations 4-1
4.1.2. Current State Permit Programs 4-5
4.1.3. General Framework of State Laws and 4-7
Regulations
4.1.4. Specific Permit Applications 4-8
4.2. Federal Regulations 4-37
4.2.1. EPA Permitting Activities 4-37
4.2.2. SMCRA Permits 4-41
4.2.3. Clean Air Act Reviews 4-44
4.2.4. CMHSA Permits 4-52
4.2.5. The Safe Drinking Water Act 4-52
4.2.6. Floodplains 4-53
4.2.7. Wild and Scenic Rivers 4-54
4.2.8. Wetlands 4-54 ^
4.2.9. Endangered Species Habitat 4-55 ^
4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands 4-55
4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic 5-55
Sites
4.2.12. United States Forest Service Reviews 4-56
4.3. Interagency Coordination 4-57
4.3.1. USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of 4-57
Understanding
4.3.2. Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility 4-61
4.4. Other Coordination Requirements 4-62
4.4.1. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 4-62
4.4.2. Local Notification 4-62
4.4.3. Lands Unsuitable for Mining 4-62
4.5. Potential for Regulatory Change 4-65
4.5.1. Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program 4-65
4.5.2. SMCRA Permit Program 4-65
5.0. Impacts and Mitigations 5-1
5.1. Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-1
5.1.1. Surface Waters 5-1
5.1.2. Groundwater 5-14
5.2. Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations 5-19
5.2.1. Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage to 5-19
Aquatic Biota
5.2.2. Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts 5-24
5.2.3. Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining 5-28
Impacts
ii
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Page
5.2.4. Mitigative Measures 5-40
5.2.5. Erroneous Classification 5-49
5.3. Terrestrial Biota 5-51
5.3.1. Impacts Associated with Mining Activities' 5-51
5.3.2. Mitigation of Impacts 5-61
5.3.3. Revegetation 5-75
5.3.4. Long-term Impacts on the Basin 5-77
5.3.5. Data Gaps 5-80
5.4. Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations 5-85
5.4.1. Air Quality Impacts 5-85
5.4.2. Noise Impacts 5-87
5.5. Cultural Resource and Visual Resource Impacts and
Mitigations 5-99
5.5.1. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural
Resources: Historic Structures and Properties 5-99
5.5.2. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural
Resources - Archaeological Resources 5-102
5.5.3. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual
Resources 5-105
5.6. Human Resources and Land Use 5-111
5.6.1. General Background 5-111
5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Signi-
ficant Human Resource and Land Use Impacts 5-112
5.6.3. Special Considerations for Detailed Impact
and Mitigation Scoping 5-121
5.6.4. Employment and Population Impacts and Mitiga-
tive Measures 5-122
5.6.5. Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse
Impacts 5-127
5.6.6. Transportation Impacts and Mitigative
Measures 5-134
5.6.7. Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigation
of Adverse Impacts 5-137
5.6.8. Indirect Land Use Impacts 5-143
5.7. Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-145
5.7.1. Erosion 5-145
5.7.2. Steep Slopes 5-155
5.7.3. Prime and Other Farmlands 5-158
5.7.4. Unstable Slopes 5-161
5.7.5. Subsidence 5-163
5.7.6. Toxic or Acid Forming Earth Materials and
Acid Mine Drainage 5-170
6.0. EPA New Source NPDES Program NEPA Review Summary 6-1
Water Resources 6-2
Aquatic Biota in BIA's 6-7
Aquatic Biota in Unclassifiable Areas 6-10
Special Terrestrial Vegetation Feature, Outstanding Tree, 6-11
or Virgin Stand
Wetlands 6-13
Special Terrestrial Wildlife Feature 6-19
Air Quality 6-21
iii
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Page
Noise Levels 6-22
National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District 6-23
Non-National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or 6-25
District
Primary and Secondary Visual Resources 6-27
Macroscale Socioeconomic and Transportation Conditions 6-29
Adjacent Land Uses 6-32
Floodplains 6-34
State Lands 6-36
Federal Lands 6-37
Soil Subject to Erosion 6-38
Steep Slopes 6-39
Prime Farmlands 6-40
Significant Non-Prime Farmland 6-41
Unstable Slopes 6-42
Lands Subject to Subsidence 6-43
Lands Capable of Producing Acid Mine Drainage 6-44
Appendix A. Aquatic Biota A-l
Appendix B. Terrestrial Biota B-l
Appendix C. Reclamation Techniques C-l
Appendix D. Air Quality Impact Review D-l
Appendix E. Acknowledgments and Authorship E-l
Glossary GL-1 M
Metric Conversions GL-32
Bibliography BB-1
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LIST OF TABLES
Table page
2-1 Streamflow records • 2-3
2-2 West Virginia water quality criteria 2-5
2-3 Proposed West Virginia water quality criteria 2-6
2-4 Water quality data 2-10
2-5 Sources of public drinking water supplies 2-32
2-6 Stream classification in the Basin 2-35
2-7 Sediment loads for selected streams 2-44
2-8 Miles of streams affected by acid mine drainage 2-46
2-9 Mine-affected streams 2-47
2-10 Coal mine related discharges 2-50
2-11 Effects of time, season, and mining on water quality 2-53
2-12 Summary of aquifer characteristics 2-59
2-13 Iron, pH, chloride, and hardness concentrations in groundwater 2-73
2-14 Fish species that are indicators of water quality 2-83
2-15 Macroinvertebrate indicator species for BIA's 2-85
2-16 WVDNR-HTP indicator species for BIA's 2-89
2-17 WVDNR-HTP rare and endangered West Virginia fish 2-93
2-18 Land use/land cover inventory for the Basin 2-99
2-19 Species of animals of special interest (WVDNR-HTP) 2-114
2-20 Game animals in the Basin 2-117
2-21 Surface temperature inversions 2-127
2-22 Elevated temperature inversions 2-127
2-23 Wind direction and speed 2-128
2-24 Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class A 2-129
2-25 Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class B 2-130
2-26 Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class C 2-131
2-27 Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class D 2-132
2-28 Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class E 2-133
2-29 Atmospheric stability, Pasquill Class F 2-134
2-30 Atmospheric stability, all Pasquill Classes 2-135
2-31 Temperature, precipitation, and wind data at Elkins 2-138
2-32 Precipitation data at Buckhannon 2-139
2-33 Precipitation data at Clarksburg 2-140
2-34 Precipitation data at Mannington 2-141
2-35 Temperature data at Buckhannon 2-142
2-36 Temperature data at Clarksburg 2-143
2-37 Temperature data at Mannington 2-144
2-38 Total suspended particulates in and near the Basin 2-149
2-39 Dustfall in and near the Basin 2-150
2-40 Sulfur dioxide in and near the Basin 2-151
2-41 Ambient concentration limits that define the AQCR areas 2-154
2-42 Ambient noise levels 2-157
2-43 Chronology of known prehistoric cultures 2-161
2-44 Historic and Archaeological sites of the Basin 2-171
2-45 Primary visual resources in the Basin 2-189
2-46 Demographic profile of the Basin 2-211
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Table
Page
2-47
2-48
2-49
2-50
2-51
2-52
2-53
2-54
2-55
2-56
2-57
2-58
2-59
2-60
2-61
2-62
2-63
2-64
2-65
2-66
2-67
2-68
2-69
2-70
2-71
2-72
2-73
2-74
2-75
2-76
2-77
2-78
2-79
2-80
2-81
2-82
2-83
2-84
2-85
2-86
2-87
2-88
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
Population in the Basin, 1950 to 1980
Rates of growth/decline, 1950 to 1980
Population projections
Total mining employment
Rate of growth of mining employment
Total employment
Rate of growth in total employment
Wage and salary employment, by sector
Wage and salary employment, percentage by sector
Employment and income
Travel sales, wages and employment
Annual visitation of recreation areas in the Basin
Housing characteristics
Miles of highways by type
Cost of coal haul road improvements
Railroads with track in the Basin
General revenues and expenditures
Distribution of revenues and expenditures
Definitions of terms
Per capita general revenues and expenditures
Health care facilities
School enrollment
Recreation larid use and ownership
Federal recreational facilities
National natural landmarks
State recreational facilities
Recreational facility descriptions
Park and Recreation Commissions
Status of planning
Land by slope class
National Flood Insurance Program participation
Major land owners in the Basin
Land development characteristics
Mapped landslide areas in the Basin
USGS 1:24,000-scale quadrangles with floodplain data
Major soil series in the Basin
Status of soil surveys in the Basin
Prime farmland soils in West Virginia
Criteria for depositional environments
Stratigraphic column of coal-bearing rock (minable coal
ASTM classification of coal
Coal seams associated with acid-producing overburden
2-212
2-213
2-215
2-217
2-218
2-220
2-221
2-222
2-223
2-224
2-229
2-231
2-232
2-239
2-242
2-244
2-248
2-249
2-250
2-252
2-257
2-259
2-261
2-263
2-267
2-271
2-273
2-274
2-280
2-285
2-287
2-291
2-294
2-304
2-306
2-307
2-310
2-313
2-318
seams) 2-327
2-331
2-334
Sources of data for analysis of mining activity in the Basin 3-3
Coal production in the Basin and State (short tons) 3-5
Coal production in the Basin and State (percentages) 3-6
Surface mining in the Basin and State 3-7
Coal production by method in the Basin and State 3-8
vi
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Table page
3-6 Coal production by method in the Basin and State 3-10
3-7 Surface mining data for the Basin 3-14
3-8 Surface mines of the Basin - 3-18
3-9 Underground mines of the Basin 3-34
3-10 Selected coal preparation plants 3-41
3-11 Raw waste characteristics of coal preparation plant water 3-74
3-12 Coal mining cost variation for surface contour mining 3-81
3-13 Estimated operating costs and capital investment for
underground mining methods 3-84
3-14 Reported incremental cost increases by specific requirements 3-85
3-15 1976 US coal consumption by region and sector 3-97
3-16 1985 US coal consumption by region and sector 3-98
3-17 Bituminous coal prices, F.O.B. mines, by state 1955-1976 3-102
4-1 Current existing source effluent limitations 4-38
4-2 New source effluent limitations 4-40
4-3 New source performance standards 4-46
4-4 Federal ambient air quality standards 4-47
4-5 Nondeterioration increments by area class 4-48
4-6 Emissions subject to PSD revision 4-49
4-7 Overlapping EPA and USOSM responsibilities for resource
protection 4-58
4-8 Circular A-95 clearinghouses in West Virginia 4-63
5-1 Composite characterization of untreated AMD 5-10
5-2 Contaminant levels in drinking water 5-12
5-3 Water quality parameters affecting groundwater 5-16
5-4 Results of embryo-larval bioassays on coal elements 5-25
5-5 Summary of BIA waters in the Basin 5-29
5-6 Non-sensitive streams in the Basin 5-36
5-7 Aquatic biological and chemical survey and monitoring
requirements 5-42
5-8 Examples of aquatic biological survey and monitoring programs 5-46
5-9 Adverse and beneficial impacts of coal mining 5-52
5-10 Impact mechanisms on wildlife 5-53
5-11 Activities related to mitigations for terrestrial biota 5-62
5-12 Mitigations for impacts on terrestrial biota 5-66
5-13 Habitat requirements of wildlife for reclamation planning 5-68
5-14 Requirements and values for grasses and herbs 5-71
5-15 Requirements and values for shrubs and vines 5-72
5-16 Requirements and values for trees 5-73
5-17 Estimated emission rates for construction equipment 5-86
5-18 Efficiency of dust control methods for unpaved roads 5-88
5-19 Dust emission factors from coal operations 5-89
5-20 Comparison of intensity, sound pressure level, and common
sounds 5-90
5-21 Measured noise levels of construction equipment 5-92
5-22 Results of noise surveys of coal-related facilities 5-93
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Table Page j
5-23 Health impacts of average noise levels 5-95
5-24 Employment thresholds for significant mining impacts 5-116
5-25 Soils with potential limitations for reclamation - 5-150
5-26 Examples of AMD treatment processes and costs 5-195
6-1 Aquatic resources, data sources 6-4
6-2 Terrestrial resources, data sources 6-15
6-3 Directory of Regional Planning and Development Councils in
West Virginia 6-31
APPENDIX TABLES
A-l Fish collected in the Basin by WVDNR A-2
A-2 Descriptions of WVDNR fish sampling stations A-18
A-3 Fish collected in the Basin by Hocutt and Stauffer A-22
A-4 Aquatic Macroinvertebrates found in the Basin A-25
A-5 Number of macroinvertebrate taxa present and percent of
individuals in each of three sensitive categories A-32
A-6 Diversity values and number of macroinvertebrate taxa found
during 1970 to 1979 at 31 stations in the Basin A-34
B-l Ecoregions of the Basin B-4
B-2 Comparisons of vegetation classification schemes B-10
B-3 Species of amphibians and reptiles in the Basin B-17
B-4 Species of mammals in the Basin B-19
B-5 Orders and families of birds in the Basin B-21
B-6 Birds considered to be animals of scientific interest B-23
D-l Sample work sheet D-5
viii
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LIST OF FIGURES
Front Pocket Maps:
Land Use/Land Cover
USGS Quadrangle Overlay
Figure page
1-1 Major sub-basins in the Monongahela River Basin 1-2
1-2 New Source NPDES Review Process 1-6
2-1 Water quality sampling stations 2-30
2-2 Public water supplies in the Basin 2-34
2-3 Water quality limited streams in the Basin 2-38
2-4 High quality streams in the Basin 2-39
2-5 Trout streams in the Basin 2-40
2-6 Lightly buffered streams 2-41
2-7 Critical streams 2-43
2-8 Hydrogeologic regions of the Basin 2-58
2-9 Yields of wells in the Basin 2-63
2-10 Hydrogeologic region 1 2-64
2-11 Hydrogeologic region 2 2-65
2-12 Hydrogeologic regions 3, 4, and 5 2-66
2-13 Pottsville group data 2-67
2-14 Potential for developable groundwater resources 2-68
2-15 Location of shallow saline waters 2-70
2-16 Geologic cross-section 2-71
2-17 Sulfate concentrations and distance relationships in the
Basin 2-75
2-18 Major forest types of West Virginia 2-101
2-19 Significant species and features in the Basin 2-105
2-20 Black bear breeding areas 2-109
2-21 Principal fossil fuel power plants in West Virginia 2-126
2-22 Climatological monitoring stations 2-137
2-23 Air quality control regions 2-146
2-24 Ambient air monitoring stations in or near the Basin 2-152
2-25 Air quality non-attainment areas 2-155
2-26 Distribution of Late Middle Woodland cultures 2-166
2-27 Distribution of Late Prehistoric cultures 2-167
2-28 Distribution of cultures having had European contact 2-168
2-29 Historical and archaeological sites 2-187
2-30 Primary visual resources in the Basin 2-198
2-31 Examples of primary visual resources 2-200
2-32 Examples of secondary visual resources 2-201
2-33 Examples of visual resource degradation 2-203
2-34 Human resources and land use impacts 2-206
2-35 1970 population distribution 2-209
2-36 1970 population density 2-210
2-37 Major highways 2-238
2-38 Coal haulroads 2-241
2-39 Railroads 2-245
2-40 Per capita general revenues by county 2-254
2-41 Monongahela National Forest 2-265
ix
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
2-42 Land owned by companies and individuals • 2-290
2-43 Physiography 2-296
2-44 Topography 2-297
2-45 Steep slopes 2-299
2-46 Landslide and rockfall diagram 2-301
2-47 Landforms prone to landslides 2-302
2-48 Landslide incidence by county 2-303
2-49 Geologic time scale 2-315
2-50 Carboniferous rocks in the eastern US 2-316
2-51 Depositional model for peat-forming environments 2-317
2-52 Coastal and back-barrier deposits 2-319
2~53 Generalized vertical sequence 2-321
2-54 Northern and Southern Coalfields of West Virginia 2-322
2-55 Geology of the Basin 2-323
2-56 Structural geology of the Basin 2-324
2-57 Stratigraphic cross-section 2-326
2-58 Toxic overburden 2-336
2-59 Potential significant impact areas 2-340
3-1 Coal production in the Basin 3-4
3-2 Surface mine locations in the Basin 3-13
3-3 Unclassified surface mines 3-32
3-4 Underground mine locations 3-39
3-5 Coal preparation plant locations 3-40
3-6 Sequence of operations for box cut contour surface
mining 3-45
3-7 Typical box cut contour mining operation 3-46
3-8 Typical block cut contour mining operation 3-47
3-9 Sequence of operations for block cut contour mining 3-48
3-10 Flow diagram of haulback mining method 3-50
3-11 Haulback mining methods 3-51
3-12 Low-wall conveyor haulage mine layout plan 3-53
3-13 Low-wall conveyor haulage scheme 3-54
3-14 Coal losses from auger mining 3-56
3-15 Mountaintop removal mining method 3-58
3-16 Cross-ridge mining method 3-60
3-17 West Virginia head-of-hollow fill 3-62
3-18 Cross sections of head-of-hollow fill 3-63
3-19 Illustration of Federal Valley fill 3-64
3-20 Cross sections of Federal Valley fill 3-65
3-21 Methods of entry to underground coal mines 3-67
3-22 Typical room and pillar layout 3-68
3-23 Cut sequence for continuous mining system - five
entry heading 3-70
3-24 Typical longwall plan 3-71
3-25 Typical coal cleaning facility 3-73
3-26 Coal preparation plant process 3-75
3-27 Construction cost vs. capacity for AMD treatment plant 3-86
3-28 Installed pipe costs 3-88
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
3-29 Filter costs - 3-88
3-30 Pond costs 3-89
3-31 Flash tank costs 3-90
3-32 Capital costs of installed pumps 3-90
3-33 Capital costs of lime treatment 3-91
3-34 Capital costs of clarifier 3-91
3-35 US consumption of coal by end-use sector 3-96
3-36 Selected coal prices 3-103
4-1 Organization of WVDNR, 1979 4-6
4-2 Prospecting permit procedure 4-10
4-3 Unsuitable lands petition procedure 4-12
4-4 Unsuitable lands inquiry procedure 4-13
4-5 Principal WVDNR mining permit review process 4-22
4-6 WVDNR mining reclamation bond release procedure 4-28
4-7 Prevention of significant deterioration areas 4-50
5-1 Theoretical hydrographs 5-4
5-2 Biologically important areas and unclassified areas in the
Basin 5-34
5-3 Non-sensitive areas in the Basin 5-38
5-4 Leq versus distance from major noise sources at typical coal
mine and preparation plant 5-94
5-5 Mean subsidence curves 5-164
5-6 Relationship of surface subsidence/seam thickness to panel
width/depth 5-165
5-7 Acid-base account, Bakerstown Coal 5-173
5-8 Acid-base account, Freeport Coal 5-174
5-9 Plan view of contour surface mine 5-178
5-10 Cross-section views of contour surface mine 5-179
5-11 Minimum pH value for complete precipitation of metal ions
as hydroxides 5-193
5-12 Hydrogeologic cycle and mine drainage 5-198
6-1 Regional Planning and Development Councils in West Virginia 6-30
APPENDIX FIGURES
A-l WVDNR fish sampling stations A-17
A-2 Macroinvertebrate sampling stations A-37
B-l Ecoregions of West Virginia B-3
B-2 Ecological regions of West Virginia B-6
B-3 Deciduous forests in West Virginia B-7
B-4 Potential natural vegetation in West Virginia B-8
XI
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LIST OF FIGURES ^
Figure page
B-5 Types of forest vegetation in West Virginia - B-9
B-6 Forest regions of the Basin B-12
B-7 Forest regions of the Basin B-13
B-8 Forest types of the Basin B-15
B-9 Existing forest types of the Basin B-16
C-l Examples of structural mitigation for terrestrial biota C-3
C-2 Sample planting plan for establishment of cottontail rabbit
habitat on surface-mined areas C-8
C-3 Sample planting plan for establishment of bobwhite quail
habitat on surface-mined areas C-9
C-4 Sample planting plan for establishment of ruffed grouse
habitat on raountaintop removal site C-10
D-l Nomograph for determining ground-level concentrations from
point sources of air pollutants D-9
xii
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ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AQCR Air Quality Control Region
ARC Appalachian Regional Commission
ARDA Appalachian Regional Development Act
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BACT Best Available Control Technology
BIA Biologically Important Area
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Btu British Thermal Unit
CAA Clean Air Act
CEQ National Council on Environmental Quality
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CMHSA Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969
CWA Clean Water Act, P.L. 92-500 (as amended)
dB decibels
dBA decibels (A-scale)
EA Environmental Assessment
EELUT Eastern Energy and Land Use Team (USFWS)
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EO Executive Order (of the President)
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FHA Federal Housing Administration
FHwA Federal Highway Administration
xiii
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FHBM Flood Hazard Boundary Map
FIRE Fire, Insurance, and Real Estate
FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map
FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact
FPM Floodplain Management
FR Federal Register
FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act
g/dscm grains per dry standard cubic meter
gr/dscf grains per dry standard cubic foot
gpm gallons per minute
HSA Health Systems Agency
mgd million gallons per day
MM million short tons
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NACD National Association of Conservation Districts
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, P.L. 91-190
NFIP National Flood Insurance Program
NHPA National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(US Department of Commerce)
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRHP National Register of Historic Places
NSPP New Source Permit Program
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
P.L. Public Law (of the United States)
ppm parts per million
xiv
-------
PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration
PSIA Potentially Significant Impact Area
RPDA Regional Planning and Development Act (West Virginia)
RPDC Regional Planning and Development Councils (in West Virginia)
SAM Spatial Allocation Model
SAT Scholastic Aptitude Test
SCMRO Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Operation
SCS Soil Conservation Service (US Department of Agriculture);
also listed as USDA-SCS
SEAM Social and Economic Assessment Model
SHPO State Historic Preservation Officer
SID Supplemental Information Document
SIP State Implementation Plan (for Attainment of Air Quality)
SMCRA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
STAT Statutes (of the United States)
STORET Storage and retrieval data base system maintained by EPA
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SWRB State Water Resources Board (West Virginia): also listed as WVSWRB
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
TSP Total Suspended Particulates
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
UMWA United Mine Workers of America
USAGE United States Army Corps of Engineers
USACHP United States Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
USBEA United States Bureau of Economic Analysis
(US Department of Commerce)
xv
-------
USBLM United States Bureau of Land Management
(US Department of the Interior)
USBM United States Bureau of Mines
USBOR United States Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, now the'Heritage
Conservation and Recreation Service
(US Department of the Interior)
USC United States Code
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
USni United States Department of the Interior
USDOC United States Department of Commerce
USDOE United States Department of Energy
USDOT United States Department of Transportation
USEIA United States Energy Information Agency
USERDA United States Energy Research and Development Administration
USFmHA United States Farmers Home Association
USFS United States Forest Service (US Department of Agriculture)
USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service
(US Department of the Interior)
USGAO United States Government Accounting Office
USGS United States Geological Survey (US Department of the Interior)
USHCRS United States Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service
(US Department of the Interior)
USHUD United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
USICC United States Interstate Commerce Commission
USMSHA United States Mining Safety and Health Administration
USOSM United States Office of Surface Mining
(US Department of the Interior)
USOTA United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment
xv i
-------
VA Veterans Administration
vint vehicle miles traveled
WV West Virginia
WVAPCC West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission
WVDC West Virginia Department of Commerce
WVDCH West Virginia Department of Culture and History
WVDE West Virginia Department of Education
WVDES West Virginia Department of Employment Security
WVDH West Virginia Department of Highways
WVDM West Virginia Department of Mines
WVDNR West Virginia Department of Natural Resources; Divisions include:
WVDNR-Reclamation
WVDNR-Water Resources
WVDNR-HTP (Heritage Trust Program; recently renamed Natural
Heritage Program)
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
WVDNR-Parks and Recreation
WVGES West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey; Divisions include:
WVGES-Archaeology Section
WVGS (West Virginia Geological Survey)
WVGOECD West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic and Community
Development
WVGOSFR West Virginia Governor's Office of State-Federal Relations
WVHDF West Virginia Housing Development Fund
WVHSA West Virginia Health Systems Agency
WVPSC West Virginia Public Service Commission
WVRMA West Virginia Railroad Maintenance Authority
WVSCMRA West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
WVSHSP West Virginia Statewide Health Systems Plan, 1979
WVURD West Virginia University Office of Research and Development
-------
-------
1.0. INTRODUCTION
This Supplemental Information Document presents the comprehensive
technical basis for standard environmental reviews of New Source coal mine
permit applications that are required by NEPA and CWA. EPA will use
information in this document to evaluate New Source coal mine applications.
Specifically, the information in this document will "...provide
sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an
environmental impact statement or a finding of no significant impact
(FONSI)..." [40 CFR 1508.9(1)] before a New Source coal mining permit can be
issued by EPA. A "...Finding of No Significant Impact means a document by a
Federal agency briefly presenting the reasons why an action [EPA's issuance
of the permit]...will not have a significant effect on the human environment
and for which an environmental impact statement therefore will not be
prepared..." (40 CFR 1508.13).
EPA has chosen to comply with NEPA when evaluating New Source coal mine
permits in West Virginia on an areawide basis. The State of West Virginia
has been divided into seven areas which encompass the major river basins
with coal reserves. This document concerns one of the basins, the
Monongahela River Basin (Figure 1-1). The characteristics of the seven
basins vary, but the manner in which EPA will evaluate and issue New Source
permits will be consistent from basin to basin.
The procedure for reviewing New Source coal mine applications involves
the use of three principal information sources which include: an Areawide
Environmental Assessment (EA) with map, as included in the front of this
document; this Supplemental Information Document; and a series of 1:24,000
scale environmental inventory map sets. For each topographic quadrangle,
in addition to a Base Map, the environmental data are mapped on three
overlays. The SID and environmental inventory map sets were prepared
together. They provide detailed geographical information on known environ-
mental resources potentially affected by New Source mining activity and form
the basis of the EA.
The EA map divides the Monongahela River Basin into three types of
environmentally sensitive areas. The first type is called "Potentially
Significant Impact Areas" (PSIA's). These areas are the most sensitive to
New Source coal mine impacts. Permit applications for mines in PSIA's
automatically will require detailed NEPA review to evaluate possible
measures or alternatives to prevent or minimize adverse impacts. An EIS may
be required for a New Source coal mine proposed in a PSIA.
Regions shown on the EA map as "Mitigation Areas" contain specific,
sensitive resources that will require careful application of mitigative
measures that may translate into New Source permit conditions. If
mitigative measures appropriate for the sensitive resources are agreed upon
1-1
-------
Figure I-1
MAJOR SUB-BASINS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WAPORA 1981)
Elk/Creek XyTygart Vallciy
I
0 IO
W*POR*,INC.
1-2
-------
by the applicant and EPA, the properly conditioned New Source permit can be
issued under the Basinwide EA/FONSI. Alternatively, if the applicant can
demonstrate that no impact will occur, the permit can be issued without
additional conditions under the Basinwide EA/FONSI.
The third type of area found in the Basin is the "FONSI" area, where
this evaluation process has determined that mining will have no significant
adverse impacts, provided that all other local, State, and Federal permit
requirements are satisfied. These FONSI areas assume that New Source
Performance Standards and other regulations will be adequate to maintain
water quality, associated biota, and other environmental resources.
In each case, notice of the proposed New Source application will be
circulated to the public and to interested agencies. EPA will consider
carefully all comments received prior to issuing the permit, and will
mandate avoidance of adverse impacts in so far as practicable.
The SID is intended to have a user orientation. Section 2.0. presents
environmental setting information for those functional areas which EPA has
determined can be affected by New Source mining (i.e., resources which are
both significant and sensitive). Section 3.0. discusses New Source mining
activities ("the proposed action") and highlights mining activity locations
and practices from an historical, current, and future perspective. Section
4.0. describes the numerous current and proposed regulatory constraints on
mining. Section 5.0. assesses the impacts of mining on the resources
discussed in Section 2.O., mitigative measures are put forward to the extent
possible. Section 6.0. summarizes these impacts and mitigative measures and
translates this information into program guidance for EPA evaluations of New
Source coal mining permits applications. This program guidance is presented
in the form of summary sheets specific to the potentially affected resource.
Additional forms and guidelines necessary for EPA to conduct its New Source
permit evaluation program are included with these summary sheets. Specific
contacts, including office names, addresses, and phone numbers needed for
the program also are attached. Mechanisms to update EPA1s information base
on a periodic basis are set out. Lastly, appendices have been reserved for
key data files and other auxiliary information referenced in the SID.
The information contained in this SID, in combination with the
1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets, is the foundation for an
environmental review process. This process has been designed to avoid
unnecessary delays, to utilize existing information and data files when
available, and to rely upon other in-place mechanisms and regulatory
techniques to implement EPA's congressional mandate under CWA, NEPA, and
other laws. Consequently, the SID user not only is referred to other SID
sections quite frequently, but is directed to other agencies and programs
whenever possible. In this manner, EPA feels confident that its
environmental mission is being furthered, while National energy objectives
are being met and the absolute minimum requirements for additional
information are being imposed on the mining industry.
1-3
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BACKGROUND OF THE NEW SOURCE PROGRAM
With the enactment of P.L. 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972 (now known as the Clean Water Act), it became a
National goal to achieve "fishable and swimmable" waters throughout the
United States by July, 1 1983. By 1985 there is to be no discharge of
pollutants into navigable waters. To achieve these ends, Section 402 of the
CWA law established the "National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System"
or NPDES.
To implement this system, a permit program was developed which
established effluent discharge limitations for existing point sources of
pollution, according to category of discharge or industry. The performance
standards for existing sources were followed by stricter limitations for
"New Sources," which also are being issued industry by industry.
Because they are point sources of pollution, coal mines must meet NPDES
standards. All coal mines that begin construction after January 12, 1979
are subject to the New Source Performance Standards. If they propose to
discharge wastewater into surface waters, they must meet these Standards.
New Source coal mines include three basic categories of operation
established by the EPA regulations: new coal preparation plants, new surface
or underground mines, and substantially new mines. First, new coal
preparation plants, independent of mines, are considered New Sources as of
January 12, 1979, unless there were binding contractual obligations to
purchase unique facilities or equipment prior to the January 12 promulgation
date. Second, surface and underground mines that are assigned identifying
numbers by the US Mine Safety and Health Administration subsequent to
January 12 1979, automatically are considered to be New Sources, again
unless there were binding contracts prior to that date. Third, other mines
may be regarded by EPA as "substantially new" operations for NPDES permits,
if they:
• Begin to mine a new coal seam not previously extracted by
that mine
• Discharge effluent to a new drainage area not previously"
affected by that mine
• Cause extensive new surface disruption
• Begin construction of a new shaft, slope, or drift
• Make significant additional capital investment in
additional equipment or facilities, or
• Otherwise have characteristics deemed appropriate by the
EPA Regional Administrator to place them in the New Source
category. Numerous existing mines may qualify as
1-4
-------
"substantially new." The determination of whether a mine
is a New Source will be conducted case by case, based
largely on the information supplied with the permit
application to EPA.
Congress, through the Clean Water Act, has determined that the New Source
Permit Program is a "major Federal action" and falls under the mandate of
the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Section 102(2)(C), which
states:
[All agencies of the Federal Government shall] include in
every recommendation or report on proposals for legislation
and other major Federal actions significantly affecting the
quality of the human environment, a detailed statement [an
Environmental Impact Statement] by the responsible official
on:
i. the environmental impact of the proposed action
ii. any adverse environmental effects which cannot be
avoided should the proposal be implemented
iii. alternatives to the proposed action
iv. the relationship between local short terms uses of
man's environment and the maintenance and enhancement
of long-term productivity, and
v. any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of
resources which would be involved in the proposed
action should it be implemented.
NEPA binds EPA to a comprehensive environmental permit review process
for coal mining applications in West Virginia, as long as it administers
NPDES permits (Figure 1-2). The New Source NPDES program offers
significantly enhanced opportunity, as compared with the Existing Source
program, for:
• Public and inter-agency input to the Federal NPDES permit
review process before mine construction begins
• Effective environmental review and consideration of
alternatives that may avoid or minimize adverse effects
• Implementation of environmentally protective permit
conditions on mine planning, operation, and shutdown.
Additionally, NEPA reviews can assist substantially in maintaining and
protecting the present environmental, aesthetic, and recreational resources
of the coal regions of West Virginia.
Congress, by enacting the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977, also established a National environmental, public health, and safety
regulatory scheme for surface coal mining and reclamation operations. Under
1-5
-------
AREAW1DE
FINDING OF NO
SIGNIFICANT
IMPACT
ISSUE
OR
DENT
PERMIT
Figure 1-2 EPA NEW SOURCE NPDES PERMIT NEPA REVIEW
PROCESS FOR THE COAL MINING POINT SOURCE
CATEGORY
1-6
-------
the SMCRA, detailed environmental protection performance standards
applicable to the coal industry are to be applied through a phased,
comprehensive regulatory program. The permanent regulatory program (44 FR
15311-15463; March 13, 1979) requires more detailed Federal standards than
those set in the initial, interim program, and they are to be imposed
through a permit system.
The SMCRA permit program for privately owned lands in the future may be
delegated to the States, upon approval by the Secretary of the Interior.
However, mining activity on Federal lands will continue to require Federal
agency review. Most coal lands in West Virginia are privately owned.
The EPA is currently working with the US Office of Surface Mining in
the Department of the Interior to develop procedures for coordinating the
New Source NPDES environmental review process for coal mining industry
applications with the similar permit review mandated for those mines
regulated by USOSM under SMCRA. This coordination will reduce potential
duplication of requirements and will contribute to an efficient and
comprehensive review process.
Currently, EPA issues NPDES permits in West Virginia. Section 402(a)5
of the Clean Water Act authorizes the EPA Regional Administrator to delegate
the permit program to any State "which he determines has the capability of
administering a permit program which will carry out the objective of this
Act". The State of West Virginia is working to obtain delegation and may be
ready to issue NPDES permits sometime in 1981.
NPDES permits issued through delegated State programs are not
considered significant Federal actions. Hence they are not subject to NEPA
review. The procedure used by EPA in implementing the New Source NPDES
permit program NEPA reviews in West Virginia, therefore, is expected to be
an interim procedure until the State assumes the program.
The mandated NEPA review has culminated in the attached Areawide
Environmental Assessment of New Source Coal Mining in the Monongahela River
Basin. The basic goal of this SID and any subsequent environmental reviews
associated with NPDES permits is to maximize compatibility between the
mining industry and environmental values. EPA has determined that for West
Virginia "...the most effective way to comply with NEPA on New Source coal
mine permits is to assess new coal activity on an areawide basis. (An)
environmental analysis...will document the full range of impacts... apply
NEPA effectively to new mining operations and at the same time avoid
significant disruption to the permitting of new and needed operations that
are environmentally sound" (41 FR 19840, May 13, 1976).
EPA recognizes the serious pollution problem posed by abandoned mines
in West Virginia. Therefore it expects to expedite its permit review
process to accommodate with priority any application for the re-mining of
abandoned mine sites, so long as the proposal anticipates that wastewater
discharges and reclamation will satisfy all the currently applicable
standards.
1- 7
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-------
2.1 Water Resources and Water Quality
-------
2.1. Water Resources and Water Quality 2-1
2.1.1. Surface Waters 2-1
2.1.1.1. Hydrology 2-1
2.1.1.1.1. Climatic Characteristics 2-1
2.1.1.1.2. Streamflow Characteristics 2-2
2.1.1.1.3. Low Flow Frequency 2-2
2.1.1.1.4. Flooding 2-2
2.1.1.2. State Water Uses and Criteria 2-2
2.1.1.3. Stream Classification 2-31
2.1.1.4. Pollution Sources 2-42
2.1.1.5. Coal Mine Related Problems 2-45
2.1.2. Groundwater Resources 2-56
2.1.2.1. Hydrology of the Basin 2-57
2.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality 2-72
Page
I
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2.1. WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALITY
Due to the extensive water quality problems that have existed in the
Monongahela River Basin, a significant amount of information has been
gathered during the past 20 years. However, the rapidly changing conditions
in the Basin render much of the older data useless in terms of assessing
current water quality conditions. Consequently, prime reliance was placed
on data gathered recently, especially during 1979 and 1980 under the
Federal/State 208 and 303 programs and long-term information gathered as
part of the EPA's STORET water quality monitoring program. Analyses were
complicated by the fact that mine-related effects are often highly localized
and temporal in nature. These deficiencies can be overcome only by
investigations that are comprehensive in terms of geographical coverage and
are of sufficient duration to determine long-term trends.
2.1.1. Surface Waters
This section first summarizes hydrologic conditions in the Basin. Then
it reports established water uses, current and proposed State water quality
standards, and stream classifications. It concludes with a review of
pollution problems.
2.1.1.1. Hydrology
The Monongahela River is formed at Fairmont WV, at the confluence of
the West Fork River and the Tygart Valley River. The Cheat River, which
drains the eastern third of the Basin, enters the Monongahela River at Point
Marion, PA. The Youghiogheny River, which drains a small portion of extreme
eastern Preston County, enters the Monongahela River near McKeesport, PA
(Figure 1-1). Together, these streams drain approximately 4,340 square
miles in West Virginia.
The Basin is typically divided into two general physiographic regions:
(1) the western plateau of generally low, rolling topography; and (2) the
Allegheny Mountain section in the east which is comprised of rugged terrain,
narrow deep valleys, and steep slopes. The streams on the western plateau,
especially those in the West Fork River drainage, are generally low gradient
in nature, while those in the Cheat River drainage are high gradient
streams. The principal streams in the Basin are described in detail in
Section 2.1.5.
2.1.1.1.1. Climatic Characteristics. Climatic conditions in the
Monongahela River Basin are discussed in detail in Section 2.4. of this
assessment. In summary, precipitation averages about 50 inches per year
over the entire Basin, ranging from about 40 inches in the northwestern
portion of the Basin to about 70 inches in the southern and eastern portions
of the Basin (Friel et al. 1967).
2-1
-------
Precipitation is well distributed throughout the year, being somewhat fl
higher during the spring and summer months, and lowest during the fall. ™
Heavy precipitation may occur in any month of the year.
2.1.1.1.2. Streamflow Characteristics. Streamflow data -from 43
stations in the Basin show that discharge rates vary greatly and that low
flows were zero during low flow periods in many of the streams (Table 2-1).
High flows are about 20 to 75 times the mean flows.
2.1.1.1.3. Low Flow Frequency. Lowest flows typically occur during
late summer and early autumn (lISGS 1979). The lowest average flow over a
consecutive 7-day period that is expected to recur at 10-year intervals
(7/Q/10) has been adopted as the basis for establishing the West Virginia
water quality criteria. State standards do not apply when streamflows are
below 7/Q/10 values. Empirically derived 7/Q/10 values are not available
for most of the smaller streams, thereby necessitating estimation of this
important parameter. Estimations of 7/Q/10 values typically are taken from
graphs based on drainage area, slope, climate, and geological
considerations. Chang and Boyer (1976) developed a model for the
Monongahela River Basin that has a standard error of approximately 30%.
They reported that the occurrence of limestones decreases the model's
precision significantly.
2.1.1.1.4. Flooding. Major floods occurred in the Monongahela River
Basin in 1888, 1912, 1932, 1939, and 1950. The relationship between coal
mining and flooding is discussed in Sections 2.6., 5.1., and 5.2. of this
report.
2.1.1.2. State Water Uses and Criteria
For all streams in the Basin except the tributaries of the
Youghiogheny, the intended uses as designated by the SWRB are water contact
recreation (e.g., swimming, fishing, etc.), public water supplies,
industrial water supplies, agricultural water supplies, propagation of fish
and other aquatic organisms, water transport (commercial and pleasure
boating), hydropower production, and industrial cooling water. For the
tributaries of the Youghiogheny, the intended uses are water contact
recreation, public water supplies, and propagation of fish and other aquatic
organisms. New dischargers must not render the waterways unsuitable for
the above uses.
Whereas present State water quality criteria (Table 2-2) include only
one (pH) of the four parameters (pH, manganese, iron, and suspended solids)
covered by the EPA New Source Limitations, the proposed State criteria
summarized in Table 2-3 would cover all four (SWRB 1980). The present and
proposed State water quality are similar for dissolved oxygen, pH,
temperature, odor and radiation, but the proposed regulations are more
specific for toxic substances, and have changed based on more current
information for heavy metals and other compounds.
2-2
-------
Table 2-1. Stream flow records for selected streams in the Monongahela River
Basin (Friel et al. 1967, USGS 1979).
Stream and location
of gage
(downstream order)
Tygart Valley R.
near Dailey
Tygart Valley R.
near Elkins
Tygart Valley R.
at Belington
Middle Fork at
Midvale
Middle Fork R. at
Audra
Sand Run near
Buckhannon
Buckhannon River
at Hall
Big Run at Volga
Tygart Valley R.
at Philippi
Tygart Valley R. at
Arden
Tygart Valley R. at
Tygart Dam near
Graf ton
Tygart Valley R. at
Fetterman
Tygart Valley R. at
Colfax
Skin Creek near
Brownsville
West Fork R. at
Brownsville
West Fork R. at
Butchervi-lle
West Fork R. at
Clarksburg
Elk Creek at Quiet
Dell
Salem Fork suhwatershed
No. Ha
Salem Fork subwatershed
No. 9
Salem Fork at Salem
West Fork R. at
Enterprise
1
Drainage
area
| (square
miles)
187
272
408
122
149
14.5
277
6.19
916
945
1,184
1,304
1,366
25.7
102
181
384
84.6
0.29
0.92
8.32
759
Period
of Record
(water
years)
1915-63
1944-to date
1907-to date
1915-42
1942-to date
1947-to date
1915-to date
1941-45
1940-to date
1938-40
1938-to date
1907-38
1939-to date
1945-60
1946-to date
1915-to date
1923-to date
1943-63
1955-60
1956-60
1951-63
1907-16
1933-to date
Maximum
discharge
(cfs)
13,100
13,100
18,400
11,500
9,780
2,000
13,000
473
43,000
31,700
20,000
74,300
22,500
2,280
6,420
18,000
17,800
—
11
25.8
2,280
933
36,500
Minimum
daily
discharge
(cfs)
0
0.1
0.1
0
0.2
0
0.2
0
4.9
11
0
1.2
129
0
0
0
0
0.2
0
0
0
3.4
Average
discharge
(cfs)
345
533
803
282
345
26.4
591
—
1,842
—
2,324
2,599
2,613
41.4
162
299
586
124
0.427
11.9
1,138
-------
Table 2-1. Stream flow records for selected streams in the Monongahela River
Basin (concluded).
I
Stream and location
of gage
(downstream order)
Buffalo Creek at
Barrackville
Monongahela R. at
Lock 15, at Hoult
Deckers Creek at
Morgantown
Monongahela R. at Lock
8, Pt. Marion, PA
Gandy Creek at Horton
Laurel Fork at Wymer
Glady Fork at Evenwood
Dry Fork at Hendricks
Blackwater R. above
Beaver Creek near
Davis
Blackwater R. at Davis
No. Fork Blackwater R.
at Douglas
Shavers Fork at
Cheat Bridge
Shavers Fork at Bemis
Shavers Fork at Flint
Shavers Fork at
Parsons
Cheat R. near Parsons
Cheat R. at Rowlesburg
Big Sandy Creek at
Rockville
Cheat R. near Pisgah
Cheat R. near
Morgantown
Drainage
area
(square
miles)
115
2,388
63.2
2,720
36
44
41
345
58.7
86.2
17.9
57.5
115
124
214
718
972
200
1,354
1,380
Period
of Record
(water
years)
1932-to date
1915-26
1939-63
1946-63
1929-55
1924-26
1924-26
1924-26
1941-to date
1929-32
1921-to date
1929-31
1922-26
1922-25
1924-32
1941-to date
1913-to date
1924-to date
1921-to date
1927-58
1923-25
Maximum
discharge
(cfs)
9,490
91,500
5,680
90,400
550
1,100
1,010
47,000
1,640
7,170
1,020
4,210
—
8,800
16,000
52,100
66,300
21,300
127,000
86,300
Minimum
daily
discharge
(cfs)
0
33
195
0.9
235
3
1
1
5.5
2.3
1.6
2.2
4
11
1.6
3
9 -
10
0.1
13
99
Average
discharge
(cfs)
169
4,143
107
4,484
753
196
—
—
319
549
1,679
2,257
421
2,988
3,190
2-4
-------
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-------
Table 2-3. Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
the Monongahela River Basin (SWRB 1980). Where lesser quality is due to
natural conditions, the natural values are the applicable criteria. Footnotes
follow the table.
Parameter
Aluminuml
Ammonia, un-ionized
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium, soluble^
Standard
Chlorides
Chlorine, total residual^
Chromium, hexavalent
Coliform bacteria, fecal^
Copper
Cyanide
Fluoride
Iron, total5
Lead
Magnesium^
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel"7
Nitrate
Nitrite
Odor, threshold
Organics: Aldrin-Dieldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Endrin
Methoxychlor
PCB
Toxaphene
Oxygen, dissolved
PH
Phenols
£0.05 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£1.0 mg/1
£0.8 mg/1
£2.0 mg/1
£5.0 mg/1
£12.0 mg/1 (hardness
(hardness 0-35 mg/1
(hardness 35-75 mg/1
(hardness 75-150 mg/1
150-300 mg/1
<30.0 mg/1 (hardness >300 mg/1 CaC03)
£100 mg/1
£0.01 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£200 organisms/100 ml, 30-day geometric mean
£400 organisms/100 ml in >90% of samples over
30 days
£0.005 mg/1
£0.005 mg/1
£1.0 mg/1
£1.0 mg/1
£0.025 mg/1 (hardness 0-100 mg/1
£0.050 mg/1 (hardness 100-300 mg/1
£0.10 mg/1 (hardness >300 mg/1 CaC03)
£0.05 mg/1
£0.2,ug/l unfiltered (£0.5 ug/1 body burden)
£10 mg/1
<1.0 mg/1
£8 at 40°C daily
£0.003 ug/1 (0.3
0.01 jug/1 (1.0
0.001 ug/1 (0.1
0.004 «g/l (0.3
0.03 ug/1
0.001 Aig/1 (2.0
0.005 Mg/1 (1.0
>5.0 mg/1
6-9 pH units
<0.005 mg/1
average
Mg/1 fish
Mg/1 fish
ug/1 fish
ug/1 fish
ug/1 fish
ug/1 fish
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)
burden)
2-6
-------
Table 2-3. Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Parameter
Radioactivity
Selenium
Silver^
Temperature (daily mean)
Tin
Turbidity
Zinc
Standard
0,000 pCi/1 gross beta activity
<10 pCi/1 dissolved strontium 90
£3 pCi/1 dissolved alpha emitters
£0.005 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
<5°F rise above natural ambient
£87°F May-November
£73°F December-April
£10 NTU over background of 50 NTU or less
10 NTU plus 10% of background where back-
exceeds 50 NTU
£0.050 mg/1 (hardness 0-150 mg/1 CaC03)
£0.10 mg/1 (hardness 150-300 mg/1 CaC03)
£0.30 mg/1 (hardness 300-400 mg/1
<0.60 mg/1 (hardness >400 mg/1 CaC03)
In addition to these numerical criteria, the proposed regulations
prohibit the following from the waters of the State:
a. Distinctly visible floating or settleable solids, suspended solids,
scum, foam, or oil slides.
b. Sludge deposits of sludge banks on the bottom.
c. Odors in the vicinity of the waters.
d. Taste or odor that would affect designated uses adversely.
e. Concentrations of toxic materials harmful or toxic to people,
aquatic organisms, or other animals.
f. Color.
g. Concentrations of bacteria that may impair or interfere with
designated uses.
h. Matter that would entail unreasonable degree of treatment to yield
potable water.
i. Any other condition that alters the chemical, physical, or
biological integrity of the water.
2-7
-------
Table 2-3. Proposed West Virginia in-stream water quality standards for
Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
trout waters: £0.56 mg/1
2In trout waters: £0.04 jug/1 (hardness 0-75 mg/1 CaCC>3)
£1.2 jug/1 (hardness >75 mg/1 CaCOs)
3In trout waters: £0.002 mg/1
^As determined by mean plate number or membrane filtration on five or
more samples during the 30-day period.
5 In trout waters: £0.5 mg/1
6ln trout waters: £0.005 mg/1
7 In trout waters: £0.05 mg/1
"_>_6.0 mg/1 in trout waters and X7.0 mg/1 in trout spawning areas at all times.
9ln trout waters: <0.01 mg/1
In trout waters:
October-April £50°F daily mean, 55 °F hourly mean
September-May £58°F daily mean, 62°F hourly mean
June-August £66°F daily mean, 70°F hourly mean
In trout waters: £0.54 mg/1
Not applicable to permitted surface mines,to agricultural activities, or
to activities covered by CWA Section 208 Best Management Practices.
2-8
-------
Existing water quality in the Basin was assessed by compiling data from
the EPA STORE! data bank, various USGS reports, and information gathered
during Federal 208 and 303 studies conducted by the State (Table 2-4 and
Figure 2-1). The following parameters were considered to be of greatest
interest because they are most likely to be affected by coal mining:
Parameter Acceptable Range in Stream
Conductivity
pH 6.0-9.0 (SWRB 1980)
Iron less than 1.0 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
Manganese less than 0.05 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
Sulfate less than 250 mg/1 (EPA 1976a)
Alkalinity greater than 20.0 mg/1 as CaC03 (EPA 1976a)
Dissolved oxygen 5 mg/1 except in trout waters, 6 mg/1 in
trout waters, 7 mg/1 in trout spawning
areas (SWRB 1977)
The degradation of water quality is to be avoided, according to the
proposed regulations. Existing high quality waters (including trout
streams, streams designated by the Legislature under the Natural Streams
Preservation Act; streams listed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources [1979] as
having high quality, Federal Wild and Scenic Rivers; all waterways in State
and National Parks, State and National Forests, and Recreation Areas; and
National Rivers) are to have their high quality maintained, unless limited
degradation is allowed (following public hearing) that will not impair
existing uses, will not violate State or Federal water quality criteria,
and will not interfere with attainment of National water quality goals.
With reference to AMD, the proposed regulations require:
• Diversion of surface water and groundwater to minimize the
flow of water into mine workings
• The handling of water in mine workings so as to minimize
the formation and surface discharge of AMD
• The retention of refuse that produces discharge of pH less
than 6.0 outside of waterways
• Handling of acid-producing overburden to minimize AMD
formation
• 24-hour flow equalization of discharge
• Mine closure methods to minimize AMD
• Treatment of AMD where appropriate.
2-9
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-------
Figure 2-1
WATER QUALITY SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (STORET 1971-1978, Friel and Bain 1971, USGS 1979)
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
NOTE:
STATIONS 75,76,81,82,84,93,123,124,127, 130,1 55,164,185,191, AND 195
HAVE NOT BEEN LOCATED DUE TO INSUFFICIENT INFORMATION.
2-30
-------
Surface waters are used by a number of municipalities within the Basin
as their source of public water supply. Table 2-5 and Figure 2-2 present
municipalities in the Basin and the source of their water supply, whether
surface or underground waters.
2.1.1.3. Stream Classification
The streams of the Basin have been classified in several ways. The
majority of streams in the Basin now meet or are expected to meet the
applicable water quality standards when reasonable measures have been fully
implemented, including the construction of municipal treatment plants and
compliance with NPDES permit conditions. In these streams, controllable
point source effluents are considered to be the principal limiting factor
affecting water quality. Such streams have been designated by the
WVDNR-Water Resources as effluent-limited streams. However, in 46 streams
(see Section 2.1.1.2.) in the Basin, water quality is considered to be
unlikely to meet standards in the foreseeable future even after
implementation of best practical control technology. All of these streams
are affected by acid mine drainage and 14 are also affected by organics.
These streams are categorized as water quality-limited (Table 2-6, Figure
2-3.
High quality streams have been identified by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
so that consultation with their personnel can occur before construction that
might damage fish resources takes place. High quality streams include
streams with native or stocked trout plus warm water streams (more than five
miles long) that have both desirable fish populations and public use. There
are 163 high quality streams in the Basin (Table 2-6, Figure 2-4).
Trout waters have been designated by the SWRB and are protected by
special water quality criteria for dissolved oxygen, aluminum, cadmium,
iron, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, residual chlorine, and temperature
(Table 2-2). The trout waters in the Basin are listed in Table 2-6 and
shown on Figure 2-5. The Special Standards for trout waters are to be
applied to all trout streams, whether formally designated or not
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1980).
In the southern and eastern portions of the Basin there are many
streams that have very low alkalinity (less than 15 ppm) and low
conductivity (less than 50 umhos/cm; Table 2-6 and Figure 2-6). These
lightly buffered streams are highly susceptible to pH changes and therefore
are very sensitive to acid mine drainage. Many of these streams support
native trout populations. Streams or watersheds principally affected
include the Buckhannon River and its tributaries above the confluence with
French Creek, Middle Fork River watershed, Shavers Fork and many of its
tributaries, Blackwater River watershed, Red Creek watershed, and Otter
Creek watershed.
The WVDNR-Reclamation adopted surface mining regulations during 1978
under Chapter 20-6 of the West Virginia Code and in conformance with the
2-31
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Figure 2-3
STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN THAT ARE WATER
QUALITY LIMITED DUE TO MINE DRAINAGE AND ORGANICS
(adapted from WVDNR-Water Resources 1976)
SEGMENTS CLASSIFIED AS WATER
mi..-'' .." QUALITY LIMITED DUE TO MINE
DRAINAGE
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MILES
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
2-38
-------
Figure 2-4
HIGH QUALITY STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from WVDNR - Wildlife Resources 1979)
\
0 10
WAPORA.INC.
2-39
-------
Figure 2-5
TROUT STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (adapted
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COOPERS ROCK
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a 10
WAPOFA, INC.
2-40
-------
Figure 2-6
LIGHTLY BUFFERED STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from WVDNR - Wildlife Resources 1978)
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
2-41
-------
SMCRA. Included in the proposed regulations are critical streams, defined
as streams with less than 15 ppm methyl orange alkalinity (to pH 4.5) and
conductivity less than 50 umhos/cm. Thus, the definition of critical
streams and low nutrient streams is identical. When surface mining is
proposed in watersheds of such streams, the premining application for a
permit is to contain the results of analyses of samples of the overburden
that is to be encountered. Special measures to prevent stream pollution by
runoff from such overburden may be required from applicants. To date 18
streams have been designated as critical under the proposed regulations in
the Monongahela River Basin (Table 2-6 and Figure 2-7). Other streams in
the Basin also may satisfy the definition of critical streams.
Many streams in the Basin are adversely affected by either active or
abandoned mines. Those most severely affected are categorized as
non-sensitive (Table 2-9; see Section 5.2.). These streams generally have
pH values below 5 and currently support little or no aquatic life. Some
streams appear in more than one category and appear to reflect contradictory
evidence or data of various ages. For instance, over half (29 of 46) of the
water quality-limited streams, which have long-term pollution problems
according to the WVDNR-Water Resources (1975) are considered to be high
quality streams by the WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1979). Similarly, several
trout streams also appear on the list of water quality-limited streams.
2.1.1.4. Pollution Sources
Mine drainage is the primary origin of point source pollution in the
Basin (see Section 2.1.1.5.). Industrial effluents are not a major problem
in the Basin (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976). Except in portions of the West
Fork drainage, municipal wastes are not a problem (WVDNR-Water Resources
1976).
Non-point sources in the Basin include runoff from mining facilities,
timberlands, agricultural lands, roadways, and urban areas. Sediment
concentrations in streams increase naturally following heavy rains,
particularly in steep slope areas, even under undisturbed conditions.
Timbering, roadbuilding, and other disturbances often increase sediment
concentrations sharply over undisturbed conditions. Sediment loads for
various streams in the Basin are shown in Table 2-7.
Timber harvesting operations can be especially significant sources of
sediment, but they are unregulated under the Clean Water Act. The humus
beneath stands of hemlock and other conifers can yield organic acids to
runoff and create low pH values in some undisturbed streams. Sediment
loads typically are high in the runoff from cultivated fields and heavily
grazed pastures; nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations also may be high in
agricultural runoff. Combined storm and sanitary sewers in urban areas may
overflow during intensive rains.
Only logging and road construction appear to be significant non-point
source problems in the Basin. Pollution from agricultural sources is not a
2-42
-------
Figure 2-7
CRITICAL STREAMS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR 1978)
I
WAPORA, INC.
2-43
-------
Table 2-7. Annual sediment loads for selected streams in the Monongahela
River Basin (Friel et al. 1967).
Drainage Average Annual
area (sq. Sediment Load
miles) (tons per sq. mi.)
Tygart Valley River near Beverly
Tygart Valley River at Belington
Shavers Fork at Cheat Bridge
Middle Fork River at Audra
Cheat River at Rowlesburg
Cheat River at Albright
Buckhannon River at Hall
Tygart Valley River near Graf ton
Blackwater River at Hendricks
Monongahela River at Fairmont
Monongahela River near Morgantown
West Fork River at Gypsy
West Fork River at Enterprise
187
408
64
149
972
1,048
277
1,302
138
2,143
2,642
610
759
46.0
135.0
93.0
36.6
85.0
81.0
94.0
31.9
34.0
120.0
146.0
326.0
674.0
2-44
-------
ma^or problem, and urbanized areas comprise only 10% of the total area
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1976). Because 67% of the- Basin is forested, logging
is of special concern and has been identified as one of the causes of
turbidity in Basin streams (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976). Streams that have
been adversely affected by logging activities include Tygart V-alley River,
Shavers Fork, and Blackwater River (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976).
Sedimentation caused by road construction also is a problem, especially in
small streams. Siltation caused by construction of Interstate 79, and
Corridors F, and H have affected a number of streams in the Basin
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1976).
2.1.1.5. Coal Mine Related Problems
Mining is the major source of pollution in the Basin, in fact, the
Basin is considered to be more intensely polluted by mine drainage than any
other ma}or river system in the United States (EPA 1971). Of 6,217 stream
miles in the Basin, 1,368 (22%) are affected by mine drainage (Table 2-8).
Watersheds having the highest percentage of stream miles affected include
Monongahela River, Lower West Fork River, Elk Creek, Lower Tygart Valley
River, and the Lower Cheat River. All had greater than 40% of the stream
miles in their watersheds affected by mine drainage. Streams in the Basin
affected by mine drainage are listed in Table 2-9. Some streams on the list
have improved (e.g., Monongahela River, Booth's Creek, Indian Creek, Elk
Creek); others have gotten worse (e.g., Middle Fork River, North Fork of
Blackwater River); many have remained the same (e.g., Cassity Fork, Roaring
Creek, Deckers Creek, West Run). The lack of improvement is in many cases
due to the large number of abandoned mines in the Basin. Green
International (1979) reported that, in the Monongahela River Basin there
were almost 4,000 abandoned mines (Table 2-10) compared to less than 350
active mines, a ratio of greater than 10:1. Clearly, water quality in the
Basin will not be improved significantly until these abandoned mines are
sealed or reclaimed adequately.
Active mining operations are regulated as point source discharges under
the NPDES permit program. The Nationwide effluent limitations for existing
sources in the coal mining category were last revised during 1977. They
limit the pH level and the concentrations of iron, manganese, and total
suspended solids in the effluent that legally can be discharged by mines and
coal preparation plants. Self-monitoring requirements are imposed on
permittees, who must report the actual values of regulated parameters in
their discharge to WVDNR-Water Resources and to EPA Region III. Enforcement
of the Nationwide effluent limitations is receiving a growing priority in
Region III. Revised regulations are expected to be promulgated in the near
future.
The major problems associated with active and abandoned mine discharges
and other mine facilities and their haul roads are sedimentation, acid mine
drainage, and high levels of iron, manganese, and sulfates.
2-45
-------
Table 2-8. Miles of streams affected by mine drainage in the Monongahela
River Basin (EPA 1971).
Stream
Upper Monongahela River
Buffalo & Paw Paw Creeks
Lower West Fork River
Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Upper West Fork River
Lower Tygart Valley River
Middle Tygart Valley River
Buckhannon River
Middle Fork River
Upper Tygart Valley River
Leading Creek
Lower Cheat River
Big Sandy Creek
Upper Cheat River
Shavers Fork
Blackwater River Area
Total Miles
of Streams*
440
260
375
188
182
579
287
470
464
227
521
90
255
312
495
323
749
Miles
Affected
180
42
171
37
96
146
123
140
64
19
22
0
144
68
30
42
44
Ratio miles affected/
Total miles
.41
.16
.46
.20
.53
.25
.43
.30
.14
.08
.04
0
.56
.22
.06
.13
.06
TOTALS 6,217 1,368 0.22
* Estimated values obtained by multiplying the drainage area by
1.5 miles of stream per square mile.
2-46
-------
Table 2-9. Streams in the Monongahela River Basin affected by mining
(after WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980).
Stream
Barbour County
Buckhannon River
Laurel Creek
Middle Fork River
Sugar Creek of Laurel
Big Run
Cranes Branch
Dick Drain
Fork Run
Perks Run
Wash Run
Brushy Fork
Buckhannon River
Elk Creek
Foxgrape Run
Hacker Creek
Left Branch
Sandy Creek
Simpson Creek
Tygart Valley River
Harrison County
West Fork River
Tenmile Creek
Little Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Jones Creek
Rockcamp Run
Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Little Tenmile Creek
West Fork River
Little Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Simpson Creek
Lewis County
Hackers Creek
Right Fork Stonecoal
West Fork River
Stonecoal Creek
Polluted Length
(Miles)
2.4
4.5
12.0
4.5
1.6
1.2
1.1
2.0
2.0
2.1
5.2
6.6
12.0
3.4
0.5
3.0
14.0
7.0
36.5
39.0
18.0
5.0
11.0
6.0
6.7
6.0
4.0
3.0
29.0
3.8
5.0
8.5
12.6
5.5
35.0
2.0
Area
(Acres)
29.1
10.9
101.8
10.9
0.8
0.6
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
10.2
0.8
0.2
0.7
25.5
2.5
530.9
520.0
65.5
15.2
46.7
2.9
3.2
2.9
1.9
1.5
386.7
11.5
21.2
20.6
22.9
10.0
212.1
4.8
Pollution Level"
Light
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Heavy
Very Light
Very Light
Very Light
Very Light
Very Light
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Moderate
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Moderate
Heavy
Moderate
Moderate
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Moderate
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Light
Light
Light
Grossly
2-47
-------
Table 2-9. Streams in the Monongahela River Basin affected by mining
(continued).
I
Stream
Polluted Length Area
(Miles) (Acres) Pollution Level"
Marion County
Paw Paw Creek
Buffalo Creek
Pricketts Creek
Pyles Fork
Monongahela River
West Fork River
Tygart Valley River
Monongalia County
Whiteday Creek
Monongahela River
West Run
Dents Run
Deckers Creek
Booth's Creek
Indian Creek
Cheat River
Preston County
Big Sandy Creek
Cheat River (Above Albright)
Lick Run
Pringle Run
Little Sandy Creek
Muddy Creek
Brains Creek
Deckers Creek
Little Sandy Creek
Cheat River (Below Albright)
Sandy Creek
Randolph County
Middle Fork River
Red Run
Taylor Run
Shavers Fork
Grassy Fork
Cassity Fork
Fishing Hawk Creek
Middle Fork Tygart Valley
River
Panthers Run
Roaning Creek
Taylor Run
Tygart Valley River
Unnamed
5.7
23.0
0.4
1.0
11.1
11.5
9.8
3.5
26.5
6.5
4.5
10.2
6.6
9.2
5.8
17.0
19.0
3.7
4.3
7.0
5.0
3.0
7.0
7.0
20.0
7.5
4.7
2.5
1.9
54.6
2.5
2.5
3.6
5.0
4.6
12.1
1.0
5.3
3.5
13.8
83.6
14.5
0.5
664.0
243.9
326.7
23.2
1,492.0
7.9
8.2
24.7
16.0
22.3
298.8
206.1
806.1
1.8
2.1
21 . 2
18.2
7.3
25.5
24 . 2
545.5
13.6
28.5
1.5
1.2
529.5
1.2
1.2
2.2
24.2
1.1
8.8
0.2
70.7
0.4
Light
Light
Light
Heavy
Light
Moderate
Grossly
Light
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Moderate
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly'
Gross! v
Grossly
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Heavy
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
2-48
-------
Table 2-9. Streams in the Monongahela River Basin affected by mining
(concluded).
Stream
Polluted Length Area
(Miles) (Acres)
Pollution Level*
Taylor County
Right Fork of Simpson Creek
Buck Run
Maple Run
Little Sandy Creek
Simpson Creek
Threefork Creek
Tygart Valley River
Raccoon Creek
Tucker County
Cheat River
Black Fork
N. Fk. Blackwater River
Beaver Creek
Blackwater River
Chaffey Run
Hawkins Run
Lang Run
Lost Run
North Fork
Pendleton Creek
Upshur County
Middle Fork River
Bull Run
Mud Lick
Turkey Run
Buckhannon River
Left Fork of Sand
2.5
3.1
2.1
2.1
6.3
9.8
10.0
10.5
21.0
4.0
4.2
11.2
10.4
1.5
1.8
3.1
1.0
2.5
5.6
14.4
4.0
2.6
4.6
13.8
2.4
1.2
1.5
1.0
3.8
3.8
17.8
242.4
19.1
636.4
58.2
3.1
10.9
63.0
0.2
0.2
0.8
0.1
0.9
2.0
122.2
1.9
1.3
2.2
117.1
1.2
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Light
Moderate
Light
Grossly
Light
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Grossly
Light
Moderate
Heavy
Very Light
Grossly
Grossly
* Pollution level is based upon judgement of the Department of Natural
Resources' personnel.
-------
Table 2-10. Coal mine related discharges in the Monongahela River Basin
(Green International 1979).
Sub-basin Watershed
Monongahela River (Mainstem)
Buffalo Creek/Paw Creek
Lower West Fork
Tenmile Creek
Elk Creek
Upper West Fork
Lower Tygart Valley River
Middle Tygart Valley River
Upper Tygart Valley River
Buckhannon River
Middle Fork River
Lower Cheat River
Upper Cheat River
Big Sandy Creek
Blackwater River
Shavers Fork
Snowy Creek/Rhine Creek
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Active mines and abandoned mines represent widespread and significant
sources of non-point pollutants that may affect both surface water and
groundwater. Where reclamation has not been accomplished to replace top-
soil and vegetation on the surface, fractured overburden material offers an
extensive rock surface for oxidation and leaching. As a resul-t various
elements can be dissolved and carried into streams along with sediment.
Sedimentation from active and abandoned mines historically has
contributed to water quality problems in the Basin. It is of special
concern in the Basin because of the large number of trout streams in the
Basin and the number of sensitive fish species presently inhabiting Basin
waters (see Section 2.2.). The sediment load from uncontrolled surface
mines may be 2,000 times greater than in runoff from undisturbed forests
(EPA 1976a).
Abandoned mines eventually are to be reclaimed under the direction of
WVDNR-Reclamation using Federal funds allocated pursuant to the SMCRA.
Some abandoned mines may be reclaimed by mine operators who undertake
remitting or mining adjacent to the abandoned mines.
Water quality varies tremendously throughout the Basin. It is
typically good to excellent in areas where mining is absent or minimal
(e.g., Upper Cheat River, Upper Tygart Valley River), but is often poor or
marginal in areas where mining is heavy. Acid production, high sulfates,
high iron, and sedimentation are the principal concerns. Low pH values are
already a problem in many Basin streams including most of those listed in
Table 2-9. Sampling during 1980 as part of the 303 planning process
identified over 100 streams in which the pH was less than 5. Low pH is of
special concern because of the naturally low buffering capacity exhibited by
many Basin streams. Sedimentation, which historically has been a problem,
is of added concern because of the difficulties associated with controlling
it and the inherent sensitivity of many of the Basin's aquatic organisms to
sedimentation (see Section 2.2.). Because of the extensive surface mining
that has occurred there, the greatest sedimentation problems occur in the
West Fork River watershed (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976). A study by USDA-SCS
indicated that sedimentation rates in the Elk Creek watershed might be as
high as 970 tons per square mile. Several streams in the Elk Creek
watershed (Brushy Run, Stewart Run, and others) already have had their
aquatic habitat severely reduced due to mine-induced sedimentation
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1976). High sulfate levels are a problem in selected
streams throughout the Basin and are a major concern in much of the West
Fork River drainage.
The biggest problem associated with analyzing water quality data is
having sufficient data to analyze problems on a local or specific level.
This problem primarily results from the fact that most of the water quality
sampling stations are located on the major streams of the Basin, and very
few are located on the smaller streams. Thus, the water quality in
mainstems of such streams as the Monongahela River can be described fairly
accurately, but little information is available for smaller streams like
2-51
-------
Stalnacker Run. Unfortunately, it is the smaller streams of the Basin that
are most susceptible to mine-related effects.
The water quality in small streams or watersheds depends on a host of
factors including overburden characteristics, mining and reclamation
practices, and local hydrologic conditions. The water quality in four
small watersheds tributary to the Clear Fork of the Coal River, for
example, was compared by Plass (1975) to ascertain the effects of mining
(Table 2-11). He found that pH increased slightly, iron remained constant,
and sulfate increased after mining. Specific conductance, alkalinity,
bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and zinc also increased after mining.
These data, like the ambient data discussed in this report, indicate the
wide seasonal and annual variations for most parameters. Thus, the water
quality impacts of mining in specific local watersheds appear to be
variable, and the quantitative changes in the values of the affected
parameters can be predicted only on the basis of local data.
The following sections describe water quality in the major watersheds
of the Basin with an emphasis on those parameters most likely to be affected
by mining.
Monongahela River
Until the early 1970's the Monongahela River was highly acidic and
supported little aquatic life (see Section 2.2.). Since 1972, however, pH
values have been above 6 and now are regularly between 6.5 and 7.5
(Jernezcic 1978). Sulfate levels are high (100-200 mg/1), but not so high
as to be a major concern. Iron concentrations are also rather high,
typically averaging about 1 mg/1. Concentrations of other metals are low
(USAGE 1976). Overall water quality in the mainstem Monongahela River has
improved to the point where it now supports a substantial sport fishery
(see Section 2.2.).
Dunkard Creek
Water quality in Dunkard Creek is fair to good. pH values are
typically near neutral (7.0) and sulfate concentrations are usually between
50 and 100 mg/1 (STORET file data, 1978-1980). Iron concentrations vary
widely (0.3-18.8) but usually are below 1 mg/1. These fluctuations suggest
that Dunkard Creek receives periodic "slugs" of acid mine drainage.
Buffalo Creek
pH values in Buffalo Creek are typically near or above 7. Sulfate
concentrations are usually quite high, regularly exceeding 100 mg/1 and
often exceeding 200 mg/1 (Table 2-4). Iron concentrations vary widely
(0.3-11.6 mg/1), but are generally near 1 mg/1.
2-52
-------
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West Fork River
Due to intense mining activity throughout much of its watershed, the
West Fork River until recently was severely polluted by acid mine drainage.
Although it still receives significant AMD inputs, its high (r-elative to
other streams in the Basin) buffering capacity has allowed it to recover
substantially. pH values typically are near 7 throughout the length of the
River. Sulfate and iron levels, however, show distinct differences over the
length of the River. Iron and sulfate concentrations in the mainstetn above
Weston WV, although high, are not excessive. Sulfates are generally near 50
mg/1 and iron is usually between 1 and 2 mg/1 (USAGE 1979). Near
Enterprise, sulfates average more than 300 mg/1 and iron over 4 mg/1 (Table
?.-4). The high sulfate levels have caused problems at Clarksburg which uses
the West Fork River as its source of drinking water (WVDNR 1976). These
elevated levels apparently are the result of significant treated and
untreated mine effluents which the River receives from the Simpson Creek and
Tenmile Creek watersheds. Thus, the water quality in the River above
Simpson Creek can be characterized as fair to good, while below Simpson
Creek it is poor.
Tenmile Creek
Water quality in the lower Tenmile Creek is still poor, but, above
Sardis WV, it is fairly good (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources to Mr. Greg Seegert, October 1980). pH values are generally not a
problem, but high sulfate and iron concentrations are. Data collected near
Lumberport WV show that sulfates are high (50-400 mg/1) and iron
concentrations regularly exceed 2 mg/1. Recent (1980) data gathered near
Maken WV show much lower levels for these two parameters. Sulfate and iron
concentrations averaged 25 and 0.9 mg/1, respectively (208 program file
data) .
Elk Creek
Water quality data for this watershed is sparse. Data gathered as part
of the 208 program showed pH values of 6.7-8.4, iron concentrations of
0.4-0.9 mg/1, and sulfate concentrations of 360-610 (Table 2-4). Water
quality in the Basin has been characterized as still poor from past AMD
problems but is improving (Verbally, Mr. Dave Elkinton, WVDNR-Water
Resources to Mr. Greg Seegert, October 1980).
Tygart Valley River (TVR)
The TVR has good to excellent water quality above Roaring Creek
(WVDNR-Water Resources 1976). For instance, near Daily WV, pH values were
=7, sulfates were =10 mg/1, and iron concentrations were usually less than
0.5 mg/1. Water quality in the middle and lower reaches varies
considerably. Water quality is generally good in the middle sections of the
River except during low flow periods when acid inputs from a variety of
tributaries can cause significant adverse impacts. For instance, during the
summer of 1980 a severe depression of the pH was observed in the TVR near
Belington with pH values being as low as 4.1 (Zeto 1980). A significant
2-54
-------
fish kill resulted. The principal AMD sources were Grassy Run, Roaring
Creek, Beaver Creek, and Island Run.
Water quality in the lower TVR is generally poor, primarily because of
the acid impacts from the Three Forks watershed (USWFS 1979).- At Colfax WV,
near the mouth of the TVR, the River typically shows the following
characteristics: pH - 6, iron - 0.5 mg/1, and sulfate - 20-40 mg/1.
Buckhannon River
Water quality in the upper portions of the watershed is excellent: pH
values are between 6 and 7, and iron and sulfate concentrations are low.
Alkalinities are very low, often less than 10 mg/1, meaning that the
Buckhannon River is poorly buffered and hence very susceptible to AMD.
Water quality declines rapidly as one proceeds downstream. pH values near
Hall WV are similar to those upstream but sulfates have increased from
<10 mg/1 to 20-50 mg/1, and iron concentrations have increased from 0.4 mg/1
to as high as 3 mg/1. Alkalinities are still quite low (10-15 mg/1).
Middle Fork River (MFR)
The situation in the MFR is very similar to that in the Buckhannon
River. That is, in its upper reaches the MFR is a high quality, poorly
buffered stream, which, because of acid inputs from mine polluted streams,
becomes rapidly degraded as one progresses downstream. Near Adolph WV, the
MFR is a naturally acidic (pH 5-6), lightly buffered stream (alkalinities
<5 mg/1). No evidence of mine pollution is present; sulfates are <10 mg/1,
and iron concentrations are typically 0.1 to 0.2 mg/1 (STORET file data,
1980). Due to acid inputs from Cassity Fork and other smaller tributaries,
the MFR becomes increasingly acidic as one proceeds downstream, and by
Audra WV, pH values below 5 are common.
Three Forks Creek
This stream and much of its watershed is highly polluted by AMD. Iron
concentrations regularly exceed 1 mg/1, sulfates typically exceed 100 mg/1,
and pH values below 4 are common (Table 2-4).
Cheat River
\
The Cheat River above Rowlesburg WV has good to excellent xi/ater
quality; however, between Rowlesburg and Albright WV, a number of acid
pollution tributaries enter the river and severely depress its pH. Above
Rowlesburg, pH values are generally between 6 and 7, alkalinities between 15
and 20 mg/1, sulfates between 15 and 25 mg/1 and iron less than 0.5 mg/1
(Table 2-4). At the Route 73 bridge in Preston County, WV, pH values are
usually below 6 and often below 5, sulfates average 40-50 mg/1 and iron
concentrations are generally between 0.5 and 1.0 mg/1. Streams contributing
the most to this deterioration of water quality include Lick Run, Heather
Run, Pringle Run, Morgan Run, and Muddy Creek.
2-55
-------
Big Sandy Creek
This stream, though adversely affected by AMD, continues to support a
surprisingly diverse aquatic community (see Section 2.2.). Water quality
data suggest that conditions are fairly good (Table 2-4). Recent data
suggest that Little Sandy Creek is the major source of AMD in the watershed
(Table 2-4, 1980, 303 program data).
Blackwater River
The Blackwater River is a naturally acidic, poorly buffered stream.
Above Davis WV, it has pH values between 5 and 6 and low alkalinity,
sulfates, and iron concentrations (Table 2-4). Below Davis, due to AMD
inputs from North Fork and from Beaver Creek, pH values are depressed below
5, and sulfate and iron concentrations are increased.
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork is another naturally acidic, poorly buffered stream. Many
of its tributaries are too acidic to support any fishery (Menendez 1978).
pH values in the mainstem vary from 5 to 7 depending on time of year with
alkalinities usually near 10 mg/1 (Menendez 1978). This combination of low
pH and low alkalinities makes it highly susceptible to damage from AMD.
Sulfate and iron concentrations are usually low (Table 2-4). Shavers Fork
also has had problems with sedimentation caused by logging operations in the
stream's headwaters (Menendez 1978).
Dry Fork
The Dry Fork watershed has been essentially unmined resulting in high
water quality throughout the Basin. pH values in the watershed are
generally between 5 and 7. The lower pH values, however, are a result of
natural acidity, not AMD. Iron and sulfate concentrations are low (1980 303
program data). Most of the streams in the watershed have alkalinities of
about 20 mg/1, but some (e.g., Red Creek and Otter Creek) have values
considerably below this level. The combination of naturally low pH values
and low to medium alkalinities makes the watershed susceptible to AMD.
2.1.2. Oroundwater Resources
Although surface waters are the maior sources of public water supplies
for the larger communities in the Basin (Table 2-5), groundwater is the
principal source for many of the smaller communities and individual users in
the Basin. The available water supply data (Table 2-5 and Figure 2-2)
indicate that 22 municipal water supply systems rely solely on groundwater
from wells and springs in the Basin. Three other municipal systems are both
groundwater and surface water. Most of these municipal consumers are
located in the northern part of the Basin and use less than 50 thousand
gallons per day. Other large groundwater consumers include mines,
industrial operations, and recreational and institutional facilities.
2-56
-------
Private water supply wells are common in the sparsely populated rural
sections of the Basin.
2.1.2.1. Hydrology of the Basin
The groundwater resources of the Monongahela River Basin generally
occur in sedimentary rocks of Devonian age (395 million years) or younger.
The alluvial sand and gravel deposits in the valleys of the Monongahela
River and its tributaries also contain locally important'groundwater
supplies. Older, deeper strata generally contain saline or brackish
groundwater that locally may occur close to the surface. A rock stratum
that bears groundwater is known as an aquifer.
The value of groundwater as a resource is related mainly to three
factors: the depth at which the water is found; the rate at which it can
flow into a well; and, the quality of the water produced. These
characteristics are governed by geological structures. The Monongahela
River Basin is in the Appalachian Plateau. The western half of the Basin is
underlain primarily by nearly horizontal layers of shales, coal, and
sandstone, and the eastern half of the Basin is underlain primarily by
moderately folded layers of sandstone, coal, and shales (Figure 2-8).
Portions of Tucker and Randolph Counties contain deposits of alluvial sand
and gravel, and limestone (see Section 2.7. for additional geology
discuss ion).
The quality and quantity of groundwater in the Basin generally is
determined by the mineral composition, structure, and depth of the aquifers.
Naturally-occurring minerals, saline and brackish water, and agricultural
and domestic wastes locally can degrade the quality of groundwater.
The aquifers of Basinwide importance generally consist of sandstones
interbedded with thinner strata of coal, shale, limestone, and clay (Table
2-12). Except where they crop out at the surface, permeable sandstone
aquifers are confined above and below by relatively impermeable strata of
clay and shale.
Most wells in the Basin are drilled into rock aquifers. In this type
of well, the water moves to the well through pores between the grains of
the sandstone or through cracks where the rock is fractured. The
sandstones store large quantities of water, but the delivery of adequate
amounts of water to a well depends on the presence of a network of
fractures. The geological characteristics, water yields, and water quality
of the various geological formations in the Basin are summarized in
Table 2-12. The locations of these formations are shown on Figure 2-55,
Section 2.7.
Landers (1976) recognized six regions that characterize the groundwater
regimes of West Virginia. Five of these regions are recognized in the
Monongahela River Basin (Figure 2-8). Landers also mapped the average
yields of wells throughout the State. This map has been adapted to the
2-57
-------
Figure 2-8
HYDROGEOLOGIC SUBREGIONS OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (Landers 1976)
Nearly horfeontal scales
•^'Moderately ~"t
folded sandstone
and co
Near ryVhoriz exit al
with shale and
coal
Alluvial;
sands and gravels
f /'
\
O 10
WAPORA, INC.
2-58
-------
Table 2-12. Summary of aquifer characteristics in the Monongahela River
Basin, West Virginia (Friel and others 1967).
Rock units
Thickness
(feec)
Water yield and development
Water quality
Quaternary aZluviua --
I'nconsol idated river,
lake, and glacial out-
wash deposits of gravel,
sand, clay, and silty
clay. Deposits are
brown, gray, red,
yellov and are gen-
erally pcorly sorted;
ferns semiconfined
aquifer in moat areas.
0-50 Source of a few domestic supplies.
Yields range from less than 1 to 10
gptn and average about 5 gpm. Wells
drilled as deep as SO feet, average
depth 18 feet.
Water soft, low
in dissolved
solids and chlo-
ride; high in
iron.
Dur.kard Group — Permian and Pennsylvanian
Gray, green, and brown
sands tone; red and
varicolored sandy or
liny shale; minor beds
of coal, fire clay,
carbonaceous shale,
and fresh-water lime-
stone: forms confined
aquifer.
0-1,090 Yields adequate for many domestic
and farm supplies and a few small
to moderate industrial supplies
along northwest edge of basin.
Yields of wells range from less
than 1 to 75 gpm and average about
12 gpm. Wells drilled as deep as
321 feet, average depth 77 feet.
Moderate hardness,
] ov in iron and
chloride; mod-
erate amount of
dissolved solids.
Monongahela Group -- Pennsylvanian
Gray and brown sand-
stone, red and vari-
colored sandy and
1im> shale, some im-
portant coal beds;
ninor beds of fresh-
water 1 iaiestone, fire
clay and carbonaceous
shale; fenns confined
aquifer.
0-485 Yields enough water for cany domestic
and farm and small to moderate in-
dustrial aupplies in north-central
part of basin along Monongahela
River. Yields range from less than
1 to 75 gpm and average about 13
gpm. Wells drilled as deep as 385
feet, average deptn 98 feet.
Extensive mining in Monongahela
Group has partly drained some areas;
ground-water conditions stable in
some areas, but continually chang-
ing in areas where heavy mine pump-
age is maintained and periodically
alcared.
Water hard, low
in iron, chlo-
ride, and dis-
solved solids.
Conecaugh Group -- Pennsylvanian
Gray and brown sand-
stone, massive and
coarse-grained at
base; red and gray
sand/ shale, and cal-
careous shale; minor
beds of coal, lime-
stone, fire clay:
forms confined
aquifer.
79-839 Most developed aquifer in the basin.
Adequate yield for domestic, farm,
and small to moderate industrial
supplies throughout central and
western parts of basin. Yields of
wells range from less than 1 to as
much as 400 gpm; however, the aver-
age is about 16 gpm. Highest yields
are reported from wells situated in
valleys and tapping the massive
sandstones at the base of the Group.
Wells drilled as deep as 985 feet,
average depth 107 feet.
Water is moderat-
ely hard, low in
irori, chloride,
and dissolved
solids.
Allegheny Group -- Pennsylvanian
Gray and brown massive 153-300
coarse-grained sand-
stone; sandy shales
and siltstones, s ev-
eral important coals,
minor beds of lime-
stone, and fire clay:
forms confined
aquifer.
Yields adequate for st&all to moderate
industrial and publ ic water suppl les
in central and northeastern part of
baain. Yields of wells range from
less than 1 to 350 gpm and average
about 26 gptn. Aquifer untested in
many areas; also is dev eloped in
many areas where overlain by
Conemaugh Group. Wells drill ed as
deep as 672 faet, average depth Hi
feec. Coal minirg has partly
dra tned some rocks , but ground-wate r
conditions stable in most areas.
Water is moderat-
ely hard , h igh
in iron, and low
in chloride and
dissolved solids.
2-59
-------
Table 2-12. Summary of aquifer characteristics (continued).
Rork units
Thickness
(feet)
Water yield and development
Water quality
pottsvilie Group — Pennsylvania!)
predomiriar.tly massive
conglomcrat ic sand-
stones wirh some inter-
b&dded sandy shales,
shale, thin irregular
end impure coal beds;
end minor beds of
lir.estone: forms con-
fined aquifer.
225-1,155
Yields large quantities of fresh
water of good Duality in central
and northeastern parts of basin.
yields of wells range from less
thin 1 to 250 gpm and average about
-5 gpm. Aquifer is untested in
niany ereasj also is developed In
areas where overlain by Allegheny
Group and lower part of Conetaflugh
Group, Veils drilled as deep as
1,000 feet, average depth 202 feet.
Also known ss "Salt sands" of
drillers. Yields saline (mineral-
ised) water to veils in much of the
western part of the Monongahela
River basin. Unsuitable for use
except possibly for cooling.
Water is soft,
high in iron,
and low in chlo-
ride and dissolved
solids. Water Is
saline in western
part of the basin
Mauch Chunk Group -- Mississippian
Predominantly red and
green shale with
interbedded f ine-
grained micaceous
sandstone, minor beds
of impure 1imestone:
forms confined
aquifer.
48-1,610 Yields enough water for domestic and
fare supplies in southeastern part
of basin. Yields of wells range
from less than 1 to 5 gpm and aver-
age about 3 gpm. Wells drilled as
deep as 193 feet, average depth 115
feet. Yields of 100 to 600 gptn
evailsble from springs in minor
limestone beds.
Water is moderat-
ely hard and is
low in iron and
chloride.
Greerbrier Limestone —- Upper Mississippian
Massive gray limestone,
with interbedded
argillaceous lime-
stone, and thin beds
of red or green cal-
careous shale and
sandstone: forms con-
fined aquifer.
0-430 Source cf large yielding springs
that supply snail to moderately
large industrial supplies. Yields
of springs range from 50 to 1,000
gpm and average 180 gpm. Yields of
veils tapping Greer.brier range from
5 to 100 gpin and average 45 gpm.
Wells drilled as deep as 310 feet,
average depth 107 feet. Aquifer
has relatively small a reel exposure
in eastern part of basin and is
deeply buried and probably of low
permeability in western part.
Water is moderat-
ely hard, extre-
mely low in iron,
chloride, and dis-
solved solids.
Pocono Formation -- Lower Mississippian
Predominantly gray 0-600
massive conglomeratic
sandstone with some
brown eandy shale;
forms confined
aquifer.
Yields of wells range from 4 to 120
gpm and average 45 gpm in eastern
part of basin. Wells drilled as
deep as 322 feet, average depth 100
feet. Pocono has a limited areal
extent in the eastern part of the
basin.
Water is hard end
very low in iron,
chloride, and
d issolved sol ids.
Catekill Formation -- Upper and Middle Devonian
220-1,025
Predominantly red or
greenish-brown sand-
stones and shales:
forms confined
aquifer.
Yields water for domestic, farm, and
email industrial supplies in east-
ern part of basin. Yields of wells
range from less than 1 to 22 gpm
and average 13 gpm. Wells drilled
ss deep as 170 feet, average depth
69 feet.
Water ie moderat-
ely hard, contains
iron and is low in
chloride and dis-
solved solids.
Chemung Formation — Upper Devonian
Predominantly olive-
green, flaggy sand-
stones and shales:
foras confined
aquifer.
105-3,147
Yields adequate for domestic, farm,
and email industrial supplies in
eastern part of basin. Yields of
wells range from less than 1 to 25
gpm and average 16 gpra. Wells
drilled as deep as 325 feet, averagi
depth 83 feet.
Water is soft,
contains iron
end is low in
chloride and
dissolved solids.
-------
Table 2-12. Summary of aquifer characteristics (concluded)
Rock units
Thickness
(feet)
Water yield and development
Hater quality
Brallier Formation — Upper Devonian
Thin, green, flaggy
sandstone, and green
sandy shales: forms
confined aquifer.
801-2,500
Yields adequate for domestic, farm, Water is soft,
and small industrial supplies in contains iron,
eastern part of basin. Yields of is low in chlo-
wells range from less than 1 to 280 ride and dis-
gpm and average 27 gpm. Wells solved solids.
drilled as deep as 572 feet, aver-
age depth 112 feet.
Harrell Shale -- Upper Devonian
Black and dark-brown
fissile shale: forma
confined aquifer.
150-2,500 Yields adequate for domestic, farm,
and small industrial supplies.
Yields of wells range from less
than 1 to 40 gpm and average 20 gpo.
Limited surface exposure in eastern
part of basin. Wells drilled as
deep as 300 feet, average depth
100 feet.
Water is moderat-
ely hard and ia
low in iron and
chloride.
Rocks of Middle and Lover
Devonian undifZerentiated
in this report.
Mostly limestone,
shale, sandstone,
and chert: form
confined aquifers.
Sedimentary rocks
(undif f erent iated in
this report) overly-
ing crystalline base-
ment complex of
precatnbrian age: pro-
bably fo~ confined
aquifer.
Approx. Available data indicate that most of
800-1,800 these deep-lying rocks probably are
poor aquifers, although sandstone
may yield some brine to wells. So
knovn development.
Approx. Rocks probably would yield little
10,000-19,000 water to wells, except snail a=cur.ts
of brine. No kncvn development .
Highly mineralized
brine; unfit for
any ordinary use
except for cool-
ing or as a
source of chemi-
cal elements.
do.
2-61
-------
scale of the Basin (Figure 2-9), and serves as a rough indicator of
available supplies (Figures 2-8 and 2-9 and Table 2-12 also refer to Figure
2-55 in Section 2.7.).
Region 1 includes a small part of the Basin in eastern Tucker County.
The Greenbrier Limestone (Table 2-12) crops out along the limbs and axes of
synclines and anticlines in the Mountain section (Figure 2-10; see Section
2.7.). Ground-water generally occurs in open fractures and solution channels
in limestone aquifers (Figure 2-10). The average well in this region yields
45 gpm and is 107 feet deep (Ward and Wilmoth 1968a).
Region 2 includes most of the eastern third of the Basin in Preston,
Tucker, and Randolph Counties. All of the moderately folded sandstone,
shale, and coal strata of Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, and Devonian age are
included in Region 2, except the Monongahela Group. The average well yields
range from 150 to less than 15 gpm. Depths of wells vary with topographic
position and local geologic structure (Figure 2-11). Recommended maximum
drilling depths are 200 feet in valleys and 300 feet on mountaintops; deeper
wells generally encounter saline or brackish groundwater (Landers 1976).
Regions 3 and 4 generally encompass the western two thirds of the
Basin. They have similar geologic structures (Figure 2-12), Region 3
includes the thick, massive sandstones of the Pottsville group (Figure
2-13). Region 4 largely consists of the shales, clay, coals, and thinner
sandstones of the Conemaugh, Monongahela, and Dunkard Groups. The Allegheny
Group occurs at the surface in both regions.
Wells in the Pottsville group of Region 4 have an average depth of 202
feet and yield of 45 gpm. Yields are substantially higher in Lewis and
Upshur Counties, where the surface exposures of the Pottsville Group
predominate. Wells elsewhere in Regions 3 and 4 have average depths between
77 and 111 feet and average yields between 12 to 26 gpm.
Region 5 includes limited areas with alluvial sand and gravel deposits
in the valleys of Blackwater River and Tygart Valley River (Figures 2-8 and
2-12). Wells in these sediments have an average yield of 5 gpm and an
average deoth of 18 feet (Table 2-5).
Ward and Wilmoth (1968a) studied the hydrogeology of the Basin and
recognized regions of high, moderate, and low yielding aquifers. Large
areas of the Basin, according to Ward and Wilmoth, have moderate- to
high-yielding aquifers with acceptable water quality (Figure 2-14).
High-yielding aquifers can be expected to furnish ample water for the future
development of industrial and municipal water supplies. Domestic supplies
are available everywhere in these areas, which are underlain by sandstone
and limestone with interbeds of coal and shale. These rocks typically yield
50 to 350 epm to individual wells. Valleys in this terrain are more
favorable for development of high-yielding wells than hilltops. Depths of
wells range from less than 50 feet to 1,000 feet and average approximately
130 feet.
2-62
-------
Figure 2-9
AVERAGE YIELDS OF WATER WELLS DRILLED IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (Landers 1976)
GALLONS PER MINUTE
fi/fQ LESS THAN 15
I I
I 1 15-50
50-150
2-63
-------
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2-66
-------
Figure 2-13
THE POTTSVILLE GROUP IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
AREA OF EXPOSURE OF THE
POTTSVILLE GROUP
PROBABLE WESTERN LIMIT OF
POTABLE WATER IN POTTSVILLE
GROUP AT DEPTHS LESS THAN
500 FEET BELOW STREAM
VALLEYS
AREAS MOST FAVORABLE FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF POTABLE GROUND
WATER SUPPLIES FROM POTTSVILLE
GROUP YIELD OF INDIVIDUAL WELLS AS
MUCH AS 250 GPM, AVERAGE YIELD 45 GPM
LINE OF GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION
KEYED TO FIGURE 2-16
2-67
-------
Figure 2-14
POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPABLE GROUNDWATER RESOURCES IN THE
MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
^^H HIGH-YIELDING AQUIFERS
| [ MODERATE-YIELDING AQUIFERS
I I LOW-YIELDING AQUIFERS
2-68
-------
Moderate-yielding aquifers (Conemaugh Group) have good potential for
development of small industrial and community supplies. Domestic supplies
are obtainable nearly everywhere in these areas. Wells located in valleys
yield from 10 to 400 gpm, with an average yield of 21 gpm. Given the proper
hydrogeologic conditions in outcrops of the Conemaugh Group, yields of up to
250 gpm are achieved by drilling 400 to 1,000 feet to tap the Allegheny
Formation and Pottsville Group. Low-yielding aquifers are the least
favorable for development of large industrial and community water supplies.
Individual domestic and commercial water supplies, however, are available in
nearly all of these aquifers. Wells in these areas have an average depth of
88 feet and an average yield of 12 gpm.
Recharge of freshwater aquifers in the Basin generally occurs in zones
of highly fractured rock along the axes of anticlines (Figure 2-56 in
Section 2.7.). Several confined aquifers of Basinwide importance probably
are recharged in the Mountain section of the Basin, especially along the
limbs and axial traces of the Blackwater Anticlines, Deer Park Anticlines,
Etam-Briery Mountain Anticline, Texas Anticlines, and Hiram Mountain
Ant icline.
Recharge of Mississippian and younger aquifers (Figure 2-56 in Section
2.7.) also occurs along the Chestnut Ridge Anticline in the north central
part of the Basin. This groundwater recharge generally reduces the
concentration of chloride in aquifers of the Pottsville Group that crop out
along the anticline (Ward and Wilmoth 1968a). Salinity in the Basin is
related to the body of very salty sea water several hundred feet under the
fresh water aquifer which was trapped during past geological ages. The
effect of this layer of saline water can be seen in the high sodium chloride
contents of some wells as shallow as 100 feet. The salt content increases
with depth, until at depths of several hundred to 1,000 feet very
concentrated brines can be found (Figures 2-15 and 2-16). Salinity of
groundwater in Mississippian aquifers increases in a northwest direction
across the Basin.
Both underground and surface coal mines can disrupt local water
supplies by dewatering aquifers that are encountered in the course of
mining. For example, blasting can fracture rock strata and create new flow
patterns. Underground mines constitute major voids where water can flow
much more rapidly than in ordinary fractures and between the grains of
overlying rocks. The water that accumulates in mines is a nuisance or
hazard for the mine operator, who must pump or otherwise drain it to provide
access to his workings, thus insuring a continuing drawdown during active
mining operations.
Surface mines can increase the rate of flow from a hillside by inter-
cepting water at the highwall. The effect mining has on groundwater move-
ment varies with distance; this relationship, in turn, is very much affected
by local geologic conditions. The magnitude of the effect depends both on
the rate of change in water movement through the system and on the presence
of water supply wells in the affected zone. Well levels and yields vary in
2-69
-------
Figure 2-15
LOCATION OF SHALLOW SALINE WATERS AND OIL AND GAS FIELDS,
AND RELATIVE SALINITY OF GROUNDWATER IN PRE-DEVONIAN ROCKS.
(Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
122
, I0
— •" lla
SHALLOW, SALTY GROUNDWATER
LESS THAN 90 METERS
(300 FEET) BELOW LAND
SURFACE
OIL AND GAS FIELDS (ADAPTED
FROM WV-GES 1958 AND 1962)
LINES OF EQUAL DENSITY, IN GRAMS PER
CUBIC CENTIMETER, OF BRINES BELOW
THE DEVONIAN SHALES (ADAPTED FROM
A MAP BY HOSKINS 1949)
A' LINE OF GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTION
KEYEDTO FIGURE 2-16
2-70
-------
3NH3I1NV —
30010
M3AIM »13H»SNONOfl —
133d Nl NOU.VA3H3
2-71
-------
response to pumpage rates and recharge rates; hence, it historically has
been difficult to establish unequivocally the effects of mining on nearby
water supplies. Full implementation of the Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act of 1977 and the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and
Reclamation Act of 1980 should assure that adequate data on local ground-
water supplies are collected prior to mining, so that probable impacts can
be anticipated, and mitigations can be implemented for individual mines (see
Section 4.0.).
2.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality
Groundwater quality is determined by several factors (see Section 5.1.,
Tabe 5-3"). Minerals can be picked up by surface water as it passes through
the ground to the water table. Pumping can draw upward the highly saline
water layer existing at lower depths. Various materials can be dissolved in
the surface water before it enters the ground, including materials added to
the water by acid mine drainage. Groundwater in the Basin generally is of
sufficient quality for potable use.
The aquifers of the Basin generally yield sodium-calcium bicarbonate
water. Weak carbonic acid solutions are formed as water infiltrates the
ground and comes in contact with carbon dioxide produced during the natural
decomposition of organic material. Weak carbonic acid solutions infiltrate
and react with the limestone, shale, clays, and certain other minerals to
leach sodium, calcium, and magnesium which react further to form bicarbonate
ions.
Iron, manganese, and other constituents also are leached by acidic
waters. The dissolved iron content of groundwater is inversely
proportional to pH, being typically about 2 mg/1 at pH 6 and under 0.2 mg/1
at pH 8. Iron also is present in well water in suspended form, at highly
variable concentrations which may be several times the dissolved iron
concentrations. Total iron concentrations in the range of 10 to 60 mg/1
are found occasionally under natural conditions, but iron in excess of 0.3
mg/1 is considered objectionable for household use because it imparts a
poor taste to the water and stains laundry. Manganese typically is
dissolved, and generally is present in the range of 10 to 50% of the
dissolved iron content. Manganese can cause stains and bad taste in
drinking water when present in excess of 0.05 mg/1. Because of taste and
staining problems, the Safe Water Drinking Act specifies that iron and
manganese concentrations in public water supplies not exceed 0.3 and 0.05
mg/1, respectively.
Table 2-13 shows the concentrations of several key groundwater
parameters that occur in the major geological formations in the Basin. Iron
concentrations are high enough in many places in the Basin to require
treatment (Ward and Wilmoth 1968). The aquifers that contain the highest
iron concentraitons are the Quaternary alluvium, and the Allegheny and
Pottsville Formations (Table 2-13). The occurrence of saline water below
the streams throughout much of the western portion of the Basin limits the
2-72
-------
Table 2-13. Summary of chloride, iron, hardness, and pH of ground water (Ward
and Wilmouth 1968).
Chloride
(ppm)
Number
of
Water-bearing samples
unit analyzed
Quaternary alluvium
Dunkard Group
Monongahela Group
Conemaugh Group
•Allegheny Formation
Pottsville Group
Mauch Chunk Group
Greenbrier Limestone
Pocono Formation
Catskill Formation
Chemung Formation
Brallier Formation
Harrell Shale
2
39
42
161
38
49
3
21
17
5
17
23
9
Range
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
3 -
1 -
1 -
2 -
0 -
4 -
2 -
14
1,610
105
1,700
237
688
4
8
32
17
1,565
7,750
16
Median
concen-
tration
7.0
16
6
5
4
4
3.5
3
6
8
18
16
5
Iron
(ppm)
Range
0.2 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
7.5
16
18
24
12
20
10
3
.5
10
10
10
Median
concen-
tration
3.7
.2
.2
.1
1.0
1.5
.01
.01
.01
.4
.4
.4
.05
Hardness
(ppm)
Range
60 -
5 -
0.5 -
0 -
1 -
5 -
70 -
8 -
3 -
34 -
5 __
5 -
34 -
68
720
1,212
1,479
1,650
242
136
188
208
72
171
1,708
206
Median
concen-
tration
64.0
112
124
102
81
46
77
81
124
68
26
54
103
Hydrogen ion
concentration (pH)
Median
concen-
Range
5.1 -
6.0 -
5.8 -
4.8 -
5.0 -
4.3 -
5.0 -
6.3 -
4.5 -
4.5 -
5.0 -
4.8 -
6.5 -
6
8
8
9
8.
8.
6,
8.
7
6,
7
7.
7.
.0
.5
.8
.0
.4
,1
.8
.0
.0
.8
.0
.3
,0
tration
5
7
7
7
6
6
5
6.
6
6
6
6
6.
.6
.5
.1
.0
.7
.6
.9
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
.8
2-73
-------
occurrence of fresh groundwater to relatively shallow depths (Ward and
Wilraoth 1968 and Figure 2-15). Most of this saltwater contamination of
shallow aquifers is apparently a result of natural causes; however, leakage
from oil and gas wells and disturbance from underground mining activities
may be contributing factors (Ward and Wilmoth 1968).
Sulfate is of special concern, because at concentrations above 250 mg/1
it can cause diarrhea. Most wells and springs in the Basin with more than
100 mg/1 sulfate in the water were receiving drainage from mines within a
few hundred feet, and all wells and springs with sulfate concentrations
greater than 250 mg/1 (the US drinking water standard) were located near
sources of AMD (Rauch 1980). Rauch suggested that as a general rule, most
wells and springs with more than 100 mg/1 sulfate were being contaminated by
AMD, and that most wells and springs with less than 100 mg/1 are either not
affected or are not significantly contaminated.
The correlation between underground mining activity and sulfate
concentration was assessed for the Clothier and Wharton USGS 1:24,000-scale
quadrangles encompassing sections of Boone and Logan Counties in the
Coal/Kanawha River Basin. Sulfate data for 35 wells in that area were
obtained from a USGS study of mines which had been operating for at least
six months based on WVDM permit records. Figure 2-17 is a correlation plot
relating the sulfate concentration in well water to the distance between the
well and the nearest underground mine. It can be seen that 78% of the wells
that were less than 1.6 miles from an underground mine had a sulfate
concentration of 10 mg/1 or more, whereas 82% of the wells that were over
1.6 miles from a deep mine had less than 10 mg/1 of sulfate. Such an
obvious skewing of the data indicates a strong possibility of mine-related
increased sulfate concentration in the groundwater in the vicinity of
underground mining activity. These findings, though not in this Basin, have
bearings on the Monongahela River Basin situation.
Water containing hydrogen sulfide with its characteristic "rotten eggs"
odor also can be a problem. Specifically, Adrian WV, Parsons WV, and areas
south of Rlkins have experienced hydrogen sulfide problems (Ward and Wilmoth
1968).
Groundwater pollution from coal mining can be either direct or
indirect. The water in wells downhill or downgradient from a mine can be
affected directly by groundwater that flows through pits, ponds, or
underground pools and from infiltration through spoil or gob piles.
Blasting can initiate indirect leakage of ponded drainage from old
underground mines in the same or different coal seams as those being mined.
AMD in groundwater typically undergoes a greater degree of acid
neutralization and iron precipitation than in surface water, because it
moves much more slowly away from the mine and has opportunity for contact
with carbonate minerals such as calcite and dolomite. Because sulfate
ordinarily remains in solution and is not precipitated, it is often a good
indicator for mine contamination. Rauch (1980) reported that all wells and
springs in the Basin with sulfate concentrations exceeding 250 mg/1 were
located near sources of AMD.
2-74
-------
1,000
en
UJ
_
CO
too
10
in
CJ
• •
i I
OVER 2 5 km
FROM MINE
UNDER 2.5km
FROM MINE
S04
UNDER
9 mg/l
14
3
S04
OVER
9 mg/l
4
14
-9 mg/l S04
DISTANCE FROM DEEP MINE(km)
Figure 2-17
RELATION BETWEEN SULFATE IN WELL WATER AND
DISTANCE FROM DEEP MINE IN BOONE AND LOGAN
COUNTIES, WEST VIRGINIA (Morris etal. 1976)
2-75
-------
Underground mines have been shown to produce drainage characterized by
low pH, high iron, and high sulfate, based on the reaction of FeS2
(pyrite) exposed to air and water by mining activity to produce an iron
sulfate-sulfuric acid solution. Such a solution could enter an aquifer
either through fractures or directly where the aquifer is exposed by the
mining activity. The acidic solution is neutralized rapidly by materials
such as limestone, resulting in an increase in the hardness of the
gorundwater but not affecting the elevated sulfate content. The iron
generally is removed by precipitation as a hydrated ferric oxide or a
ferrous carbonate, depending on its state of oxidation. Limestone is
present over portions of the Basin, but its absence locally could prevent
the neutralization of mine acid. Springs and very shallow wells are more
likely to be affected by surface mine drainage than are cased wells deeper
than 30 feet (Rauch 1980).
2-76
-------
2.2 Aquatic Biota
-------
Page
2.2. Aquatic Biota 2-77
2.2.1. Stream Habitats 2-77
2.2.2. Biological Communities 2-81
2.2.2.1. Criteria for Biologically Important Areas 2-81
2.2.2.1.1. Trout Waters 2-82
2.2.2.1.2. Areas of High Diversity 2-82
2.2.2.1.3. Streams Containing Macroinverte-
brate Indicator Species 2-84
2.2.2.1.4. Areas Containing Species of
Special Interest 2-88
2.2.2.1.5. Areas of Special Interest 2-88
2.2.2.1.6. Nonsensitive and Unclassifiable
Areas 2-90
2.2.2.2. Application of the Criteria and Limitations
of the Data 2-90
2.2.2.2.1. Trout 2-91
2.2.2.2.2. Fish Diversity 2-91
2.2.2.2.3. Macroinvertebrate Indicator
Species 2-92
2.2.2.2.4. Species of Special Interest 2-92
2.2.2.2.5. Areas of Special Interest 2-94
2.2.3. Erroneous Classification 2-94
-------
2.2. AQUATIC BIOTA
The Monongahela River Basin historically has been one of the most
severely polluted watersheds in the United States. Acid mine drainage has
been the primary source of this pollution, affecting 1,368 str-eam miles
(22%) out of a total of 6,217 miles in the Basin (WVDNR-Water Resources
1976). Recently, however, better mining techniques, new water quality
regulations and strict enforcement of old regulations, and reclamation of
abandoned mine sites have combined to produce significant improvements in
the Basin's water quality. Areas showing dramatic improvements in water
quality, and thus aquatic life, within the past 10 years include the lower
Tygart River (especially Tygart Lake), much of the West Fork drainage, and
the mainstem of the Monongahela River. Despite these impressive gains, poor
water quality still adversely affects aquatic life in many Basin streams. A
more detailed discussion of water quality in the Basin is given in Section
2.1.
2.2.1. Stream Habitats
The Monongahela River drains 7,340 square miles, 4,128 of which are in
West Virginia. The Basin is comprised of four major rivers: the West Fork
River, Tygart Valley River, Cheat River, and the Monongahela River. These
major drainages can be divided into 15 sub-basins as follows (Figure 1-1).
Monongahela River
The Monongahela River is formed at Fairmont WV by the confluence of the
West Fork and Tygart Valley Rivers. The 37-mile section of the Monongahela
River in West Virginia is used throughout its length as a commercial
waterway. A minimum seven foot channel is maintained using three
navigational lock-and-dam structures. Until the late 1960's, the river was
too acidic to support all but the most tolerant forms of aquatic life. At
the Maxwell Lock and Dam, located approximately 40 miles below Morgantown,
the number of fish species collected increased from 0 in 1967 to 16 in 1973
(USAGE 1976).
A substantial sport fishery has recently developed on the Monongahela
River. For instance, in 1978 and 1979 a total of 22 bass fishing tourna-
ments were held in the Opekiska Pool (Jernejcic and Courtney 1980). The
mainstem of the river has two tributaries that drain in excess of 100 square
miles: Dunkard Creek and Buffalo Creek.
Dunkard Creek
Dunkard Creek is 47 miles long and drains 227 square miles, about half
of which are located in West Virginia. It is a low gradient stream that
supports a good muskellunge and an excellent smallmouth bass fishery
(Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources to Mr. G. Seegert,
November 1980).
2-77
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Buffalo Creek
Buffalo Creek is 30 miles long, drains 125 square miles, and has an
average fall rate of 16 feet/mile. Its lower half has a very low gradient,
falling only 5 feet/mile in the section from Mannington to Fairmont WV
(WVDNR- Water Resources 1976). Buffalo Creek has been adversely affected by
acid mine drainage and domestic wastes (Menendez and Robinson 1964).
Fishing pressure, mainly for smallmouth bass and panfish, is light to
moderate (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1971).
West Fork River
The West Fork River, which originates in southwestern Upshur County WV,
flows northward for 103 miles before joining with the Tygart Valley River
just south of Fairmont WV, to form the Monongahela River. The West Fork
River is a low gradient stream (fall rate averages only 7 feet/mile) that
drains 881 square miles. Much of this drainage was intensely polluted by
mining in the past, and high sulfate and iron concentrations are still a
problem throughout most of the watershed (see Section 2.1.). The West Fork
River between Weston and Clarksburg, WV now supports an excellent sport
fishery for smallmouth bass (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources to Mr. G. Seegert, November 1980). Two tributaries drain over 100
square miles: Elk Creek and Tenmile Creek.
Elk Creek
Elk Creek, which has its source in west-central Barbour County WV is
the longest tributary to the West Fork River, flowing approximately 32 miles
before joining it in Clarksburg WV. It falls rapidly during its first five
miles, but during its last 20 miles, it falls at only 4 feet/mile. The
river drains 121 square miles. The area in the drainage has been
intensively mined with over 200 existing or abandoned sites identified
(Green International 1979). Although grossly polluted in the past, its
water quality has improved to the point where it occasionally produces some
catches of smallmouth bass (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney, WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources to Mr. G. Seegert, November 1980).
Tenmile Creek
In terms of drainage area (132 square miles), Tenmile Creek is the
largest tributary to the West Fork River. It is 28 miles long and has an
average gradient of 12 feet/mile. Its watershed contains over 100 active or
abandoned mines and the lower portions of Tenmile Creek (below Sardis WV)
are still grossly polluted. Above Sardis, however, water quality improves
considerably and a fair warmwater fishery exists (Verbally, Mr. D. Courtney,
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources to Mr. G. Seegert, November 1980).
Tygart Valley River
The Tygart Valley River originates in northern Pocahontas County WV
just east of Mace WV. It is 130 miles long and drains 1,435 square miles.
2-78
-------
The river alternates periodically between high gradient, rough, turbulent
sections and broad, placid, meandering sections (WVDNR-Water Resources
1976). Water quality above Roaring Creek is generally good (USFWS 1979).
Until recently, acid mine drainage from Roaring Creek and several other
tributaries caused the lower Tygart Valley River to have low pH values,
generally below 6.O., thus preventing the establishment of any significant
fisheries (Jernejcic 1978). Improvements during the 1970"s have progressed
to the point where the river now supports a substantial warmwater sport
fishery. Tygart Lake, an impoundment located near the Taylor-Barbour County
line, has gone from being a very unproductive fishery during the 1960's
(Benson 1976) to possessing a good fishery for several warmwater species and
an excellent fishery for walleye (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1976-1979). The
Tygart Valley River has three tributaries that drain more than 100 square
miles: the Buckhannon River, the Middle Fork River, and Three fork Creek.
Buckhannon River
The Buckhannon River originates east of Pickens in Randolph County, WV.
It is 55 miles long and drains 310 square miles. From its source to
Hampton, WV it is a high gradient, turbulent stream; from Hampton to Century
Junction it is smooth-flowing and placid; and, from Century Junction, WV to
its mouth it is again rough and rapid. Many of the streams in the upper
portion of the watershed are native trout streams. The lower portions of
the river produce fair to good fishing for smallmouth bass and muskellunge
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977). Green International (1979) reported that
there were -.nore than 500 active or abandoned mines in the watershed. Acid
mine drainage has limited the success of the fisheries of the Buckhannon
River (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977).
Middle Fork River
The Middle Fork River is approximately 30 miles long and drains 151
square miles. It is a coldwater, high gradient stream that supports trout
throughout much of its length. Many of its tributaries support native brook
trout populations. A naturally low pH and low alkalinities make this stream
highly susceptible to acid mine drainage.
Three-Fork Creek
Three-Fork Creek begins in Preston County, WV and flows for about 20
miles before entering the Tygart Valley River about two miles below the dam
in Grafton, WV. This stream and many of its tributaries are badly polluted
by acid mine drainage and generally are devoid of aquatic life (USFWS
1979).
Cheat River
The Cheat River is the largest tributary to the Monongahela River,
draining over 1,400 square miles. In contrast to the low gradient streams
comprising most of the West Fork drainage and much of the Tygart Valley
drainage, the majority of the streams in the Cheat River drainage are high
2-79
-------
gradient streams typically flowing through narrow, V-shaped valleys. Water
quality in the upper portions of the drainage is generally good whereas it
is poor in the lower portions of the drainage. The mainstem of the Cheat
River from its source at the confluence of the Blackwater River and Shavers
Fork River to Pringle Run has good water quality and supports a wide variety
of fish and tnacroinvertebrates. Below Pringle Run, inputs from a number of
•mine- polluted streams lower the pH in the raainstem of the Cheat River to
such a degree that only the most acid tolerant fish species are present
(Westinghouse Electric Corporation 1975). Lake Lynn (Cheat Lake) is
similarly affected. Tributaries draining more than 100 square miles are Big
Sandy Creek, Blackwater River, Dry Fork River, and Shavers Fork River.
Big Sandy Creek
Big Sandy Creek, which has its source in Fayette County PA, is the
largest northern tributary to the Cheat River draining 203 square miles.
The upper portion of this stream is generally low gradient in character
(approximately 10 feet/mile). This contrasts dramatically with the portion
between the mouth of Big Sandy Creek and the mouth of Little Sandy Creek
where the fall rate averages 77 feet/mile (WVDNR-Water Resources 1976).
This lower section plunges through gorges with 1,000 foot high walls. Three
cataracts between 10 and 20 feet high also are found in this section.
Although the watershed has been degraded by past mining activities, the
mainstem of the Big Sandy River supports a diverse warmwater fish fauna
(Menendez and Robinson 1964).
Blackwater River
The Blackwater River has its source in Canaan Valley State Park in
Tucker County WV. It drains 142 square miles and is 31 miles long. The
Blackwater River above the mouth of the Little Blackwater River is a low
gradient stream with an average fall of only 8 feet/mile. Between the
Little Blackwater River and Beaver Creek the rate of fall averages 20
feet/mile. Below Beaver Creek the gradient increases dramatically to over
100 feet/mile, and the river, now tumultuous in nature, is confined to a
narrow gorge filled with huge boulders. Extensive mining in the Beaver
Creek and North Fork River watersheds have not only destroyed the fish faun;
in these streams, but have severely affected fish populations in the
mainstem of the Blackwater River. Above the mouth of Beaver Creek several
tributaries to the Blackwater River contain native brook trout.
Dry Fork River
The Dry Fork River is 40 miles long, drains 502 square miles, and has
an average fall rate of 54 feet/mile. The watershed is composed mainly of
coldwater streams, many of which contain populations of native brook trout.
Water quality is good to excellent throughout the watershed. Because of
naturally low pH values and the poor buffering capacity of most streams in
the watershed, this area is highly susceptible to damage from acid mine
drainage.
2-80
-------
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork is 83 miles long, drains 213 square miles, and has an
average fall rate of 35 feet/mile. It is one of the heaviest stocked and
fished trout streams in the State (Menendez 1978). Natural reproduction of
brook and rainbow trout occurs in the headwaters of the stream and in many
tributaries. Smallmouth bass are common in its lower reaches. It is poorly
buffered (alkalinities 10-12 mg/1) and naturally acidic (pH 5-7), a
combination making it very sensitive to inputs of acid water (Menendez
1978).
2.2.2. Biological Communities
Fishes and macroinvertebrates collected in the Basin are summarized in
Appendix A, Tables A-l, A-3, and A-4. The locations of these sampling
stations are shown in Appendix A, Figures A-l and A-2. The locations of the
fish sampling stations are described in Table A-2. The data presented in
these Tables are discussed later in this section-and section 5.2.
In the following sections descriptions are given for the criteria which
were used to determine biologically significant areas in the Monongahela
River Basin. These criteria then are applied to existing data in order to
categorize the waters and watersheds of the Basin.
2.2.2.1. Criteria for Biologically Important Areas (BIA's)
In order to determine aquatic-related impacts which ultimately can be
expected as a result of coal mining in the Basin, it is necessary to
identify both those aquatic resources that are inherently sensitive to coal
mining activities (e.g., trout streams) and those that contain exceptional
or highly diverse faunal assemblages. The areas that warrant the greatest
degree of protection when new sources of wastewater discharge are proposed
are designated are as Biologically Important Areas (BIA's). BIA's are
subdivided into Category I (sensitive) and Category II (extremely sensitive)
types on the basis of sensitivity to mine-related pollutants, stream size,
mine-waste assimilation capacity, and other available information. The
purpose of this classification of streams and their watersheds is to flag
areas where the best available data indicate the presence of significant
biological populations sensitive to mining impacts.
Any system that attempts to establish the environmental worth of an
area or resource is, of necessity, based on scientific judgment and
constrained by available data. For this document, prime reliance was placed
on classification systems that used quantitative data (e.g., diversity
indices) and on traditionally accepted indicators of high value (e.g., trout
streams, rare or unusual species). Areas generally were considered
Biologically Important (either Category I or Category II) if they met one or
more of the criteria defined in the following paragraphs.
2-81
-------
2.2.2^.1.1. Trout Waters (Criterion 1). Trout require a habitat of
high water quality in which to live and breed, and are highly sensitive to
mining impacts. For example, concentrations of iron greater than 1.37 mg/1
are known to affect trout adversely (Menendez 1979), and trout eggs and
larvae are harmed by pH values of 6.5 or less (Menendez 1976)". Increased
sedimentation resulting from mining also has an adverse impact on spawning
by smothering eggs, which, under natural conditions, are laid in oxygen-rich
gravel substrates. Thus, because the presence of trout is an indication of
high water quality, trout waters, both native and stocked, are designated as
BIA's. In order to protect any stream or lake known to contain trout, it
also is necessary to preserve water quality in all tributaries adjacent to
or upstream from the segment containing trout. Therefore, the entire
watershed above a trout stream or lake normally is considered to be a BIA.
Table 2-14 presents fish species, including trout: that can be used as
indicators of good water quality, along with a number of species that are
often indicators of poor water quality.
2.2.2.1.2. Areas of High Diversity (Criterion (2). To determine the
quality of the aquatic biota at those fish sampling stations in the Basin
for which quantitative data were available, Shannon-Weaver diversity indices
and equitability indices were calculated. The Shannon-Weaver diversity
index (d) measures both species richness (i.e., the number of species
present) and the distribution of individuals among those species—the higher
the value of d, the better the condition of the aquatic environment. The
diversity index theoretically can range from 0 to Iog2 N where N = the
total number of individuals captured. In practice d typically ranges from 0
to 4.0. Values greater than 3.0 are indicative of unpolluted conditions
(Wilhm 1970).
Equitability (e) measure the component of diversity affected by the
distribution of individuals among species. In unpolluted habitats most
species are represented by only a few individuals, whereas in polluted
environments there typically are few species but many individuals of each
species. The measure of equitability is calculated by the formula e =
S^/S where S = number of taxa in the sample and S^ = the hypothetical
number of taxa as calculated_ by Lloyd and Ghelardi (1964) using the
MacArthur (1957) model for d. Values of e generally range from 0 to 1;
those greater than O.R usually indicate unpolluted conditions (Wilhm 1970).
BIA's were identified for this assessment where one or both of the
following conditions were met:
• At least 50 specimens and at least 4 species were
captured, and the diversity value was >3.0
• At least 50 specimens and at least 4 species were
captured, and the equitability value was <0.8.
There are certain Imitations associated with these indices; however,
unusual or atypical events (such as ineffective sampling techniques,
2-82
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Table 2-14. West Virginia fish species determined to be indicators
of water quality as defined by sensitivity to turbidity and sedi-
mentations (WAPORA 1980; data from Pfeiger 1975, Clay 1975, Trautman
1957, and Scott and Grossman 1973). See footnote for definitions.
Ichthyomyzpn bdellium
I. unlcuspis
Lampetra aepyptera
L_._ lamoCtei
Polyodon spathula
Lepisosteus osseus
Anquilla rostrata
Alosa chysochloris
A. pseudoharengus
Dprosoma cepedianun
D. petenense
Hiodon alosoides
H. tergisus
Salmo gairdneri
S^ trutta
Salvelinus fontinalis
Esox amerlcanus
_E._ luclus
E. masquinongy
Campostoma anoroalum
Cyprinus carpio
Ericymba buccata
Exoglossum larvae
Climostomus funduloldes
Hybopsis aestivalis
H. amblops
H. dlssimills
H. storeriana
Nocomia micropogon
W._ platyrhynchus
Notemlgonus crysoleucas
Notropis albeolus
N. atherlnoldes
N. blennius
N. buchanani
N. chrysocephalus
N. cornutus
N. dorsalis
N. hudsonlus
N. photogenis
N. rubellus
N. scabriceps
N. spilopterus
N. stramineus
N. telescopus
N. umbratalus
N. volucellus
NT whipplei
Phenacobiiis mirabllis
P_^ teretulus
Phoxinus erythrogaster
Plmephales notatus
P. promelas
P^ vigilax
Rhinichthys atratulus
R. cataractae
Semotilus margarita
Semotllus atromaculatus
Carpiodes carpio
C. cyprinus
C^ vplifer
Catostomus commersoni
I
I
S
S
U
I
NS
I
I
NS
NS
NS
S
S
S
S
I
I
I
I
NS
I
I
I
NS
S
S
NS
I
U
NS
U
NS
NS
S
NS
I
U
I
I
S
S
NS
I
U
I
NS
I
NS
S
S
NS
NS
NS
S
S
S
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
Erimyzon oblongus
Hypentellum nigricans
Ictlobus bubalus
I. cyrpinellus
I. niger
Mlnytrema melanops
Moxostoma anisurum
M> carinatum
M. duquesnel
M. erythrurum
M. macrolepidotum
Ictalurus catus
I. melas
I. natalis
I. nebulosus
I. punctatus
Notorus flavus
N. miurus
Pylodictus olivaris
Percopsis omlscomaycus
Lab idesthes sicculus
Morone chrysops
M. saxatllus
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis auritus
L. cyanellus
L. gibbosus
L. gulosus
L. humilis
L. macrochirus
L. megalotis
L. microlophus
Mlcropterus dolomieui
M. punctulatus
M. salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
P. nigromaculatus
Ammocrypta pelluclda
Etheostoma blennioides
E. caeruleum
E. camurum
E. flabellare
E. maculatum
E. zonale
Perca flavescens
Percina caprodes
P. copelandi
P. evides
P. inacrocep_ha_l£
P. maculjta
P. oxyrhyncha
P. sci(;ra
Stizostedion canadensj;
S. virteum
Aplodinotus grunniens
Cottus bairdi
SL carolinae
C^ g irardi
I
S
I
NS
NS
S
S
S
I
I
I
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
I
I
NS
I
I
I
S
I
I
NS
I
1
NS
I
I
I
S
I
I
NS
S
S
S
S
S
I
S
NS
I
S
S
S
S
S
S
I
S
S
I
U
I
NS
S
NS
I
I
U
S - Sensitive, defined as highly susceptible; would be extirpated under continuous turbid conditions
or if sedimentation were severe; 36 species identified. I = Intermediate; can withstand periodic
high turbidities and some sedimentation; 42 species identified. NS = Not Sensitive; unlikely to be
affected adversely except in the most severely polluted conditions; 36 species identified.
U - Unknown; 7 species identified.
-------
abnormal flow conditions, and equipment malfunctions^ all tend to reduce the
number of species captured, and thus the values of d and e. Only through
misidentification, however, can diversity values and equitability values be
increased, because the maximum number of species at any given location is
fixed. High index values can be achieved only as a_ result of.the actual
capture of species. Thus, stream segments having d values >3.0 can be
reasonably considered to have highly diversified aquatic populations at the
time of sampling. Conversely, however, a low Shannon-Weaver value is not
necessarily indicative of low diversity because it may have been the result
of improper sampling. The same considerations apply to equitability values.
Estimates of both parameters increase in reliability as sample size
increases. Estimates derived from samples containing less than 100
specimens should be evaluated cautiously (Weber 1973),
Diversity and equitability measure the environmental quality of a
stream at a given point in time. Because many of the data for sampling
stations in the Basin used to calculate the values shown in Appendix A,
Table A-l are not recent, conditions in these streams may have changed
significantly since the original collections were made. In most cases,
additional monitoring will be required in BIA Category I and Category II
areas and in unclassified areas as discussed later in this section. The
nature of the monitoring is specified in Section 5.2.
2.2.2.1.3. Streams Having Diverse Macroinvertebrate Communities or
Containing Macroinvertebrate Indicator Species (Criterion 3). Much of the
macroinvertebrate data available for the Basin were not quantitative. The
evaluation of streams for which such data were available was based on the
presence of indicator organisms. Certain macroinvertebrate species are
intolerant of toxic substances, siltation, organic enrichment, and other
forms of environmental disturbance. Thus, the presence of these species in
a stream is indicative of high water quality (Weber 1973). Several
classification schemes have been developed (Mason et al. 1971, Weber 1973,
Lewis 1974). A species was considered to be a reliable indicator (i.e., a
sensitive species) for use in this assessment only if the above three
sources all agreed that the species was known to exist exclusively in
unpolluted waters (Table 2-15). Three criteria have been used to designate
BIA's. These are:
• Locations where at least two species of sensitive
macroinvertebrate species were present.
• Locations where at least 10 taxa were found and at least
50% of the total individuals collected were from sensitive
taxa, based on a comprehensive benthological survey of the
Basin streams (FWPCA 1968)
• Locations where the diversity index averaged X3.0,
regularly was >_3.0, or was X3.0 for the most recent sample
collected, based on file data (1970-1980) provided by the
Pittsburgh District USAGE.
2-84
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Table 2-15. Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators to designate
BIA's. These organisms are identified as intolerant of toxic sub-
stances, siltation, organic enrichment, and other forms of environ-
mental disturbance by Mason et al. (1971), Weber (1973), and Lewis (1974).
Phylum Porifera
Spongilla fragilis
Phylum Bryozoa
Plumatella polymorpha var, regens
Lophopodella carter!
Pectinatella magnifica
Phylum Arthropoda
Order Hydracarina
Class Crustacea
Order Isopoda
Asellus spp.
Order Decapoda
Cambarus bartoni bartoni
Cambarus conasaugaensis
Cambarus asperimanus
Cambarus acuminatus
Cambarus hiwassensis
Cambarus extraneus
Cambarus cryptodytes
Cambarus longulus longirostris
Procambarus raneyi
Procambarus acutus acutus
Procambarus paeninsulanus
Procambarus spiculifer
Procambarus versutus
Orconectes juvenilis
Class Insecta
Order Diptera
Pentaneura inculta
Pentaneura carneosa
Pentaneura spp.
Ablabesmyia americana
Ablabesmyia mallochi
Ablabesmyia ornata
Ablabesmyia aspera
Ablabesmyia auriensis
Ablabesmyia spp.
Labrundinia floridana
Labrundinia pilosella
Labrundinia virescens
Coelotanypus concinnus
Tanypus stellatus
Clinotanypus caliginosus
Orthocladius obumbratus
Orthocladius spp.
Nanocladius spp.
Psectrocladius spp.
Metriocnemus lundbecki
Cricotopus bicinictus
Cricotopus exilis
Cricotopus trifasciatus
Cricotopus politus
CJLLcotopus tricinctus
llcotopus absurdus
Cflicotopus spp.
cArynoneura taris
Corynoneura scutellata
Corynoneura spp.
Thienemanniella xena
Thienemanniella spp.
Trichocladius robaki
Brillia par
Diamesa nivoriumda
Diamesa spp.
Prodiamesa olivacca
Chironomus attenuatus group
Chironomus tentans
Chironomus plumosus
Chironomus anthracinus
Chironomus paganus
Kiefferullus dux
Cryptochironomus fulvus
Cryptochironomus digitatus
Cryptochironomus sp. B (Joh.)
Cryptochironomus blarina
Cryptochironomus psittacinus
Chaetolabis atroviridis
Chaetolabis ochreatus
Endochironomus nigrlcans
Stenochironotnus macateei
S tenochironomus hilaris
Stictochironomus devinctus
2-85
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Table 2-15. Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators (continued).
Stictochironomus varius
Xenochironomus xenolabis
Xenochironomus scopula
Pseudochironomus richardson
Pseudochironomus spp.
Microtendipes pedellus
Microteudipes spp.
Paratendipes albimanus
Tribelos jucundus
Tribelos fuscicornis
Harnischia tenuicaudata
Phaenopsectra spp.
Dicrotendipes neomedestus
Dicrotendipes nervosus
Dicrotendipes fumidus
Glyptotendipes senilis
Glyptotendipes paripes
Glyptotendipes lobiferus
Polypedilum halterale
Polypedilum fallax
Polypedilum illinoensg
Paratanytarsus dissimilis
Paratanytarsus simulans
Paratanytarsus nubeculosum
Paratanytarsus vibex
Polypedilum spp.
Tany tarsus neoflayellus
Tanytarsus gracilentus
Tanytarsus dissimilis
Rheotauytarsus exiguus
Micropsectra dives
Micropsectra deflecta
Microi^sectra
Calopsectra spp .
Stempellina ^ohannseni
Aiiopheles punctipennis
Chaoborus puuctipennis
Tipula caloptera
Tipula abdominalis
Pseudolitmiophila I uteipennis
Hexatoma spp.
Telmatoscopus spp.
Simulium venustrum
Simulium spp.
Prosimuliun iohanuseni
Cnephia pecuarum
Tabanus stratus
Tabanus stygius
Tabanus benedictus
Tabanus variegatus
Tabanus spp.
Order Trichoptera
Hydropsychidae simulans
Hydropsychidae frisoni
Hydropsychidae incommoda
Hydrop_sychg spp.
Macronemura Carolina
Macronemun spp.
Psychomyia spp.
Neureclipsis crepuseularis
Polycentropus spp.
Oxyethira spp.
Rhyacophila spp.
Hydroptila waubesiana
Hydropt_i_l_a spp.
Ochrotrichia spp.
Agraylea spp.
Lepto_cel_l_a spp.
spp
Chimarra p er i gua
Chimarra spp.
B ra chy cen t rus spp.
Order Epherneroptera
Stononema jubromaculatum
Stenonema fuscum
Stenonema fuscum rivulicolum
_S_teuonema gildersleevei
Stenonema interpunctatum ohioense
S_teiionema_interpunctatus canadense
Stcnoi^em^i pud i cum
S tcnoiiema_proximum
Stenonema tripuiictatum
S_tenonema floridense
j^t cnoncma In t cum
jtenonema niodiopunctatus
Stenonema bipunctatum
S tenonoma candidum 4
Stenonema_carlsoni ™
Stenonema Carolina
-------
Table 2-15. Macroinvertebrate species used as indicators (concluded).
Hexagenia limbata
Hexagenia bilineata
Pentagenia vittgera
Beatis vagans
Campeloma decisum
Lioplax subcarlnatus
Goniobasis spp.
Amiicola emarginata
Amuicola limosa
Isonychia spp.
Order Plecoptera
Acroneuria arida
Taeniopteryx nivalis
Isoperla bilineata
Order Neuroptera
Climacia areolaris
Order Megaloptera
Sialis infumata
Order Odonata
Hetaerina titia
Argia spp.
Enallagma signatum
Anax junius
Gomphus plagiatus
Gomphus externus
Progomphus spp.
Macromia spp.
Order Coleoptera
Steneltnis crenata
Stenelmis sexlineata
Pronioresia spp.
Macronychus glabratus
Anacyronyx variegatus
Microcylloepus pusillus
Tropisternus dorsalis
Phylum Mollusca
Class Gastropoda
Valvata tricarinata
Valvata bicarinata
Valvata bicarinata var. normalis
Vivaparus coutectoides
Vivaparus subpurpurea
Somatogyrus subglobosus
Order Physidae
Physa acuta
Physa fontinalis
Aplexa hypnorurn
Lymnaea polustris
Lymnaea stagnalis
Lymnaea s. appressa
Planorbis carinatus
Planorbis corneus
Plauorbis marginatus
Ancylus lacustris
Ancylus fluviatilis •
Ferrissia rivularis
Class Pelecypoda
Margaritifera niargaritifera
Proptera alata
Leptodea fragilis
Unio batavus
Unio pictorum
Lampsilis parvus
Truncilla donaciformis
Truncilla elegaus
Anodonta mutabilis
Proptera alata
Leptodea fragilis
Obliguaria reflcxa
Corbicula maiiilensis
Sphaerium moenauum
Sphaerium vivicolum
Sphaerium sol-idulum
Pisidium Fossarinum
Pisidium pauperculum crystalense
Pisidium amnicum
2-87
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2.2.2.1.4. Areas Containing Species of Special Interest (Criterion 4).
Areas that contain aquatic organisms that have been classified as threatened
or endangered according to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 USC 1531
et seq.) were considered to be BIA's. There is no State act that protects
endangered species in West Virginia. Organisms which potentially qualify
for such protection, however, have been identified by WVDNR-HTP (Table
2-16).
The majority of aquatic organisms included in the WVDNR-HTP inventory
are peripheral species at the edge of their geographical range. They are
rare in West Virginia, but may be common or even abundant in other parts of
the US. The State list of fish that are considered rare or of special
interest as recently revised is shown in Table 2-16.
2.2.2.1.5.__ Areas of Special Interest (Criterion 5). Areas which do
not fall into any of the above categories, but nevertheless deserve special
attention or protection during New Source permit review also will be
considered on a case by case basis by EPA as Category I or II BIA's.
Examples may include multipurpose reservoirs, areas known to support a
substantial sport fishery, or areas supporting aquatic communities that, in
the professional judgment of the agency investigator, are especially
susceptible to mining activities. Also because of the rapidly changing
conditions in many Basin streams, WVDNR district fish biologists were
contacted for recent changes that may have occurred but which would not be
reflected by the existing data file. Any such areas were considered on a
case by case basis for inclusion as BIA's.
BIA Category I and Category II
The further differentiation of BIA's, once identified, into Category I
and Category II levels was accomplished qualitatively on the basis of
consultation with technical experts, State agency review, and citizen input.
At the heart of the differentiation was the extreme sensitivity of certain
species to sediment, pH, iron and other mine-related pollutants. Current
regulatory programs under SMCRA and WVSCMRA also were considered. EPA has
determined that because of certain species' extreme sensitivity to mine-
related pollutants that could be expected even with current regulatory
efforts, a special category (Category II) was necessary which would be
associated with special mitigative measures or requirements prior to permit
issuance (see Section 5.2.). The sensitive species identified in BIA
Category I areas would be associated with less stringent mitigative measures
because of these species' lesser sensitivity.
All trout waters, whether native or stocked, have been classified as
either Category I or II BIA's (by Criterion 1). Exceptions are allowed for
some of the other criteria, however. For example, there may be waterbodies
which satisfy one or more of Criteria 2 through 5 but are not designated as
Category I or II BIA's on the basis of best professional judgment concerning
the significance of the criterion in the individual case. All BIA's and
criteria for the designation of each, are listed in Table 5-5 and are shown
in Figure 5-2 of Section 5.2.
-------
Table 2-16. Fish species of special interest that were used to designate
BIA's. These species have been classified as rare, threatened or en-
dangered, and/or in need of special protection in West Virginia (WVDNR-
HTP 1980).
Fish
Ichthvomyzon unicuspis
Ichthyomyzon bdellium
Ichthvomyzon greeleye
Lampetra lamottei
Acipenser fulvescens
Polyodon spathula
Scaphirhynchus platorynchus
Hiodon tergisus
Hiodon alosoides
Notropis ariomus
Notropis dorsalis
Notropis scabriceps
Clinostromus elongatus
Exoglossum laurae
Hybopsis storeriana
Nocomis platyrhynchus
Nocomis leptocephalus
Phenacobius teretulus
Pimephales vigilax
Catos tomus catostomus
Cycleptus elongatus
Ictiobus bubalus
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Ictiobus niger
Etheostoma longimanum
Etheostoma maculaturn
Etheostoma obsurni
Percina copelandi
Percina no togramma
Percina gymnocephla
Cottus girardi
Lepomis gulosus
Lepomis humilus
Shellfish
Epioblasma torulosa torulosa*
(-Dysonomia)
Lamnsilis orbiculnta orbiculata*
Silver lamprey
Ohio lamprey
Allegheny brook lamprey
American brook lamprey
Lake sturgeon
Paddlefish
Shovelnose sturgeon
Mooneye
Goldeneye
Popeye shiner
Bigmouth shiner
New River shiner
Redside dace
Tonguetied minnow
Silver chub
Bigmouth chub
Bluehead chub
Kanawha minnow
Bullhead minnow
Longnose sucker
Blue sucker
Smallmouth buffalo
Bigmouth buffalo
Black buffalo
Longfin darter
Spotted darter
Finescaled saddled darter
Channel darter
Stripback darter
Appalachia darter
Potomac sculpin
Warmouth
Orange spotted sunfish
Tuberculed blossom pearly
mussel
Pink mucket pearly mussel
*0n the Federal List of Threatened and Endangered Species
2-89
-------
2.2.2.1.6. Non-sensitive and Unclassified Areas. In addition to
identifying BIA's (Category I and Category II), non-sensitive areas (i.e.,
those streams and lakes for which the New Source effluent limitations are
sufficient to prevent adverse effects) were identified. These primarily are
areas that already are heavily polluted or where adequate dilution capacity
exists to accept New Source discharges that meet effluent limitations.
Unclassified areas are those for which sufficient information did not
exist at the time of this assessment to allow assignment to a category.
Unclassified areas will be designated as either BIA's or non-sensitive areas
on the basis of additional data. As new data become available, EPA will
update the information in this document and reclassify these areas as either
BIA's or non-sensitive areas. The sampling data required by EPA for New
Source applications from unclassified areas are described in Section 5.2.
2.2.2.2. Application of the Criteria and Limitations of the Data
In this section the available data on the aquatic resources in the
Basin are used to categorize the streams. Nearly 100 papers and technical
reports were reviewed during the preparation of this section, but relatively
few contained the site-specific, quantitative data necessary for a thorough
areawide. assessment. The data in the following text and tables were taken
predominantly from file data supplied by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, including
species management information from the RUNWILD computer program, computer-
stored stream surveys, stream sampling data for fish and invertebrates, the
West Virginia Benthological Survey (Tartar 1976b), oublished and
unpublished literature on fish fauna provided by Drs. Stauffer and Rocutt of
the University of Maryland (1978), macroinvertebrate data from FWPCA (1968),
file data on macroinvertebrates gathered by the Pittsburgh District USACE,
and other information supplied by ichthyologists familiar with West Virginia
fish fauna and WVDNR-Wildlife Resources personnel.
Biological data by their nature are extremely variable; the data
presented herein are subject to three sources of variation:
• Temporal considerations. Biological sampling provides an
integrated assessment of conditions over an extended
period, in contrast to the instantaneous information from
one-time chemical sampling. The fish and macroinverte-
brate data used for this assessment were collected over a
20-year period. Most of the stations were sampled only
once, and conditions may have changed significantly in
particular streams since sampling was conducted.
• Sampling efficiency and gear bias. Both the fish and
macroinvertebrate data were gathered using a wide range of
sampling techniques and gear types including electrofish-
ing, seines, gill nets, hoop nets, poison, several types
of bottom dredges, Surber samplers, and fine mesh nets.
Each of these gear types has its own inherent biases.
Also, the area sampled varied considerably.
2-90
-------
• Operator efficiency. Individuals with varying levels of
expertise were involved in collecting the data included in
this report. It is assumed that all individuals particip-
ating in the collections were trained for their respective
tasks, but the actual level of expertise of these individ-
uals undoubtedly varied with respect to operating the
sampling gear or identifying the specimens with accuracy.
2.2.2.2.1. Trout. Trout waters in the Basin are listed in Table 2-6
and shown in Figure 2-5 in Section 2.1. These waters were determined from
SWRB (1980) and WVDNR data and may or may not currently contain trout. Most
of these streams are located in the southern and eastern portions of the
Basin; especially in the headwaters of the Buckhannon, Middle Fork, and
Tygart Valley Rivers, and throughout the Cheat River drainage. Many of
these trout streams support native trout populations. Because of the
vigorous spawning requirements of trout (detailed in Section 5.2.), these
streams are highly sensitive to mine-related impacts, especially
sedimentation. Some of these streams (e.g., Shavers Fork) are among some of
the most heavily fished streams in the State.
All trout streams were designated as Category II BIA's. Because of
their marginal nature as trout habitat, many of the trout lakes in the Basin
generally were designated as Category I BIA's.
2.2.2.2.2. Fish Diversity. Information on 250 fish sampling stations
is presented in Tables A-l and A-3 in Appendix A. Sixty-four species are
listed in these tables, a fairly low number considering the number of
stations and the size of the Basin. Eight other species were collected
during routine collections made during 1973, 1976 and 1978 at the three Lock
and Dam chambers located on the Monongahela River mainstem in West Virginia
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1974, 1977, 1979). These include ghost shiner
(Notropis buchanani), steelcolor shiner (Notropis whipplei), gizzard shad
(Dorosoma cepedianum), muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), river carpsucker
(Carpiodej^ carpio), white catfish (ictalurus catus), warmouth (Lepomis
gerlosus), and walleye (Stizostedion vitreum). The northern pike (Esox
lucius) has been introduced into Tygart Lake. Other species such as the
longnose sucker (Catostomus c a t ostomus) and the popeye shiner (Notripis
ariomus) were originally in the Basin but may be extirpated (WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources 1973).
Of the 250 stations studied, only 94 contained enough data for divers-
ity and equitability values to be validly calculated. Forty-three of these
94 stations had either equitability values X).8 or diversity values >3.0.
The majority of these high diversity-high equitability stations are concen-
trated in the upper portions of the watershed. For instance, there are 10
such stations in the Dry Fork River watershed alone. The upper portions of
the West Fork River, Buckhannon River, Middle Fork River, Tygart Valley
River and Shavers Fork contained 3, 4, 4, 3, and 4 such areas, respectively.
Thus, 28 of these areas occur in the upper portions of the Basin's
watershed. Undoubtedly, this reflects the fact that these areas have, to
date, been those least affected by mining. Because these headwater BIA
stations typically occur on small, poorly buffered streams which often
contain trout, they typically were considered as Category II BIA's.
2-91
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2.2.2.2.3. Macroinvertebrate Diversity and Indicator Species. Macro-
invertebrates found in the Basin are listed in Table A-4 (Appendix A).
Locations for these stations are plotted on Figure A-2 (Appendix A). Two or
more macroinvertebrate indicator species were found at 6 of the 44 stations
sampled. These six stations were located in the southern and eastern
sections of the Basin.
Ten of the 58 stations sampled by the FWPCA (1968) yielded at least ten
taxa and at least 50% of the individuals were in the sensitive category
(Table A-5). Most of these stations were located in the upper portions of
the Cheat River and Tygart Valley River watersheds (Figure A-2 in
Appendix A).
Eight of the 37 stations sampled quantitatively by the Pittsburgh
District USAGE either had diversity values that regularly were >3.0 or had a
diversity value of X3.0 during the most recent sampling period (Table A-6).
Seven of these eight stations were located in the Cheat River watershed,
and these were all located above Pringle Run. Thus, they are located in
that part of the Cheat River drainage that has been relatively unaffected by
coal mining.
In summary, those stations supporting diverse macroinvertebrate commun-
ities and/or those at which sensitive forms predominately were found were
located primarily in trie upper portions of the drainage and generally were
in the same areas where high fish diversity was observed.
2.2.2.2.4. Species of Special Interest. No species appearing on the
Federal list of endangered or threatened species pursuant to the Endangered
Species Act of 1973 have been found in the Basin. Species that the WVDNR-
HTP considers to be rare or endangered in West Virginia and that have been
identified in the Basin are listed in Table 2-17. The locations where each
of these species have been collected are listed in Table A-2 and are plotted
on USGS l:24,000-scale Overlay 1. Although Tables A-l and A-3 in Appendix A
contain data from 250 stations, only three species of fish on the WVDNR-HTP
list were collected: redside dace, orange-spotted sunfish, and spotted
darter.
Redside dace
Thirty-five redside dace were collected on Whiteday Creek (Table A-l,
Appendix A, Station 177). It also has been collected recenlty on Laurel Run
of Big Sandy Creek (Verbally, Mr. F. Jernejcic to Mr. G. Seegert, December
18, 1980). This species has a disjunct, rather sporadic distribution (Lee
et al. 1980). It has been reported from the upper Mississippi River drain-
age in Wisconsin and Minnesota, the upper Susquehanna drainage in New York
and Pennsylvania, and the upper Ohio River Basin in Ohio and Pennslvania.
It may be locally common, but overall is rather rare (Lee et al. 1980) and
typically inhabits small to medium-sized streams that have gravel or rubble
bottoms. These types of habitat are obliterated by silt from agricultural
fields and coal washings. Trautman (1957) stated that during his surveys
2-92
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from 1925-1950, many redside dace populations decreased drastically in
abundance or disappeared entirely. He concluded that reduction of the
redside dace populations east of the Flushing Escarpment was due to mine
pollution. Reductions in redside dace populations elsewhere were related
chiefly to agricultural practices.
Orange Spotted _Sunfis_h_
The orange spotted sunfish is common in the midwestern and south-
central portions of the US. West Virginia, however, is near the eastern
edge of its range (Plieger 1975), and it only recently has been reported in
the State (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973). It is tolerant of siltation and
continuous high turbidities (Plieger 1975). It is usually not found in
streams with high gradients, clear or cool water, and continuous strong
flows. Recently this species has been reported in the Basin in Hackers
Creek and Elk Creek (Table A-l, Appendix A, Stations 208, 210, 211).
Spotted darter
The spotted darter occurs principally in Tennessee and Kentucky, with
small relict populations present in Ohio and Pennsylvania (Lee et al. 1980).
The only confirmed record in West Virginia is from the Elk River (Stauffer
and Hocutt 1979). The status of the single specimen reported from the Cheat
River is unclear; it may be a misidentification (Table A-l, Appendix A,
Station 163; Verbally, Mr. D, Cincotta, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources to Mr. G.
Seegert, December 13, 1980).
Because the orange spotted sunfish is highly tolerant of turbidity and
siltation, this species was not used to identify BIA's. Likewise the
validity of the spotted darter record is questionable and it was not used to
identify a BIA. The redside dace clearly is sensitive to mine-related
pollution; Whiteday Creek and Laurel Run, where it has been reported, have
already been identified as BIA's.
2.2.2.2.5. Areas of Special Interest. Because of the substantial
sport and recreational fisheries they provide, the following waters (or
portions thereof) are designated as BIA's: Monongahela River, West Fork
River, Tygart Valley River (including Tygart Lake), Buckhannon River,
Buffalo Creek, Elk Creek, Hackers Creek, and Tenmile Creek. Waters support-
ing substantial fisheries, but already designated as BIA's for other reasons
are listed in Table 5-5 in Section 5.2.
2.2.3. Erroneous Classification
EPA has based its BIA (Category I and Category II) designations on the
best available information. Nevertheless, this data base is not flawless,
is not always current, and should be updated continuously. EPA expects to
update and improve this data base through cooperative efforts with the State
as well as through inputs from environmental groups, mining concerns, and
any other parties who have collected new data through professionally
2-94
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acceptable techniques. EPA urges all parties to submit new information to
EPA whenever possible. Parties planning to submit new information to EPA
should review data collection techniques with EPA to guarantee that they
will be acceptable. It is possible that the submission of new information
will result in re-classification (e.g., from a BIA Category I to a BIA
Category II and vice versa; from a BIA Category I to a non-sensitive area
and vice versa, etc.).
2-95
-------
2-96
-------
2.3 Terrestrial Biota
-------
Page
2.3. Terrestrial Biota 2-97
2.3.1. Ecological Setting 2-97
2.3.1.1. Land Use/Land Cover 2-98
2.3.1.2. Ecological Regions 2-98
2.3.2. Vegetation and Flora 2-100
2.3.2.1. Historical Perspective 2-100
2.3.2.2. Present-day Vegetation 2-100
2.3.2.3. Vegetation Classification Systems 2-100
2.3.2.4. Features of Special Interest 2-103
2.3.2.5. Floristic Resources 2-106
2.3.2.6. Heath Barrens 2-107
2.3.2.7. Sparsely Vegetated Knobs 2-107
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources 2-107
2.3.3.1. Animal Communities by Habitat Type 2-107
2.3.3.2. Distribution of Wildlife 2-113
2.3.3.2.1. Amphibians 2-113
2.3.3.2.2. Reptiles 2-113
2.3.3.2.3. Birds 2-113
2.3.3.2.4. Mammals 2-115
2.3.3.3. Game Resources 2-115
2.3.3.4. Values of Nongame Wildlife Resources 2-116
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features 2-116
2.3.4.1. Endangered and Threatened Species 2-119
2.3.4.1.1. Plants 2-119
2.3.4.1.2. Animals 2-119
2.3.4.2. Animal Species of Special Interest 2-119
2.3.5. Data Gaps 2-120
2.3.5.1. Wetlands 2-120
2.3.5.2. Significant Species and Features 2-120
-------
2.3. TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
2.3.1. Ecological Setting
The Monongahela River Basin is located west of the ridge line of the
Allegheny Mountains in an area that is physiographic ally a part of the
Appalachian Plateau (Fortney 1978). Its terrain varies from mountainous to
hilly, with a very small percentage of essentially flat river valleys and
mountaintops. The slopes and contours of the mountains are rounded and
eroded (Core 1966). The tree cover of the Basin, except where it has been
removed by human activity, is now almost complete. There are a few
naturally treeless areas, but most of the non-forested land is used for
residential communities, highways, industry, mining, or agriculture.
Surface mining has removed the forest cover in a few areas, and current
reclamation practices result in the replacement of the forest with large
areas of grassland and shrubland. Forest regrowth, especially of endemic
species (native local species that now have a restricted distribution) is
unlikely to occur during the foreseeable future in surface-mined areas in
most of the State for the following reasons:
• The loss of soil and the consequent lack of moisture in
the root zone
• The sterilization of seeds and destruction of soil
organisms through handling and storage of topsoil before
regrading
• The lack of a soil and rock substructure capable of
holding tree roots firmly on slopes
• Unsuitable pH conditions in the subsoil that prohibit
penetration of tree roots to appropriate depths
• The planting of nonnative or nonendemic species of
grasses, shrubs, and trees because they are readily
available from suppliers.
Many years are required for an area to return to native forest through
natural succession. The process may not be completed for more than a
century in areas that have been surface mined unless reclamation and
revegetation have been designed to speed reforestation. The decrease in
forest acreage partially is compensated for by the reversion of farmland to
forest.
The elevation, slope, and land cover variations within the Basin result
in many different habitat conditions, and thus many species of wildlife are
present. The diversity in fauna also is due in part to the geographic
position of the State between the northern and southern faunal regions of
the tmited States. The majority of the species are forest animals. Species
2-97
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associated with agricultural areas also are present throughout most of the
Basin. Species associated with "edges" or interfaces between habitats and
shrubland or successional conditions may be located in areas where
conditions such as abandoned farmland and abandoned or reclaimed surface
mines are present.
2^.3.1.1. Land Use/Land Cover
USGS produced computer-plotted land use/land cover overlays to the
standard 1:250,000-scale topographic quadrangle maps for the State of West
Virginia. The maps were based on high-altitude aerial photographs. The map
for the section of West Virginia in which the Basin is located is shown in
the maps (included in the front pocket of this binder). Data on the number
of acres of each land use/land cover type for all of the Basin counties are
presented in Table 2-18 (see Section 2.6. for additional discussion on the
USGS categorization scheme).
Agricultural lands are scattered throughout the Basin. Less than 25%
of the land in the Basin is used for agriculture.
Forested land covers approximately 66% of the Basin. Most of the
Basin's land area is covered with deciduous or mixed forest (deciduous and
coniferous). Up to a third of the cover in areas delineated as deciduous
forest actually may be evergreens. Conversely, the apparent presence of
evergreen trees in many parts of the Basin is a result of the presence of
evergreen rhododendron thickets below the deciduous trees. These thickets
cannot be distinguished easily from evergreen trees in high-altitude aerial
photographs. Approximately 30% to 70% of the cover of areas delineated as
mixed forest land may consist of evergreen trees. Wetland areas are
scattered throughout the Basin.
Both land used for surface mining and transitional land (land in a
state of incomplete revegetation after mining) are scattered throughout the
Basin. Less than 1% of the land cover in the Basin is known to be included
in each of these two categories on the basis of the mapped information, but
the percentage actually may be higher because many mines and reclaimed areas
are too small to be identified on the high-altitude photographs.
2.3.1.2. Ecological Regions
Two Statewide ecological region classification systems have been
developed for West Virginia. These systems are the ecoregions system
developed by Bailey (1976) and the ecological regions system used by WVDNR-
Wildlife Resources based on Wilson et al. (1951). The ecoregions system
developed by Bailey is based on physical and biological components which
include climate, vegetation type, physiography, and soil. In the Bailey
ecoregions system, the general vegetation of the majority of the Mononga-
hela River Basin is typed as Appalachian oak forest. The WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources classification system consists of six ecological regions used as a
2-98
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framework for the preparation of wildlife habitats and occurrences
descriptions. Both systems are described in greater detail in Appendix B.
2.3.2. Vegetation and Flora
2.3.2.1. Historical Perspective
The forests of West Virginia have been altered substantially since the
arrival of the first settlers from Europe. Early farmers chose land in the
flat, forested river valleys for their homesteads. Most of the forests in
these floodplains contained the best timber in the State and were destroyed
by cutting and burning (Clarkson 1964). Commercial logging began with the
development of steam-powered sawmills in the early 1800's and increased
rapidly after techniques for clearcutting were developed. The construction
of railroads and the introduction of large-band sawmills in the late 1800's
accelerated the deforestation. By 1911, less than 10% of the State remained
in virgin forest (Brooks 1911).
Much of the land that had been logged was burned and used briefly for
agricultural purposes. The forest soils, which often were steeply sloping
and highly erodible, were left without a significant humus layer as a
consequence of the fires, and subsequently were lost in many areas through
erosion. From about 1910 on, large supplies of inexpensive grains from the
Midwest became available on the National market (Core 1980). This factor,
coupled with the low-quality, eroded condition of the farmland in the State,
initiated a gradual decline in agricultural production that has continued to
the present.
2.3.2.2. Present-day Vegetation
The report prepared by Wilson et al. (1951) constituted the final
report of a wildlife habitat mapping project conducted jointly by the West
Virginia Conservation Commission (now WVDNR-Wildlife Resources) and USFS.
This study included the first detailed forest mapping of the entire State.
A generalized map of the vegetation of the State in 1950, prepared from the
more detailed 1:62,500-scale cover maps produced during the study, is
presented in Figure 2-18.
The 1:62,500-scale cover maps still are valid today for areas that have
not been logged or mined since the early part of this century. The maps
also provide the most precise available information on the earlier vegeta-
tion of areas that have been disturbed since 1950. The accuracy of the maps
was confirmed by a comparison of observed forest types in the Kanawha State
Forest (located in the Coal/Kanawha River Basin) in 1910 and 1977 (Sturm
1977).
2.3.2.3 Vegetation Classification Systems
The vegetation of the Basin has been characterized variously over the
past three decades. Braun (1950) classified the typical upland native
2-100
-------
-------
vegetation of the entire Basin as a mixed mesophytic forest. The mixed
mesophytic forest is a complex association with many species of trees, but
no single tree or mix of trees attains a level of dominance. Typical
species present in this association are: ,
beech sweet buckeye black cherry
tulip tree oaks cucumber tree
basswood hemlock white ash
sugar maple birches red maple
chestnut (prior to chestnut sour gum hickories
blight of the early 1900's) black walnut
The US Forest Service (1960), in mapping the general forest cover in
the United States, categorized most of the Monongahela Basin as central
hardwood forest; the easternmost section was labeled northern forest
(Figure B-6 in Appendix B). Both types were described as having diverse and
overlapping species composition. The predominant species of the central
hardwood forest were oaks, hickories, ashes, and elms, whereas the
predominant species in the northern forests were spruces, balsam fir, pines,
and hemlock.
In a study of potential natural vegetation in the United States,
Kuchler (1964) identified four vegetation types within the Monongahela Basin
(Figure B-4 in Appendix B). The predominant type in the Basin was the mixed
mesophytic forest, which potentially could cover 60% of the Basin. This
type includes a variable mixture of sugar maple, buckeye, beech, tuliptree,
white oak, northern red oak, and basswood as important species. A northern
hardwood forest type which includes sugar raaple, beech birch, and hemlock
potentially occupies about 30% of the Basin along its sourthern and eastern
edges. Several areas of northeastern spruce-fir forest characterized by
balsam fir and red spruce potentially occur at higher elevaitons and cover
less than 10% of the Basin. The northwestern tip (less than 5%) of the
Basin, potentially is occupied by the Appalachian oak forest type, which
contains primarily white oak and northern red oak along with many other
species as minor components.
Core's (1966) analysis of West Virginia vegetation divided the
Monongahela River Basin into two vegetation types on the basis of
physiography (Figure B-5 in Appendix B). He described the eastern two
thirds of the Basin (the Allegheny Mountain and Upland Physiographic
section) as characterized by a northern hardwood forest. The most abundant
tree species here are sugar maple, beech, and yellow birch. Associated
species include red maple, white ash, black cherry, sweet birch, and
American elm.
Core described the western third of the Monongahela River Basin (the
Western Hills Physiographic section) as a central hardwood forest. This
type in turn was subdivided locally on the basis of moisture content of the
forest soils. The dry (xeric) subdivision includes predominent oak forests
and typically is found on ridgetops and upper slopes. The moderately moist
2-102
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(mesic) subdivision exists on northfacing slopes and in coves. The species
composition of the mesic subdivision of Core (1966) is similar to that
described by Braun (1950) for the mixed mesophytic forest. The wet (hydric)
subdivision exists in floodplains, in bottomlands, and along streams. Its
prominent trees include willows, sweetgum, sycamore, silver maple, and river
birch. The hydric type occurs infrequently in the Monongahela River Basin
because the valley bottoms and floodplains are limited to narrow bands along
streams and rivers. Granville Island at Morgantown, a part of the Aboretum
of West Virginia University, is the most notable example of hydric forest in
the Monongahela River Basin.
When its personnel mapped the major forest regions of the noretheastern
United States, the US Forest Service (1968) typed most of the Monongahela
River Basin as an oak-yellow poplar association (Figure B-7 in Appendix B).
The remaining 15% of the Basin, in the southeastern section where the
mountain elevations are generally the highest, was delineated as a
beechbirch-maple association.
In a map of forest cover types of the Monongahela River Basin, the West
Virginia Department of Natural Resources (1976) delineated four forest types
(Figure B-9 in Appendix B). The Appalachian mixed hardwood forests which
cover approximately 30% of the Basin, are bands that generally follow the
courses of the major rivers. The oak-hickory forest covers approximately
40% of the Basin at the higher elevations along the river courses. A
cherry-maple forest type covers approximately 20% of the Basin, and exists
as five distinct patches, the largest of which is in the mountains of Tucker
and Randolph Counties. Less than 10% of the Basin is covered by spruce-fir
forest. This forest type exists in two locations, one on Cheat Mountain and
the other near the Allegheny Front in easternmost Tucker and Randolph
Counties.
The Monongahela River Basin was mapped by the Appalachian Regional
Commission (1977) as having four forest types (Figure B-8 in Appendix B).
The oak-hickory forest covers approximately 50% of the Basin. The
maplebeech-birch forest covers approximately 20% of the Basin and exists
along the southeast side. Spruce-fir forest accounts for approximately 10%
of the Basin, and occurs in one area on Cheat Mountain and a second along
the Tucker County-Randolph County boundary. Approximately 20% of the Basin
was delineated as lacking significant forest cover. The largest non-forest
area exists in the area of Clarksburg, Buckannon, and Tygart Lake.
2.3.2.4. Features of Special Interest
2.3.2.4.1. Wetlands. Wetlands in West Virginia are scarce and
generally small because of the mountainous topography. The few sizeable
wetlands that exist in the State are within either the Gauley River Basin or
the Monongahela River Basin. The USFWS (1955) mapped wetlands in West
Virginia and identified the Cranesville Swamp (Preston County) and the
Canaan Valley (Tucker County) within the Monongahela River Basin. The four
local vegetation types that are included in wetlands of these areas are
fresh meadow, shrub, swamp, wooded swamp, and bog.
2-103
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In an evaluation of inland wetlands for potential registration as
natural landmarks, ten wetland areas in the Basin were considered (Goodwin
and Niering 1975) and are included in Figure 2-19. In Tucker County, the
Big Run Bog, Fisher Spring Run Bog, Cold Run wetland, Dobbin Slashing Bog,
and the Canaan Valley wetland system were reviewed. In Randolph County, the
Moore Run Bog, Blister Run wetland, Yellow Creek Glade, and the wetlands at
the Sinks of Gandy were reported. Cranesville Swamp in Preston County also
was examined.
The bog communities are made up primarily of sphagnum moss and sedges;
craneberries, sundews, pitcher plants, orchids, and ferns are common asso-
ciates. The shrub thickets commonly consist of speckled alder, elderberry,
rhododendron, and wild raisin. Bog forests have a typical flora of inter-
mixed red spruce, hemlock, larch, tamarack, yellow birch, and black ash.
Swamp areas include species of all the above mentioned types, plus broadleaf
and narrowleaf cattail. The bog and bog forest wetlands at the Sinks of
Gandy support twinflower, goldthread, skunk current, dwarf cornel, and
snowberry, which are typical of bogs in the far northern United States and
Canada.
Cranesville Swamp, partly in Preston County and partly Ln Maryland,
covers approximately 560 acres and is a Registered Natural Landmark. It
contains the southernmost known stands of American larch or tamarack.
The Canaan Valley contains approximately 20,500 acres of wetlands
including all of the previously mentioned types. Dense stands of great
laurel cover extensive areas. Glades and bogs within the Canaan Valley are
as much a 2 miles in length.
Figure 2-19 shows wetland areas plotted by the WVDNR-HTP (1978b) and
the US Geological Survey. The largest concentration of wetlands in the
Basin is in the Blackwater River Watershed in Tucker and Randolph Counties.
Another series of wetlands appears in the Tygart Valley between Elkins and
Mill Creek. These areas have not been described floristically. Several
wetlands occur near Cranesville in Preston County and near Cheat Bridge in
Randolph County. A single wetland area occurs near Spelter in Harrison
County, and is the only mapped wetland in the northwestern half of the
Basin. Small wetlands in the Monongahela River Basin that were not mapped
by USGS at the 1:24,000 topographic scale do not appear in this inventory.
2.3.2.4.2. Virgin Forest. Prior to settlement by American colonists
in the eighteenth century, West Virginia almost totally was covered by
forest. The majority of the State's land cover still is forest; however,
current forests differ vastly from the forests of the precolonial period.
The almost complete deforestation of the State by logging, burning, destruc-
tive effects of agricultural practices, and surface mining have changed
tree, shrub, and herbaceous conditions throughout the State. It is
2-104
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Figure 2-19
LOCATION OF SIGNIFICANT SPECIES IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (WVDNR 1977)
TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGICAL
FEATURE
WETLAND
\
MILES
0 10
WAPOfU, INC.
2-105
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estimated that only 200 acres of virgin forest have survived to the present
(WVDNR-HTP 1980). No tracts of virgin forest are known to exist in the
Monongahela River Basin, but small amounts of virgin forest cover may be
present in some areas.
2.3.2.5. Floristic Resources
The published flora of West Virginia includes approximately 2,200
species native to the State (Strausbaugh and Core 1978). A list for the
Monongahela River Basin is not available. An examination of range
information in the principal compilation of silvicultural information for
the United States (Fowells 1965) has shown that at least 60 species of
significant trees occur in West Virginia, where significant is defined as
those species having relatively high value for silvicultural purposes.
Within the State of West Virginia, including the Monongahela River
Basin, there are no plants that are considered threatened or endangered
under any State or Federal designation. The Secretary of the Interior
(USFWS 1976) has proposed a list of vascular plant species to be considered
for the national status of endangered by extinction. None of these species
occurs in West Virginia. A proposed list by the Smithsonian Institution
included five species that are found in the Monongahela River Basin as part
of their range: rough heuchera, Fraser's sedge, small green orchid, purple
fringeless orchid, and dwarf anemone (Fortney 1978).
The Heritage Trust Program of the WVDNR is a repository for information
concerning the location and nature of significant biological and related
resources within the State of West Virginia (WVDNR-HTP 1978b). No legal
protection or status is associated with the listings in the Heritage Trust
Program inventory, although certain of the listed biota may be protected by
Federal regulations or by another State agency. The Heritage Trust Program
resource categories include scientific interest plants, threatened or
endangered plants, special interest plant communities, champion or
outstanding individual trees, and wetland areas, as mapped in Figure 2-19.
The WVDNR compiled additional data on resource features (especially
wetlands) after EPA completed this inventory (By letter, Ronald Fortney,
WVDNR, February 6, 1979, 1 p.). The mapped data represent only the
available, reported resource features; they do not reflect a systematic,
Basin-wide inventory.
The concentration of floristic data in the vicinity of Morgantown
reflects the history of relatively intensive floristic reconnaissance by
numerous investigators associated with West Virginia University. The
concentration of floristic data in the Blackwater River watershed also
reflects an area that has been studied intensively.
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2.3.2.6. Heath Barrens
The heath barrens are mountaintop scrub communities that occur in flat
or gently rolling tops of mountains above 3,800 feet in elevation. The main
constituents of these areas are various species of blueberry and
huckleberry, which are abundant enough to make berry harvesting of some
economic value to local residents. Great laurel, mountain laurel, mountain
azalea, and flame azalea are other conspicuous shrubs in the heath family
tViat occur in these barrens. Chokeberry, wild holly, speckled alder,
gooseberry, mountain holly, wild raisin, red elderberry, and smooth
serviceberry may be associated with heath barrens. Several areas of heath
barrens exist on the higher mountain ridges of the southeastern Basin
Randolph County.
2.3.2.7. Sparsely Vegetated Knobs
In the Monongahela River Basin bare rock outcrops have a very limited
amount of vegetation. These outcrops and their peculiar associated flora
represent remnants of a period when the mountains were younger and there was
a much larger expanse of bare rock. The plants that exist in such places
are specialized so that they can tolerate physically severe growing
conditions. Lichens, mosses, and ferns, in that order, are the first to
pioneer an existence on bare rock. A variety of vascular plants can survive
in tiny crevices and catch-places where the incipient soil made of rock
granules and decayed lichens collected. A few species have their only
locations in West Virginia on the bare sandstone outcrops at the tops of
mountain ridges, or where rivers have cut valleys through the sandstone.
These include stiff aster, Barbara's buttons, and riverbank goldenrod (Core
1966).
2.3.3. Wildlife Resources
The Monongahela River Basin contains both game and nongame wildlife
resources, although populations of some desirable species are low in
comparison to those in the rest of the State. The economic benefits
associated with the consumptive and nonconsumptive use of such resources,
through hunting and wildlife observation experiences, constitute a major
component of the economy of the State.
The most important factor in the possible improvement of the diversity
and abundance of wildlife in the Basin is the amount of suitable habitat
available for fulfillment of the food, cover, and reproduction requirements
of each species. A continuation of the present land use trends combined
with anticipated increases in surface mining and timber harvest, could
reduce the availability and quality of certain habitat types in the Basin
over the next few decades.
2.3.3.1. Animal Communities by Habitat Type
West Virginia has one of the most diverse assemblages of wildlife and
wildlife habitats in the eastern United States (Smith 1966). This diversity
is due to the wide altitudinal gradient in the State, its geographical
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position between northern and southern biological communities, and its
complex topography. Many authors have developed schemes for classification
of the vegetation of West Virginia, and the organization of the information
and the names of the plant communities differ from source to source
(Core 1966, Society of American Foresters 1967, Strausbaugh and' Core 1970,
Wilson et al. 1951). The habitats described herein generally are consistent
with the major cover types in these publications.
Northern Deciduous and Evergreen Forests
The northern forest types are usually found in the cool, moist
environments of the mountains above 3,000 ft in elevation. In the
Monongahela River Basin these forest types are found in and near the Canaan
Valley, Dolly Sods Scenic Area, and Otter Creek Wilderness Area. Habitat
conditions are typical of more northern areas such as northwestern
Pennsylvania .or southern Canada.
The presence of these northern habitats is the prime reason why many
northern wildlife species extend south into the Monongahela River Basin.
Mammals which are near the southernmost limit of their range in the Basin
include the snowshoe hare, yellow nose vole, red squirrel, and northern
flying squirrel. Birds associated with these northern habitat types include
the Nashville warbler, Canada warbler, Swainson's thrush, hermit thrush,
northern water thrush, saw-whet owl, golden-crowned kinglet, olive-sided
flycatcher, red-breasted nuthatch, and dark-eyed junco. The wetland areas
associated with northern forests are habitats for uncommon species such as
the Cheat Mountain salamander. The northern forests also support sizeable
populations of whitetailed deer, black bear, wild turkey, and ruffed grouse
(Core 1966; WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973; WVDNR 1976h).
The black bear is one of the outstanding inhabitants of the forests of
the Basin. It has specific requirements with respect to food, cover,
seclusion, and territory. By comparison to other animals in West Virginia,
black bear habitat must include extensive undisturbed areas. Breeding
habitats should encompass not less than 32,000 acres of inaccessible forest
with little or no human activity. This type of habitat is limited in West
Virginia. Areas suitable for black bears are being lost annually to
activities such as highway construction, resource removal, and recreational
development.
At present the State black bear population is dependent on five
breeding areas of suitable size and habitat. All of these are within or
close proximity to the authorized boundary of the Monongahela National
Forest. Three of these areas are in the Monongahela River Basin: Otter
Creek, Northern Cheat Mountain, and Southern Cheat Mountain (Figure 2-20).
The Otter Creek and Northern Cheat Mountain areas are presently near the
minimum size suitable for breeding (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973, 1977;
WVDNR 1976h).
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Figure 2-20
APPROXIMATE LOCATIONS OF BLACK BEAR BREEDING AREAS IN
THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
1974 and 1980)
Northern
Cheat
Mountain
Southern
Cheat
Mountaip
WAPOM, INC.
10
2-109
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As a game species, black bears are managed by the State as a renewable
resource which can provide opportunity for big game hunting with firearms
approximately three weeks each year. Bow hunting for bears is open from mid~
October until the end of December. It is legal to hunt black bears in 10
counties in the eastern part of the State. These counties include the five
black bear breeding areas, where an adult bear is considered'legal game only
if it is not accompanied by a cub bear. In the Monongahela River Basin
black bears may be hunted in Pocahontas, Randolph, and Tucker counties
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1976, 1978).
Wetlands and Riparian Habitats
Wetland areas include marshes, swamps, bogs, wet meadows, sloughs,
overflow areas adjacent to stream or rivers, and shallow water areas with
emsEgent vegetation. Wetlands generally are situated in lowlying areas and
usually are characterized by the presence of vegetation that is tolerant of
aquatic or wet soil conditions. It has been estimated by the West Virginia
Department of Natural Resources that there are at least 28,600 acres of
major wetlands in the Basin that are of National significance. These
include the Canaan Valley, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher Spring
Run Bog. Additional wetland areas of smaller size but of great local
biological significance probably will be identified through the Statewide
wetland and riparian habitat inventory which is currently being conducted by
the Wildlife Resources Division (WVDNR 1976h).
Riparian habitat represents the ecotone between aquatic and terrestrial
habitats. It is the area immediately adjacent to a stream or other
perennial or intermittent watercourse. This habitat can vary in width from
one meter to several hundred meters. Riparian habitat in the Monongahela
River Basin is limited because of the mountain and valley topography (WVDNR
1976h). The value of any given riparian habitat is dependent on the quality
and quantity of the vegetation on its landward side and the size and quality
of the open water area. Steep gradient streams adjoined solely by forest
habitats may be less valuable to some classes of wildlife than mixtures of
herbaceous and woody vegetation adjacent to pools and slow-moving
ba'ckwaters .
Wetlands and riparian habitats provide living space and food sources
for a greater variety of wildlife than any other habitat in the State (WVDNR
1976h). Most amphibians and many reptiles need areas of open, unpolluted
water in order to complete their reproductive cycles. The quiet and shallow
waters of wetland areas are ideally suited as breeding sites for frogs,
toads, and some salamanders. Birds, especially shore birds and wading birds
such as the great blue heron, green heron, and sandpipers are able to find
food and shelter in wetland and riparian habitats during their annual
migratory flights. Some aspects of waterfowl, such as wood ducks, mallards,
and black ducks, breed in wetland areas of the Monongahela River Basin
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973). Other birds which use wetland and riparian
habitats for feeding and resting include: kingfisher, turkey vulture,
red-winged blackbird, song sparrow, robin, cardinal, and yellow warbler
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(WVDNR 1976h). The variety of food sources in these habitats attracts game
species such as whitetailed deer, cottontails, squirrels, quail, grouse,
mourning dove, and woodcock. Widely ranging predatory and omnivorous
species such as osprey, marsh hawk, mink, weasel, foxes, raccoon, and bobcat
find varied prey in such habitats. These habitats also are the most
productive areas for almost all forms of furbearers in the Basin (WVDNR
1976h; WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977b).
Open Land
The open land category includes cropland, pastures, oldfields,
hayfiel-ds, and orchards. Wildlife diversity is highest where there is a
mixture of open land, scrub, and forest. As a general rule for most
wildlife, good habitat conditions are represented by a ratio of about 40%
open land to 60% forest and scrub (WVDNR 1976h).
The most valuable types of open land to wildlife are those used for or
associated with agricultural operations. These areas provide varied food
and cover which are favorable to wildlife. This is in contrast to closed
canopy forest or single species stands which provide uniform food or cover.
During the period between 1949 and 1961, more than 1.5 million acres of open
land in West Virginia were abandoned. During this period there was a 54%
decrease in the number of active farms. Farmland not used for urban
purposes typically reverts to oldfield, scrub, and forest after cultivation
ceases.
Forest presently comprises about 66% of the Monongahela River Basin.
It has been estimated that the proportion of forest will increase to 68% by
the year 2000. A decrease in the amount of agricultural and open land with
the subsequent increases in forest or developed land locally will alter the
present wildlife diversity and populations. Maintenance of open habitats
together with edge habitats adjacent to forest and scrub stands is a primary
need for wildlife management efforts in the Monongahela River Basin
(WVDNR-1976h).
Many species benefit from open habitats, especially when they are in
close proximity to forest, wetland, riparian habitat, or scrub. Small
mammals such as mice, voles, shrews, opossum, skunk, and cottontails utilize
open land for food, nesting, and shelter. The variety of seeds produced on
open and agricultural land attracts song birds and game birds such as robin,
catbird, mockingbird, red-winged blackbird, meadowlark, sparrows, mourning
dove, quail, grouse, and pheasant. Whitetailed deer, squirrels, and
occasionally wild turkey move into open lands to feed on the forbs, fruits,
and seeds present in these habitats. Predators, omnivores, and furbearers
also benefit from open habitats. Abundant small prey provide hunting
opportunities for snakes, hawks, owls, foxes, weasel, raccoon, and skunk
(WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973, 1977b).
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Caves
Caves in the Monongahela River Basin are critical habitats for some
forms of wildlife. The cave environment offers a near constant year-round
temperature, full protection from the elements, and the concealment of
darkness.
Four salamanders are known to inhabit caves: the cave salamander, the
longtailed salamander, the spring salamander, and the northern two-lined
salamander. The dusky salamander also can be found near cave entrances
occasionally (Conant 1975; Davies 1965). All of these salamanders are known
to occur in the Basin (Green 1978).
Most of the bats which are known to occur in the Basin also utilize
caves during at least part of the year (Burt and Grossenheider 1976;
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977a). Included among the bats which utilize
caves is the Indiana bat, which is considered endangered with extinction.
Reclaimed Surface Mines
Reclaimed mines often are planted with grasses and legumes, thus
establishing a grassland habitat. When woody plants such as shrubs, decid-
uous trees, or conifers are used, they typically are planted in regular rows
or blocks of a single species. Thus the areas have a low species diversity.
Reclaimed mine areas also may contain sediment ponds, which can be very
valuable for wildlife, particularly reptiles and amphibians (Turner and
Fowler 1980). The ponds also can be used extensively by migratory waterfowl
and other species that require open water (Riley 1977) and can provide
recreational opportunities if stocked with fish (Turner and Fowler 1980).
The types of cultivated vegetation on reclaimed mines vary greatly in
utility to wildlife, depending on the food, land cover, and diversity of
plant species selected for reclamation. The continuous grass-legume meadows
are used by the horned lark, eastern meadowlark, savannah sparrow, grass-
hopper sparrow, vesper sparrow, and bobolink (Allaire 1978, Whitmore and
Hall 1978). Game birds such as the mourning dove and quail may be present
before a thick layer of litter accumulates (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). Wet
depressions on reclaimed mine sites are used by red-winged blackbirds
(Allaire 1978). The populations of small mammals in newly (3- to 5-year-
old) revegetated areas may be low in comparison with populations in adjacent
naturally vegetated areas (Kirkland 1976). Revegetation techniques are
described in Appendix C.
Woody plants added within the grassland can provide song perches for
species such as the indigo bunting, prairie warbler, rufous-sided towhee,
and song sparrow. Ruffed grouse also can use such areas because of the
availability of cover (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). White-tailed deer use the
browse provided on revegetated mine sites (USDI-BOR 1975).
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Abandoned Surface Mines
Orphaned mines can support diverse successional communities that can
range in structure between bare ground and forest, depending on the fertil-
ity of the spoil (Bramble and Ashley 1955, Riley 1977). The process of
natural revegetation of abandoned mine spoil can take more than ten years to
provide over 50% ground cover, even on favorable sites (Bramble and Ashley
1955).
Orphaned mines that support a naturally well-developed growth of vege-
tation are considered to provide excellent wildlife habitat (Haigh 1976,
members of the Wildlife Committee of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency
Evaluation Tour, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Some researchers have reported
that, after decades of natural succession, abandoned mines can support popu-
lations of small mammals, cottontail rabbits, woodchucks, reptiles, white-
tailed deer,, and many open-land species of birds that equal or exceed in
number and diversity their respective populations in adjacent undisturbed
areas (DeCapita and Bookhout 1975, Jones 1978, Riley 1977).
2.3.3.2. Distribution of Wildlife
The species of vertebrates known or likely to be present in the
Monongahela River Basin are listed in taxonomic order by group (amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals) in Appendix B. All data in Appendix B were
obtained from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (1978a) unless otherwise noted.
Because at least 277 species of birds may be present, only the number of
species present in each family is indicated for this group. Species of
vertebrates that are considered to be endangered, threatened, or of special
interest in West Virginia are discussed in Section 2.3.4.1.
2.3.3.2.1. Amphibians. Thirty-two of the 41 species of amphibians
within the State are known or likely to be present in the Basin (see
Appendix B; Green 1978, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b). Four species in
the Basin are considered by WVDNR-HTP to be of special or scientific
interest or are on the proposed State threatened and endangerd species list
(WVDNR-HTP 1980) and are listed in Table 2-19.
2.3.3.2.2. Reptiles. Twenty-eight of the 41 species of reptiles known
to be present in West Virginia have been collected or may be present within
the Basin (see Appendix B; Green 1978, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1978). Four
species of reptiles are considered to be of scientific interest by WVDNR-HTP
(Table 2-19): the wood turtle, the map turtle, the Eastern ribbon snake,
and the Mountain earth snake.
2.3.3.2.3. Birds. Two hundred and seventy-seven of the 263 species of
birds are known or are expected to occur in the Monongahela River Basin
(HalL 1971; Appendix B, Table B-5). This total includes the wild turkey and
the ringnecked pheasant. Most of the species breed in, migrate through, or
are present in all counties during some period of the year. Most of the
species with restricted distributions are associated with open water or
wetlands.
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Table 2-19. Animal species considered to be special animals of scientific
interest by the WVDNR-Heritage Trust Program and are species for a pre-
liminary proposed State threatened and endangered list (WVDNR-HTP 1978b).
The numbers following these species indicate the number of'entries in the
Heritage Trust Program for the Basin.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Amphibians
Cheat Mountain salamander
Green salamander
Cave salamander
Northern cricket frog
Plethodon netting! -9
Aneides aeneus -]0
Eurycea lucifuga
Acris crepitans
Reptiles
Wood turtle
Map turtle
Eastern ribbon snake
Mountain earth snake
Clemmys insculpta
Graptemys geographica -2
Thamnophis sauritus -2
Virginia valeriae pulchra -4
Mammals
Longtail shrew
Northern water shrew
Starnose mole
Little brown bat
Keen Myotis
Indiana Myotis (endangered Federal)
Small-footed Myotis
Eastern pipistrel
Western big-eared bat
Black bear
Fisher
Least weasel
River otter
Spotted skunk
Northern flying squirrel
Eastern fox squirrel
Southern bog lemming
Yellownose vole
Porcupine
Meadow jumping mouse
New England cottontail
Sorex dispar -2
Sorex palustris
Condylura cristata -5
Myotis lucifugus -34
Myotis keeni -3
Myot1s s o d a 1i s -1
Myotis subulatus -5
Pipistrellus sqbflavus -20
Plecotus townsendi -3
Ursus americanus -4
Martes pennanti -2
Mustela rixosa -2
Lutra canadensis -1
Glaucomys sabrinus -3
Sciurus niger -4
Synap toniys cooperi - 7
Microtus chrotorrhinus -11
Erethizon dorsatum -2
Zapus hudsonliis -2
Sy] vilagus Jrransitiona] is -3
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Three species, the passenger pigeon, Carolina paroquet (parakeet), and
black-billed magpie, formerly occurred in the Monongahela River Basin but
are now either extinct or extirpated. The passenger pigeon formerly
occurred throughout the entire State, but it is now extinct. The former
status of the now-extinct Carolina paroquet in the Basin and the State is
uncertain. Approximately 18 years ago the black-billed magpie was
introduced into the Canaan Valley section of the Basin. This species is now
believed to be extirpated from the region (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973;
Hall 1971).
Twenty-four other species have been recorded in the State, but are not
included in the total of 277 species because their occurrence is considered
accidental. An accidental species is defined as one for which there have
been fewer than five observations ever recorded in the State (Hall 1971).
The bald eagle and the peregrine falcon may be present in any county in
the Basin during migration. Both of these species are classified as endan-
gered in the entire United States on the Federal list of endangered and
threatened species (50 CFR 17.11).
2.3.3.2.4. Mammals. Fifty-nine species of mammals are known or
reasonably expected to occur in the Monongahela River Basin (Table B-4,
Appendix B). This total includes game, furbearers, and other mammals.
Mammals considered to be special animals of scientific interest appear in
Table 2-19.
The coyote, the cougar or mountain lion, and the porcupine possibly may
occur in the Monongahela River Basin. Although the coyote has been reported
in West Virginia, these records are sporadic and more probably represent
escaped or released individuals rather than establishment of a naturalized
population. The cougar has not been verified in West Virginia during recent
years, although the Appalachian Mountains are part of its former range.
This species may possibly occur in the mountains of the eastern part of the
Basin (Burt and Grossenheider 1976; WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973, 1977a).
The northeastern part of the State represents the southernmost extent of the
natural range of the porcupine in the eastern United States (Burt and
Grossenheider 1976).
2.3.3.3. Game Resources
Game animals are an important economic resource in West Virginia.
State revenues from the sale of hunting and fishing licenses are collected
from almost a quarter of West Virginia residents each year. They spent more
than $79 million annually for wildlife-oriented recreation, and marketed
$3.1 million in furs during the 1979 trapping season (Grimes 1980). In an
economic survey of wildlife-oriented recreation in the southeastern United
States (Georgia State University 1974), the following values were allocated
for each day of participation, for evaluation purposes:
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Activity Value Per Day
Freshwater fishing $10.00
Small game hunting $10.00
Big game hunting $25.00
Waterfowl hunting $20.00
Watching or photographing birds
or other animals $10.00
The most popular species in a survey of West Virginia hunters (Riffe
1971) were ranked as follows, in order of preference: squirrels, deer,
ruffed grouse, wild turkey, raccoon, bear, woodcock, and snowshoe hare.
(Game animals in the Monongahela River Basin are listed in Table 2-20.)
Trout and other aquatic game species are discussed in Section 2.2.
In 1970, approximately 76% of the total acreage in the Basin was open
to hunting (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1970). This included lands on which
hunting was restricted in some manner (to certain species, seasons, persons,
etc.). Posting of private land to prohibit hunting has increased since
1970, particularly near urban areas and areas where the hunting pressure is
high and landowner-hunter difficulties are likely to occur.
2.3.3.4. Values of Nongame Wildlife Resources
Allaire (1979a, 1979b) and Whitmore (1978) have shown that man-altered
environments such as reclaimed surface mines can provide valuable recreation
areas for observation, photography, and other nonconsumptive use of nongame
birds. Nearly 25% of the wildlife-oriented use-days in National Forests may
be spent on observation of birds and nature photography (Hooper and Crawford
1969), and nonconsumptive use of such resources is common in West Virginia.
Legislation has been introduced in Congress and in many states to pro-
vide funds for the protection and management of nongame resources. Similar
legislation has been introduced in West Virginia, but has not yet been
enacted. The funds thus obtained would be used to collect information on
populations of nongame species and to plan and conduct population and
habitat enhancement programs that could be coordinated with impact assess-
ment and mitigation activities.
2.3.4. Significant Species and Features
WVDNR-HTP maintains and continuously updates a computerized data bank
on the significant natural features and rare species in the State. The
current information on the nature of the feature or species and its loca-
tion^) or distribution in the State has been obtained from several sources,
principally university or private researchers, museum records, published
literature, and theses. A limited number of field investigations also have
been performed by WVDNR-HTP personnel, and more will be undertaken during
the next few years.
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Table 2-20. Game mammals, furbearers, and game birds of the Monongahela River
Basin, West Virginia (Rieffenberger et al. 1976; Sanderson 1977; WVWRD 1977b)
GAME MAMMALS AND FURBEARERS
Whitetail deer
Black bear
Gray squirrel
Raccoon
Eastern cottontail
New England cottontail
Snowshoe hare
Mink
Muskrat
Fisher
Beaver
Striped Skunk
Spotted Skunk
Opossum
Woodchuck
Longtail weasel
Least weasel
Red fox
Gray fox
Bobcat
GAME BIRDS
Wild turkey Canada goose
Ruffed grouse Snow goose
Ringneck pheasant Blue goose
English sparrow Virginia rail
Starling Sora rail
Crow Common gallinule
Mallard American coot
Black duck Common snipe
Wood duck Mourning dove
Canvasback Woodcock
Redhead
Scamp
Blue-winged teal
Hooded merganser
Common merganser
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The terrestrial biological resource categories included in the system
are:
• Species of plants and animals that have been designated as
endangered or threatened at the Federal level
• Species of plants and animals of special or scientific
interest in West Virginia
• Plant communities of special or scientific interest in
West Virginia
• Champion or outstanding individual trees
• Wetland areas.
An occurrence index is developed for each species or feature (element)
in the system. The index is the ratio of the number of recorded occurrences
of that element in the Basin to the number of recorded occurrences of the
element in the State. Presently, these indexes are based on a limited amount
of data. The indexes will change periodically as more information is devel-
oped by WVDNR-HTP, and the data are included in this assessment only as an
approximation of the currently known distribution and rarity of the species.
If the number of occurrences for a species becomes large enough, that
species is dropped from the WVDNR-HTP inventory.
The locations at which terrestrial biological features have been
recorded by WVDNR-HTP are shown in Figure 2-19 and the elements that consti-
tute each category within the Basin are described in the following sections.
The data mapped in Figure 2-19 represent only some of the significant
natural resources in the State; they do not constitute a systematic,
Statewide inventory of all possible significant terrestrial biological
resources. Locational information obtained from the State has been mapped
on the 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 for EPA's use.
Some of the records contained in the listing are more than 50 years
old, and the species or features indicated no longer may be present at those
locations. Field checks are being made by WVDNR-HTP personnel and others to
determine the accuracy of this information. Many of the areas in which the
species or features were noted have been relatively undisturbed since the
time of the record, and it is believed that the species or features still
may be present. The former occurrence of one relatively rare species may
indicate the presence of a high-quality habitat for other rare species. The
locations of all occurrences are retained in the WVDNR-HTP list until field
verification of the present occurrence or absence of the species and
estimation of the quality of the habitat and possible presence of other rare
species can be performed.
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2.3.4.1. Endangered and Threatened Species
2.3.4.1.1. Plants. No species of plants present in West Virginia have
been designated officially by either Federal or State authorities as endan-
gered or threatened with extinction. The Eraser's Sedge, pale- green orchis,
and purple firngeless orchid have been included by the Smithsonian
Institution in a list of plants considered to be endangered or threatened
(but not Federally designated; Ayensu and DeFilipps 1978). These species
have no legal protection or status within West Virginia, but presently are
considered to be of special or scientific interest within the State by
WVDNR-HTP.
2.3.4.1.2. Animals. Two mammals in the Monongahela River Basin, one
of known occurrence(the Indiana bat) and the other of unlikely occurrence
(the eastern cougar), are considered endangered with extinction. The
Indiana bat is known to occur in several caves in the Basin (WVDNR-HTP
1978b). The caves are in a limestone area believed to lack coal resources.
The eastern cougar may still occur in the more remote mountainous regions of
the Basin, but this is considered unlikely. There have been no verified
reports of cougars in recent years (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1973).
The southern bald eagle and the American peregrine falcon both are
considered endangered species (41 FR 36420-36431, 14 July 1977). Both of
these birds are known migrants through the Basin, and at times are seasonal
visitors (WVDNR-HTP 1978b; Hall 1971). The endangered Kirtland's warbler
also may occur in the Basin. There are records of sightings of this warbler
during 1937, 1944, and 1945 (WVDNR-HTP 1978b). No recent specimens,
recognizable photographs, or verified sight records are available, however,
for Kirtland's warbler in West Virginia (Hall 1971).
2.3.4.2. Animal Species of Special Interest
Those species considered to be special animals of scientific interest
included species which are rare, or near their range limits, or not
regularly observed. Amphibians and reptiles (Table 2-19 and Table B-3 in
Appendix B), mammals (Table 2-19 and Table B-4 in Appendix B), and birds
(Table B-6 in Appendix B) listed by the Heritage Trust Program are
indicated. For the purposes of this inventory, the proposed State
threatened and endangerd species and the special animals of scientific
interest generally were considered specially significant animals.
The Heritage Trust Program data were used to assist in the verification
and determination of occurrence of expected species with the Basin. These
included species at or near their natural range limit in the Monongahela
River Basin, especially those for which recent observations were lacking, as
well as species considered threatened or endangered. This information was
plotted on a base map of the Basin (Figure 2-19). The Heritage Trust
Program data represent most of the areas within the Monongahela River Basin
where previous investigations and studies have been conducted. Therefore,
some parts of the Basin show a clustering of many records of occurrence for
2-119
-------
the special animals. Areas with no or few records may reflect a lack of
previous studies, as well as the absence of a particular animal from that
part of the Basin. Reptiles and amphibians had not been entered into the
computerized inventory at the time this report was prepared. .
2.3.5. Data Gaps
The regional-scale emphasis of this SID and the physical limitations of
the report preclude the provision of all of the detailed information known
to exist on terrestrial resources within the Basin. The information
presented in the preceeding sections constitutes a summary of the available
information on biologically and economically significant species and
features. During the compilation and condensation of the available informa-
tion, several deficiencies were noted in both information on particular
resources within the Basin and for geographic areas of the Basin.
2.3.5.1. Wetlands
Knowledge of the number, location, and community composition of wet-
lands in the State is in an early stage of development. An initial invent-
ory of these areas has been conducted by WDNR-Wildlife Resources, and the
locations of the majority of the vegetated wetlands identified have been
incorporated into the WVDNR-HTP data bank. It is anticipated that
additional wetlands will be located, and that the composition of the vege-
tation in these areas will be ascertained, during the course of the aerial
photographic survey being conducted jointly by WVDNR-HTP and researchers at
West Virginia University.
At present the flora and fauna of the known wetlands have not been
studied extensively because of the small size and remote locations of these
wetlands. Field investigations are scheduled to be conducted during 1980
and succeeding years. Small mammal trapping, wildlife observation, and
botanical studies will be performed by WVDNR-HTP personnel and other
researchers to obtain information on the plant and animal communities of
these wetlands. Studies also will be performed on nutrient cycling, strati-
graphy and soils, water quality changes, inflow and outflow.
2.3.5.2. Significant Species and Features
Information on rare, threatened, and endangered species and biological
features of special interest or uniqueness within the State also is in an
early stage of development, and additional fieldwork is required to confirm
the historical information on the occurrences of many of these species.
Such work is underway, and a number of researchers are contributing their
knowledge to the WVDNR-HTP information bank. Site-specific studies undoubt-
edly will be required at many proposed mine sites because of the lack of
information for those areas. In addition, little is known about the habitat
requirements of many of these species, especially those that are rarely seen
and have not been studied in detail.
2-] 20
-------
Large portions of the Monongahela River Basin contain large reserves of
coal, and it is expected that most of these reserves will be removed by
surface raining in this century. Unless biological fieldwork is undertaken
when mine plans are developed, many terrestrial resources unknown at this
time will be lost without record. If the significant resources become
known, however, mitigative actions can be taken to preserve significant
natural areas, to relocate individual organisms to protected areas, or to
restock areas after reclamation. In this way, biological resources can be
preserved while coal is developed (see Section 5.3.).
2-121
-------
2-122
-------
2.4 Climate, Air Quality, and Noise
-------
Page
2.4. Climate, Air Quality, and Noise 2-123
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia 2-123
2.4.1.1. Precipitation and Humidity 2-123
2.4.1.2. Temperature 2-124
2.4.1.3. Wind 2-124
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the Basin 2-124
2.4.2.1. Precipitation 2-136
2.4.2.2. Relative Humidity 2-136
2.4.2.3. Temperature 2-136
2.4.2.4. Wind 2-136
2.4.2.5. Mixing Heights 2-145
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality 2-145
2.4.3.1. Air Quality Control Regions and PSD areas 2-145
2.4.3.2. Air Quality Data and Trends 2-148
2.4.3.3. Classification of AQCR's 2-153
2.4.3.4. Air Pollution Sources 2-153
2.4.4. Noise 2-156
-------
2.4. CLIMATE, AIR QUALITY, AND NOISE
2.4.1. General Climatic Patterns in West Virginia
West Virginia has a continental climate characterized by distinct
seasons. The State is in the path of prevailing westerly winds that move
across the North American continent, bringing weather patterns that develop
in the western and southwestern states. These winds frequently are
interrupted by cool or warm surges from the north or the south.
Weather in summer months is controlled by warm, moist air that sweeps
into the State from the Gulf of Mexico. The Gulf air produces warm summer
temperatures and frequent rainstorms. The showers and thunderstorms
generally are localized and of short duration. Occasionally they cause
local flooding of small streams.
Winter weather is dominated by low pressure systems that move eastward
through the Ohio River Valley. These systems bring cool temperatures and
often result in long-duration precipitation events covering extensive areas.
Flooding of large rivers and streams occasionally occurs as a result of the
winter storms. Thaw conditions are common during these periods, and snow
accumulations generally are light.
The mountainous topography of West Virginia significantly influences
local weather conditions in the State. Above 3,000 feet, temperatures
generally are cooler, winds are stronger, and precipitation heavier, than in
the valleys or plateaus at lower elevations. Precipitation is generally
greatest on windward (west-facing) slopes where rising, moisture-laden air
cools and condenses. Markedly less precipitation characterizes leeward
(east-facing) slopes, especially east of the Allegheny Mountains (NOAA
1977).
2.4.1.1. Precipitation and Humidity
Annual precipitation in West Virginia averages 43 inches per year
Statewide and varies locally from 30 to 51 inches. Rainfall tends to
increase in an easterly direction from the western border of the State to
the Allegheny Mountains. Immediately east of the mountains, precipitation
values are similar to those observed in the far western sections of the
State. Monthly average amounts are approximately equal, but precipitation
is slightly greater during the summer months. Autumn provides the driest
weather. Precipitation falls on an average of 122 days per year, and
thunderstorms occur approximately 40 to 50 days per year (NOAA 1977, Trent
and Dickerson 1976).
Thunderstorms may bring 4 to 5 inches of rain during a 24-hour period,
and amounts greater than 10 inches in 24 hours have been reported in all
parts of the State. The record storm is considered to be a mid-July
thunderstorm which deposited 19 inches of rain in 2 hours at Rockport (Wood
County) in 1889. Values for the 10-year 24-hour design storm range from
2-123
-------
approximately 4 to 5 inches across the State. The values of the 10-year
1-hour storm are about 2 inches, lower in the north, and higher in the
southern part of the State (Horn and McGuire 1960).
Total annual average snowfall for West Virginia ranges from 20 inches
in lower elevations to greater than 70 inches in the mountains. Accumula-
tions are generally light due to frequent thaws, except at higher elevations
where snow cover may persist for extended periods of time (NOAA 1977, Trent
and Dickerson 1976).
Relative humidity in the western section of the State averages nearly
80% during night and early morning hours but generally drops to 60% or less
during the early afternoon. Humidity in late summer and early autumn is
slightly higher than the annual average, and spring values are slightly
lower. Night and early morning fog is frequent in valleys at higher eleva-
tions, where- high humidity is common. High elevation areas generally are
more humid than areas at lower elevations, but mild temperatures keep the
higher humidity from causing uncomfortable living conditions for persons
inhabiting these areas.
2.4.1.2. Temperature
Summer temperatures in West Virginia average 71.5° Fahrenheit (°F), but
occasionally climb to highs of 100°F or more. Winter temperatures average
33.6°F but may drop to less than -30°F at high elevations. Cold spells,
with near 0°F temperatures, generally occur two or three times during the
winter season but last only a few days. Spring and autumn temperatures in
the State average 50-60°F. The first freeze of the autumn season normally
occurs in late October while the last spring freeze occurs during late
April. The average length of the growing season for the State is 160 days
(NOAA 1977, West Virginia Statistical Handbook 1965). Locally, the frost-
free period ranges between about 130 and 170 days, depending on exposure and
elevation.
2.4.1.3. Wind
Prevailing winds are from the west and southwest but vary locally in
both speed and direction due to interruption of air flow by mountain ridges
and valleys. Strongest winds generally are associated with the passage of
frontal systems and are most common during early spring. Calm wind
conditions are most evident during late summer and early autumn. Daily,
winds are usually strongest in the late afternoon and are least strong prior
to dawn. Strong winds resulting in property damage occur infrequently
(Weedfall 1967, NOAA 1977).
2.4.2. Climatic Patterns in the Monongahela River Basin
The Monongahela River Basin is located almost 400 miles from the
Atlantic Ocean. Its climate is continental with a marked temperature
contrast between summer and winter. The major river valleys open to the
2-124
-------
north. The altitudes range from less than about 800 feet along the western
limit of the State to over 4,850 feet in the Allegheny Mountains. The
region is notable for naturally poor atmospheric dispersion and,
consequently, for polluted air near concentrations of heavy industry, as in
the Kanawha Valley, southwest of the Basin. There are five significant
fossil-fueled power stations in the Basin (Figure 2-21).
The transport and diffusion of air pollutants may vary sharply over
short distances in terrain such as that of the Basin, depending on the
landscape characteristics and on the nature of the pollution sources. On a
relatively windswept plain, the potential for diffusive mixing in every
direction typically results in low concentrations of atmospheric pollutants
around the sources. But in a narrow, steep-walled valley that experiences
frequent radiation inversions below the crest, transport of pollutants may
be limited to up- or down-valley flows, and diffusive mixing of air masses
outside the valley usually is inhibited by the topography.
Local conditions of poor dispersion are aggravated by large-scale air
stagnations (subsidence inversions) over Appalachia and the eastern United
States. Widespread air stagnation is associated with high-pressure weather
systems (anticyclones) whose slow eastward migration is sometimes blocked by
hurricanes that move northeastward along the Atlantic Coast. Peak pollution
episodes generally are associated with periods of general regional air
stagnation.
The State of West Virginia is situated within a zone of prevailing
westerly winds. As they approach the Appalachian range, the air masses must
rise to cross the mountains. The uplift often triggers precipitation or
intensifies the already falling rain or snow.
No temperature data are available for the upper atmosphere of the
Monongahela Basin. Atmospheric temperature, however, should not vary
significantly over the region, and the data recorded at the Greater
Pittsburgh Airport should be reasonably representative of the upper
atmospheric temperature throughout the Monongahela Basin. At Pittsburgh
surface temperature inversions are reported 55% of the time at 7 am and 13%
of the time at 7 pm (Table 2-21). The surface inversions most frequently
are at heights between 100 and 500 m above the ground. Elevated temperature
inversions are reported 20% of the time at 7 am and 18% of the time at 7 pm
(Table 2-22). The base of the elevated inversions typically ranges from 100
to 1,000 m above ground level.
Pittsburgh data for surface wind velocities and directions are
presented in Table 2-23. Prevailing winds are from the west.
Data on the frequency of Pasquill Stability Classes indicate the
atmospheric stability of the Basin, and hence its potential to undergo
periods of high pollution. The Elkins data, the only station with available
data, are presented in Tables 2-24 through 2-30. Classes A and B, the least
2-125
-------
t CO
2-126
-------
Table 2-21. Average annual occurrence of surface temperature inversions,
Greater Pittsburgh Airport, Pittsburgh PA, 1966-1973. Some data are
missing.
Height Above Ground
Occurrence (%)
Level (m)
1-100
101-250
251-500
501-750
751-1,000
1,000-1,500
1,500-
Table 2-22. Average annual
Greater Pittsburgh Airport
missing .
Base of Inversion
Above Ground Level (m)
1-100
101-250
251-500
501-750
751-1,000
0700 hrs
1.1
23.0
21.5
4.3
1.9
2.1
1.3
TOTAL 55.1
EST 1900 hrs EST
1.6
8.0
2.0
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.2
12.9
occurence of elevated temperature inversion,
, Pittsburgh PA, 1966-1973. Some data are
0700 hrs
0.3
4.9
5.0
5.7
4.3
TOTAL 20.3
Occurrence (%)
EST 1900 hrs EST
0.1
2.4
3.4
5.9
6.3
18.1
2-127
-------
Table 2-23. Annual percentage frequencies of wind direction and speed at
the Greater Pittsburgh Airport, Pittsburgh PA, 1964-1973, Wind speeds are
reported as miles per hour (1 mph = 0.45 m/sec).
Wind Speed
Class
Wind
Direction
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
SSW
SW
WSW
W
WNW
NW
NNW
Calm
0-3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.1
5.2
4-7
Wind
2.1
1.3
1.6
1.3
2.5
2.0
2.2
1.7
1.7
1.4
2.0
1.7
2.5
1.7
1.4
0.7
8-12
Speed
3.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.2
1.8
3.2
3.3
4.1
2.2
2.3
2.0
13-18
Observed
1.3
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
1.1
2.7
3.3
4.7
2.6
2.0
1.3
19-23
Hourly (%)
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.o •
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.7
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.1
24+
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.1
0.0
Total
%
6.7
2.9
3.1
3.2
5.1
4.6
4.9
3.7
6.6
4.6
8.6
9.6
13.1
7.7
6.3
4.1
5.2
Annual
Average
Speed
9.2
7.7
7.4
8.0
7.5
7.8
7.8
7.4
8.0
9.6
10.8
12.1
12.2
11.7
11.2
10.8
0.0
TOTAL
10.8 27.7
34.2
22.1
3.3
1.0 100.0
9.4
2-128
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stable categories, account for 68% of the total. The most frequent wind
direction for all stability classes is westerly. ^
NOAA has tabulated data from four climatological stations located in
the Monongahela River Basin for the period 1951 to 1977. Figure 2-22
presents names and locations of these stations.
2.4.2.1. Precipitation
Average annual precipitation at the four weather stations ranges from
39.9 inches to 46.4 inches. Average monthly precipitation ranges from 3.3
inches to 3.9 inches. Spring and summer months generally have the highest
precipitation. The greatest accumulation of rainfall for a 24 hour period
ranged from 3.31 inches at Clarksburg, to 5.45 inches at Elkins.
Precipitation data for the Basin are presented in Tables 2-31 through 2-34.
Average annual snowfall at the stations varies greatly, depending on
elevation. Buckhannon has the highest average annual snowfall, 56.3 inches,
while Clarksburg has the lowest, 30.2 inches. Generally the first snow
arrives in October. Snowfalls at average levels of greater than one inch
per month occur from November through March. Occasional light snowfalls
occur in April. Snow cover in winter months may reach several feet in the
higher elevations, but generally is a few inches or less at lower
elevations.
2.4.2.2. Relative Humidity
Relative humidity data are not available for the Monongahela fl
River Basin. Humidity is greatest during daybreak. Humidity readings
generally drop during morning hours usually reaching a minimum value during
early afternoon. Maximum and minimum values of average monthly humidity
range from about 50% to 85%.
2.4.2.3. Temperature
Average annual temperature data collected from the four climatological
stations range from 50.4°F to 52.9°F. Warmest average temperatures occur in
the western sections of the Basin during July and August, ranging from 70°F
to 74°F. Recorded temperatures of 100°F or greater have occurred at all of
the stations. January is the coldest month of the year with average monthly
temperatures at all stations ranging from 30.7°F to 32.2°F. Record low
temperatures of less than minus 17°F have been recorded at all nine
stations. Temperature data are provided in Tables 2-31 and 2-35 through
2-37.
2.4.2.4. Wind
Wind data for the Basin are limited to the weather station located in
Elkins, WV. These data (Table 2-31) indicate that the average annual wind
speed is approximately 5.2 miles per hour. Average monthly wind velocities
range from 3.5 mph to 6.9 mph, with stronger winds generally evident during
2-136
-------
Figure 2-22
CLIMATOUOGICAL MONITORING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (adapted from NOAA 1977, WVAPCC 1978)
I
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winter and early spring. General air circulation patterns in the Basin are
interrupted by the mountainous terrain. This results in localized
variations in wind direction and speed due to blockage and/or channelization
of winds. Strong damaging winds occur infrequently within the Basin (NOAA
1977).
2.4.2.5. Mixing Heights
Warming of air near the surface produces convection currents which mix
air of different characteristics and disperse air pollutants. On sunny
days, the mixed layer may reach a height of 3,000 to 6,500 feet, above which
occurs an inversion layer of stable air. The distance between the bottom of
the inversion layer and the ground is called the mixing height. The depth
of this layer of turbulent air affects the volume of air in which pollutants
are diluted, and therefore their ground-level concentrations. An inverse
relationship exists between the depth of the mixed layer and pollutant con-
centrations; greater mixing heights are associated with lower pollutant con-
centrations. Mixing heights are generally greatest in the afternoon, when
surface temperatures are likely to be highest.
Low-level inversions occur in the Appalachian Region 30 to 45% of the
time (NAPCC and WVAPCC 1970). During these inversion episodes, pollutants
become concentrated near the surface and potentially can violate air quality
standards.
2.4.3. Ambient Air Quality
An Air Quality Control Region is the functional unit for which the air
pollution control regulations are designed pursuant to the Clean Air Act.
The US is subdivided into approximately 250 AQCR's, each of which consists
of five to twenty counties. These AQCR's originally were established to
represent geographical areas that include similar sources of air pollution
in an urbanized area as well as the receptors that were affected
significantly by them. In later reorganization, some of these AQCR's were
altered for administrative convenience. Some AQCR's, however, continued to
reflect similar air pollution concentrations and problems.
2.4.3.1. Air Quality Control Regions and PSD Areas
There are ten AQCR's in West Virginia, four of which are interstate and
six of which are intrastate. The intrastate AQCR's in West Virginia were
designated on the basis of similarity of topography and/or land use, and on
the basis of political or natural boundaries (Figure 2-23). Federal
interstate AQCR's were established to help simplify the problem of
controlling excessive pollution in the individual States (WVAPCC 1978).
The Monongahela River Basin includes parts of three Air Quality Control
Regions (AQCR's) that have been established by EPA in accordance with the
Clean Air Act (Figure 2-23). These regions, whose boundaries generally
follow county lines, are described in the following paragraphs. There are
2-145
-------
Ul
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4 ambient air quality monitoring stations in the Basin that report standard
temperature, precipitation, and related surface meteorological data.
The AQCR's that are wholly or partially within the Monongahela River Basin
follow.
Allegheny Region (AQCR 231)
The Basin section of Region 231 includes Tucker County, most of
Randolph County, and part of Pocahontas County. The climatology of the
Region is typified by cold to moderately cold winters, cool (mountains) to
warm (lower elevations) summers, stormy springs, and fair autumns.
Precipitation averages as much as 67 inches per year on the windward side of
the ridges in the higher mountains and 30 inches per year on the leeward
slopes and valleys. Prevailing winds are from west through southwest. Wind
speeds are greater over the higher mountain areas than in the intermountain
valleys in the eastern section of the Region.
Stagnation conditions with poor dispersion that last 4 days or more
occur once or twice each year. About once in 7 years a 7-day stagnation
occurs. The City of Elkins, for which extensive information was just
presented, is located near the geographical center of the Region. There are
no ambient air quality monitoring stations in the AQCR, but some information
is available from Clarksburg in Harrison County and Weston in Lewis County,
the nearest stations to Region 231.
Central West Virginia (AQCR 232)
The Basin section of Region 232 includes sections of Lewis and Upshur
Counties. The climatology of the Region is typified by moderately cold to
cold winters, warm and humid summers, stormy springs, and fair autumns.
Precipitation averages 42 to 60 inches per year and is fairly evenly spread
throughout the years. Winds are most frequent from the west through south.
The highest speeds occur during the colder months. Dense fog is frequent in
the valleys. Stagnating conditions with poor dispersion lasting four days
or more occur about twice per year. About once in 5 years a 7-day
stagnation occurs.
The nearest appropriate local meteorological data are available from
Parkersburg, Elkins, and Charleston. Ambient air quality is monitored at
Weston within the Region and at Montgomery and Smithers in Fayette County,
Fallsview and Clarksburg in Harrison County, and Parkersburg in Wood County.
North Central West Virginia (AQCR 235)
The northern half of the Basin consists of Region 235. It includes
Barbour, Harrison, Marion, Monongalia, Preston, and Taylor counties. The
climatology of the region is typified by moderately cold to cold winters,
warm summers, stormy springs, and fair autumns. Annual precipitation
avera - 40 to 54 inches and is rather evenly distributed throughout the
year. Winds are most frequent from the southwest to west, with the higher
2-147
-------
wind speeds during the colder months. Winds are channeled and speeds
reduced in protected valley locations; temperature inversions are frequent m
in the deep valleys. Stagnation conditions with poor dispersion lasting 4
days or more occur once or twice each year. About once in 6 years a 7-day
stagnation occurs.
Meteorological data are not collected in the AQCR. The nearest
stations are at Elkins (Randolph County), Parkersburg (Wood County), and
Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania). Air quality is monitored in the AQCR at
Morgantown, Fairmont, and Clarksburg, as well as nearby in Weston (Lewis
County).
Air discharge permits are administered by WVAPCC (see Section 4.1.),
except for PSD reviews. The latter are performed by EPA Region III (see
Section 4.2.) .
2.4.3.2. Air Quality Data and Trends
The major pollutants in West Virginia ate total suspended particulates
(TSP) and sulfur oxides (SOX). Particulates include airborne liquid and
solid matter (i.e., smoke, acid mists, and fumes). The combustion of fuels
containing sulfur and other processes release sulfur dioxide (SC>2) into
the atmosphere. The major emitters of TSP and S02 are electric generating
facilities, metallurgical furnaces, and other fossil fuel burning processes
(WVAPCC 1978).
WVAPCC"s stations monitor concentrations of only total suspended M
particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (SC-2). Carbon monoxide (CO), ™
oxidants (03), nitrogen dioxide (NC>2), and hydrocarbon concentrations
(HC) currently are not monitored. On the basis of previous monitoring, it
has been assumed that the airborne concentrations of these pollutants within
the Basin do not violate the secondary standards and are considered to have
air quality better than the National standards. Ambient air quality data
are presented in Tables 2-38 through 2-40 and station locations, are depicted
in Figure 2-24.
TSP concentrations have decreased in the Basin during the past decade,
but Fairmont, Weston, Piedmont, Morgantown, and Clarksburg reported
occasional concentrations during 1976 that exceeded the secondary standard
(150 ug/m3) during 1976 (Table 2-38). Weston reported two occasions on
which the primary TSP standard (260 ug/m3) was exceeded among its 67
sampling dates during 1976.
Settleable particulates are monitored at several stations, but no
standards for dustfall have been established. These data also reflect
improving conditions (Table 2-39).
Sulfur dioxide concentrations within the Basin did not exceed standards
during 1976 (Table 2-40). The primary S02 standard (365 ug/m3) was
exceeded once in Parkersburg out of 58 samples during n976.
2-1.48
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2-151
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Figure 2-24
AMBIENT AIR MONITORING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (WVAPCC 1977). Numbers relate to stations listed in tables
I
WAPORA.INC.
2-152
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Fossil fuel burning power plants are one of the major sources of
particulates and sulfur oxides in West Virginia. There are five generating
stations located in the Monongahela River Basin. These plants definitely
contribute to the TSP non-attainment status of the area. They also probably
exacerbate the S02 concentrations in the area,
2.4.3.3. Classification of AQCR's
An AQCR further is classified according to monitored or estimated air
pollution concentrations within the AQCR as Priority I, Priority II, or
Priority III. The most heavily polluted regions are Priority I; regions
with less pollution are Priority II; those with pollution levels below or
only slightly above standard levels are Priority III. A given AQCR may have
different classifications for different pollutants. For example, an AQCR
can be classified as Priority I for SOX and Priority III for CO.
The State air monitoring system provides a general overview of the
monitored air pollution concentrations in the AQCR1s in summary form. AQCR
classifications are based upon measured air quality where known, or, where
not known, on the maximum estimated pollutant concentration (WVAPCC 1978).
Each AQCR is classified separately with respect to sulfur oxides,
particulate matter, and other such pollutants as may have standards and
priority levels.
The most restrictive classification characterizes an AQCR wherever
there is a difference between the values for different parameters. For
example, if an AQCR is Priority I with respect to an annual average and
Priority II with respect to a 24-hour maximum value, the classification will
be Priority I. The ambient concentration limits that define this
classification system are presented in Table 2-41.
There is one air quality non-attainment area within the Basin. An air
quality non-attainment area is an area within an AQCR that is in
non-compliance with the NAAQS's. The non-attainment areas in West Virginia
and in the Basin are presented in Figure 2-25. In West Virginia the
secondary NAAQS's (see Section 4.O., Table 4-4) are used in determining
non-attainment areas.
The one air quality non-attainment area within the Monongahela River
Basin is located in Marion County. It is comprised of the City of Fairmont
and portions of Union and Winfield Magisterial Districts west of 1-90
(Figure 2-25). It has been assigned such a status due to its high levels of
ambient total suspended particulate concentrations.
2.4.3.4. Air Pollution Sources
The largest producers of particulates and sulfur oxides in West
Virginia are electric generating facilities, metallurgical furnaces, and
2-153
-------
Table 2-41. Ambient concentration limits that define the AQCR classification
system (g/nrj or ppm; State of West Virginia 1978). 4
Priority
Pollutant I II III
Greater Than From-To Less Than
Sulfur Dioxides (S02)
Annual arithmetic mean 100 (0.04) 60-100 (0.02-0.04) 60 (0.02)
24-hour maximum 455 (0.17) 260-455 (0.10-0.17) 260 (0.10)
Particulate matter (TSP)
Annual arithmetic mean 95 60- 95 60
24-hour maximum 325 150-325 150
2-154
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2-155
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fossil fuel burning units. There are also three major industrial sources in
the State:
• Charleston - chemical industries
• Huntington - chemical industries
• Wheeling-Weirton - coal-related industries.
The locations of the principal fossil fuel power plants in West Virginia,
eastern Ohio, and eastern Kentucky, are presented in Figure 2-21.
Coal mining and coal processing operations may affect air quality by
generating fugitive dust. Fugitive dust may exacerbate existing TSP
concentrations in both attainment and non-attainment areas. Winds may carry
fugitive dust as far as 12.5 miles from the mine site in the arid regions of
the western US, where wind speeds tend to be high. In the eastern States
most fugitive dust settles close to its source. High humidity and low wind
speeds favor the settling of particles.
2.4.4. Noise
West Virginia has neither State nor regional noise monitoring programs,
and it lacks noise regulations. Thus, specific information regarding noise
levels in the Basin is not available. Ambient monitored noise data for West
Virginia are presented in Table 2-42.
One recent study regarding noise levels in Appalachia (WAPORA 1980)
provides some insight into typical noise levels found in the region. This
study found that the mean daytime noise level of all reported sites was
calculated to be 59.1 decibels (dBA) with a standard deviation of 7.4 dBA.
Mean nighttime levels were found to be 5.5 dBA lower than the daytime
levels. Noise levels did not differ significantly between different
land-use classes within the cities studied.
A Nationwide EPA program began in May 1977 pursuant to the Noise
Control Act of 1972. This program seeks to reduce 24-hour average noise
levels initially to no more than 75 decibels and eventually to 55 decibels
(EPA 1977) in order to reduce hearing loss resulting from noise exposure.
West Virginia has not yet availed itself of EPA assistance through the Quiet
Communities Program, which provides technical aid in developing noise
control ordinances and monitoring existing noise sources.
2-156
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Table 2-42. Ambient noise levels in West Virginia (dBA; WVDH 1979).
LOCATION
Leq
Large Metropolitan Center
Small Metropolitan Center
Rural Area
69
68
59
59
58
51
65
62
55
X:
That noise level which is exceeded 10% of the time, based on
statistical calculations using monitored data.
The average or mean of all the noise levels recorded during a
defined time period.
jeq The equivalent steady-state sound level which during a stated
period of time would contain the same acoustic energy as the
time-varying sound level actually recorded during the same time
period.
2-157
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2.5 Cultural and Visual Resources
-------
Page
2.5. Cultural and Visual Resources 2-159
2.5.1. Prehistory 2-160
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources 2-169
2.5.3. History 2-170
2.5.4. Identified Historic Sites 2-186
2.5.5. Visual Resources 2-186
2.5.5.1. Resource Values 2-188
2.5.5.2. Primary Visual Resources 2-188
2.5.5.3. Basin Landscapes - Secondary Visual
Resources 2-199
2.5.5.4. Visual Resource Degradation 2-199
-------
2.5. CULTURAL AND VISUAL RESOURCES
Archaeological and historic sites (cultural resources) which are listed
on or are determined eligible for the National Register of Historic Places
are protected by several Federal regulations. Significant cultural
resources are considered to be valuable non-renewable manifestations of
cultural history. Cultural resources are considered eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places according to the following criteria:
• If they are associated with events that have made a
significant contribution to the broad patterns of our
history; or
• If they are associated with the lives of people
significant in our past; or
• If they embody the distinctive characteristics of a type,
period, or method of construction, or represent the work
of a master, or possess high artistic values, or represent
a significant and distinguishable entity whose components
may lack individual distinction; or
• If they have yielded, or may be likely to yield,
information important in prehistory or history (36 CFR
800 as amended).
The following sites ordinarily are not considered eligible for the
National Register: cemeteries, birthplaces, or graves of historical
figures; properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious
purposes; structures that have been moved from their original locations;
reconstructed historic buildings; properties primarily commemorative in
nature; and properties that have achieved significance within the past 50
years. However, such properties will qualify if they are integral parts of
districts that do meet the criteria or if they fall within the following
categories:
• A religious property deriving primary significance from
architectural or artistic distinction or historical
importance
• A building or structure removed from its original location
but which is significant primarily for architectural
value, or which is the surviving structure most
importantly associated with an historic person or event
• A birthplace or grave of a historical figure of
outstanding importance if there is no appropriate site or
building directly associated with the person's productive
life
2-159
-------
• A cemetery which derives its primary significance from
graves of people of transcendent importance, from age,
from distinctive design features, or from association with
historic events
• A reconstructed building when accurately executed in a
suitable environment and presented in a dignified manner
as part of a restoration master plan, and when no other
building or structure with the same association has
survived
• A property primarily commemorative in intent if design,
age, tradition, or symbolic value has invested it with its
own historical significance
• A property achieving significance within the past 50 years
if it is of exceptional importance (36 CFR 800 as amended).
Mandates and appropriate procedures for identification and protection
of significant cultural resources which may be affected by Federally funded,
licensed, permitted, or sponsored projects are contained in the National
Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-665 as amended); Executive Order
11593; the Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of Historic and
Cultural Properties (36 CFR 800 as amended); the Archaeological and Historic
Preservation Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-291); and the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190). Compliance with Federal regulations
concerning consideration and protection of significant cultural resources is
required when a Federal agency conducts any administrative task whether or
not a NEPA review is indicated and whether or not an EIS is prepared for a
specific Federally-funded or endorsed undertaking.
2.5.1. Prehistory
Table 2-43 presents the prehistoric cultural groups which
archaeologists identify with West Virginia. It is with reference to these
groups, their associated technological assemblages, and a generally accepted
chronology that the incompletely known prehistory of the Monongahela River
Basin can be understood. This review relies primarily on the works of
JMA (1978), McMichael (1968), and Wilkins (1977).
The first evidence of human habitation in the Monongahela River Basin
relates to the Paleo-Indian period, perhaps as far back as 13,000 B.C.
However, no specific habitation sites or butchering stations attributable to
Paleo-Indians have been discovered in the Monongahela River Basin or in the
State of West Virginia. Such sites have been investigated in Pennsylvania
and Virginia. Gardner has investigated the earliest known structure in the
New World at the Thunderbird site in Virginia (1974) and has associated it
with a Paleo-Indian occupation. A nearby butchering station also has been
associated with a Paleo-Indian occupation. Both sites date to about 11,000
B.C.
2-160
-------
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Radiocarbon dates of 11,300 B.C. and 13,170 B.C. have been recovered
from Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania. This site in the Upper Ohio
Valley may also be attributable to Paleo-Indian occupation (Adavasio et al. m
1975; Wilkins 1977). While no camp sites or butchering stations
attributable to Paleo-Indians have been discovered in West Virginia,
isolated artifacts have been recorded in the lower Monongahela River Basin.
Paleo-Indian sites are frequently characterized by the presence of a
distinctive type of fluted, lanceolate projectile point. In West Virginia,
fluted points have been found on terraces of the Ohio River and the Kanawha
River and on Blennerhassett Island in the Ohio River near Parkersburg.
Fluted points have been found elsewhere associated with mammoth and mastodon
remains, and it is postulated that the Paleo-Indians lived in migratory
bands and subsisted by hunting large game. At the time of the Valders
maximum of the Wisconsin glaciation during the Pleistocene Epoch, the
continental ice sheet advanced to within several hundred miles of the
Monongahela River Valley. Game such as mammoth and mastodon grazed in open
areas not covered by ice or meltwater. The large herbivores followed
natural game trails along the watercourses to reach the level grazing areas.
It is believed that the Paleo-Indians utilized the game trails and ambushed
the large mammals at strategic passes and stream fords and at other areas of
game concentration, such as salt springs.
Typical artifact assemblages found at known Paleo-Indian sites include:
fluted, lanceolate projectile points; uniface, blade-like, snub-nosed
scrapers; uniface side blades; gravers; and other blade and flake tools.
Evidence from known occupation sites indicates that individual sites were
occupied temporarily or seasonally over a long period of time. M
Paleo-Indian occupation sites have been found on sandy alluvial hill-
ocks at elevations of about 100 feet above major river valleys as well as on
upland flats. Ridge tops, being presumed routes of travel for people as
well as game, have potential for Paleo-Indian sites. Saline springs and
salt licks on terraces attracted large herbivores, serving to draw in the
big game hunting Paleo-Indians. In historic times salt licks have been
associated with coal formations (Cunningham 1973). Additional Basin
Paleo-Indian sites have a high probability of being discovered in areas with
topography and environment similar to that described above.
By about 6000 B.C. the gradually changing climatic conditions resulted
in ecological changes that brought about the extinction of large herbivores
in West Virginia. Evidence from archaeological sites occupied after about
6000 B.C. indicates that a concurrent change occurred in human foodgathering
practices and settlement patterns. The several distinct modes of human
adaptation to changing conditions at this time are manifested in various
cultural assemblages at separate locations in West Virginia. It is likely
that the original inhabitants supplemented their diets with whatever small
game, vegetables, grains, and fruits they could gather. As the large game
became scarce, however, human populations became more and more dependent
2-162
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upon the full variety of food resources that could be collected in a given
area.
Habitation sites of Archaic cultural groups have been identified
following the Paleo-Indian period in West Virginia. Archaic sites have been
found on the lower terraces of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers. Large mounds of
clam shells, fish bones, and other refuse were found on the east bank of the
Ohio River. Typical artifacts recovered from the shell middens included
broad stemmed and lanceolate spear points, grooved adzes, atlatl weights,
bone awls, and harpoon points. It is believed that because of their more
constant food supply, the Archaic peoples were able to live in larger, more
settled groups than the Paleo-hunters. They may have changed their
campsites seasonally.
Remains of Archaic cultural groups have been found at the St. Albans
site within the city of St. Albans, Kanawha County. This site was occupied
intermittently between 7500 B.C. and 6000 B.C. Seasonal flooding of the
river sealed each occupation. The site has been excavated to 18 feet below
the surface. Six different types of projectile points were uncovered, each
in a separate zone. In addition to projectile points, chipped flint hoes,
flint scrapers, drills, and fragments of faceted hematite were recovered.
Two Kanawha stemmed projectile points were found in the Cheat River Valley
during a 1969-1970 survey of the Rowlesburg Reservoir (Jensen 1970). These
are the earliest evidences of man known from the Monongahela River Basin.
Evidence of an Archaic tradition, known as the Montane Archaic
Tradition, occurs in the eastern extremity of West Virginia. Spearheads and
other tools ordinarily manufactured from flint elsewhere in the State were
shaped by the Montane groups from quartz, quartzite, hematite, and
sandstone. This tradition, the northern extension of a way of life more
widespread in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains, may have
extended into the eastern section of the Monongahela River Basin.
Remains of late Archaic cultural groups have been found at the East
Steubenville Site (46 BR 31) on the east bank of the Ohio River opposite
Steubenville Ohio in Brooke County. This site was occupied between 3000
B.C. and 2000 B.C. The most conspicuous feature here is the shell-midden
which contained one human and two dog burials and two different types of
projectile points. This site appears to have been occupied during Archaic
times by a small band of people.
The later Archaic sites contained evidence of increasing dependence on
grain and vegetables as food sources. Pigweed and goosefoot may have been
cultivated. Bowls of the mineral steatite were made prior to the intro-
duction of vessels made of clay. Grave offerings and red ochre often
accompany burials.
The Archaic culture evolved into several cultural forms collectively
referred to as Woodland culture. Pottery making and mound building were
associated with most of the Woodland sites. During the period between 1000
2-] 63
-------
B.C. and 1 A.D., several groups of mound builders occupied the State of West
Virginia. These diverse groups developed from and elaborated upon the late
Archaic cultural traits, such as plant cultivation and burial ceremonialism,
to form distinct cultural configurations. Early Adena groups occupied the
Ohio and Kanawha River Valleys between 1000 B.C. and 500 B.C. These were
essentially Middle Woodland groups who constructed mounds with such
artifacts as stemmed projectile points, plain tubular pipes, cord-marked
pottery tempered with grit, and whetstones. Settlements consisted of groups
of circular houses of pole and bark construction.
Late Adena sites contained evidence of cultural influences from groups
to the north and west, known as Hopewell cultural groups. Mounds covered
log tombs in which one or more burials had been placed, and many tombs were
destroyed during the later construction of a mound. Grave goods included
ornamental offerings such as effigy pipes, pendants, gorgets, copper
bracelets and rings, and grooved stone tablets. Late Adena houses were of
double-post side wall construction.
In the Kanawha Valley, cultural remains from the period between 1 A.D.
and 500 A.D. which contained a mixture of Adena and Hopewell elements have
been identified as the Armstrong Culture (McMichael 1968). Small earthen
mounds contained cremations. Scattered villages were composed of circular
houses, simple agriculture was practiced, and the tools included small flake
knives and corner and side-notched projectile points made of flint that came
from Flint Ridge, Ohio. In central West Virginia the Buck Garden Culture
succeeded the earlier mixed Adena-Hopewell-Armstrong culture. Burials of
the Buck Garden cultural group were found in rock shelters and overhangs in
central West Virginia. The Buck Garden people also built stone mounds and
introduced the cultivation of corn, beans, and squash. This new food
resource base permitted the Buck Garden people to live in compact villages.
By 1200 A.D. these people had been driven from the Kanawha Valley, but they
persisted in the hills to the north and south of the Kanawha River for some
time.
While the Armstrong people inhabited the Kanawha River Valley and
central West Virginia, another Middle Woodland group, known as the Wilhelm
Stone Cist Mound Builders lived in the Ohio River Valley section of northern
West Virginia. These people constructed earth mounds over a number of
individual stone-lined graves. Platform pipes, Flint Ridge flint knives,
and notched points were among the remains of the Wilhelm groups. Succeeding
the Wilhelm Stone Cist Mound Builders in the northern panhandle of West
Virginia were the Watson Farm Stone Mound Builders, who built stone mounds
with multiple burials. Individual graves or grave chambers (cists) were
absent from the Watson Farm remains. The mounds contained both flexed and
extended corpses, cremations, and secondary burials. Thes people lived in
compact villages and utilized pottery that was tempered for strength using
crushed linestone. Subsistence was based on corn-bean-squash agriculture.
There is abundant evidence of occupation by Watson Farm Mound Builders in
the Cheat River Valley of the Monongahela River Basin (Jensen 1970).
2-164
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During the Early and Middle Woodland periods, the mountainous sections
of the eastern part of West Virginia were inhabited by cultural groups whose
remains contain evidence of Hopewellian influences, and who built numerous
small mounds. Such mounds occur in the Tygart Valley of Randolph County.
The Romney Cemetery, the Hyre Mound, and the Don Bosco Mounds were built by
the Montane Mound Builders.
Hopewell influences occurred in the Ohio Valley by about 100 A.D. The
resultant mixture of Adena and Hopewell cultural elements has been
identified as the Wilhelm Culture (McMichael 1963). Scattered villages were
composed of circular houses. Simple agriculture was practiced, and the
tools included small flake knives and corner and side-notched projectile
points made of flint.
In the Monongahela River Basin of West Virginia, the Watson Farm
Culture succeeded the earlier mixed Adena-Hopewe11-Wilhelm culture
(Figure 2-26). Artifacts discovered at the Watson Farm Site (46 HK 34), and
the Fairchance Mount (46 MR 13) indicate influences stemming from Classic
Hopewell in Ohio, especially in such artifacts as banded slate gorgets and
pendants, bone awls and beamers, side and corner-notched projectile points,
and some mica and copper ornaments (McMichael 1968). At this time the
first compact villages with associated stone mounds appeared in the area.
Burial styles were highly varied and included grave goods.
In the Kanawha River and Ohio River valleys the final prehistoric
period of occupation between 900 and 1700 A.D. is represented by remains of
groups known as Fort Ancient people. Influences from the Mississippian
culture near St. Louis affected these cultures in West Virginia. The Fort
Ancient people lived in large, compact villages surrounded by stockades,
with rows of rectangular houses. The villagers farmed corn, beans, and
squash. There were open plazas in the centers of the villages, and as many
as 1,500 persons lived within the stockades. Burials were no longer made in
mounds. The dead were placed in pits inside the villages or inside house
walls. Artifacts included small, triangular projectile points, drills,
scrapers, blades, hoes, celts, awls, fish hooks, bird bone flutes, shell
beads, ear plugs, and pottery vessels and pipes. Some late Fort Ancient
sites contained European trade goods. Variations of the Fort Ancient
culture occurred at Parkersburg and in the New River-Bluestone River area.
Stockaded villages of Fort Ancient groups were constructed in the
northern and western sections of the State between 1000 and 1700 A.D. At
this time the Buck Garden people continued to manifest their separate
cultural identity in remote sections of central West Virginia. In the
eastern mountains Middle Woodland cultures, unaffected by Mississippian
traits, persisted much later than 1000 A.D. The Monongahela Culture
developed in the Monongahela River Valley of northern West Virginia (Figure
2-27). Villages of these cultural groups consisted of stockaded settlements
which contained circular huts of pole and bark construction. Burials were
in pits. Settlements of the Monongahela cultural groups were considerably
smaller than Fort Ancient villages.
2-165
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2-166
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2-167
-------
UJ
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2-168
-------
European goods were found in some Fort Ancient and Monongahela sites.
As there was only one recorded incident of European contact with a Fort
Ancient village, it is believed that most European goods were obtained
through trade. By 1700, Fort Ancient and Monongahela villages were
abandoned (Figure 2-28). The fate of the former village occupants and their
historic tribal connections is unknown. There is some indirect evidence
that Fort Ancient villages were built by western Shawnee Indians, remnant
populations of which were discovered by Europeans in the Cumberland River
sections of Tennessee and Kentucky. It is also possible that eastern
Shawnees occupied the Monongahela villages of late prehistoric times. (The
Eastern Shawnees inhabited sections of the Carolinas at the time of earliest
European contact.) During historic times Susquehannocks from western
Pennsylvania entered West Virginia, and there is evidence of their presence
in the Eastern Panhandle between 1630 and 1677. Their sites occur on the
valley of the South Branch River in Hampshire County. Susquehannocks had no
apparent connection, however, with the indigenous prehistoric groups of West
Virginia. By 1700 A.D., except for the Eastern panhandle area where a few
aboriginal Algonkian-speaking tribes remained, West Virginia was devoid of
its indigenous Indian populations, and the State was utilized only as a
hunting ground. Later, Indian groups returned to or moved into West
Virginia. Many of these were vassals or subgroups of the Iroquois.
Shawnees and displaced Delawares were the primary groups to occupy sections
of West Virginia during historic times.
Thus, of the known prehistoric cultural groups which occupied West
Virginia between about 12000 B.C. and 1700 A.D., those identified in the
Monongahela River Basin included: Early Archaic peoples; Montane Archaic
groups present between 4000 and 2000 B.C.; Watson Farm Stone Mound Builders
who occupied the western section of the Basin between 1 A.D. and 500 A.D.;
Hopewellian-influenced Montane Mound Builders who occupied the eastern
section of the Basin during the same time period; and Monongahela cultural
groups which occupied the Basin between 900 and 1700 A.D.
2.5.2. Archaeological Resources
Archaeological remains of one or more groups of prehistoric inhabitants
may be found in virtually every type of environmental setting in the Monon-
gahela River Basin. Sites have been discovered in river valleys, on river
terraces, on hills and mountaintops, in rock shelters on mountainsides, and
on cliffs. Many archaeological sites remain to be discovered, because with
the exception of the Rowlsburg Reservoir surveyed by the Archaeology Section
of the West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey (WVGES) , the Monongahela
River Basin has not been subjected to professional reconnaissance. The
presenty recorded 318 archaeological sites in the Monongahela River Basin do
not reflect accurately the number of sites which probably are present. The
Archaeology Section of the WVGES presently is preparing a Cultural Resource
Overview of the Monongahela River Basin (Orally, Dr. Daniel Fowler, Archaeo-
logical Administrator, WVGES, October 5, 1977). Records of the known or
reported prehistoric archaeological sites are maintained by the Archaeology
Section. •
2-169
-------
During October 1977, Dr. Daniel Fowler, Archaeological Administrator,
WVGES (a position now replaced by the State Archeaologist, Mr. Roger Wise),
was consulted in order to obtain access to the State-maintained list of m
known archaeological resources of the Monongahela River Basin; the site
files of the Archaeological Section were not made available. Dr. Fowler
indicated that no archaeological resources known to be of sufficient import-
ance to be eligible for the National Register of Historic Places are listed
in the files of the Archaeology Section. Many of the sites reported to the
Archaeology Section have not been tested or evaluated, so their significance
currently is unknown. The Archaeology Section at present has no capability
or plans to undertake a comprehensive, basinwide inventory with field
reconnaissance, testing, and evaluation of known sites and reconnaissance of
potentially sensitive areas, although the agency has performed surveys of
specific areas on a contract basis. Because there are many gaps in the
record of prehistoric site distributions and culture types in the
Monongahela River Basin, it is virtually certain that many significant
resources remain to be discovered. Those prehistoric archaeological sites
in the Monongahela River Basin that are listed on the National Register of
Historic Places are included in Table 2-44.
In addition to prehistoric archaeological sites, many historic archaeo-
logical sites have been identified in the Monongahela River Basin, the
majority of which have not been mapped accurately or evaluted. Records of
historic archaeological sites, which are maintained at the Department of
Culture and History, Historic Preservation Unit, Charleston, West Virginia,
include the sites of Civil War battles, frontier forts, and early iron
furnaces. These sites are included in Table 2-44. Many more such sites are
likely to be found throughout the Basin, if detailed professional investiga- ^j
tions are undertaken. ™
Archaeological resources are highly susceptible to damage by the mining
of coal, and particularly by surface mining that entails a drastic modifica-
tion of surface deposits. Because the distribution of archaeological
resources is so poorly known, because professional expertise is necessary to
locate these resources and estimate their significance, and because these
resources are irreplaceable, routine professional archaeological reconnais-
sances of individual mine sites may be appropriate throughout the Basin
wherever past documentary research and field reconnaissance have not demon-
strated a lack of archaeological potential.
2.5.3. History
Until 1863 the present State of West Virginia was a part of the
Dominion of Virginia. During 1776 the Virginia General Assembly formed
Monongalia County by dividing the District of West Augusta. The District
formerly had included the territory that is presently the southeastern
section of Washington County, the eastern section of Greene County, and the
southwestern part of Fayette County, Pennsylvania; and in West Virginia, all
of the present areas of Monongalia, Preston, Marion, Harrison, Taylor,
Barbour Counties, the western half of Tucker County, all of Randolph County
2-170
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded National Register and West Virginia State Inventory
historic and archaeological sites in the Monongahela River Basin, West
Virginia (FR Files of the West Virginia Department of Culture and His-
tory, Charleston WV, 1977). National Register sites are also on the
State Inventory.
Number Name
1 Fort Martin
2 Fort Harrison
3 Fort Dinwiddie
4 Forks of Cheat
Baptist Church
5 J. J. Easton Mill
6 Fort Pierpont
7 Mason and Dixon
Survey Terminal
Point
8 Henry Clay
Furnace
9 Anna Furnace
10 Ice's Ferry
11 Moore Log House
12 Tenant Cemetery
13 Shriver Cemetery
14 Statler Stockade
Fort
15 Price's Cemetery
16 Baldwin Block-
house
17 Dean's House,
WV University
18 Ogleby Hall,
WV University
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register
of Historic Places
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Osage
Lake Lynn
Lake Lynn
Lake Lynn
Blacksville
Blacksville
Blacksville
Blacksville
Blacksville
Blacksville
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
2-171
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued).
Number Name
19 Seneca Glass
Company
20 Stalnaker Hall,
WV University
21 Stewart Hall
WV University
22 Purinton Hall
WV University
23 B&O Railroad
Depot
24 Monongalia County
Court House
25 Foulke's Pottery
26 Kern's Fort
27 South Morgantown
Bridge
28 Old Stone House
29 Woodburn Circle
WV University
30 Alexander Wade
House
31 Rock Forge Coke
Ovens
32 Sarver School
33 Carl Arnett House
34 Liming Log House
35 Catawba House
36 Price Log House
(vicinity of)
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
National Register of
Historic Places
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown North
Morgantown South
Masontown
Rivesville
Wadestown
Rivesville
Rivesville
2-172
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued).
Number Name
37 Burris Fort
38 Octagonal Barn
39 Cobun Stockade
Fort
40 Hamilton Petro-
glyphs
41 Dent's Run
Covered Bridge
42 Bruceton Mills
Country Store
43 Brandonville
Tavern
44 Brandonville
Academy
45 Hazelton Buck-
wheat Mill
46 Harrison Hagan's
Furnace
47 Muddy Creek Mill
48 Fort Butler
49 Reckart Grist
Mill
50 Cranesville Swamp
51 Irondale Furnace
52 Arthurdale
53 Ellis Hotel
54 Newburg Fire
Department
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Morgantown North
Rivesville
Morgantown South
Morgantown South
Rivesville
Bruceton Mills
Brandonville
Brandonville
Brandonville
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Cuzzart
Sang Run
Gladesville
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
2-173
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
Name
First National
Bank
Kingwood Railroad
Tunnel
The Kingwood Inn
Kingwood Elementary
School
Dunkard Bottom
Stage Coach Inn
Troy Run Viaduct
Buckeye Run
Viaduct
Rowlesburg Bridge
Howard Commercial
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
WV
Status
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Newburg
Newburg
Kingwood
Kingwood
Kingwood
Fellowsville
Rowlesburg
Rowlesburg
Rowlesburg
Rowlesburg
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
Hotel
Cathedral State
Park
Red Horse Tavern
(Old Stone House)
Carl Beatty House
Paw Paw Creek
Covered Bridge
Barracksville
Covered Bridge
Montana Mines
Coke Ovens
Jacob Prickett
Jr. Cabin
Prickett's Fort
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
Aurora
Aurora
Mannington
Grant Town
Grant Town
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
2-174
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number Name
73 Marion County
Court House
74 Pierpont and
Watson Mine
Remnants
75 Monongahela River
Bridge
76 Sonnencroft
77 Western Maryland
Railroad Terminal
and Turntable
78 James Edwin
Watson House
(Highgate)
79 Watson Log
Cabin
80 Fairmont Farms-
LaGrange
81 Fairmont Railroad
Bridge
82 Rector College
83 Warder Chapel
84 Andrews Methodist
Church
85 Grafton Railroad
Station and McGraw
Hotel
86 Grafton Machine
Shop and Foundary
87 Grafton Railroad
Bridge
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Fairmont
Fairmont
Fairmont West
Fairmont West
Fairmont West
Fairmont West
Fairmont West
Fairmont West
Fairmont West
Grafton
Grafton
Grafton
Grafton
Grafton
Grafton
2-175
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
Name
Harbert Block-
house
Levi Shinn House
Salem College
Salem Block
House
Ten Mile Creek
Bridge
Corbin L. Dixon
Residence
B&O Railroad
Depot
Fourth Street
Bridge
House at 804
Locust Street
House at 529
W. Pike Street
Elk's Building
Davisson Block-
house
Waldomere
Waldo Building
Nathan Groff
Status
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WVA State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Shinnston
Shinns ton
Salem
Salem
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
House
103 Historical
Society Head-
quarters
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
Clarksburg
2-176
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number Name
104 Amy Roberts Vance
House
105 John W. Davis
House
106 Broaddus
107 Lowndes Hill
Civil War
Entrenchments
108 Water treatment
plant
109 Goff Mound
110 Nutter's Fort
111 Powder's Stockade
112 Bowstring Bridge
113 Paris Manor
114 Good Hope Indian
Cave Petroglyphs
115 Richard's Fort
116 Watters Smith
Farm
117 Rooting Creek
Covered Bridge
118 Randolph Mason
119 Templemoor
120 Alderson Civil
War Battle Site
121 B&O Railroad
Station
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Rosemont
West Milford
West Milford
West Milford
Mount Claire
Mount Claire
Mount Claire
Philippi
Philippi
2-177
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number Name
122 Philippi Covered
Bridge
123 Barbour County
Court House
124 Pitts Residence
Site
125 Old Mill at
Nestorville
126 Valley Iron
Furnace
127 Buckhannon River
Covered Bridge
128 St. George Log
House
129 Fort Minear
130 Court House Site
131 Broad Run Baptist
Church
132 Sycamore Methodist
Church
133 Jackson's Mill
134 McWorter Cabin
135 Butcher Cemetery
136 Weston Citizen's
Bank
137 Lewis County
Court House
138 Louis Bennett
Library
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Nestorville
Colebank
Audra
St. Georges
St. Georges
St. Georges
West Milford
West Milford
Weston
Weston
Weston
Weston
Weston
Weston
2-178
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued).
Number Name
139 Gertrude Louise
Edwards House
140 Old Hill
Cemetery
141 B&O Railroad
Station
142 West Stockade
143 Harmony Church
144 Stone Coal
Creek
145 Cozad Lawson
House
146 Conrad Log
House
147 Covered Bridge
148 Blackwater Falls
Area
149 French Creek
Presbyterian
Church
149a Buckhannon
Settlement
149b Carpenter Family
Cemetery
150 v Dean Cabin-Ev Un
Breth Acres
151 Bush Fort
152 Buckhannon Fort
153 Thornhill's Cabin
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Weston
Weston
Weston
Weston
Weston
Weston
Berlin
Roanoke
Walkersville
Blackwater Falls
Adrian
Century
Sago
Century
Century
Berlin
Blackwater Falls
2-179
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number
154
155
Name
Upshur County
Court House
Indian Camp
Community
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Sago
Sago
156 Graceland (Henry
Gassaway Davis
Home)
157 Davis Memorial
Hospital
158 Western Maryland
Railroad Station
159 Randolph County
Court House and
Jail
160 Elkins Machine
Shop
* 161-180 = Beverly
Historic District
161 Logan House
162 Aggie Cursip Home
163 David Goff Home
164 1841 Randolph
County Jail
165 Judson Blackman
Home
166 1808 Randolph
County Court
House
167 Bushrod Crawford
Home
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
Elkins
Elkins
Elkins
Elkins
Elkins
Beverly East
Beverly East
Beverly East
Beverly East
Beverly East
Beverly East
Beverly East
2-180
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (continued)
Number Name
168 Beverly Public
Square
169 Blackman Bosworth
Store
170 1813 Randolph
County Jail
171 William Rowan
House
172 Adam Crowford
House
173 Lemuel Chenoweth
House
174 Jonathan Arnold
Home
175 Randolph Female
Seminary
176 Home of "The
Enterprise"
177 Peter Buckey Home
and Hotel
178 Andrew J. Collett
Home
179 Beverly Pres-
byterian Church
180 Edward Hart House
181 Rich Mountain
Battlefield
182 Town of Pickens
183 Elkwater Civil
War Site
Status
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Beverly East
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Beverly West
Pickens
Pickens
2-181
-------
Table 2-44. Recorded known historic and archaeological sites (concluded)
Number
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
Name
Hyer Mound and
Cabin
The Old Mill
E , Button House
Fort Milroy Cheat
Summit Camp
Hezekiah Bukey
Marshall House
Status
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
National Register of
Historic Places
WV State Inventory
WV State Inventory
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle
Lee's Headquarters WV State Inventory
Cass Scenic Rail-
road
National Register of
Historic Places
Pickens
Harman
Durbin
Durbin
Mingo
Mingo
Cass
2-182
-------
except for a small strip along the southwestern edge, and the eastern
two-thirds of Lewis County. In all, this was an area of approximately
5,000 square miles. Harrison County was the first to become separated from
Monongalia County in 1784. The remaining counties of the Monongahela River
Basin were formed between 1787 and 1856. By 1932 Monongalia County
contained about 369 square miles that is, about 7% of its original area.
An Act of the Virginia Assembly in 1782 made the home of Zackwell
Morgan (son of Morgan Morgan, the first permanent European settler in West
Virginia) the seat of justice for the County. A frame courthouse was
erected, and the town of Morgantown was established by law at a session of
The Assembly in 1785. The State College of Agriculture, established in
1867, resulted from the public purchase and consolidation of the Monongalia
Academy, the Morgantown Female Academy, and the Woodburn Female Seminary.
In 1868 the name of the college was changed to West Virignia State
University. Several buildings at the university are listed on the historic
sites inventory maintained by the West Virginia Department of Culture and
History in Charleston. The first pottery in West Virginia was established
during 1785 on the site of the present Courthouse Square in Morgantown.
Under President Lincoln's proclamation in 1863, West Virginia was
separated from Virginia and became the thirty-fifth state. The first
governor of the new state was inaugurated on June 20, 1863.
During the third quarter of the eighteenth century, many forts were
constructed in the Monongahela River Basin. Nutter's Fort in Harrison
County was built by Thomas Nutter in 1772, after a settlement had been
established in 1770. Nutter, a Captain in the continental Army, was buried
at the Fort. Other forts were constructed by James Powers on Simpson's
Creek (1771) and by Arnold Richards on the west bank of the West Fork of the
Monongahela River (1774). In Lewis County, members of the West family
erected a stockade to defend the settlement at Hacker's Creek from Indians.
The fort was destroyed in 1779; when it was rebuilt nearby in 1790, it was
known as Beech Fort. In 1774 John Minear built a log house in the Horseshoe
Bend in Preston County, but Indian raids forced him to abandon it. Two
years later, Minear returned and built a more substantial fort where the
village of St. George now stands. During subsequent Indian attacks in 1780
and 1781, John Minear and a number of settlers were killed.
The present town of Buckhannon in Upshur County is the site of a late
eighteenth century settlement, first established by John and Samuel Pringle,
who deserted the Royal Army in Fort Pitt and lived in the hollow trunk of a
sycamore tree. The town of Salem in Harrison County was chartered during
1794 by families from New Jersey. Here a blockhouse was erected to protect
the settlement from Indian attack.
Several early log houses are still extant in the Monongahela River
Basin. The Conrad Log House, constructed at Buck's Mill in Lewis County
about 1834 and used as a frontier post-office, has been restored by the West
2-183
-------
Virginia Department of Highways. At Ev Un Breth Acres in Upshur County, a
cabin constructed during 1828 stands on the site of a former cabin used as a
fort during the late eighteenth century.
The historic town of Beverly in Randolph County was laid out on lands
of Jacob Westfall and was named Edmonton. This town was a place of defense
against the Indians during the days of early settlement, and it was occupied
by both Union and Confederate forces at several periods during the Civil
War. In 1790, the town of Beverly was established legally, and its name was
changed to Beverly. The town today contains an historic district of twenty
structures constructed during the late eighteenth century arid the early part
of the nineteenth century. It became the County seat and a major town along
the Stanton-Parkersburg Turnpike. In 1900, the courthouse was moved to
Elkins.
Civil War forts in the Monongahela River Basin include Fort Pickens,
located on Route 50 2 miles east of Route 19 in Lewis County. Fort Pickens
was built by Company A of the Tenth West Virginia Infantry. The two-story
log barracks, which were 30 feet by 40 feet in dimension and surrounded by a
ditch, were burned during 1864. Along the Stanton-Parkersburg Turnpike on
White Top Mountain in Randolph County, Civil War Fort Milroy was erected.
Gun emplacements, trenches, and foundations of the fort are visible on the
site, which was occupied by US Army troops during 1861 and 1862. From its
elevation of 4,000 feet the fort commanded the Stanton-Parkersburg Trnpike
and effectively blocked General Lee's Confederate Army. South of Elkwater
at the confluence of Hamilton Run and Tygart Valley River, another Union
stronghold was established by General Reynolds during 1861. Nearby were the
Haddan Indian Forts, the scene of the eighteenth century Stewart and Kinnan
massacres.
On level ground near a pass on the Stanton-Parkersburg Turnpike at the
summit of Rich Mountain, General W. S. Rosecrans made a surprise attack on
Confederate troops to win a decisive victory during McClellan's Northwest
Virginia campaign.
After the Civil War, the Virginia Legislature tried to reunite the
State, but the West Virginia Legislature refused. An election to decide the
permanent site of the capital was held in 1877. Charleston won, so the
capital was moved from Morgantown in 1885 to that city.
It was the railroad that brought Western Virginia to life agricultural-
ly and industrially. The town of Pickens in Randolph County is presently
recognized as an historic railroad town. The Cass Railroad, a former
logging railroad, is operated as a scenic railroad in Cass State Park and is
listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
There are several technological sites in the Monongahela River Basin.
The Valley Iron Furnace was constructed during 1848 by Isaac Marsh near
Nestorville in Barbour County. The furnace airblast initially was powered
by water power, but it was replaced by a charcoal-fueled steam engine during
2-184
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the 1850's. The 4.5 short tons of iron produced daily were transported by
mule team and by barges on the Monongahela River.
The Irondale Furnace, near Victoria in Preston County, was the largest
and one of the most recently operated of pre-Civil War furnaces in Preston
County. The furnace was constructed by George Hardman shortly before the
Civil War, and after improvements were added by Felix Denemengi, Irondale
became a boom town. A spur of the B&O Railroad was constructed from
Independence to Irondale. Following extensive renovations and a strike in
1890, the furnace was forced to shut down permanently. Kingswood Tunnel of
the B&O Railroad, a 0.8 mile long tunnel constructed west of Tunnelton on
State Route 26, represented a major engineering feat for the mid-nineteenth
century. Constructed between 1848 and 1857 the tunnel required the
development of innovative techniques, including the use of prefabricated
iron and segments. The tunnel remained in use until the 1950's, when it was
abandoned and sealed.
The Troy Run Viaduct of the B&O Railroad, located northwest of
Rowlesburg, was a cast and wrought iron trestle with a 90 foot high mansonry
embankment. The original viaduct, which was replaced by a wrought iron
trestle in 1887, was a major work of Albert Fink and a prototype for later
cast and wrought iron construction.
The Seneca Glass Company in Morgantown is an exmaple of one of West
Virginia's early industries. It was founded after the discovery of
petroleum deposits attracted glass manufacturers to the area, where they
produced lead crystal. The original furnace and the factory of the Seneca
Glass Company still stand with some additions. The machinery and processes
used for blowing and cutting the lead crystal stemware are the same as those
used during 1897, when the Company was founded.
On State Route 20 in Arlington, Upshur County, the Fidler Mill ground
corn and wheat and carded wool until 1940. The original mill was
constructed by Daniel Peck on the site during 1821. It was later replaced
by the existing mill, erected by William Fidler.
Jackson's Mill was built about 1786 in Lewis County. It has been
standing in its present location and form since 1837. The three-story
building retains original poplar beams and studs, and oak floors. On the
Jackson homestead the first boys' and girls' 4-H Camp in West Virginia was
established.
Between 1836 and 1840 Professor William Bacton Rogers visited nearly
all of the mines in Western Virginia (presently West Virginia). His account
of mines in the territory which is not Monongalia County, provides the
earliest record of coal mining in the County. The Boyer Mine near the mouth
of Scott's Run was probably the first mine to produce Pittsburgh Coal in
Monongalia County. About 1856, J. 0. Watson formed the American Coal
Company with a mine located on the land of Governor Fancis Pierpont on
2-185
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Washington Street in Fairmont, Marion County. Miners used picks and shovels
and loaded the ore onto a two-ton car pulled by a horse. A
The State changed markedly during the 1890's from the self-sufficient
economy of the local community to dependence on labor wages in the awakening
industrial era. Of recent historical interest is Arthurdale, an innovative
modern homesteading project, one of one hundred such projects initiated
throughout the county. The community, established during 1933-34, had the
interest and support of Eleanor Roosevelt, who made several visits to the
c ommun i t y.
2.5.4. Identified Historic Sites
At present 20 historically and culturally significant: structures,
districts, sites, properties, or objects in the Monongahela River Basin have
been listed on or judged eligible for listing on the National Register of
Historic Places (Table 2-44). Additional historic resources are expected to
be nominated to the National Register as they are identified in accordance
with Executive Order 11593 and the National Historic Preservation Act of
1966 (P.L. 89-665).
The State of West Virginia also maintains an ongoing survey to identify
historically significant resources. An additional 172 historic cultural
resources in the Monongahela River Basin are listed on the West Virginia
State Inventory of Historic Places maintained by the Department of Culture
and History, Historic Preservation Unit, in Charleston, West Virginia (Table
2-44). The historic and architectural merits of about 60 of the resources ^
listed on the State Inventory had not been substantiated by field ^
observations as of mid 1978, according to the State personnel. It is likely
that many additional, presently unidentified, cultural resources of historic
importance are extant in the Monongahela River Basin. Expected additional
cultural resources include such resources as settler's cabin sites,
Revolutionary War and Civil War forts, nineteenth century industrial sites
and historic or architecturally significant residences and other buildings.
Archaeological and historical resources listed on the National Register
as discussed in Section 2.5.2. also appear in Figure 2-29. All resources
are mapped on Overlay 1. Site-specific identifications are not presented in
the SID because of the disclosure constraints imposed by the agency
providing the information.
2.5.5. Visual Resources
Visual resources in the Monongahela River Basin generally consist of
natural landscapes where development has not disturbed vegetation,
topography, and other landscape features. Visual resources are valuable for
their relationship to the overall quality of life for Basin residents, and
because of their special relationship to tourism, an important industry in
the Basin. Although current State and Federal mining regulations
2-186
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Figure 2-29
HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES (45FR525I, Cohen
1976, WAPORA 1980)
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
2-187
-------
effectively have reduced adverse effects of mining activity on these
resources to a large extent, unavoidable impacts during and after mining
operations may result. Evaluation of potential adverse effects on visual
resources is an appropriate NEPA concern which, therefore, must be
incorporated into the New Source permit process for mining activity.
Limited field investigations were undertaken by WAPORA, Inc. to
identify additional primary visual resources for an assessment of the
overall visual quality of the Basin and its landscapes and the effects of
currently regulated mining activity on visual resource types. Field
investigations were conducted from primary and secondary roadways throughout
the Basin, concentrating on views from the roadways and major access
points.
2.5.5.1. Resource Values
Visual resources include landforms, waterways, vegetation, and other
features that are visible in the landscape and to which scenic values can be
ascribed (USBLM 1980). In rural areas, generally, scenic values increase
with naturalness, with land use diversity, and with landform irregularity
(Zube 1973). Rugged, diverse topography typically is assigned high scenic
value, and agricultural areas also produce favorable visual impressions
because of their variety of land uses (Linton 1968). The USFS (1974) has
developed a system which classifies landscapes distinguished by features of
unusual and exceptional quality. USFS applies the term distinctive to this
highest order of visual resources. Distinctive visual resources by
definition are not commonplace and exhibit a variety in form, line, color,
and texture through land forms, vegetation, water courses, rock formations
and the like. Potential for adverse effects resulting from new mining
activities is most serious when dealing with these primary visual
resources.
Other types of visual resources also are valuable. Naturally forested
and mountainous landscapes, for example, offer impressive vistas and
contribute to the tourism potential of the Monongahela River Basin (see
Section 2.6.). These visual resources are quite common. They can be
affected adversely by new mining activity but because of their extent, they
are of secondary importance.
2.5.5.2. Primary Visual Resources
Primary visual resources in the Basin are based on existing lists of
public lands and other features of recognized scenic value as provided by
WVDNR-HTP and others. These resources are listed in Table 2-45, and
indicated on Figure 2-30. Significant visual resources in the Monongahela
River Basin include:
• Waterfalls
• Unusual geological features
2-188
-------
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2-196
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2-197
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Figure 2-30
PRIMARY VISUAL RESOURCES IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR - Parks and Recreation 1980, WVDNR-HTP 1980, WAPORA 1980)
64
IS7
WAPORA, INC.
2-198
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• Scenic overlooks within State Parks and along roadways,
providing major vistas throughout the Basin
• Recreational lakes and areas
• State Parks, Forests, and Public Hunting and Fishing Areas
providing protection for the naturalness of the Basin as
well as offering a variety of recreational opportunities.
All primary visual resources are mapped on the 1:24,000-scale Overlay
1. Figure 2-31 illustrates the types of visual resources considered to be
primary.
P.L. 93-87 also authorized the development of the Highland Scenic
Highway. The project currently is in the planning phase; the Draft EIS is
expected in Spring 1981, at which time alternative route locations will be
evaluated. Final route selection probably will not occur until 1982. Both
the Monongahela and Gauley River Basins may be affected. EPA will
incorporate Draft EIS findings into the New Source permit reviewing process
as soon as these findings are available.
2.5.5.3. Basin Landscapes-Secondary Visual Resources
Although Basin landscapes are secondary in importance when compared to
primary (usually site-specific) visual resources, landscapes are notable and
diverse. Much of the Basin, as seen from roadways, appears to be
undisturbed by mining or other development activity. The Basin is dominated
by rugged topography and dense vegetation with a mixture of agricultural
lands (see Sections 2.7.1. and 2.3.3.). Figure 2-32 illustrates the types
of visual resources considered to be secondary.
2.5.5.4. Visual Resource Degradation
Development activities already have affected adversely both primary and
secondary visual resources in the Basin. In the northern portion of the
Basin agricultural activities offer relatively pleasant visual experiences
that contrast with stands of forest. In the southern portion of the Basin,
however, coal mining activities are more extensive and visible. The
residential areas which line the valleys range from relatively attractive
rows and clusters of single family dwellings (including mobile homes) to
ill-kept settlements where no effort to maintain surroundings litter-free or
cleanly is in evidence. In some places, well kept and run-down habitations
alternate over short distances. Visible industrial activities in the Basin
include coal mines and preparation plants, electrical generating stations,
factories, and railroad facilities. The coal industry buildings generally
are strictly utilitarian and have no intrinsic aesthetic interest.
Preparation plants are sited in valley bottoms, and typically are sites for
the transfer of coal from trucks to rail cars. The surface facilities
associated with some active and abandoned underground mines also can be seen
along Basin roadways (see Section 2.5.4. for additional information on
development patterns).
2-199
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Figure 2-31 EXAMPLES OF PRIMARY VISUAL RESOURCES
Dramatic panoramas as seen from State Parks and other facilities
and scenic turnouts along public roads are of special value visually,
These primary visual resources contribute to the tourism potential
of the Basin.
Primary visual resources may consist of landscapes of exceptional
quality such as this picturesque grist mill situated on a rugged
mountain stream. If these resources are not publicly owned, coal
mine-related impacts may be substantial.
2-200
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Figure 2-32 EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY VISUAL RESOURCES
Basin landscapes such as this river and naturally vegetated bluffs
are common but, nevertheless, important to the overall visual quality
of the Basin.
This brook flowing through stands of laurel, rhododendron, and other
indigenous species is typical of upper reaches of watersheds through-
out the Basin.
2-201
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Road scars are characteristic features of the forests in the Basin and
generally detract from the natural appearance. These scars appear to result
chiefly from timbering activities and from the installation and maintenance ^
of oil and gas wells, pipelines, and electrical transmission lines. Except fl
for roads on regulated coal mining permit areas, there are no controls on
the proliferation of roads through private lands in the Basin.
In summary, Basin visual resources may be degraded by any of the
following:
• Past and current coal mining operations, predominantly
surface mining
• Manufacturing and industrial districts
• Clearcuts by the lumbering industry
• Clearcuts and structures for utilities
• Inadequately disposed solid waste
• Unplanned growth and poorly coordinated development
• Dilapidated housing
• Rusted and dilapidated structures from past oil and gas
well operations
• Streams and water quality rendered unattractive by litter
and wastes.
Figure 2-33 provides examples of visual resource degradation.
2-202
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Figure 2-33 EXAMPLES OF VISUAL RESOURCE DEGRADATION
Even modern mining reclamation practices as currently required have
an impact on Basin landscapes through the temporary and permanent
alteration of land forms and vegetation.
Visual degradation occurs in the Basin when coal preparation plants,
as shown here, are constructed in otherwise natural settings with no
buffering or special siting considerations taken.
2-203
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4
2.6 Human Resources and Land Use
-------
Page
2.6. Human Resources and Land Use
2.6.1. Human Resources
2.6.1.1,
2.6.2,
2.6.1.2.
2.6.1.3.
Population
2.6.1.1.1.
.6.1.1.2.
.6.1.1.3.
2,
2,
Economy
2.6.1.2.
2.6.1.2.
Housing
2.6.1.3.
2.6,
2.6.
3.5,
Population Size and Distribution
Social Characteristics
Trends in Population Size and
Migration
Projected Population Size
Relationships Between Population
Size and Mining Activity
General Characteristics
Special Economic Issues -
Tourism and Travel
Problems of Housing, Provision
General Housing Characteristics
Size, Age, and Crowding
Housing Value
Presence of Complete Plumbing
Facilities
Vacancy Rates
Owner-Occupancy Rates
2.6.1.4. Transportation
2.6.1.4.1. Special Needs of the Coal Mining
Industry and Availability of
Modes
2.6.1.4.2. Public Roads
2.6.1.4.3. Railroads
2.6.1.4.4. Waterways
2.6.1.4.5. Pipelines
2.6.1.5. Government and Public Services
2.6.1.5.1. Institutional Framework
2.6.1.5.2. Governmental Revenues and
Expenditures
2.6.1.5.3. Health Care
2.6.1.5.4. Education
2.6.1.5.5. Recreational Facilities
2.6.1.5.6. Availability of Water and
Sewer Services
2.6.1.5.7. Solid Waste
2.6.1.5.8. Planning Capabilities
2.6.1.5.9. Local Planning in the Basin
Land Use and Land Availability
2.6.2.1. Classification System
2.6.2.2. Land Use Patterns
2.6.2.3. Steep Slopes
2.6.2.4. Flooding and Flood Insurance
2.6.2.5. Forms and Concentration of Land Ownership
2.6.2.6. General Patterns of Land Use and Land
Availability Conflicts
2-205
2-207
2-208
2-208
2-208
2-208
2-214
2-214
2-226
2-226
2-227
2-230
2-230
2-230
2-234
2-235
2-235
2-236
2-236
2-236
2-236
2-237
2-243
2-246
2-246
2-247
2-247
2-247
2-255
2-258
2-260
2-275
2-276
2-278
2-279
2-279
2-279
2-283
2-283
2-284
2-289
2-293
-------
2.6. HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE
Coal raining and related activities have a tremendous impact not only on
the natural environment, but also on the human environment. The human
environmental impacts of coal mining have been the subject of study, and of
National concern, for over half a century (President's Commission on Coal
1980). During the 1960s, concern over the plight of Appalachia, and
especially of coal miners in this region, led to the creation of the
Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC; Caudill 1962). The Monongahela
River Basin is located within the ARC region.
This section describes those aspects of the human environment that are
of particular importance in determining the impact of coal mining and relat-
ed activities. For the purposes of this study, the human environment is
defined broadly and includes population characteristics, economic condi-
tions, housing, transportation, governmental services, and the intensive
uses of land for urban development. The relationships between coal mining
and the various aspects of the human environment are complex and interactive
(Figure 2-34).
The baseline inventory presented in this section is designed to form
the basis for analysis of the following types of impacts of proposed mining
activities:
• Impacts on local population size and structure:
- Induced population growth
- Reduced out-migration
- Changes in the size and composition of the labor force
• Impacts on local economic conditions:
- Mining employment in excess of local labor supply
- Additional commuting and fuel consumption for
transportation of workers to the mine site
- Reduction of chronic local unemployment or
underemployment
- Diversification or concentration in the local economy
- Secondary impacts on local employment and income
- Impact on poverty level population and welfare
expenditures
- Short-term versus long-term economic benefits
• Impacts on local housing supply:
- Availability of standard quality housing in the existing
supply
- Availability and cost of new housing
• Impacts on transportation facilities:
- Availability of roads, railroads, and waterways with
coal haul capacity
2-205
-------
New Mining
Activity
Primary
Employment
Impact
I
Secondary
Employment
Impact
Demand for
Additional
Developed
Land
1
Population
Growth
U I
Demand for
Additional
Infrastructure
Facilities
I
Demand for
Additional
Public
Services
Demand for
Additional
Housing
i
Financial
Impact
on
Government
NOTE: All components also have local welfare impact. Feedback
effects are not specified here.
Figure 2-34 HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE IMPACTS OF
NEW MINING ACTIVITIES (WAPORA 1980)
2-206
-------
- Deterioration of local roadways and governmental
expenditures for roads
• Impacts on governmental facilities and public services:
- Potential direct and secondary revenue generation for
local governments versus potential direct and indirect
costs to local governments
- Availability of emergency medical care in close
proximity to mining activity sites
- Availability of long-term medical care and physicians
for treatment of mining related accidents and illness
- Availability of public safety services
- Availability of sewer, water and solid waste disposal
services for additional population
• Compatibility with State, regional, and local
plans and ordinances:
- Capital improvements programs
- Zoning ordinances
- Housing plans and programs
- Comprehensive development plans
• Impacts on developed land uses:
- Direct adverse impacts on adjacent areas
- Availability of land with suitable site characteristics,
especially slope, for additional mine-related population
- Availability of land for purchase on the open market for
additional mine-related population
• Compatibility of proposed mitigative measures with the
character and social mores of the local population.
Most of the data used in this section were compiled on the basis of
entire counties with land in the Basin. County lines do not follow the
hydrology of the Basin. Therefore, unless data in this section are
specified as being for the hydrologic Basin, they apply to a. 10-county area
that includes all of the counties wholly within the hydrologic Basin and
that have a substantial portion of the county within the hydrologic Basin.
The counties included in the Monongahela River Basin are Barbour, Harrison,
Lewis, Marion, Monongalia, Preston, Randolph, Taylor, Tucker, and Upshur.
2.6.1. Human Resources
The human resources of the Basin are mentioned in five sections.
First, population size and distribution are summarized. Then employment and
income are addressed. Housing conditions are presented, and the transporta-
tion network is described. Finally, government and public services are
noted.
2-207
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2.6.1.1. Population
Population and overall demographic information for the Basin have been
taken from a variety of sources. Preliminary 1980 census counts have been
included, although in most cases data for detailed characteristics have not
been available beyond the 1970 US Census.
2.6.1.1.1. Population Size and Distribution. The population of the
Monongahela River Basin was approximately 362,000 in 1980. This represented
18% of the total population of the State of West Virginia. The population
distribution of the Basin is shown on Figure 2-35. The northwestern section
of the Basin is relatively densely populated as it contains the largest
urban areas. The southeastern section of the Basin is sparsely populated,
largely the result of few employment opportunities and relatively rugged
terrain.
The average population density in the Basin was approximately 39
persons per square mile in 1980. The population densities in the Basin
ranged from 12 persons per square mile in Tucker County to 122 persons per
square mile in Marion County (Figure 2-36).
2.6.1.1.2. Social Characteristics. The demographic profile of the
Monongahela River Basin is similar to the general profiles of West Virginia
and Appalachia (USDOC 1973; Table 2-46). Comparison of 1970 census data for
the ten counties in the Basin to data for all of West Virginia reveals that
the population of the Basin was slightly less rural, contained fewer racial
minorities, had similar overall levels of education and age and, in most
cases, had a larger proportion of persons below the poverty level than the
State (Table 2-46). The Basin was more similar to West Virginia than it was
to the US, which is far less rural, is decidedly more non-white, and has
considerably higher educational attainment ratings. There was, however,
considerable variation among the counties in the Basin. This variation
reflects a difference in underlying physical and economic conditions.
The dependency ratio is a rough indicator of the level of economic
strength in a community. A low ratio suggests a strong community because
the number of dependents is low relative to the working-age population. The
ratio for the Monongahela River Basin is slightly lower than that for the
State (0.428 versus 0.444), The fertility ratio in the counties of the
Basin is generally higher than in the State, with the exception of Barbour,
Harrison, Marion, Monongalia and Upshur Counties. The relatively high
fertility ratio in West Virginia has been offset by out-migration in the
past.
2.6.1.1.3. Trends in Population Sji^ze and Migration.
During the 1950-1975 period, West Virginia lost 10% of its population;
the Monongahela River Basin, 9%. The decline during the 1950's and 1960's
was replaced by an upturn during the 1970's (Tables 2-47 and 2-48). The
decline in West Virginia's population was related to the decline of the
State's coal mining industry. The industry began a rapid decline during the
late 1940's and has had a major impact on the State's economic and
2-208
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Figure 2-35
1970 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WVDH
1972) Scale not compatible with other basin maps because of source information
constraints.
^-il^iiiS^^
£^.\f;;c;;4;« •-. ...j
MXB
• DOT • 50 PEOPLE
Q CIRCLES • ALL IKCORPORATED PLACES, AND ALL
UDIICORPORATED PLACES OF 1,000 OR
MORE POPULATE (SEE SCALE)
nnrmrnm CORPORATIOI LIMITS OF LARCE KCTROPOLITAI AREAS
STATE LIKE
COUITT LIK
KAtlSTERUl WSTRJCT UK
2-209
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Figure 2-36
POPULATION DENSITY PER SQUARE MILE BY COUNTY AND MAJOR
POPULATION CENTERS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
GREATER THAN 25,000
O 5,000-25,000
• LESS THAN 5.OOO
2-210
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Table 2-46. Demographic profile of the Monongahela River Basin and its counties,
West Virginia, 1970 (USDOC 1973).
Charac teris tic
Population
Total
Percent In:
Places of 10,000-50,000
Places of 2,500-10,000
Rural Areas*-
Percent N'on-whites
Dependency Rat 10^
Ferti 11 ty Rat u^
Percenc Male 18 years and older
Median Age
E^plcnment, 16 \ears and older
Total
Mining
Ma 1 e
Mm ins, ns yercent of total
Male as netcent of total
Employment/Population Ratio
Civilian Labor Force - Percent Unemployed
Earnings - 1969 Median
Male 16 yeais and older
Female 16 years and older
Male/Female Ratio
Tamilies
Income - I9t>9 Median
Percent with 1969 income below poverty level
Percent of all workers who worked in
County of Residence
Percent of Population 5 years and older
who resided in same County in 1965
Median school years completed - 25 years
and older
22.5
12.5
.442
28.1
State
1,744,237
17.5
10.0
61.0
4.1
.444
336.0
47.1
30.0
533,372.0
48,426.0
371,974.0
8.8
67.2
.317
5.1
$6,995
$3,225
2.2
$7,415
18.0
Mononpahela
Basin
320,443
28.2
16.4
58.5
1.9
.428
47.5
—
104,740.0
10,257.0
68,521.0
9.8
65.4
.327
r
—
—
Barbour
14,030
0
21.4
78.6
1.3
.456
315.0
47.5
28.6
4,147.0
742.0
2,692.0
17.9
64.9
.296
7.0
$5,020
$2,522
2.0
$5,324
25.9
Harr ison
73,028
34.0
13.6
52.4
1.6
.440
323.0
46.4
33.7
24,604.0
2,092.0
16,549.0
8.5
67.3
.337
4.8
$7,005
$3,318
2.1
$7,717
13.2
Lewis
17,847
0
41.0
59.0
0.7
.453
337.0
46.0
37.2
5,260.0
332.0
3,267.0
6.3
62.1
.295
5.0
$5,333
$3,308
1.6
$5,919
22.4
Marlon
61,356
42.5
4.5
53.0
3.9
.425
318.0
46.0
33.5
21,129.0
2,992.0
13,721.0
14.2
64.9
. 344
3.7
$7.264
$3,482
2.1
$7,807
i:.6
12.1
76.6
83.0
10.6
82.8
80.2
66.9
81.3
8.9
87.5
84.1
12.0
82.0
83.9
8.9
87.2
87.0
11.7
Monongalia
Population
Total
Percent In:
' Places of 10,000-50,000
Places of 2,500-10,000
Rural Area -5^
Percent Non-whites
Dependency Ratio
Fertility Ratio3
Percent Male 18 years and older
Median AKe
Enplovnent, 16 years and older
Total
Mm ing
Ma 1 e
Mininp, as percent of total
Male as percent of total
Emp lovmcnt /Populat ion Ratio
Civilian labor Force - Percent I'nemployed
Earnings - 19'59 Median
Mate 16 years and older
Female 16 years and older
Male/Female Ratio
Fami lies
Income - 1969 Median
Percent with 1969 income below poverty level
Percent of all workers who worked in
County of Residence
Percent of Population 5 years and older
wiio resided in same County in 1965
Median school years completed - 25 years
and older
63,714
46.
8.
45
2,
266.
49.
24,
21,941
1,998
13,834
9
63
4
$6,325
$3,176
2
$7,758
13
87
65
12
.2
.0
.8
,3
.356
.0
.9
.5
.0
.0
.0
.1
.1
.344
.2
.0
.1
. 5
.8
.1
Preston
24,455
0
10.
90.
0.
397.
48.
29.
7,535.
994.
5,177.
13,
68.
4
$5,449
$3,160
1,
$5,626
26,
68.
87
9
0
.0
4
,479
0
, 5
.9
.0
.0
.0
,2
,7
.296
.8
.7
.8
2
.8
.1
Randolph
24,596
0
33.
66.
1.
352.
48.
29.
7,694.
405.
5,113.
5.
66.
5
$5,232
$2,775
1.
$5,870
24,
82.
81.
10.
7
3
0
451
0
5
8
0
0
0
3
5
.313
.6
9
0
,0
.0
.0
Tavlor
13,878
0
46.
53.
1.
364.
46.
33.
4,320.
178.
2,797.
4,
64.
6
$6,392
$2,976
2.
$6,644
18.
67.
81.
10.
4
6
2
474
0
4
6
0
.0
0
.1
.7
,311
.1
,1
9
.8
,4
,2
Tucker
7,447
0
0
100.
0.
413.
48.
32.
2,309
82
1,563,
3
67
4
$4,706
$2,944
1.
$5,243
24
78.
81.
9.
.0
3
,473
,0
,1
.6
.0
.0
.0
.6
.7
.310
.2
.6
.9
,5
,1
6
Upshur
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2-211
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population growth rates. The moderate population growth rate in individual
Basin counties (Monongalia) is indicative of a more diverse economy not
solely dependent upon the coal industry. 4
Post-1970 population data from the US Bureau of the Census indicate
that the population of the Monongahela River Basin counties generally has
been increasing, in most cases contrasting sharply to the declines occurring
during the 1960 to 1970 period (Table 2-47). According to preliminary 1980
figures, the Basin population continues to increase, moving up 7.3% between
1975 and 1980 (the State increased by 7% during this same period). All
Basin counties increased in population between 1975 and 1980, except for
Lewis County which had a decrease of 6.3%. The largest increase was in
Tucker County (14.2%). The US Bureau of the Census data also indicate that
the increase in the State's population between 1970 and L980 had almost
replaced the number of persons lost between 1960 and 1970. The State's
recent population growth is related directly to the resurgence of the West
Virginia coal industry during this period. This resurgence can be expected
to trigger increased rates of in-migration as well as increased birth rates,
although to a lesser extent. Data on the components of population change
for the 1970 to 1978 period indicate that population growth in the Basin was
the result of natural increases (excesses of births over deaths) and
in-migration.
2.6.1.1.4,^ Projected Population Size. Official population projections
by county for the State of West Virginia are prepared by WVGOEDC. The most
recent series of projections for the Basin was compiled in 1980
(Table 2-49). These projections were prepared for 5-year increments through
1995. They are much higher than many previous projection series because M
they take into account post-1970 population estimates which indicate a ™
reversal of previous trends of population decline. The official State
projections are not tied to any National projection series developed by the
US Bureau of the Census (Verbally, Mr. Thomas E. Holder, WVGOECD to Dr.
Phillip Phillips, February 21, 1980). The total population of Monongahela
River Basin counties is projected to increase by 8.6% between 1980 and 1995.
Given the rather abrupt reversals in demographic trends experienced in the
recent past and the sensitivity of critical growth determinants such as
in-migration to fluctuating factors such as the coal industry, all
population projections must be used cautiously.
2.6.1.1.5. Relationships Between Population Size and Mining Activity.
To understand the dynamics of population change, it is necessary to
understand the manner in which population is affected by employment and
overall economic trends. US Census data, USBEA data, WVDM data, and WVDES
data on employment are shown for the State, the Basin, and its counties for
1950, 1960, and up to 1979 in some cases in Tables 2-50 through 2-55.
Several preliminary notes of explanation are in order. The major reason for
the difference between the US Census and the WVDES data in 1950 is that
WVDES does not include self-employed or unpaid workers, but only covered
employees. In 1950, such mining workers were relatively more numerous than
subsequently.
2-214
-------
Table 2-49. Population projections for the Monongahela River Basin (WVGOEDC
1980). Figures for 1970-1980 are derived from US Census data and are not
projections.
County
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
14,030
72,038
17,847
61,356
63,714
25,455
24,596
13,878
7,447
19,092
15,402
75,103
20,166
62,805
67,116
26,844
25,934
15,188
7,578
21,006
16,623
77,488
18,894
65,525
75,240
30,468
28,784
16,616
8,657
23,541
18,630
78,200
17,951
67,619
71,663
30,997
28,370
16,391
8,436
24,996
20,179
79,942
18,001
69,732
74,433
32,917
29,662
17,234
8,765
27,033
21,752
81,708
18,041
71,875
77,289
34,893
30,983
18,087
9,098
29,124
Basin Total 320,433 337,142 361,836 363,253 377,898 392,850
2-215
-------
• In addition, the US Census reports the responses as of
April, but the WVDES figure is an annual average, and
employment declined during 1950 (Verbally, Mr. Ralph
Halstead, West Virginia Department of Employment Security,
Charleston WV, March 23, 1978).
• Census data were compared with USBEA data for 1970. The
main reason for the difference between the US Census and
the USBEA data is that the US Census reports employment by
place of residence, whereas USBEA reports it by place of
work.
• In some cases, USBEA deleted mining employment statistics
to avoid disclosure. In such cases, mining employment
data from the West Virginia Department of Mines were used
instead for this analysis.
Between 1950 and 1975, reported mining employment in West Virginia fell
by almost half as it did in the Basin. As a result, the Basin accounted for
19% of the State total in 1950 and for 20% in 1975. In both the State and
the Basin, a pronounced drop in mining employment occurred during the 1950's
and continued into the 1960's. An upturn began during the late 1960's, and
continued through 1975, although erratically. In 1975 a sharp increase in
mining occurred for the State as a whole which also was reflected in the
Basin.
Mining employment from year to year for the individual counties of the
Basin is erratic. The county having the largest number of mining employees
in 1950 was Marion, which accounted for 26% of mining employment in the
Basin, a pattern reflected also in the trends in coal production. Marion
County registered a decline in mining employment over the period from 6,747
in 1950 to 2,565 in 1979.
Tables 2-50 and 2-51 show that the State and the Basin gain and lose
mining employment together, although often to different degrees. The swings
in Marion and Monongalia Counties — the counties that produce the most coal
— were relatively modest. Individual counties show somewhat similar
long-run trends, but often quite different short-run trends. The counties'
somewhat similar long-run trends in mining employment reflect their common
response to changes originating from the National economy in the demand for
coal. Their often quite different short-run responses (across counties
comparing two consecutive years) reflect a host of local circumstances.
Given the long-run changes originating in the National economy, the
changing position over time of counties vis a vis each other in terms of
mining employment is explained partly by different rates in production of
coal and partly by different rates at which the mines increase productivity
by adopting more efficient technologies. Such technologies include the
shift from underground to surface mining and to continuous belt from hand
loading in underground mines. Thus, a county that had a constant level of
2-216
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coal production over time would lose employment because of increasing
productivity in each of the two methods (underground, surface), even if the
proportion of the total output accounted for by the two methods remained the
same over time. The loss of employment will be even greater if an
increasing proportion of the constant level of output is accounted for by
surface mining, for which output per employee is higher than for underground
mining.
According to 1970 US Census figures (Tables 2-52 and 2-53, and 2-47 and
2~48), the employment/population ratio is higher in the Monongahela River
Basin (0.329) than in the State as a whole (0.315). Also, mining employment
accounts for a much greater proportion of total employment in the Basin
(9.7%) than in the State as a whole (8.8%), although its importance varies
locally. Because mining employment is mostly male, the proportion of female
to total employment is lowered, in turn lowering the overall
employment/population ratio.
At the same time, the inter-industry multiplier effect of the mining
sector is limited in its effect on the local economy. Purchases by the
mining sector for purposes of producing coal in general are made outside the
area (except for labor). The coal is not primarily destined as a factor of
production for other industries in the area, hence there is a leakage out of
the local economy that is higher than in other economic sectors such as the
recreation sector. To the extent that such leakage occurs, employment in
the sectors providing the mining industry with goods and services is
reduced. This phenomenon thus to some extent offsets the stimulus provided
the local economy by the mining sector, in which earnings are relatively
high.
In 1975 the mining sector wae the fifth largest employment sector and
the second largest income generating sector in the Basin (Tables 2-54, 2-55,
and 2-56). The importance of mining activity within the economy of Basin
counties and the impact of mining on overall population trends can be
described in terms of location quotients and economic base analysis,
discussed below.
Location Quotients. A location quotient is a numeric indicator that
shows the degree to which an area is specialized in, and thus dependent
upon, a particular industry in comparison to a larger area. In the case of
the present analysis the larger area is the Nation. The location quotient
is derived by dividing the percentage of total employment in a selected
sector within the local area by the percentage of total employment in the
selected sector in the Nation. Thus, if 8.0% of local employment is in
mining and only 0.8% of national employment is in mining the location
quotient is 10. A location quotient of more than 1.0 for a particular
economic sector indicates a greater concentration in the local area than in
the US. A location quotient of less than 1.0 indicates a lesser concentra-
tion in the local area than in the Nation.
2-219
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All counties in the Monongahela River Basin have location quotients
greater than 1.0 for coal mining (except for Taylor County which had no
employment in coal mining in 1975). This indicates a greater concentration
in coal mining employment within the Basin than in the Nation. The location
quotient for the Basin (1975) was 33.3. This figure indicates that the
Basin was economically dependent on coal mining to a significant extent.
Location quotients for Basin counties are as follows: Barbour 87.3,
Harrison 22.0; Lewis 6.0; Marion 47.7; Monongalia 42.3; Preston 34.3;
Randolph 16.7; Taylor 0; Tucker 10.0; and Upshur 29.7.
Economic Base Analysis. The most common method used to describe quant-
itatively the relationship between population size and economic activity is
economic base analysis. Economic base analysis involves the delineation of
basic and non-basic employment sectors for a given area and the calculation
of a set of ratios known as multipliers. The basic sector, sometimes termed
the export sector, is comprised of employment that produces goods and
services to be used outside the local area, thus bringing money into the
local economy. Income generated by the basic sector circulates within the
local economy and supports non-basic sector industries, often referred to as
service industries, that provide goods and services for local use.
Exact determination of basic and non-basic employment is extremely
difficult. For the purposes of this study basic employment is considered to
be comprised of all persons employed in mining and manufacturing; all farm
proprietors and farm wage and salary employment; and 50% of all employment
in agricultural services, forestry, and fishing. Non-basic employment
includes all other employment. Employment in mining accounted for 39.7% of
all basic employment in the Basin in 1975. Manufacturing, however,
accounted for 58.5% of the Basin's basic employment (USDOC 1977).
Multiplier ratios describe quantitatively the amount of non-basic
employment, total employment, and total population growth that will be
generated by additional basic employment. The 1975 multiplier ratios and
their value for the Monongahela River Basin (calculated as described above)
are:
• Basic to non-basic employment ratio (B/N ratio) - 1:2.46
• Basic to total employment ratio (B/T ratio) - 1:3.46
• Total employment to population ratio (T/P ratio) - 1:3.02
• Basic employment to population ratio (B/P ratio) - 1:10.44
These ratios indicate that, overall, each basic job in the Basin generates
2.46 additional non-basic (service) jobs. The combination of basic and non-
basic employment results in a total of 3.46 jobs for each basic job. Each
employed person in the Basin supports a total of 3.02 persons because of
non-working dependents supported by the employed person. The combination of
basic to non-basic (B/N) and total employment to population (T/P) ratios
2-225
-------
produces an overall basic employment to population (B/P) ratio of 10.44.
Thus, each basic sector job supports, directly and indirectly, almost ten
people.
A number of factors may exert a "dampening" effect on employment and
population changes based on the multipliers calculated here. These dampen-
ing effects include the availability of additional workers who are currently
unemployed, commuting, changes in other basic employment sectors, availab-
ility of government welfare, and the limited life span of coal mines.
Because of these factors, an increase or decrease in mining employment will
not necessarily produce the changes in overall employment or population
indicated by the multiplier ratios, especially on a short-term basis (less
than five years). Increases in mining employment may be offset by declines
in employment in other basic sectors, and, likewise, decreases in mining
employment may be offset by increases in employment in other basic sectors.
Because of the life span of most mines, typically 20 years for an
underground mine and five years for a surface mine, coal miners frequently
commute long distances to work rather than moving closer to their current
places of employment (President's Commission on Coal 1980, see Section
5.6.4.). Thus employment and population increases associated with! an
individual mine may be diffused over a large area.
An important factor in the impact of increased mining activity on an
area is the availability of unemployed or partially employed miners in the
area. The coal industry is subject to pronounced cyclical phases of growth
and decline. As a result, many unemployed or underemployed miners may be
available during "slack" periods. Likewise, a decline in mining employment
will not necessarily produce a short-term population decline. Rather, most
of the miners and their families will remain in the area and will seek
alternative employment, accept welfare benefits, dip into savings, and/or
reduce expenditures while awaiting new mining employment opportunities.
This is especially the case with coal mining because of the specialized
skills required of miners and the relatively high wages paid to miners.
Areas of Greatest Mining Employment Impact. This analysis indicates
that long-term (five years or longer) changes in mining employment will have
the greatest impacts on counties most heavily dependent upon mining.
In the case of the Monongahela River Basin, Marion and Monongalia Counties
would be greatly impacted by changes in mining employment. Each new mining
job, in addition to those jobs needed to take up the slack of current high
unemplovment rates among miners, will generate approximately two new
non-mining jobs and a total population increase of about ten. Thus,
long-term cumulative effects of changes in mining employment: will have
significant impacts on those sections of the Basin in which mining is
currently or potentially a significant portion of the economic base.
2.6.1.2. Economy
2.6.1.2.1. General Characteristics. The Monongahela River Basin is
generally rural in nature and shares many of the economic characteristics
2-226
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generally associated with rural areas. Per capita income in the Basin is
well below National levels and the proportion of the population falling
below the Federal poverty level is above that found in the US. Per capita
income and employment increased rapidly in the Basin from 1970 to 1975,
however, reflecting the growth of the coal industry.
Tables 2-54 and 2-55 present a breakdown of jobs by industrial sector.
As stated previously, the most notable characteristic of the Basin and most
Basin counties is the significance of mining (excepting Lewis, Taylor, and
Tucker Counties). Sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, contract
construction, trade, and services are not notable, although the small number
of finance, insurance and real estate jobs is indicative of the
non-urbanized nature of the Basin economic structure. Government is
particularly significant in Monongalia and Lewis Counties. As in most areas
manufacturing is an important component of the economic base. Unlike most
areas, mining rivals manufacturing in importance.
Given the breakdown between proprietors on the one hand, and wage and
salary earners on the other, the sectoral structure of employment
particularly among wage and salary earners, typically is an important factor
explaining differences in income per employee (Table 2-56). One anomaly is
that: Tucker County, which as the highest proportion of its wage and salary
employees engaged in the manufacturing sector (which is relatively well-paid
and a rough indicator of economic strength), is also the county having the
lowest income per employee in the Basin. This is true even when employment
and income refer only to wage and salary employment and income; that is,
when proprietors and their earnings are excluded. The explanation appears
to be that Tucker County has a lower proportion of its employees engaged in
the three sectors that are higher-paid than the manufacturing sector
(mining, construction, and transportation) than is true of the Basin as a
whole .
A major issue in the State in 1979 and 1980 has been the reduction of
the coal mining labor force because of reduced demand for coal. The West
Virginia Coal Association estimated that 10,500 jobs were eliminated in the
State in 1979 and 1980 as a result of mine closings and work force reduct-
ions. Ralph Halstead, Chief of Labor and Economic Research for WVDES,
estimated that 7,400 of these miners remained unemployed as of March 1980
(Douthat 1980). Many additional miners also are working less than full
time. As a result, a large pool of skilled coal mining labor is currently
available in the State. It is anticipated that these employment reductions
are relatively short term and that mining employment will begin to increase
again when the demand for coal rises. Specific data pertaining to the
number of unemployed miners in the Monongahela River Basin are not
available .
2.6.1.2.2. Special Economic Issues - Tourism and Travel. The tourism
and travel industry represents a major component in the economy of West
Virginia. As an industry, tourism encompasses a wide range of other employ-
ment and industrial sectors as mentioned above such as wholesale and retail
2-227
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trade, services, amusement, and recreation. Tourism and travel businesses
directly include public and private campgrounds, hotels, motels, restaur-
ants, gift shops, service stations, amusements, and other recreation facili-
ties. The indirect impact of the tourism industry has a positive effect on
virtually all economic sectors of the Basin and State. These positive tour-
ism impacts result from recreational activities of West Virginians
themselves as well as the recreational activities of non-State residents.
The effect of tourism and travel on income, employment, and State
revenues is significant (Table 2-57). The Bureau of Business Research at
West Virginia University (1977) estimated that tourism and travel in 1977:
• produced $715 million in total sales in the State
• employed 38,000 people Statewide
• generated $46 million in State tax revenues.
WVGOECn emphasizes that money spent on tourism and travel has propor-
tionately greater local economic impacts than expenditures in other
industries in West Virginia. Approximately 83% of tourism and travel
industry sales dollars remains in the State, compared with only 66% of total
coal mining receipts and 63% of chemical industry receipts. Tourism
dollars, therefore, tend to provide greater local economic benefit since
more of these dollars remain in the State (WVGOECD 1980).
In addition, a significant amount of the tourism industry receipts in
West Virginia is generated by non-resident travellers. Of the estimated 8.1
million visitors to West Virignia State Parks and State Forests in 1978,
over 2.9 million (36%) were non-State residents. There has been a signific-
ant increase in the total number of visitors in recent years. Between 1971
and 1978, visitation at State Parks increased from 4 million to 6.9 million,
while that at State Forests increased from less than 1 million to 1.2
million. Resident and non-resident tourists travel to Basin and State
recreational centers for camping, hunting, fishing, swimming, canoeing,
boating, hiking, and generally experiencing the visual, cultural, and
natural resources of the Basin and State. If these "outstanding opportuni-
ties for a primitive and unconfined type of recreation" and other recrea-
tional attractions are maintained, the tourism and travel industry is
expected to grow significantly and become an even more important part of the
overall economy (WVGOECD 1980).
Those counties which have the greatest tourist attraction in the Basin
(Tucker and Randolph) also have the least coal mining. Monongalia County
has extensive tourism also, together with substantial mining (chiefly
underground mining) of coal. There is relatively little tourism in the
western counties of the Allegheny Plateau in the Basin. Both surface and
underground mining are important in those counties.
2-228
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Table 2-57. Travel sales, wages and salaries, and employment in the Monongahela
River Basin, 1976-1977 (Rovelstad 1977).
State
Monongahela River Basin
Barbour
Harrison
Lav is
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
Total Sales
($1,000)
647,200
101,100
3,200
21,600
2,500
13,000
24,700
5,200
8,800
4,700
9,300
8,100
Wages &
Salaries
($1,000)
185,241
27,455
894
4,983!
678
3,691
6,990
1,466
2,488
1,331
2,643
2,291
Employment
36,425
5,891
184
1,253 2
146
760
1,439
302
512
'274
544
472
1
Not provided by source; estimated by multiplying 146 employees (see Footnote 2)
by the wages and salaries per employee for all other Monongahela River Basin
counties combined.
provided by source; estimated by multiplying $2,500,000 total sales by
the employment/total sales ratio for all other Monongahela River Basin
counties combined.
2-229
-------
Specific Basin recreational facilities and tourist attractions are
discussed in great detail in Section 2.6.1.5.5. Given the impressive array
of facilities in the Basin, recreational activity assumes special economic
importance. For those counties where Federal land forms a high proportion
of the Basin total, the common measures of the level of economic activity
(population, employment, median income) indicate that these counties have a
lower level of activity than the Basin as a whole. The Monongahela National
Forest, for example, may constitute an increasingly important factor in the
level of economic activity in the future by attracting increasing
recreational visitor use, visitor expenditures, and revenues for the
counties.
Annual use data for the period 1969-1973 for the Monongahela National
Forest, for the State Forests and State Parks systems, and for Tygart Lake
are presented in Table 2-58. Visitor use grew over the period by 43% for
those areas combined. Use of the Tygart Lake grew more rapidly than use of
the National Forest. Visitors to the National Forest may be represented
more heavily by out-of-state visitors than is true of the State facilities.
If so, the economic slowdown and the energy problems of the early 1970's may
be an important contributing factor in explaining the differential growth in
visitor use comparing Federal and State areas. The drop in visitor use
during 1972 for the National Forest and for Tygart Lake may have been caused
in part by Hurricane Agnes, which also may have kept the (slight) increase
in State visitor use at the State forests below what it would otherwise have
been. The Hurricane does not appear to have inhibited increasing visitor
use in the State Parks.
2.6.1.3. Housing
2.6.1.3.1. Problems of Housing Provision. The provision of adequate
housing is one of the most important problems facing the residents of West
Virginia and the Monongahela River Basin today. The Basin and the State
currently are experiencing a severe housing shortage, which is reflected in
a high proportion of residents that are housed in deteriorated or crowded
dwellings. Housing production in the Basin has lagged substantially behind
demand in recent years because of:
• Lack of developable sites as a result of the high
proportion of land with steep slopes and in flood-prone
valleys
• Lack of financing, especially for housing for low-income
persons
» High land and construction costs, particularly because of
the slope and flooding limitations.
2.6.1.3.2. General Housing Characteristics. Data comparing the hous-
ing characteristics of the Basin, the State, and the US are presented in
Table 2-59. Recent (post-1970) increases in population and personal income
2-230
-------
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have resulted in construction of significant, though not sufficient, numbers
of new dwelling units. The majority of these new units are owner-occupied,
single-family, detached structures (including mobile homes). A large m
proportion of these new dwellings have been built outside any incorporated
city or village.
Mobile homes constituted 60% of all new home sales in West Virginia,
and an even higher proportion of new homes in non-metropolitan areas, in
1976. The reliance on mobile homes has resulted from current conditions of
the housing market, as mobile homes often represent the most readily avail-
able and affordable form of new housing. Regulation of mobile homes is
generally minimal. They are sometimes placed in mobile home parks, but they
often appear in conventional housing neighborhoods (commonly on substandard
lots), in unplanned mobile home villages, and scattered in rural areas.
West Virginia does not have State safety regulations or construction stand-
ards governing mobile homes. As a result, mobile homes are struck relative-
ly frequently by fire, often with injury or loss of life, and are frequently
damaged by windstorms because of the lack of adequate tie-downs.
Residential development in the past, whether traditional or mobile, has
occurred generally without regulation as to location, density, size, or
construction materials. The traditional preference for single-family,
detached homes is not likely to diminish significantly in the near future,
but existing constraints on housing production indicate that new housing
probably will include more multiple family structures, rental units, and
subsidized housing for low- and moderate-income persons. Recent declines in
average family size also favor multiple family units. Higher density hous-
ing is relatively new to the area, but is well-adapted to the steeply- M
sloping terrain. ™
Existing housing conditions in the Basin vary considerably between
urban and rural areas and among counties. Substandard housing accounts for
21% of all units in the Basin. Generally, lower percentages of substandard
housing are found in urban areas, reflecting higher incomes and more stable
economies. Housing quality generally has improved since 1970. Much of this
improvement resulted from higher family incomes and local efforts to extend
public sewer and water systems.
2.6.1.3.3. Size, Age, and Crowding. Housing unit size, age, and the
prevalence of crowded dwellings are important indicators of housing quality.
For the Monongahela River Basin these factors can be summarized as follows:
• The median number of rooms per dwelling unit in the Basin
is slightly higher than State or National averages
• Crowded dwelling units, generally defined as units with
more than one person per room, represent a slightly
smaller proportion of all units for the Basin compared to
the State or National averages. Crowding is an important
measure of the adequacy of housing and an indicator of
2-234
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overall housing quality, as crowded dwellings are
frequently substandard in condition and tend to
deteriorate more rapidly than non-crowded dwellings. A
unit with 1.5 or more persons per room is recognized as
being overcrowded by the State (WVHSA 1979).
• Almost 65% of the year-round dwelling units in the Basin
in 1970 were over 40 years old. This is a considerably
higher proportion of older dwellings than was found in the
Nation, and it is higher than the Statewide proportion.
The age of the housing supply is an indicator of its
condition and adequacy. Older housing more often is
deteriorated and may have obsolete plumbing, electrical,
and other facilities. The prevalence of a large number of
mobile homes in the Basin, which have a shorter economic
life than traditional dwellings, increases the problems of
housing deterioration.
2.6.1.3.4. Housing Value. The value of individual owner-pccupied
dwelling units and the monthly rental for non-owner-occupied dwellings are
important indicators of housing quality and of the ability of the local
population to pay for available housing. The ability of an occupant to
maintain a structure in sound condition is also closely related to the value
of the structure. Only one county had a median value of owner-occupied
dwellings that was above the State median, but every Basin county in 1970
had median values that were below the National median.
Unofficial figures indicate that the Basin is relatively an inexpensive
housing market, though no local statistics on the price of newly-constructed
homes are available. The low housing prices could reflect the fact that
proportionately more houses in the Basin are substandard or older than the
National average. In addition, the Basin traditionally has been character-
ized by extremely low median contract rents (Table 2-59). While no defini-
tive information on recent median rental rates was found, it appears that
rents have increased substantially since 1970, especially in areas that have
experienced population growth. The rental market generally has risen
commensurately with inflation (Luttermoser 1980).
2.6.1.3.5. Presence of Complete Plumbing Facilites. The presence or
absence of complete plumbing facilities is a major factor in housing
adequacy and value. The proportion of units in the Basin lacking some or
all plumbing facilities was substantially higher than the National average
and the Statewide average (Table 2-59). Significant variation existed among
individual counties in the Basin, however. The three measures of complete
plumbing facilities, as defined by the US Census, include:
• hot and cold piped water
• flush toilets
2-235
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• inside bath or shower facilities for exclusive use of the
dwelling occupants. j
2 .6 . 1.3.6. Vacancy Rates. The housing vacancy rate is defined as the
ratio of all vacant units available for occupany to the total number of
units in the housing stock. Excessively low vacancy rates hinder mobility
and are often associated with housing shortages. The following vacancy
percentages reflect a sufficient supply of available, vacant dwellings
(RPDC IV 1978):
• 1.0-1.5% for single-family dwellings
• 5.0% for rental units
• 3.0% for the overall housing stock.
The overall housing vacancy rate in the Monongahela River Basin was
4.4% in 1970, and is indicative of a sufficient housing supply throughout
the Basin in general (Table 2-59). Post-1970 population increases may have
reduced the vacancy rate somewhat.
2.6.1.3.7. Owner-Occupany Rates. Levels of owner-occupancy were lower
in the Basin in 1970 than those for the State (Table 2-59). The relatively
high level of owner-occupancy in the Basin reflects both the traditional
preference for single-family homes and the rural nature of much of the area.
In recent years, the high price of traditional single-family, owner-occupied
housing has forced many persons to utilize mobile homes rather than
traditional housing. M
2.6.1.4. Transportation
2.6.1.4.1. Special Needs of the Coal Mining Industry and Availability
of Modes. The conveyance of coal from mines or preparation plants to con-
sumption sites, principally electric power and steel industries, requires
transportation modes that are suitable for hauling high volumes of material
at low per ton-mile cost. Within these constraints three transportation
modes, rail, truck, and waterborne barge, currently are competitive and in
use. A fourth mode, pipeline, is potentially competitive and may be used in
hauling coal in the future. This section will describe the characteristics
of rail, truck, barge, and pipeline transport of coal. The analysis of road
haulage of coal presented here includes only public roads and does not
describe mine site roads built by the operator.
The selection of a transportation mode for hauling coal from any
individual mine site to a particular consumer depends largely upon the
availability and relative cost of the competing modes. The selection of
modes also has important consequences in terms of the magnitude and nature
of environmental and human impacts (see Section 5.6.).
2-236
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The extensive nature of the existing public road system and the rela-
tively low per-mile construction costs of mine site roads connecting mine
sites to existing public roads make truck hauling a widely available form of
coal transportation. Construction of mine site roads and purchase of
trucks, however, does represent a very large "front end" cost of coal
mining.
Major rail lines are located throughout the Basin. These rail lines
have not formed an extensive transportation network. Construction costs for
new rail lines are high, and right-of-way acquisition problems may be
severe. As a result, mines that are not located on existing rail lines
generally rely on truck transportation to haul coal to the nearest rail
loading facility.
Within the Monongahela River Basin, the entire length (37 miles) of the
Monongahela River is utilized for barge transportation. Because the length
of the waterway is not considerable, the role of barging in the movement of
coal in the Basin is not great. Generally, coal is transported from mine
sites or preparation plants to barge loading facilities by truck or rail.
Per ton-mile cost of coal hauling is the second major factor in select-
ion of a transportation mode for coal. Cost advantages in coal hauling
generally reflect limits on route availability and flexibility. Barge haul-
ing of coal generally is the least expensive mode per ton-mile, but is also
the least flexible in terms of route availability. Truck hauling, while
most flexible, is much more expensive per ton-mile than rail or barge
hauling. Extra rail tariffs are imposed when trains are switched from one
rail carrier to another. Therefore, coal generally is moved by a single
rail carrier once it enters the rail system.
2.6.1.4.2. Public Roads. The rugged terrain of much of the Basin has
imposed great limitations on the development of the road system. Both
valley and ridge top roads are found within the Basin. As of 1976, West
Virginia had almost 33,000 miles of highway (WVDOC 1976). The total
included 6,000 miles of expressway, trunkline, and feeder routes and 27,000
miles of local service roads. Interstate Highway 79 bisects the Monongahela
River Basin, running northeast-southwest from Morgantown to Charleston
(Figure 2-37). Appalachian Route E runs east-west from Morgantown; Route D
runs east-west from Clarksburg; and Route H runs east-west from Lewis County
through Upshur County into Randolph County (Elkins).
Local roads account for 79% of the total road length in the Basin, with
a low of 69% (Tucker County) and a high of 83% (Lewis and Marion Counties).
Principal arterial roads (the Interstate and Appalachian Route systems)
account for 4% of the mileage in the Basin; Tucker County has none; in
Harrison County local roads account for 10% (Table 2-6Q). Most road
maintenance in the State is performed by the West Virginia Department of
Highways.
2-237
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Figure 2-37
MAJOR HIGHWAYS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WVDH 1977)
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WAPORA, INC.
2-238
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The initial transport of coal from mines to coal preparation plants,
railroads, or barges usually is accomplished by truck. The State has
established maximum tonnage limits for coal trucks, and has the authority to
shut down mines served by trucks which carry overweight loads (Hittman
Associates, Inc. 1976).
Coal haul trucks in West Virginia are regulated on the basis of length,
height, and weight limitations that vary with public road classification.
On the principal primary roads, the maximum vehicle allowances are 55 feet
in length, 13 feet 6 inches in height, and 80,000 pounds in gross weight.
On many primary roads, however, height is limited to 12 feet 6 inches and
weight is limited to 73,500 pounds. On secondary roads, the maximum allow-
ances are 50 feet in length, 12 feet 6 inches in height, and 65,000 pounds
in gross weight. Special, posted weight and height restrictions are also
found on many roads .
Coal is the primary commodity transported by highway in West Virginia.
Intrastate coal traffic is not subject to economic regulation by either the
IISIGC or the WVPSC. Very little coal is hauled interstate by trucks. Coal
trucks may be operated either directly by the mining company or by a separ-
ate motor carrier under contractual agreement. In most cases, coal is moved
by truck for only a few miles from the mine site to the nearest rail trans-
fer point or to a nearby final consumer (e.g. power plant).
Existing public roads used as coal haul roads in the Basin were
identified in the 1979 Coal Haul Road Study, prepared by WVDH in cooperation
with the USDOT (Figure 2-38). Coal haul roads were identified in this study
on the basis of known locations of surface and underground mines, and known
location of customers, rail transfer points, barge transfer points, and
preparation plants serving each mine. The most direct haul roads between
these origins and destinations were designated as coal haul roads (WVDH
1979). Because of the short distance that coal is usually hauled by truck
and the terrain limitations on roads in the coalfield areas, only one
feasible route from mine to consumer generally exists. Data on origins,
destinations, and haul routes summarized in the 1979 Coal Haul Road Study
also were plotted on county highway maps (Scale 1:63,560).
The existence and nature of deficiencies in current coal haul roads of
West Virginia and the cost to remedy these deficiencies also were calculated
in the Coal Haul Road Study. A total of 2,562 miles (95%) of all coal haul
road mileage was found to have one or more deficiencies based on USFHA
standards. Major deficiency categories, in order of the number of miles of
deficient roadway, were lane or roadway width, shoulder width or type, and
alignment for safe speed. The deficiency data were used to determine types
and costs of needed improvements (Table 2-61). All construction and
maintenance costs for roads in West Virginia are paid for by the State.
An initial estimate of improvement needs for coal haul roads was calcu-
lated on the basis of criteria and standards established by the USFHA. This
produced a total cost estimate of approximately $2.7 billion of which 73.1%
2-240
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Figure 2-38
COAL HAULROADS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (adapted
from WVDH 1979)
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WAPORA, INC.
2-241
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Table 2-61. Alternative cost estimates for improving coal haul roads in
West Virginia (WVDH 1979).
A. Federal Highway Administration methodology
Improvement Type
Reconstruct roadway
Minor widening
Major widening
Reconstruct alignment
Construct on new location
Spot Improvements
Railroad protection and
other structures
TOTAL
B. West Virginia Highway Department
Improvement Type
Widen and pave unpaved roads
Stabilize or pave unpaved roads
to existing width
Widen and rebuild light or
medium duty paved roads
Rebuild light or medium duty
paved roads to existing width
Widen and resurface paved roads
Resurface paved roads to
existing width
Railroad protection and
other structures
TOTAL
Miles
134.5
256.5
60.8
1,812.7
86.4
115.3
212.0
2,678.45a
methodology
Miles
5.4
567.9
48.7
1,650.5
15.1
7.4
— b
2,295.0
Cost ($000)
54,000
100,000
131,000
1,976,000
299,000
54,000
88,000
2,702,000
Cost ($000)
1,737
81,054
42,357
524,569
7,682
340
496,710
1,154,499
% of
Total Cost
2.0
3.7
4.8
73.1
11.1
2.0
3.3
100.0
aDoes not add to total due to rounding error.
t>No mileage indicated.
2-242
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(nearly $2.0 billion) was for reconstruction of roads to improve alignment
for safe speed (Table 2-61). An alternative calculation of needed improve-
ments and costs also was made by WVDH. This alternative estimate was based
on the assumption that all of the reconstruction of roadway alignments for
higher than currently posted safe operating speeds required to meet USFHA
standards was not necessary. Rather, the WVDH alternative was based on the
assumption that the most necessary and economical improvements were in
strengthening and reconstruction of pavement sections to withstand coal
truck load weight. The total cost of improvements using the WVDH alterna-
tive methods of calculation was $1.15 billion, or 42.7% of the cost using
USFHA standards (Table 2-61).
2.6.1.A.3. Railroads. Coal is the major commodity transported by rail
in West Virginia. Approximately 74% of the coal transported in the State is
hauled by rail (WVRMA 1978). Two major types of rail freight traffic are
found in West Virginia. One major source of traffic is coal originating at
mines within the State and terminating at consumption sites and transloading
facilities within the State. The second major source of traffic is the
interstate hauling of industrial commodities including coal.
Most rail lines with the highest traffic density (over 30 million tons
per year) run through West Virginia in a general east-west direction. The
State is served by 5 Class I railroads (annual gross receipts $10 million or
more) and 9 Class II railroads (annual gross receipts less than $10
million). A total of 3,931 miles of rail lines are found in West Virginia.
The density of rail branch lines is greatest in the coalfield areas of the
State. The pattern of rail lines generally follows drainage patterns,
especially in the central and southern sections of the State.
Of the seven railroads in West Virginia in service during 1976, six are
Class I (the exception being the Nicholas, Fayette, and Greenbrier
Railroad). Only three have track within the Monongahela River Basin
(Figure 2-39). The Baltimore & Ohio is of greatest importance for the
Basin, with track in eight of ten counties (Table 2-62). The Western
Maryland Railroad is important in the eastern section of the Basin (Randolph
and Tucker Counties). The Monongahela Railway track parallels that of the
B&O in Monongalia County and has a spur in Marion County.
Some rail lines in West Virginia, as elsewhere in the United States,
are experiencing economic difficulties and are being proposed for discontin-
uation of service by their operators. Because rail line access is an
important factor in the transportation and marketing of coal, the potential
future use for coal hauling is an important aspect of West Virginia State
policy in determining whether a line should remain in active service, be
placed in a "rail banking" plan, or be completely abandoned. The 1978 State
Rail Plan stated that its major goals are to maintain a viable State rail
system through adequate return on investment for the railroads and to main-
tain essential rail services that will benefit economic development within
the State (WVRMA 1978).
2-243
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Figure 2-39
RAILROADS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (adapted from
WVRMA 1978)
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WAPORA, INC.
2-245
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Adequate maintenance of rail access to coal reserves is one of eight
major policy guidelines formulated by WVRMA. The Authority stated that it
would "plan to insure that railroad lines serving these [coalfield] areas
will not be abandoned if potential future use for movement of this resource
[coal] is indicated." In accordance with this policy, little rail mileage
has been abandoned recently.
Federal assistance funds (matched by State funds) are available to
retain the rights-of-way of abandoned rail lines ("rail banking") in West
Virginia. These funds are provided through Title VIII of the Federal Rail-
road Revitalization Regulatory and Reform Act of 1976.
2.6.1.4.4. Waterways. The Monongahela River is the only navigable
waterway within the Basin. The navigable section of the River extends 981
miles, from Pittsburgh PA to Fairmont WV. Channel depth is maintained from
seven to nine feet for the entire length and channel width is variable.
Three major locks are located along the river section within the Basin, each
with an annual capacity of 25 million tons. These locks include (RPDC VI
1978):
• Morgantown Lock: Located near downtown Morgantown with
current usage of 1.7 million tons per year (6.8% of
capacity).
• Hildebrand Lock: Located north of Lowesville with current
usage of 1.1 million tons per year (4.4% of capacity).
• Opekiska Lock: Located north of Fairmont with current
usage of .25 million tons per year (1.0% of capacity).
One rail-water terminal is located along the Monongahela River and is
involved in coal handling exclusively. It is located in Rivesville, WV and
is owned by the Monongahela River Co.
Total freight tonnage on the Monongahela River in 1975 was 37.2 million
tons. Of this tonnage, 30 million tons (80%) was coal. Current use of the
waterway is not great. To date, the waterway's potential has not been
exploited. If coal haulage were to increase significantly, capacity
problems could develop. Although overall water transportation needs will be
addressed by the National Waterway Study to be completed by the US Army
Institute for Water Resources in 1981, some specific needs can be identified
at the present time. For example, lock facilities must be
replaced/modernized if tonnage projected after 1985 is to be accommodated
efficiently and economically. Other potential traffic bottlenecks possibly
would be identified if comprehensive study of the waterways were to be
undertaken (this study is recommended in the 1981 State Development Plan;
WVGOECD 1980).
2.6.1.4.5. Pipelines. There are no coal slurry pipelines known to be
presently operating in the Monongahela River Basin. Currently, West
2-246
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Virginia is one of seven states that have granted the right of eminent
domain specifically for the construction of coal slurry pipelines. The
right of eminent domain allows potential pipelines to cross railroad rights-
of-way. Without the right of eminent domain, railroads could block the
construction of slurry pipelines, which serve as a competing transportation
mode.
2.6.1.5. Government and Public Services
This section is designed to provide an overall description of State and
local government in West Virginia, with particular emphasis on those aspects
of government structure and function that could be most significantly
impacted by new coal mining or processing facilities. Four major areas are
covered: the structure of State and local government in West Virginia;
local governmental revenues and expenditures; health care, education,
recreation, water and sewer, and solid waste disposal services and
facilities in the Basin; and planning capabilities in the Basin.
2.6.1.5.1. Institutional Framework. Five levels of government are
significant in assessing human resource and land use impacts in West
Virginia. These are:
• The State government
• Regional Planning and Development Councils (RPDC's)
• Counties
• Special districts and school districts
• Municipalities.
There are no general sub-county units of government in West Virginia similar
to the towns or townships found in other states. As a result, county
governments perform a wider range of functions in West Virginia than in many
other states. The general rural nature of most areas of the State and the
limited extent of incorporated municipalities also increase the importance
of counties as governmental units. Education is provided by county-unit
school districts, but these are separate from county government. Services
such as airports and public health facilities also can be provided by
special districts under the auspices of the county commissioners of the area
for which services are provided. All roads are financed at the State rather
than county level. Each county is further subdivided into magisterial
districts; however, powers of the districts are modest, in most cases being
limited to tax collection and other administrative tasks.
2.6.1.5.2. Governmental Revenues and Expenditures. Data on general
revenues and expenditures for the county units of government in the State
and the Basin for 1971-1972 (year ending 30 June 1972) are listed in
Table 2-63 and 2-64- These are not the same as local public revenues and
2-247
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expenditures within counties as geographical areas. For that, the revenues
and expenditures of local governments within the counties must be added.
Such data are not readily available.
The counties of the State as a whole have general revenues
approximating general expenditures in the Basin (Table 2-63). Expenditures
by the counties slightly exceed their revenues. The counties of the Basin
account for 18% of the general revenues and 19% of the general expenditures
of all counties of the State combined. In contrast, the counties of the
Basin accounted for 12% of all county capital outlay, and for only 3% of all
county debt outstanding in 1971-1972. Only two of the ten counties had debt
outstanding.
Until 1976 the US Forest Service transferred 25% of the net receipts of
the Monongahela National Forest to the State for redistribution to the
counties for school support and other public expenses. New legislation
during 1976 changed the formulas for calculating the funds transferred to
local governments (USFS 1977b).
Revenues and expenditures of counties in the Basin do not correlate
directly with the population indicated in Table 2-63. For example, Harrison
County had 16% of the general county revenue of the Monongahela River Basin,
but 23% of its population; Monongalia County had 34% of the county revenues
of the Basin, but 20% of its population.
Intergovernmental revenues account for 10% or less of total revenues
for all but three counties (Marion, 18%; Upshur, 25%; and Tucker 27%;
Table 2-64). In general, property taxes form a higher percentage of total
revenues in the more populous counties, although Monongalia and Preston
Counties are notable exceptions to this generalization. Conversely, charges
and miscellaneous revenues form a higher percentage of total revenues in the
less populous counties. Programmatic expenditures as a proportion of total
expenditures range from a high of 78% (Monongalia County) to a low of 22%
(Upshur County). There is no clear relationship between this percentage on
the one hand and the relative populousness or level of economic activity on
the other. It should be noted that highway expenditure, which frequently is
the single largest item of expenditure, is zero for these counties (except
for $1,000 each in Randolph and Tucker Counties). This is because the cost
of highway construction and maintenance is borne by the State (or Federal)
government and not by the counties in West Virginia.
General revenues and expenditures per capita in the counties of the
Basin are higher for the smaller counties than for the larger counties, with
the notable exception of Harrison County (Table 2-66). For example,
Monongalia County ranks first in per capita revenues and expenditures, and
second in population. Harrison County ranks eight in per capita revenues
and expenditures and first in population. The Basin as a whole has county
revenue per capita almost equivalent to the Statewide average. Monongalia
and Preston Counties have per capita revenues substantially in excess of the
2-251
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State average; the other counties have revenues lower than the State average
(Table 2-66 and Figure 2-40).
Per capita programmatic expenditures range from a high of $41
(Mcmongalia County) to a low of $5 (Harrison County). For eight of the ten
counties it amounts to less than $10 per person per year (as compared with
$13 for all counties in the State). Because programmatic expenditures form
the bulk of total expenditures, the relationship noted above for total
expenditures holds true also for programmatic expenditures: on a per capita
basis, the fewer the people, the higher the expenditures. This relationship
may result because if a program is to be made available, a certain minimum
expenditure is required for it to function.
Prior to 1975 (when the State business and occupation coal severance
tax was passed into law) revenues from coal did not form part of the
revenues of the counties, except that the counties themselves levied
property taxes on land and on other property owned by coal-producing
companies. Since 1975, the State has levied a coal severance tax at the
rate of $3.85 per $100 of gross sales of coal. Of this, $3.50 is retained
by the State as general revenue, and the remaining 35^ is distributed to
units of local government. The State Tax Commission returns 75% of the 35
-------
Figure 2-40
COUNTY GENERAL REVENUES PER CAPITA FOR THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN 1971 TO 1972
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2-254
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paid for by the State) but also opportunity costs (for example, the
agricultural, forestry, and tourist activity and earnings forgone because of
coal production activity). Such data are not readily available in a
compiled form.
The low level of tax revenues in the counties and municipalities of the
Basin, and the generally limited amount of taxable wealth present in the
Basin, will increase the difficulties faced by local governments in
supplying the needed facilities and services required by coal mining-induced
growth (see Section 5.6.). In many cases, however, counties have not
utilized all of the tax resources currently available to them. A program of
real estate tax reappraisal, especially for lands owned by coal mining
interests, was begun by the Internal Operations Group of WVDT's Division of
Local Government Relations in 1974. This reappraisal was designed to
produce more reasonable valuations of coal bearing lands on the basis of the
value of mineral resources. New mining facilities, increased income
generated by mining, and increased residential and commercial development
associated with mining also would increase the available tax base,
generating potential new revenue for additional services and facilities
provision. There is, however, a generally substantial lag-time between the
need for new services and facilities and availability of new tax revenue
(see Section 5.6.).
2.6.1.5.3. Health Care. West Virginia traditionally has fallen below
National norms both in the provision of health care facilities and personnel
and in health status indicators. Deficiencies in health care found in West
Virginia and the Monongahela River Basin are typical of Appalachia and
reflect the rural nature of much of the area, as well as low levels of
income and educational achievement. Problems of inadequate health care
facilities and personnel are compounded in many areas by rugged topography
and poor roads that hinder access to those medical services that are
available.
Recent measures designed to improve the level of health care in West
Virginia have been instituted as a result of the creation of the WVHSA,
formed to implement P.L. Law 95-641, the National Health Planning and
Resource Development Act of 1974. The mandate of the WVHSA is to plan a
health-care system that will improve the quality, accessibility, and
continuity of health care in West Virginia. To do this, the Agency gathers
information on State health care needs, financial barriers to meeting those
needs, and economic alternatives to achieve improved health care.
WVHSA issues a Health Systems Plan and Annual Implementation Plan in
order to help achieve its goals. This document describes the characterist-
ics of the existing health care system, determines goals for improvement of
the existing system, and describes alternatives and selected actions to
achieve improvement goals. Unless otherwise noted, the most recent (1980)
edition of the Plan serves as the basis for the following presentation. The
aspects of health care in West Virginia described are: general levels of
health service and status indicators; general deficiencies in the existing
2-255
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health care delivery system; and issues especially relevant to the coal
industry, particularly the availability of emergency care and the incidence
of coal workers pneumonoconiosis (black lung).
Health Status Indicators. Infant mortality, heart disease death rate,
and cancer death rate indicate that health care performance in West Virginia
generally falls below National norms. In 1975, the infant mortality rate
for West Virginia was 11.2% higher than the infant mortality rate for the
Nation.
Diseases of the heart are the leading cause of death in West Virginia,
accounting for approximately 40% of all deaths in 1976, more than twice the
proportion of the second leading cause of death, cancer. Heart diseases are
also the leading cause of death in the Nation, although the National death
rate (339 per 100,000 population) in 1975 was significantly lower than the
West Virginia rate (437 per 100,000 population). Cancer is the second lead-
ing cause of death in both West Virginia and the Nation. The cancer death
rate in West Virginia in 1975 (198 per 100,000 population) was considerably
higher than the cancer death rate for the Nation (174 per 100,000 popula-
tion). Health data specific to the Monongahela River Basin are not
av a i 1 ab 1 e .
Lung diseases were the seventh leading cause of death in West Virginia
in 1975, but were not among the ten leading causes of death in the Nation
for that year. Of the lung disease deaths in West Virginia in 1975, 69 were
due to pneumonoconiosis (black lung). Available information on disability
caused by lung disease is provided by the Workman's Compensation Fund. The
data for insured workers indicate that West Virginia has the highest dis-
ability rate for lung disease of any state, nearly twice that of the second
ranking state (Kentucky). The standards for receiving Workman's Compensa-
tion in West Virginia, however, are considered to be much more lenient than
in most other states, however, making interstate comparisons difficult.
Availability of Health Care Facilities and Personnel. The deficiencies
in the health care system are analyzed in several ways. The Health Systems
Plan annually compiles data on hospital beds available, current usage, and
other issues vital to demonstrations of facility shortages,. Manpower
(available doctors and dentists, for example) information also is
published. Health manpower shortage areas for primary care physician,
dental, pharmacy, and vision care, have been designated for West Virginia
under Sections 329(b) and 332 of the Public Health Service Act. Areas
requiring more than 30 minutes travel to reach a primary care physician also
have been designated by WVHSA. Basin counties differ substantially as to
the availability of these health care facilities and personnel
(Table 2-67). Clearly, counties such as Taylor, Preston, and Tucker appear
to have substantial deficits in their health care systems.
Availability of emergency medical care is especially important to the
coal mining industry because of the large number of accidental injuries and
deaths associated with coal mining. In 1977 there were 29 fatalities, 5,450
2-256
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non-fatal disabling injuries, and 3,415 non-disabling injuries at coal mines
in West Virginia. These incidences of death and injury, although high,
represent a significant improvement over historic death and injury rates.
The total number of injuries at coal mines declined from 11,197 in 1972 to
8,894 in 1977. During this same period fatal injuries declined from 48 to
29. Earlier in the State's history, coal mining was far more dangerous.
During 1908, when the total number of coal miners in the State was roughly
equal to 1977, 625 miners were fatally injured, as compared to 29 in 1977.
The objective of 0.30 deaths per million employee hours in coal mining,
established by the USMSHA, was achieved in West Virginia in 1977. West
Virginia's fatality rate of 0.30 deaths per million employee hours was
slightly below the US average (0.33) and substantially below the averages in
Kentucky (0.61) and Virginia (0.54).
2.6.1.5.4. Education. Education in West Virginia is divided into
three administrative categories. These are: kindergarten through grade 12
public schools (K-12), vocational education, and higher education (college
and university).
K-12 Public Schools. K-12 public schools are organized and operated by
separate county boards of education and are financed by local property tax
revenues. WVDE influences the quality of education by establishing
standards and by setting goals. West Virginia students scored at or above
the National median in all achievement areas measured by the "Comprehensive
Test of Basic Skills" at both the 3rd and 6th grade levels. In 5 out of 6
subject areas at the 9th grade level West Virginia students scored at or
above the National average. West Virginia high school students score
considerably above the National average on the Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT). SAT scores for the 1977-78 school year indicate that West Virginia
students scored well above the National average in both verbal and
mathematical ability. This above average performance occurred in every
school year from 1968-69 to 1977-78. This level of testing performance was
achieved despite the fact that West Virginia ranks 40th among states in
educational expenditures (WVDE 1978).
West Virginia had an actual increase in educational achievement test
scores from 1968-69 to 1977-78. This was in marked contrast to general
National trends of declining test scores. Moreover, West Virginia's above
average levels of educational achievement are in contrast to the low levels
of median years of education found among adults in the State and the
generally low educational levels found in Appalachia. The performance of
West Virginia appears to reflect an increased emphasis on education.
The high school dropout rate is also a significant measure of
educational achievement. West Virginia falls below the National rate by
this measure; 23.7% of West Virginia students fail to complete high school,
as compared to 25.0% of students in the Nation (WVGOECD 1979).
A comparison of seating capacity and net enrollment for public schools
in the Monongahela River Basin (Table 2-68) suggests that there is an excess
2-258
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seating capacity for students in every Basin county. These data appear to
indicate that overall there is an adequate number of school facilities to
meet the needs of existing students as well as reasonable future growth.
Within the Basin, however, localized shortages of necessary facilities have
occurred as a result of shifting population. Such shortages are indicated
by the fact that in most counties, few rooms were vacated, while additional
rooms (200) were needed, to accomodate local school-age children. The need
for additional facilities is especially notable in Preston and Lewis
Counties. Future population shifts caused by mining or other factors
potentially could create additional localized shortages.
Vocational Education. Vocational education includes technical and
adult education. County boards of education are assisted by the State's
Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult Education in the provision of
existing programs and the development of new programs. These programs are
available at the secondary, post-secondary, and adult levels. Vocational
education facilities are located strategically throughout the State to
provide maximum program availability. In 1976-77, vocational education
programs were utilized by 125,000 persons and adult basic education programs
were utilized by an additional 16,000 persons. The placement rate for voca-
tional and technical graduates into the labor force is above 90% (WVGOECD
1979).
Higher Education. Higher education in West Virginia includes private
colleges and public colleges and universities that are regulated by the West
Virginia Board of Regents. Currently, the State has two public universi-
ties, fifteen public colleges, and ten private colleges. Both State
universities and several of the State colleges have developed programs that
are oriented toward serving the needs of the coal industry.
2.6.1.5.5. Recreational Facilities. This section discusses recrea-
tional facilities in the Monongahela River Basin which are administered by
Federal, State, local, and private agencies. Table 2-69 provides a summary
of recreational land by ownership type in the Basin. Land in the Mononga-
hela National Forest which is available for recreational use accounts for
87% of the almost 32,000 acres of Federal, State, and local recreational
land in the Basin. Two State forests and five state wildlife areas account
for 7%, eight state parks make up 3%, the Tygart Reservoir accounts for
0.9%, and local government facilities, mainly playgrounds, playfields, and
parks, make up the remainder. Private facilities provide an unknown amount
of recreational lands. Selected private facilities add less than 1,850
acres of recreational land to the public recreational land.
The Monongahela National Forest is concentrated in Randolph and Tucker
Counties. Six counties have no Federal land and, as a consequence, together
account for only 5% of the total public land in the Basin. Only two of the
counties have State Forest land, whereas seven have State Parks. The local
public land accounts for less than 1% of the total land in the Basin.
2-260
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Thus, the general pattern is: large areas of Federally-owned forest
concentrated in two counties; one sizable Federal reservoir; relatively
large blocks of State Forest Ln two counties; State Parks in most counties,
with a relatively small average size of 1,000 acres per county; a small
number of wildlife resource areas; a small amount of local public land for
which no county breakdown is available, but which may be assumed to be
widely distributed throughout the population centers Ln the Basin; and a
modest amount of privately-owned recreational land. No county or size
breakdown is available for the inventoried private recreational land, but it
may be assumed to be concentrated in a few large blocks of hunting
preserve.
Federal Faci1iti es. Within the Monongahela River Basin there are one
completed and two proposed USAGE lake projects, in addition to three
completed locks and dams on the Monongahela River (Table 2-70). The Bowden
Federal Fish Hatchery in the Monongahela National Forest is operated by
USDI-Fish and Wildlife Service. The remaining Federal recreational
facilities in the Monongahela National Forest are managed by the USDA-Forest
Service.
Tygart Lake on the Tygart Valley River in Taylor and Barbour Counties
was completed during 1938. Since that time it has been operated and
maintained by the USAGE to assure an adequate navigational water supply in
the Monongahela River. Tygart Lake also is one unit of a coordinated
reservoir system for flood protection in the Tygart Valley, Monongahela
River Valley, and Ohio River Valley (USAGE 1977:26). The picnic area in the
vicinity of the Tygart River Dam, about 2 miles upriver from Grafton in
Taylor County, also is administered by the USAGE. All other recreational
areas on Federally-owned lands of Tygart Lake are administered by the WVDNR
under a long-term license agreement with the Department of the Army.
Stonewall Jackson Lake and Rowlesburg Lake were aathorized by the Flood
Control Act of 1965 and are planned for the Monongahela River Basin.
Stonewall Jackson Lake, currently under construction, is located on the West
Fork River in Lewis County. The proposed dam will be situated at
Brownsville and will control a drainage area of 103 square miles. USAGE
anticipates acquiring 19,500 acres for the facility with related
recreational areas. "Project completion is estimated to be 1987. If the dam
is established, Rowlesburg Lake would be located on the Cheat River. The
dam would be constructed at Rowlesburg in Preston County to impound a
maximum winter pool of 6,780 acres. At the request of Governor Moore of
West Virginia and according to interpretation of the 1972 amendments to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, a re-evaluation oi: the Rowlesburg Lake.
project was undertaken by the USAGE. Governor Rockefeller requested that
the project be deferred. Because of this State action USAGE has classified
Rowlesburg as inactive (Verbally, Mr. George Cingle, USAGE Pittsburgh
District, to Mr. Wesley Homer, February 4, 1981).
Three USAGE dam sites provide recreational fishing facilities in the
Monongaheia River Navigation System. These sites include the Morgantown
Lock and Dam, completed in 1950; the Hildebrandt Lock and Dam, completed for
full operation in 1960; and the Opekiska Lock and Dam, completed in 1967
(Table 2-70).
2-262
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Table 2-70. Federal recreational facilities of the Monongahela River Basin,
West Virginia (WVGOSFR 1975, USDA-Forest Service 1977a, US Army Corps of
Engineers 1977). Facilities appear in Figure 2-30 in section 2.5.
NAME
Tygart Lake
Morgantown Locks and Dam
Opekiska Locks and Dam
Hildebrandt Locks and Dam
Dam Picnic Area
Bowden Federal Fish Hatchery
Rowlesburg Lake Planning Area
Stonewall Jackson Lake Planning Area
Spruce Knob Lake Recreation Area
Red Creek Recreation Area
Stuart Park Recreation Area
Bickle Knob Recreation Area
Bear Heaven Recreation Area
Aldena Gap Recreation Area
Horseshoe Recreation Area
Laurel Fork Recreation Area
Gaudineer Recreation Area
ADMINISTRATIVE OR
AUTHORIZING AGENCY
USAGE
USAGE
USAGE
USAGE
USAGE
USAGE
USAGE
USAGE
USFS
USFS
USFS
USFS
USFS
USFS
USFS
USFS
USFS
2-263
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USAGE facilities, including areas of surface and fee-simple ownership,
are considered to be important resources in the Basin and have been
designated as PSIA's. Exact ownership boundaries are complex, vary over
time, and have not been mapped on the 1:24,000-scale environmental inventory
map sets. The approximate boundaries have been mapped by EPA on Basin-scale
maps available at EPA Region III offices in Philadelphia; this mapping is
reflected as the PSIA designations shown in Figure 2-59 (see Section 2.8).
Exact boundary information can be obtained from USAGE on a case-by-case
basis through EPA's use of coordinating procedures employed during the
permit application process.
Clearly the most notable Federal facility in the Basin is the
Monongahela National Forest (also in the Elk and Gauley River Basins; Figure
2-41). The authorized boundary includes one third of Tucker County and one
fourth of Randolph County. According to the Land Management. Plan for the
National Forest (USFS 1977) the 1.9 million authorized acres of the National
Forest are to be used for flood prevention, watershed protection, recreation
(dispersed and developed areas), timber management, wilderness, and mineral
extraction. Since 1920, the Federal Government has acquired two kinds of
ownership within the authorized boundary of the Forest . In some areas only
surface rights have been acquired, excluding mineral rights. Elsewhere full
fee-simple and subsurface rights are Federally-controlled. A substantial
part of the land within the authorized boundary of the Forest still is
partly or completely in private ownership. The National Forest defined by
its authorized boundary has been designated a PSIA by EPA.
The nine recreation areas managed by the US Forest Service in the
Monongahela National Forest provide public facilities for camping,
picnicking, fishing, swimming, and boating. Recreation is one of the uses
recognized by the US Forest Service in its multiple use management of the
forest generally, outside specifically designated recreational areas.
Annual visitor use of the Monongahela National Forest as a whole increased
24% from 1969 to a 1973 total of more than 1.2 million visitors (WVGOSFR
1975).
The Fernow National Experimental Forest also located in the National
Forest, consists of 3,640 acres for research on deciduous forest management
and watershed relationships (Verbally, Mr. Gilbert B. Churchill, USFS RARE
II Coordinator, Elkins WV, June 21, 1978). Ther Fernow Forest was
established in 1934, and it maintains its own administrative station and
personnel who conduct research on cable logging and silvicultural
techniques .
The US Secretary of the Interior established the National Natural
Landmarks Program in 1962 "...to identify and encourage the preservation of
the full range of ecological and geological features that are nationally
significant examples of the Nations natural heritage" (45 FR 232, Dec. 1,
1980). Federal agencies are directed to consider the existence and location
of natural landmarks when a°sessing the impact of any proposed action,
although the manner in whicn National natural landmarks will be considered
2-264
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Figure 2-41
LOCATION OF THE MONONGAHELA NATIONAL FOREST IN THE
MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
MONONGAHELA NATIONAL
FOREST
FERNOW NATIONAL
EXPERIMENTAL FOREST
2-2G5
-------
is not specified. In the Basin, several National Natural Landmarks have
been identified, including the Gaudineer Scenic Area, Canaan Valley, Shavers
Mountain Spruce-Hemlock Stand, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher
Spring Run Bog, all of which are within the Monongahela National Forest.
The Cathedral Park, owned by the State, also has been designated as has the
Cranesville Swamp Nature Sanctuary, privately owned (Table 2-71). All
National Natural Landmarks receive PSIA stations (see Section 2.8.). In
most cases, these areas have been identified as PSIA's because of the
expense of other values as well. It should be noted that recently
promulgated rules and regulations (45 FR 238, December 9, 1980) dictate that
the US Secretary of the Interior prepared a special environmental report
when mining activity (surface) impinges upon a landmark, as authorized by
Section 9 of the Mining in National Parks Act of 1976. This report must be
prepared regardless of the ownership of the landmark and is to be submitted
to the US Advisory Council on Historic Preservation. This procedure is
compatible with, and should reinforce EPA's PSIA designation.
Two existing wilderness areas have been designated under the Wilderness
Act of 1964 in the Monongahela River Basin. Established by Congress on
January 3, 1975, the Otter Creek Wilderness Area comprises 20,000 acres in
Randolph and Tucker Counties; the Dolly Sods Wilderness Area contains 10,215
acres in Randolph, Grant, Tucker, and Pendleton Counties. both are located
within the National Forest. The Laurel Fork area (11,656 acres) was
proposed as a Wilderness Area.
A wilderness area is defined by the Wilderness Act of 1964 as an area
of undeveloped federal land retaining its primeval character and influence,
without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and
managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which 1) generally
appears to have been affected primarily by forces of nature, with the
imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; 2) has outstanding
opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of reaction;
3) has at least 5,000 acres of land or is of sufficient: size as to make
practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and 4) may
also contain ecological, geographical, or other features of scientific,
educational, scenic, or historical value. The definition of "wilderness"
was subsequently modified in the Eastern Wilderness Act of 1975 to include
certain eastern lands (WVGOECD 1980).
The Otter Creek Wilderness includes most of the drainage basins of
Otter Creek and Shavers Lick Run. Most of the Otter Creek Wilderness is
forested with second growth timber that developed subsequent to logging
activities of the period between 1890 and 1914. Parts of the area were
logged between 1958 and 1972. Impenetrable stands of rhododendron cover
large sections of the Otter Creek Wilderness. Wildlife in the area includes
black bear, white-tailed deer, turkey, grouse, snowshoe hare, cottontail,
numerous birds, snakes including timber rattlers, salamanders, and a popula-
tion of brook trout. There are more than 40 miles of trails suitable for
hiking. Two shelters in the Wilderness each will accommodate six people.
Camping is permitted.
2-266
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Table 2-71. National Natural Landmarks in the Monongahela River Basin
(45 FR 232 December 1, 1980).
1. GAUDINEER SCENIC AREA (Randolph County) — Monongahela National
Forest, five miles north of Durbin. The best of the remaining
virgin red spruce forest in the State. (December 1974)
Owner: Federal.
2. CATHEDRAL PARK (Preston County) — Four miles west of US 219 on US
50. Contains a remnant virgin hemlock forest and dense thickets of
great rhododendron. A cool, poorly drained site. (October 1965)
Owner: State.
3. CRANESVILLE SWAMP NATURE SANCTUARY (Preston County) — Nine miles
north of Terra Alta WV. Occupies a natural bowl where cool, moist
conditions are conducive to plant and animal communities of more
common northern locations. (October 1964) Owner: Private.
BLISTER RUN SWAMP (Randolph County) — Monongahela National Forest,
four miles northwest of Durbin. A good, high altitude balsam fir
swamp, probably the southernmost extension of this type forest,
providing habitat for several uncommon and rare plants. (December
1974) Owner: Federal.
SHAVERS MOUNTAIN SPRUCE-HEMLOCK STAND (Randolph County) — Mononga-
hela National Forest, seven miles northwest of Harman. An old-
growth red spruce-hemlock stand called a "spruce flat", a disjunct
component of the more northern Hemlock-White Pine-Northern Hardwood
forest region. (December 1974) Owner: Federal.
6. BIG RUN BOG (Tucker County) — Seven miles east of Parsons. The
area contains a relict Pleistocene high altitude northern sphagnum-
red spruce bog far south of its normal range, with large numbers of
rare plants and animals. (December 1974) Owner: Federal.
CANAAN VALLEY (Tucker County) -- Five miles east of Davis. A
splendid "museum" of Pleistocene habitats. The area contains an
aggregation of these habitats seldom found in the eastern United
States, and is unique as a northern boreal relict community at this
latitude by virtue of its size, elevation and diversity. (December
1974) Owner: Private.
8. FISHER SPRING RUN BOG (Tucker County) — Monongahela National
Forest, 11 miles southeast of Davis. An excellent example of a
sphagnum-red spruce bog illustrating vegetation zonation.
(December 1974) Owner: Federal.
2-267
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Dolly Sods Wilderness in the Allegheny Plateau highlands is located in
Tucker and Randolph Counties. The headwaters area of Red Creek, a tributary
of the Dry Fork River, was named for the pioneer Dahle ("Dolly") family, who
formerly owned a section of the Wilderness which they cleared for
pastureland ("Sod"). The rugged, mountainous area of the Dolly Sods
Wilderness includes dense stands of rhododendron scrub, deciduous forest,
spruce forest, bogs, streams, beaver ponds, and formerly cleared
pasturelands. Many of the plants are indigenous to the Canadian zone, as
well as the Arctic Circle. The Wilderness contains about 25 miles of trails
suitable for hiking. Camping is permitted, but not within 100 feet of
permanent streams or trails.
In 1977 the US Department of Agriculture initiated a study of existing
roadless areas within the National Forests to identify additional land that
should be added to the Wilderness Preservation System. The study, known as
RARE II, proposed that four additional areas totalling 68,370 acres be
designated as wilderness in West Virginia:
1. Cranberry Backcountry — 35,550 acres (Gauley River Basin)
2. Seneca Creek — 20,780 acres (South Branch Potomac River Basin)
3. Laurel Fork North — 6,120 acres (Monongahela River Basin)
4. Laurel Fork South — 5,920 acres (Monongahela River Basin)
Cheat Mountain (7,720 acres in Randolph County) also was recommended for
study and possible designation as a Wilderness Area. Following the EIS
process, President Carter approved study recommendations and sent the bill
to the US House of Representatives where it was passed (November 1980) and
sent to the Senate. Action there is pending (Verbally, Mr, Gill Churchill,
USDA-Forest Service, to Mr. Wesley Horner, February 4, 1981). Wilderness
Areas are mapped as PSIA's by EPA.
In 1968 the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System was instituted
(P.L. 90-542). The purpose of the legislation was "...to preserve and
protect rivers..., with their immediate environments, (which) possess
outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife,
historic, cultural, or other similar values...". As of 1980, no river or
river segment in the Basin or the State had been designated officially under
the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. However, several rivers (none in
this Basin) have been designated by Congress as Study Rivers (16 USC 1276,
Sec. 5a), preliminary to their incorporation into the Wild and Scenic Rivers
System. These rivers are being studied by the US National Park Service
regarding permanent Wild and Scenic status. During Study River status,
these rivers have been protected by Congress under the Wild and Scenic
Rivers Act (the Draft EIS on the Greenbrier River proposed designation is
expected in March 1981).
The US Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service conducts a program
which is ancillary to the USNPS Wild and Scenic Rivers System. USHCRS is
one of the agencies authorized by P.L. 90-542 to investigate rivers for
potential inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Such
rivers ultimately are placed on a National Inventory by USHCRS. In
accordance with the President's Environmental Message of August 2, 1979,
"all Federal agencies shall avoid or mitigate adverse effects on rivers
2-268
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identified in the National Inventory." Further supporting this Presidential
directive, the US Office of Environmental Project Review issued an August
15, 1980 memorandum to all heads of government bureaus and offices, stating
that inter-agency cooperation shall be extended whenever appropriate so that
adverse effects in National Inventory rivers will be mitigated. No river
segments in the Monongahela River Basin were included in the National
Inventory following the completion of Phase One of the USHCRS program
(USHCRS 1979).
On August 15, 1980, the Office of Environmental Project Review issued
Memorandum No. ES80-2 stating how this interagency coordination could best
be accomplished.
The second, and final phase of the USHCRS program was completed as of
August 1980. A final list of potential rivers being considered for
inclusion in the National Inventory under this phase of the program includes
the following rivers in the Monongahela River Basin (USHCRS 1980):
• Cheat River, from Headwaters to Lake Lynn to Albright
• Dry Fork of Cheat River, from Blackwater River to Gladwin
• Glady Fork of Cheat River, Dry Fork of Cheat River to
headwaters above Glady
• Middle Fork River, from Tygart Valley River to Lantz
• Shavers Fork at Cheat River, Faulkner to headwaters above
Spruce
• Tygart Valley River, from Monongahela River to Tygart
Junction
• Tygart Valley River, from Tygart Junction to Bellington.
These rivers possess no special Federal protection until such time as they
are officially placed on the National Rivers Inventory List.
The West Virginia Legislature enacted the Natural Streams Preservation
Act during 1969 (West Virginia Code 20-5B). This Act established the
preservation and protection in their natural condition of streams that
possess outstanding scenic, recreational, geological, fish and wildlife,
botanical, historical, archaeological, or other scientific or cultural
values as a public policy of the State. The Act also established a permit
procedure for the impounding, diverting, or flooding of any streams within
the natural stream preservation system. In the Monongahela River Basin,
no streams were protected under this Act as of mid-1978. The West Virginia
Governor's Office of State-Federal Relations and the WVDNR have established
preliminary criteria and currently are evaluating other streams for possible
inclusion in a new system of State wild, scenic, and recreational rivers
2-269
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(WVGOSFR 1975). Several streams in the Basin have potential for inclusion
in this State system: Cheat River, Blackwater River, Shaver's Fork of Cheat
River, Blackfork River, Dry Fork River, Glady Fork of Dry Fork River, Laurel
Fork of Dry Fork River, Red Creek, and Gandy Creek.
According to a study conducted by the Ohio River Basin Commission
(1975:57) which utilized information from the 1970-1975 State Comprehensive
Outdoor Recreation Plans of Maryland and West Virginia, the Monongahela
River Basin is expected to have a deficit of 7,041 boatable acres and 1,500
fishing acres by 1985. Demand for canoeing sites and Whitewater streams was
not computed separately from general boating and was considered difficult to
define. The USBOR (now USHCRS) estimated a need on the
Monongahela-Youghiogheny River Basin for 2,600 to 2,800 miles of stream
suitable for canoeing by the year 2000. At present, of the 11,000 miles of
streams and rivers in the Basin, about 500 miles are rated as canoeable.
The Ohio River Basin Commission identified high quality canoeing,
Whitewater, and fishing streams for future reference for planning and
detailed study (ORBC 1975): Cheat River, Shaver's Fork of Cheat River,
Muddle Fork River (from Gandy to confluence with Tygart Valley River), and
the Monongahela River from Fairmont to Pittsburgh PA.
State Facilities. There are two State Forests in the Monongahela River
Basin (Table 2-72). Coopers Rock State Forest is near the commercial and
cultural center of Morgantown. It contains 12,698 acres with facilities for
camping, picnicking, hiking, playground recreation, and winter sports.
Public hunting and fishing areas also are provided. Out-of-state visitors
to Coopers Rock State Forest constituted 58% of the total of nearly 2.5
million visitors from 1973 to 1977 (WVDNR 1978). "
The Kumbrabow State Forest contains 9,431 acres near the western
boundary of the Monongahela National Forest. It was named for three
families who contributed to establishment of the Forest: The Kump, Brady,
and Bowers families. The Forest contains five rustic cabins, twelve tent or
trailer campsites, and facilities for picnicking, hiking, and playground
recreation. Hunting and fishing areas also are available. Out-of-state
visitors to Kumbrabow State Forest accounted for 19% of the total 99,000
visitors between 1 January 1973 and 31 December 1977. The distance to the
more densely populated areas of West Virginia and major highways partly
explains the relatively low visitation at Kumbrabow. The relative lack of
facilities is an additional factor (Tablff 2-72).
There are twenty State Parks and related facilities in the Monongahela
River Basin. Facilities provided at State Parks may include cabins, lodge
rooms, campsites, restaurants, refreshment stands, hiking trails, picnicking
sites, playgrounds, horseback riding facilities, hiking trails, ski areas,
tennis courts, hunting areas, fishing areas, facilities for swimming and
boating, golf courses, and places of historic interest. Although none of
the State Parks provides all of the above facilities, Canaan Valley,
Blackwater Falls, and Tygart Lake State Parks offer most of them. These are
the most popular State Parks, and each has more than 300 thousand visitors
2-270
-------
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annually. They also have the greatest appeal to out-of-state visitors, who
account for more than 40% of total attendance (Table 2-72).
The Canaan Valley Scenic Area and Blackwater Falls Scenic Area are
located in the Monongahela National Forest near the State Parks of the same
name (see Section 2.5.). They are administered by the West Virginia
Department of Natural Resources. Canaan Valley, a mountain valley situated
at an elevation of 3,400 feet, supports a diverse flora and fauna, some of
which are uncommon in the region. Blackwater Falls descends a distance of
57 feet from a resistant limestone ledge to Blackwater Canyon. This scenic
area is partially on private land, partially on State land, and partially
within the Cheat Ranger District of the Monongahela National Forest. It
contains a narrow, 525 foot deep gorge strewn with massive boulders. The
waters of the Blackwater River descend at a rate of 136 feet per mile
through the Canyon. There are several scenic overlooks in the Monongahela
National Forest that are managed by the US Forest Service.
This scenic area is partially on private land, partially on State land,
and partially within the Cheat Ranger District of the Monongahela National
Forest. It contains a narrow, 525 foot deep gorge strewn with massive
boulders. The waters of the Blackwater River descend at a rate of 136 feet
per mile through the Canyon. There are several scenic overlooks in the
Monongahela National Forest that are managed by the US Forest Service.
Local Facilities. Counties and municipalities in West Virginia actively are
involved in the provision of outdoor recreation areas and facilities for
public use. State legislation enables both county and municipal governments
to provide recreational services (West Virginia Code 10-2). Those in the
Monongahela River Basin, which have an established park and recreation
commission, are listed in Table 2-73.
Additional public and semi-public recreation facilities exist in almost
every county of the Monongahela River Basin (Table 2-74). Most are located
in Randolph and Tucker County.
Private Facilities. Privately-operated facilities provide a significant
portion of the recreational resources of West Virginia. Their importance is
highlighted in the State Recreation Plan (WVGOECD 1979) as follows:
The State recognizes the necessity and desirability for
private enterprise to complement and supplement public
outdoor recreation services and areas. Private investments
not only increase the opportunity for participation in
outdoor recreation experiences but also have the secondary
benefit of broadening the economic base of the State through
the development of a tourist industry.
Specific data on private facilities are not available for every county.
Available information suggests that there is a wide variance in the
distribution of privately-owned recreation facilities in the Monongahela
2-272
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2-273
-------
Table 2-74. Counties and municipalities in the Monongahela River Basin
which have established a Park and Recreation Commission (WVGOECD 1975)
Counties
Barbour
Harrison
Marion
Monongalia
Taylor
Upshur
Municipalities
Clarksburg
Elkins
Kingwood
2-274
-------
River Basin. Private facilities in the Basin include camps, campgrounds,
golf clubs, hunting and fishing clubs, swimming pools, tennis clubs, and
trails.
2.6.1.5.6. Availability of Water and Sewer Services. Studies and
plans made by Federal, State, and local governmental agencies have consist-
ently identified improved water and sewage systems as a basic necessity for
furthering economic development in West Virginia. Nearly all of the State's
priority needs, such as improved housing, industrial/ commercial expansion,
and economic diversification, are contingent on provision of adequate water
and sewer service.
The rural portions of the Monongahela River Basin are faced with a
two-pronged problem: existing systems are inadequate to accommodate future
growth, and a large proportion of the population is unserved by existing
facilities. In the more urbanized sections of the Basin such as Morgantown,
a higher proportion of the population is served by existing water and sewer
facilities, but these facilities are often obsolete and inadequate to
support the demands imposed by population growth and industrial expansion.
Several factors contribute to the problems of wastewater treatment and
water supply availability in the Basin, including:
• Limitations on the use of septic tank systems.
Excessive slopes of mountains and hillsides, shallow soils
in many areas, prevalence of clay soils, and minimal
alluvial deposits in valleys make a high percentage of the
land unsuitable for septic tank systems. Despite this,
approximately 50% of the State's population presently is
served by septic tank systems, by sanitary pit privies, or
by discharge directly into streams. In an effort to
overcome the problems associated with unsewered areas, the
West Virginia Board of Health instituted a major revision
in its requirements for small sewage disposal systems in
1971. Included was a requirement that all new
subdivisions be served by a sewer system, unless the West
Virginia Department of Health determines that such systems
are not feasible because of rugged topography, low
population density, geographical barriers, or other
overriding factors. This requirement has resulted in a
shift by real estate developers in West Virginia to the
use of package treatment plants (WVGOECD 1979).
• Water supply needs of additional and high-density housing
developments. Most existing piped water systems in the
Basin are small, with little capacity for additional
loading. Many persons obtain water from private wells.
Coal mining activity has aggravated water supply problems
locally by degrading both surface and groundwater quality,
and, in some cases, by greatly reducing groundwater
2-275
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quantity. Reduction in groundwater quantity occurs also
as a result of the disruption of aquifers and the lowering
of the water table as a result of underground mining.
• Lack of funding. The rugged topography of much of the
Basin often requires elaborate pumping systems which, in
turn, increase the cost of such systems. EPA has
estimated that the cost of facilities construction in
West Virginia is twice the National average (WVGOECD
1979). Also, multiple sources of funding, including
USHUD, USFMHA, USEDA, EPA, and ARC, each with its own
criteria and priorities, have caused delays and cost
increases in facilities provision. Specific problems in
dealing with multiple agency requirements include
differences in funding requirements, differences in
regulations, and lack of synchronization in the timing of
applications.
• Low population densities in many sections of the Basin.
The rural nature of many communities often prevents
development of cost-effective service. Regional systems
designed to serve clusters of communities often encounter
geographical barriers that make such alternatives
prohibitively expensive.
• Lack of management and maintenance personnel. Although
package treatment plants often are a viable solution to
service the needs of small communities or subdivisions,
inadequate maintenance of these facilities frequently
reduces their operating life and effectiveness. Small
towns often have difficulty in finding and supporting a
trained operator to maintain technologically sophisticated
systems adequately. In some areas, these problems have
been alleviated by the implementation of regional
management systems with costs shared among several
jurisdictions. In other areas, countywide public service
districts have been established.
In those areas where water and wastewater treatment service is not
provided and where substantial additional induced growth can be expected as
the result of proposed large-scale New Source mining, water and wastewater
treatment needs can be a serious issue.
2.6.1.5.7. Solid Waste. There is solid waste collection service for
approximately 55% of the residents of West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979). This
includes approximately 110 towns that provide refuse collection, as well as
nearly 180 private haulers that offer services in both urban and rural
areas. Additional services and technical assistance are supplied by a
variety of other agencies and institutions including WVDH, WVDNR, WVGES,
boards of education, hospitals, and universities.
2-276
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Much of the State has no solid waste collection service at present. In
these unserviced areas, waste accumulates in backyards and vacant lots or is
deposited at informal dumps along roadways. In addition to a lack of
collection facilities, disposal practices for solid waste that is collected
are often inadequate. The West Virginia Department of Health estimated that
75 permitted landfills and over 150 other authorized landfills serve only a
small portion of the State's need. Consequently, much of the solid waste is
disposed of on other lands, often in an unsatisfactory manner. Open dumps
and burning contribute to air and water pollution and provide havens for
insects, rodents, and other disease-carriers. Moreover, these illegal dumps
are noisome and unsightly, and very often reduce neighboring property
values.
Several constraints exist to the development of effective measures to
address solid waste problems. One major constraint is the incomplete and
fragmented levels of authority and responsibility among State and local
authorities. Another institutional constraint is public opposition to
treatment, recovery, and disposal facility siting. Concern about illegal
dumping seems largely limited to only those who are directly affected.
Also, because of the implementation of environmental control requirements,
land disposal costs will increase in the future. The willingness and
ability to pay for these additional costs may be an additional constraint to
the development of an effective management system. Finally, because of the
rugged terrain, weather conditions, and low population density throughout
much of the State, transportation of solid waste is complicated and time
consuming. This creates a barrier to an efficient solid waste disposal
system and to the operational resource recovery systems which are cost
effective only when large amounts of refuse are delivered to a central
facility for processing into useful commodities.
Legislation has been passed at the Federal and State levels to aid in
the development of satisfactory disposal practices and to plan for all
aspects of solid waste management. The Federal Solid Waste Disposal Act, as
amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the West Virginia
Resource Recovery and Solid Waste Disposal Authority Act, are two major
stimuli to improve solid waste management in the State. These laws provide
guidelines and financial assistance for development and implementation of
State and regional comprehensive solid waste plans and for developing
criteria for identification of unacceptable disposal facilities. The Solid
Waste Authority, as mandated by the State Act, designated interim solid
waste sheds in June 1978. Under this designation, solid waste planning
areas follow the administrative boundaries of RPDC's. These sheds will
serve as the base for all Statewide planning and management activities, with
emphasis to be placed on coordination of existing systems and programs.
Land for solid waste disposal in sanitary landfills generally is avail-
able in the Basin. The use of abandoned surface mines for disposal is a
common practice. Private ownership of solid waste disposal operations is
encouraged by State and local governments. The West Virginia Solid Waste
Act requires that prior to the opening of a sanitary landfill, a plan for a
2-277
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solid waste site, including a site survey and operating plan, must be
prepared under the supervision of a registered professional engineer and
approved by the Sanitary Engineering Division of the West Virginia Depart-
ment of Health. Not all currently operating disposal facilities comply with
this regulation, and enforcement of the regulation is sometimes inadequate
(Regional Intergovernmental Council 1977). In rural areas, open dumping is
a common practice, and open dumps are used and tolerated by many residents.
Open dumps are difficult to control because of the remoteness of many rural
areas and because of the lack of practical disposal alternatives.
2.6.1.5.8. P1anning Capabi1ities. The planning function in West
Virginia has usually been carried out by ad hoc boards and commissions which
are not integrated into local policy development or decision making. Their
members are typically private citizens who have earned a reputation in the
local business community, and who usually act on the premise that planning
and development essentially means increased business growth. Elected city
officials traditionally are only peripherally involved as ex-officio members
on these planning boards (Brown 1974).
Planning has not been internalized as a central policy or program
concern of local government. There is, in fact, little orientation toward
institutional or social change among the traditional planning organizations.
Community concern usually is manifested only when highly sensitive issues
are involved, such as zoning, land use regulations, and annexation
referenda. Sectionalism is encouraged, and an overall planning strategy is
neglected. This lack of objectivity results in haphazard development and
piecemeal projects. Consequently, it is important for each community to
formulate and adopt a plan which reflects the goals and objectives of the
local residents.
The Department of Planning and Development consists of two divisions,
State Planning and Community Affairs. State Planning provides technical
advisory services to local and RPDC personnel in the preparation of their
respective development plans. Also, it assists in the establishment of
Statewide planning practices and programs. Community Affairs functions as
the liaison between the RPDC's and the State. Also, it performs research
functions, providing the RPDC's with materials in the preparation of their
programs.
The Regional Planning and Development Act (RPDA) was passed in 1971 and
represented the first regional effort by the West Virginia Legislature for
Statewide planning and development. The Act may be analyzed on the basis
of the:
• Responsibilities of the Governor
• Establishment of regional councils (RPDC's)
• Functions, powers, and responsibilities of the councils.
2-278
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The Legislature designated the Governor as having overall
responsibility for planning and development. He delineates the boundaries
of RPDC's and provides for their organization. By law, he is charged with
the responsibilities of preparing an Annual State Plan (submitted to the
Legislature), providing technical assistance to RPDC's, and coordinating the
State's participation in Federal programs. The most significant event
following the enactment of the RPDA was the defining of the regional
boundaries and RPDC's, and the attendant public hearings. These hearings
provided the first opportunity for public feedback on the regional program
in West Virginia. Reactions ranged from enthusiastic support to passive
acceptance to high opposition (Brown 1974). Parts of the Monongahela River
Basin are located within RPDC Regions VI and VII.
2.6.1.5.9. Local Planning in the Monongahela River Basin.. Local
planning generally is lacking in the Basin. A summary of the status of
planning in the counties and major cities within the Basin is presented in
Table 2-75.
2.6.2. Land Use and Land Availability
Potentially serious conflicts exist between mining land uses and urban
land uses in the Monongahela River Basin due to competition for the limited
amounts of developable land and also from induced population growth
resulting from mining activity. These indirect impacts are made more severe
by steep slopes and floodprone areas found in many parts of the Basin.
These two factors intensify the competition for available, developable land.
This section describes the distribution of land uses, land use constraints,
and potential conflicts within the Basin and indicates where problems are
likely to be most severe.
2.6.2.1. Classification System.
Mapping (see front pocket, Land Use/Land Cover Map and Table 2-18 in
Section 2.3.) of land use-land cover patterns in the Monongahela River Basin
in this report are based on a 12-category classification system. The system
used here is a modification of the Level II land use-land cover
classification system developed by USGS (Anderson 1976). The USGS system
has been simplified in two ways in order to facilitate the interpretation of
coal mining and related impacts. First, categories of land use that do not
occur in the Basin (e.g., glaciers and dry salt flats) have been eliminated.
Second, the 22 Level II categories that do occur within the Basin have been
combined into 12 more general categories.
The land use categories used in this study, the USGS category or
categories to which they are equivalent, and brief definitions of these
categories are presented below. A more detailed description of the Level II
classification system and its uses is provided by Anderson (1976).
Residential (USGS category 11, Residential). Uses within this category
range from high density urban core areas to low density suburban areas.
2-279
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Table 2-75. Status of planning in the counties and cities in the Monongahela River
Basin, West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979).
Key:
Status of Planning Commission — x-None «-Yes, staff o-Yes, no staff.
Status of Comprehensive Plan, Zoning Ordinance, and Subdivision Regulation —
x-None o-Not adopted/under review ^-Adopted p-Partially adopted.
Status of Capital Improvements Program — x-None o-Yes, prepared «-Yes, adopted
p-Yes, not adhered to.
Status of Housing Authority — x-None »-Yes
Capital
Counties/ Planning Comprehensive Zoning Subdivision Improvements Housing
Cities Commission PlanOrdinance Regulation Program Authority
Barbour County
Harrison County
Anmoore
Bridgeport
Clarksburg
Lost Creek
Lumberport
Nutter Fort
Salem
Shinnston
Stonewood
Lewis County
Weston
Marion County
Fairmont
West Milford
Monongalia County
Morgantown
Westover
Preston County
Kingwood
Terra Alta
Randolph County
Elkins
Taylor County
Grafton
Tucker County
Upshur County
Buckhannon
•
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2-280
-------
Linear residential developments along transportation routes, commonly found
in the Basin, are included in this classification. Rural recreational and
residential subdivisions also are included.
Commercial (USGS category 12, Commercial and Services). These areas
are devoted primarily to the sale of products and/or services. Included are
central business districts, shopping centers, and commercial "strip" devel-
opments along highways. Educational, religious, health, correctional, and
military facilities also are included in this category.
Industrial, Transportation, Communications, and Utilities (USGS
categories: 13, Industrial Land; 14, Transportation, Communication, and
Utilities; and 15, Industrial and Commercial Complexes).
• Industrial Land includes both light and heavy industry.
Surface structures associated with mining operations are
assigned to this category. These include access roads,
processing facilities, stockpiles, and storage sheds.
• Transportation, Communication, and Utilities uses include
highways, railways, airports, pipelines, and electric
transmission lines. These uses are often linear in nature
and are of such a small scale that they are included with
other urban and non-urban uses with which they are
associated.
• Industrial and Commercial complexes include industrial
parks and closely associated warehousing and wholesaling
facilities.
Mixed and Other Developed Areas (USGS categories: 16, Mixed Urban or
Built-up Land and 17, Other Urban or Built-up Land).
• Mixed Urban or Built-up Land includes other developed uses
(described above) where the pattern of individual uses is
too complex to be portrayed at the mapping scale
• Other Urban or Built-up Land includes urban parks,
cemeteries, golf courses, and waste dumps.
Agricultural (USGS categories: 21, Cropland and Pasture; 22, Orchards,
Groves, Etc.; 23, Confined Feeding Operations; and 24, Other Agricultural
Land).
• Cropland and Pasture includes harvested cropland, idle
cropland, land on which crop failure has occurred, pasture
land, and land in pasture-crop rotation
• Orchards, Groves, Etc., includes fruit and nut crop areas,
vineyards, and nurseries
2-281
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• Confined Feeding Operations are large, specialized
livestock production enterprises
• Other Agricultural Land includes farmsteads, farm roads
and ditches, corrals, small ponds, and similar uses.
Deciduous Forest (USGS category 41, Deciduous Forest Land) includes
forested areas with a crown closure of 10% or more in which most of the
trees lose their leaves during winter.
Evergreen Forest (USGS category 42, Evergreen Forest Land) includes all
forested areas in which trees are predominantly those that retain their
leaves all year. This includes both needleleaf evergreens (e.g., pines and
spruce) and broadleaf evergreen shrubs (e.g., rhododendron).
Mixed Forest (USGS category 43, Mixed Forest Land) includes areas where
more than a one-third intermixture of either evergreen or deciduous trees
occurs within a given forested area (see Section 2.3.).
Water (USGS categories: 51, Streams and Canals; 52, Lakes; and 53,
Reservoirs). Included are all persistently water-covered areas at least
600 feet wide and 40 acres in area.
Wetlands (USGS categories: 61, Forested Wetlands and 62, Nonforested
Wetlands) includes areas where the water table is at, near, or above the
land surface for a significant part of most years. Aquatic or hydrophytic
vegetation is usually established (see Section 2.3.).
Surface Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits (USGS category 75, Strip ^
Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits)includesactive strip mines.
Transitional Areas (USGS category 76, Transitional Areas) includes all
areas in transition from one use to another. This transition phase includes
clearance of forest lands for agriculture or urban development. This
category also includes surface mines after mining activity has ceased and
before revegetation has been accomplished.
USGS utilized aerial photographs and other remote sensing data as the
primary source in compilation of the land use-land cover maps and acreage
tabulations. The maps were prepared at a scale of 1:250,000. The minimum
parcel size that could be interpreted for inclusion in these maps was 10
acres in developed areas (residential; commercial; industrial; transporta-
tion, communication, and utilities; mixed and other developed) and in
surface mined areas. The minimum parcel that could be interpreted in other
areas was 40 acres (USGS 1978). As a result of this scale of resolution,
the land use maps presented in the Land Use/Land Cover Map should be
considered to be generalized. Many small scale features, especially those
representing urban development and water areas, are not included.
Consequently, the data in Table 2-18 probably underrepresent the extent of
urban uses and water area in the Basin to some extent.
2-282
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2.6.2.2. Land Use Patterns
This section describes land use patterns associated with intensive
human occupance. These uses include residential; commercial; industrial,
transportation, communication, and utilities; and mixed and other land uses
in urban areas. Also discussed in this section are surface mining use and
transitional uses. Transitional uses generally represent an intermediate
phase in the development of urban or surface mine uses. All land use
patterns not associated with intensive human occupance (woodlands, wetlands,
water areas, etc.) are described in Section 2.3. These non-intensive uses
often are termed land cover. The county-specific data presented in Table
2-18, and referred to below, represent the entirety of the 10 Basin counties
which are wholly or primarily within the boundary of the Monongahela River
Basin.
A total of approximately 83 square miles (53,022 acres) of the Basin
is classified as having urban land uses (Table 2-18). This represents only
1.9% of the Basin area. Residential uses are the predominant developed land
use. Most of the urbanized areas are located in the central portion of the
Basin, in and around the Morgantown-Fairmont area. Urban uses include 14.5
square miles (9,281 acres) of industrial, transportation, communication, and
utilities area. An unknown proportion of this area is coal mine access
roads, processing facilities, material stockpiles, and storage warehouses.
Surface mining use occupies 25,788 acres of the Basin (approximately 40
square miles, or 0.9% of the total area. The majority of surface mine uses
are located in Preston, Lewis, Harrison, Barbour, and Upshur Counties. The
measurements of surface mined area do not include mines with areas of under
10 acres or mine areas that have been revegetated. Revegetated mine areas
are included in the appropriate category describing current use (e.g.,
deciduous forest). Transitional uses represent a small portion (7,553
acres) of the Basin area.
2.6.2.3. Steep Slopes
Potential negative impacts of mining on urban land uses and urban popu-
lations are increased in some areas of the Monongahela River Basin by the
predominance of steep slopes. Steep slopes not only limit the amount of
land available for urban development, but also increase the potential for
negative impacts of mining activity upslope from urban development. Among
those negative impacts that become more severe are those resulting from
downslope runoff (flooding and sedimentation), blasting, and landslides.
The potential of various classes of slopes in the Monongahela River
Basin for urban development have been described as follows (RPT3C VII 1978):
Level Land (0 to 8% slope) can accommodate any type of development with a
minimum amount of earth moving. This slope class is necessary for typical
industrial or manufacturing methods using one-story, single-line production
2-283
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methods. Periodic flooding and poor drainage are problems associated with
this slope class in the Basin.
Rolling Land (9 to 16% slope) can be developed for residential and, in some
cases, commercial use without severe difficulty. This slope class also is
suited generally to pasture, forage crops, and some grain plantings.
Hilly Land (17 to 24% slope) is land suited for residential uses if careful
site planning is used to fit the development to the topography. This slope
class is generally uneconomical for high density development because of the
high costs of providing basic public services and utilities.
Steeply Sloping Land (greater than 25% slope) generally is considered
unsuitable for any type of urban development or for cultivation. Permanent
tree cover should be established or maintained to prevent erosion. Optimum
uses of this slope class are outdoor recreation, wildlife management, and
watershed protection. This slope class is valued for its scenic quality.
General slope class data (Table 2-76) do indicate that seven of the ten
counties within the Monongahela River Basin have at least one-half of their
land area with more than a 20% slope, thereby constraining future land
development. Monongalia, Lewis, Marion, and Harrison Counties appear to
have extremely large proportions of land in steep slopes.
Much of the gently sloping land in the Basin is found in valley floors.
As a result, most of the settlement is concentrated in valley floors. Also,
much of this gently sloping land that is available is highly prone to
flooding.
2.6.2.4. Flooding and Flood Insurance
The scarcity of buildable land in many sections of the Monongahela
River Basin has resulted in development on the floodplains of the
Monongahela River and its tributaries. Concentration of settlement in
floodplain areas increases the potential for flood disasters such as
occurred at Buffalo Creek (Logan County), West Virginia, in February 1972.
The relationship of surface mining land use to flooding is an issue
that has been debated heatedly. Those who believe that surface mining does
promote flooding state "rapid runoff and sedimentation generated by strip
mining operations have been the cause of numerous floods in the Appalachian
Region. ...areas of the Country which are floodprone should be permanently
protected against the practice of strip mining for coal" (Statement of Jack
Spadaro, representing the Appalachian Alliance, to hearings of the Committee
on Government Operations, US House of Representatives, 1977).
Representatives of the coal industry disagree. They contend that
increased surface infiltration allowed by surface mining, especially in
steeply sloping areas with thin soils, reduces runoff. They conclude that
"surface mining substantially reduces, rather than aggravates, water runoff
2-284
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Table 2-76. Percentage of land by slope class in the Monongahela River
Basin (Cardi 1979).
COUNTY
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
SLOPE CLASS
0-10%
13.6
5.9
2.9
7.4
7.5
19.0
8.5
10.1
29.0
11.0
10-20%
41.9
22.1
11.6
22.3
27.6
35.6
28.7
28.1
22.0
36.7
20-30%
27.9
39.6
34.6
28.5
34.4
24.8
34.0
42.5
21.9
33.9
>30%
16.6
32.4
50.9
41.8
30.5
20.6
28.8
19.3
27.1
18.4
2-285
-------
during heavy rainfalls" (statement of Michael T. Heenan, on behalf of the
National Independent Coal Operator's Association, to hearings of the ^
Committee on Government Operations, US House of Representatives, 1977). fl
Empirical studies have indicated that surface mining does result in
increased storm runoff peaks (Curtis 1977).
Construction of houses, commercial, industrial, and other facilities in
floodplain areas is discouraged by Executive Order 11988, "Floodplain
"Management." As a result of this order, all Federal agencies are mandated
to work to reduce flood losses and minimize the impacts of flooding on human
safety, health, and welfare (42 FR 101, May 25, 1977). Guidelines for
implementing Executive Order 11988 have been promulgated by the US Water
Resources Council (43 FR 29, February 10, 1978). The basic thrust of these
guidelines is to require all Federal agencies to avoid construction within
at least the 100 year floodplain unless there is no other practicable
alternative.
Insurance for flooding losses is provided by the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP). This Program was administered by the Federal
Insurance Administration of USHUD until 1979. Since 1979, it has been
administered by the Federal Insurance Administration of FEMA.
Participation in the NFIP is voluntary. All counties in the
Monongahela River Basin participate, providing coverage for unincorporated
areas. Incorporated communities within the Basin that participate in the
NFIP are listed in Table 2-77. Participation is divided into two phases,
"emergency" and "regular." Under the emergency program, limited flood
insurance protection is available to local property owners. After a mk
community applies for flood insurance, FEMA compiles and publishes a Flood ^
Hazard Boundary Map. Residents of the flood hazard areas delineated on this
map are eligible for flood insurance.
A community also must adopt and enforce floodplain management measures
designed to reduce flood hazards in order to maintain insurance eligibility
for local property owners under the emergency program. Floodplain manage-
ment measures typically include:
• Zoning, subdivision, or building requirements, or a
special floodplain ordinance to assure that construction
sites are reasonably free from flooding
• Proper anchoring of structures
• Use of construction materials and methods designed to
minimize flood damage
• Provision of adequate drainage for new subdivisions.
When a community moves from the emergency to the regular flood insur-
ance program, additional insurance coverage becomes available. The basis
2-286
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Table 2-77. Communities in the Monongahela River Basin which are
participants in the National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA 1979)
County
Barbour
Harrison
LewLs
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Community
Belington
Junior
Philippi
Anmoore
Bridgeport
Clarksburg
Nutter Fort
Salem
Shinnston
Stonewood
West Milford
Jane Lew
Weston
Baurackville
Fairmont
Fairview
Farmington
Grant
Mannington
Monongah
Riversville
Worthington
Blacksville
Granville
Morgantown
Osage
Star City
Westover
Albright
Bruceton Mills
Kingwood
Newburg
Reedsville
Rowlesburg
Terra Alta
2-287
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Table 2-77. Communities in the Monongahela River Basin which are
participants in the National Flood Insurance Program (concluded)
County Community
Randolph Beverly
Coalton
Elkins
Barman
Huttonsville
Mill Creek
Montrose
Taylor Flemington
Graf ton
Tucker Davis
Hambleton
Hendricks
Parsons
Thomas
Upshur Buckhannon
2-288
-------
for entry into the regular program is the preparation by FEMA of a Flood
Insurance Rate Map (FIRM). The FIRM shows flood elevations and outlines
flood risk zones. The regular program also requires more comprehensive
floodplain management measures than the emergency program. These include
elevation or floodproofing of structures in the floodplain and measures
designed to prevent obstruction of the floodway (FEMA 1980).
2.6.2.5. Forms and Concentration of Land Ownership
The separation of surface and subsurface land ownership in many
sections of the Monongahela River Basin could have a significant impact upon
urban development and settlement patterns. Information regarding ownership
(fee-simple, surface, mineral, etc.) can be obtained at the respective
county tax assesor's office. Three forms of land ownership are found in
West Virginia:
• Fee simple (absolute) ownership, which includes all legal
rights to surface use, subsurface use, subsurface
activities, and timber
o Surface ownership, which applies to surface uses such as
housing, agriculture, etc.
• Mineral or timber rights, which can include one owner for
all resources, or separate owners for each of a variety
of resources.
In many coal producing areas, the surface and subsurface ownership
rights are held by different individuals and/or corporations. This
characteristic of "overlapping ownership" has caused numerous conflicts as
to the right of use for property. Before 1960, surface mining was uncommon
in West Virginia. Coal rights that were sold or leased were assumed to be
intended for underground mining. Since 1960, surface mining has become
common in many areas, leading to conflict between surface and subsurface
owners because removal of coal and other minerals entailed destruction of
surface uses and structures. The Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclam-
ation Act definitively has established that the permission of the surface
owner must be obtained as a prerequisite to the processing of a surface mine
permit application by USOSM (see Section 4.0).
Statewide concentration of land ownership is a significant issue Figure
2-42J. It also is a problem in some parts of the Monongahela River Basin
(Figure 2-42). In seven counties (Barbour, Harrison, Marion, Monongalia,
Taylor, Tucker, and Upshur) over 50% of the land is owned by fewer than 20
companies or individuals. In Harrison County, six companies own 91% of all
land (Table 2-78).
Two important factors in the issue of concentration of land ownership
are the scarcity of developable land in some sections of the Basin and the
dominance of coal mining interests in ownership of land that is developable.
2-289
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-------
It is in the interest of coal mining concerns to own or control large blocks
of land in order to justify future large scale investments for mining.
Also, in most cases the value of underlying coal is greater than the
possible return from surface development of land for industrial, commercial,
or residential uses (Miller 1974). Thus, companies or individuals owning
mineral rights to a parcel of land frequently will seek to prevent surface
development.
Conflicts between coal companies wishing to preserve subsurface rights
and residents of areas with highly concentrated land ownership have become
very intense in many areas of West Virginia. In Mingo County, the State of
West Virginia has sued the Cotiga Land Company in order to develop a housing
project. The State has won initial court judgements in this case, which has
been appealed to Federal District Court. A bill was introduced by Governor
Rockefeller in the 1980 session of the State Legislature to give WVHDF the
right of eminent domain for development of housing projects (Grimes 1980).
2.6.2.6. General Patterns of Land Use and Land Availability Conflicts
As described above, various areas of the Monongahela River Basin are
subject to land use and availability constraints. The major constraints
described are:
• extent of current surface mining activity
• extent of current urban development
• extent of steeply sloping land
• extent of concentrated land ownership
• concentration of buildable land in floodplain areas.
Of the five constraints listed above, all except concentration of
buildable land in floodplain areas can be summarized in numerical form.
Table 2-79 indicates how the counties in the Basin compare in terms of
percentage of land devoted to surface mining, urban development, steep
slopes, and concentrated ownership. Of the Basin counties, Harrison and
Taylor Counties ranks highly in four of the four constraints. Marion and
Monongalia Counties rank highly in terms of three of the four constraints.
Six of the counties rank highly in half of the constraints listed.
2-293
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Table 2-79, Summary of land development characteristics in the Monongahela
River Basin. See text for explanation of characteristics.
Proportion of Area
>1% active
County surface mining
>3% urban
development
>20% steeply
sloping*
>25% in concen-
trated ownership
Barbour
Harrison
L ewi s
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
*Defined as >20% slope
2-294
-------
2.7 Earth Resources
-------
Page
2.7 Earth Resources 2-295
2.7.1. Physiography, Topography, and Drainage 2-295
2.7.2. Steep Slopes and Slope Stability 2-298
2.7.2.1. Steep Slopes 2-298
2.7.2.2. Unstable Slopes . 2-298
2.7.3. Floodprone Areas 2-305
2.7.4. Soils 2-305
2.7.5. Prime Farmland 2-311
2.7.6. Geology 2-312
2.7.6.1. Geology of the Basin 2-320
2.7.6.2. Structural Features of the Basin 2-325
2.7.6.3 Stratigraphy 2-325
2.7.6.4. Coal Measures 2-329
2.7.6.5. Toxic Overburden 2-332
-------
2.7. EARTH RESOURCES
This section first describes the physiography and topography of the
Monongahela River Basin. The most recent available information on
landslides and unstable slope areas, floodprone areas, prime agricultural
land, and soils is presented in the following sections. Finally, the
general geology of the Basin is discussed with special attention to coal
resources and their occurrence and distribution within the Basin. The areal
extent of toxic or potentially toxic overburden associated with minable coal
seams in the Basin also is discussed.
2.7.1. Physiography, Topography, and Drainage
The Monongahela River Basin is located in the Appalachian Plateaus
Province of the Appalachian Highlands. In West Virginia, the Appalachian
Plateaus Province includes the Allegheny Mountain section to the east and
the Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau section to the west. The boundary between
these two sections in the Basin is approximately coincident with the
ridgelines of Rich Mountain, Laurel Mountain, and Briery Mountain (Figure
2-43).
The highest elevation in the Basin occurs near Mace in Pocahontas
County (4,850 feet above mean sea level). The lowest elevation in the Basin
in West Virginia occurs where the Monongahela River flows across the State
boundary (800 feet; Figure 2-44).
The Allegheny Mountain section includes parts of the drainage basins of
the Tygart Valley River, the Cheat River, and the Youghiogheny River. This
section includes most of the higher altitude land of the Basin, as well as
most of the Monongahela National Forest within the Basin.
Ridgelines in the Mountain section generally trend northeastward and
decrease in altitude toward the north and west. They also broaden to
rolling plateaus in Preston, Tucker, and northeastern Randolph Counties,
especially along Backbone Mountain and Allegheny Mountain. Stream valleys
throughout the section generally are broad. Steeply sloping valley walls
locally flatten to more gently sloping terraces that are elevated above
valley bottoms, especially along Shavers Fork and Glady Fork.
The Unglaciated Allegheny Plateaus section of the Basin generally
contains less steeply sloping land at lower elevations than is common in the
Mountain section. Drainage divides (ridgelines) in the Plateau section,
including the western boundary of the Monongahela River Basin, are broader
and flatter than drainage divides in the Mountain section.
Steep slopes in the Mountain section are likely to consist of resistant
rock strata that erode to abrupt escarpments and cliffs. Gentle slopes in
the Plateau section generally consist of poorly consolidated soil and
colluvium, and no bedrock generally is exposed at the surface under natural
conditions.
2-295
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Figure 2-43
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
Quadrangles are those in which landslide-prone areas have been identified
(Lessing et al. 1976). Spot elevations are in feet above sea level (USGS1956).
I
4350
2-296
-------
Figure 2-44
GENERALIZED TOPOGRAPHY OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from Ward and Wilmoth 1968)
ALTITUDE IN FEET ABOVE
SEA LEVEL
OVER 4,000
3,000 TO 4,000
2,000 TO 3,000
1,000 TO 2,000
I I UNDER 1,000
2-297
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2.7.2. Steep Slopes and Slope Stability
2.7.2.1. Steep Slopes
Steep slopes are the places where the mass movement of earth material
is most likely to occur following mining or other disturbances. Landslides
along West Virginia highways are most common where slopes range between 20%
and 35% (Hall 1974, Lessing et al. 1976). In many areas, more severe slopes
already have been stabilized through slides and other earth movements,
whereas these lesser slopes (20% to 35%) remain unstable and sensitive to
mine-related disturbances. Furthermore, a steep slope has been defined by
EPA as an area where the average slope is greater than 25% (14°).l
In the Monongahela River Basin, nearly 25% of the land surface exceeds
25% slope. Most of the steep slopes in the Basin are located in its eastern
half. The largest concentrations of steep slopes occur in Tucker County
where about 30% of the county is comprised of steep slopes. Also, 20-25% of
Randolph County and 15-20% of Preston County are comprised of steep slopes.
On Figure 2-45 slopes of 25% or greater are identified where they extend
over a distance of at least 160 feet (on maps with a 20 foot contour
interval) or 320 feet (on maps with a 40 foot contour interval).
2.7.2.2. Unstable Slopes
In West Virginia, most slope failures are confined to the thin layer of
soil and weathered rock (colluvium) that develops on the steep valley
slopes. Rockfalls usually are associated with excavation activities, but
they also may occur on natural cliff faces where meandering streams erode
soft rocks which underlie more resistant sandstone bluffs. Any construction
activity that involves:
• removal of vegetation
• increased loading on a slope
• undercutting the slope, or
• alteration of the hydrologic balance (surface water and
groundwater)
J-As defined in "Best Practices for New Source Surface and Underground Coal
Mines," issued in a September 1, 1977 Memorandum to Regional Administrators
that provides interim guidelines on the application of NEPA to New Source
coal mines. These guidelines are expected to be updated in the near future
and made compatible with USOSM regulations.
2-298
-------
Figure 2-45
STEEP SLOPES OF 25% AND OVER IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (WAPORA I960)
\
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
2-299
-------
may induce slope failure. Coal raining and its related activities commonly
involve all of these. Other factors which increase the potential for slope
failure are (Lessing et al. 1976):
• Bedrock Factors - The red shales of the Monongahela and
Conetnaugh Groups are naturally weak and incompetent
(see Section 2.7.6.). These red shales weather rapidly,
especially when exposed, and are the rock type most
commonly associated with landslides in West Virginia.
• Soil Factors - Easily erodible soils are thin, clayey
soils weathered from shales. These soils are usually on
steep inclines, impede groundwater infiltration, and are
easily erodible.
• Slope Configuration - Naturally occurring or artificial
concave slope configurations concentrate water, which
lubricates joints to cause slope failure. Of the
landslides studied in Virginia, 69% occurred on concave
slopes .
• Climate - West Virginia typically experiences numerous
heavy precipitation events of limited duration during the
winter and spring. High soil moisture content, frozen
ground, and steep slopes add to surface runoff problems by
reducing the infiltration rate.
• Groundwater saturation as a result of precipitation events
increases the load on the slope, increases water pressure,
and lowers soil cohesion.
Rockfalls (Figure. 2-46), recent landslides (Figure 2-46), old
landslides, slide-prone areas, and relatively stable ground have been mapped
(scale 1:24,000) on nine USGS topographic quadrangles in the Monongahela
River Basin by the West Virginia Geologic and Economic Survey (Figure 2-43).
Landslide-prone areas were mapped in and near urban centers where the
potential future losses from landslides are greatest. The maps were
prepared to convey an appraisal of land stability at the regional scale.
The plateau landforms of the northern and western partt: of t le Basin
generally are more susceptible to landslides than the mountainous eastern
and southern sections (Figure 2-47). The numbers of landslides recorded
over a 16-year period along highways illustrate this general tendency
(Figure 2-48). Most landslides occur along slopes between 17% and 33%.
Nearly two thirds of the mapped land area in the nine quadrangles are
classified as landslide-prone (61%; Table 2-80).
Long, continuous precipitation events or sudden heavy rains may reduce
the shear strength of soils and colluvium and load these materials
sufficiently to produce landslides on steep dip and talus slopes in the
2-300
-------
DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL ROCKFALL (Lessing et al. 1976)
B
Figure 2-46
DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL LANDSLIDE WITH A SLUMP AT THE HEAD AND AN
EARTHFLOW AT THE TOE (Lessing et al. 1976)
2-301
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Basin (Springfield and Smith 1956). Future New Source coal mining activity
is likely to occur on steep slope areas (see Section 3.3.). During coal
mining on 25% to 36% slopes, spoil placed on the downs lope, even
temporarily, is highly susceptible to slope failure, especially during the
spring rainy season (Lessing et al. 1976).
WVDNR-Reclamation (1975) reported that the uncontrolled placement of
spoil on mine sites historically produced slopes ranging from 65% to 100%.
In tVie Coal River Basin the maximum stable (uncontrolled) spoil outslopes
were about 66% on sandstone and 50% on shale. As discussed at length in
subsequent sections, current regulations do not allow the uncontrolled
placement of spoil.
2.7.3. Floodprone Areas
Floodprone areas are the lands bordering a stream that are expected to
be inundated during a flood at least once every hundred years. The major
streams in the Basin have floodplains of limited areal extent. In general,
floodplains comprise less than 10% of the total area in the Basin and narrow
valley floors less than 600 feet wide are typical (Cardi et al. 1979). The
occurrence of flash floods in the Basin is likely in areas of steep slopes
with thin and erodible soils, narrow valley floors, development on the
floodplain, and timbering and coal mining activity (Cross and Schemel 1956,
Tug Valley Recovery Center 1979). The lower or mainstem areas of the
Basin's streams generally experience a more gradual rise in flood water
levels rather than the flash flooding which occurs in the narrow tributary
valleys (Cardi et al. 1979).
The Federal Emergency Management Administration has contracted with the
USGS to map the floodprone areas of West Virginia on 1:24,000-scale
topographic quadrangles for use in administering the Federal Flood Insurance
Program. Pursuant to the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, USAGE and
other private and public agencies also have delineated special flood hazard
areas in many communities that participate in the Federal Flood Insurance
Program (see Section 2.6., Table 2-77). Quadrangles in which floodplains
have been mapped are listed in Table 2-81.
2.7.4. Soils
Throughout West Virginia, soils have developed on the land surface as a
result of the interactions between climate, vegetation, bedrock type, and
slopes. A summary table of the major soils series mapped by USDA-SCS for
the Monongahela River Basin is included in Table 2-82. The status of the
soil survey publications for each county in the Basin is listed in Table
2-83.
Soils and soil associations vary in different areas of the Basin. The
major soils on the gently sloping to steep uplands in the western half of
the Basin aie the Allegheny, Clarksburg, Culleoka, Linside, Monongahela,
Upshur, Vandalia, Westmoreland, and Zoar Series. Westmoreland and Gilpin
2-305
-------
Table 2-81. USGS 7.5 minute quadrangles in the Monongahela River Basin,
West Virginia, for which flood prone areas have been mapped, 15 October
1977.
Audra
Belington
Beverly East
Beverly West
Bowden
Brucetown Mills
Century
Davis
Elkins
Fairmont East
Fairmont West
Glady
Harman
Hopeville
Junior
Kingwool
Morgantown North
Morgantown South
Mount Clare
Mozark Mountain
Nestorville
Orlando
Parsons
Philippi
Riversville
Roanoke
Rowlesburg
Shinnston
St. George
West Milford
Weston
Whitmer
2-306
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2-309
-------
Table 2-83. Status of soil survey publications for the Monongahela River
Basin, West Virginia (as of January 1977).
County
Complete, Complete, In Progress, Areas Surveyed
Published Not Published Not Complete By Request
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Pocahontas
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
X (partial)
X
X
X
X
X
X
2-310
-------
soils are characterized by coal seams in the Basin. In the eastern portion
of the Basin where the steeper slopes occur, the dominant soils are the
Barhour, Berks, Buckhannan, Calvin, Dekalb, Ernest, Meckesville and Weikert
Series. The bottomland or gentle slope areas include numerous remnant
stream terraces and floodplain areas. The dissected stream terraces are
dominated by the Allegheny, Monongahela and Westmoreland Series.
2.7.5. Prime Farmland
USDA-SCS defines prime farmland as agricultural land on gentle slopes
with textural, chemical, and organic characteristics such that, given a
proper growing season and moisture supply, sustained high yields of economic
crops can be produced. Prime farmland is best suited for producing food,
feed, fiber, oilseed, and forage. EPA deems this land worthy of protection
from long-term conversion to non-farmland uses (EPA 1979).
According to the 1979 WVDNR Surface Mining and Reclamation Regulations
(Section 20-6.11.), land is not to be considered prime farmland with respect
to topsoil management and post-mining land use requirements if the New
Source permit applicant can show that at least one of the following
conditions exists:
• Cultivated crop production on the land has occurred during
fewer than five of the last 20 years preceding the date of
the application
• The slope of the land is greater than or equal to 10%
• The land is not irrigated or naturally sub-irrigated or
lacks a developed water supply of suitable and dependable
quality and the average annual rainfall is 14 inches or
less
• The land is rocky, is frequently flooded, or has other
conditions that exclude it as a prime agricultural
resource
• Soil analysis or USDA-SCS Soil Survey information shows
that the land does not qualify as prime farmland.
These provisions for prime farmland were developed to implement the USOSM
permanent program regulations pursuant to SMCRA.
Agricultural lands are scarce generally in West Virginia because of the
prevalent steep slopes. Several categories of agricultural land are
recognized by EPA as worthy of protection from conversion to non-farm land
uses. These include prime and unique farmlands of National, Statewide, or
local significance in agricultural production. They also include farmlands
within or contiguous to environmentally sensitive areas, farmlands that may
be used for land treatment of organic wastes, and farmlands with significant
2-311
-------
capital investments that help control soil erosion and non-point source
water pollution.
A program to define prime and unique farmlands in West Virginia was
undertaken by the USDA's Soil Conservation Service. The 125 soil types that
physically qualify as prime or unique are listed in Table 2-84. They were
selected in conformance with the definitions in the USDA-SCS Important
Farmlands Inventory proposal (42 FR:42359, January 31, 1978). Published
final soil surveys are available for Barbour, Preston, and Tucker Counties.
Interim soil surveys are available for Harrison, Marion, Monongalia, and
Randolph Counties. At the time of this assessment, soil survey maps and
descriptions of soil types were not available for Taylor County (By letter,
Mr. Robert B. Lough, USDA-SCS, Grafton WV, January 29, 1978), although
modern soil mapping was completed as of January 1977 (USDA-SCS 1977f). Soil
mapping is in progress in Upshur County. Soils are mapped locally in Lewis
and Pocahontas Counties at the request of landowners, but no comprehensive
maps are available. None of the farmlands, other than prime farmlands,
have been identified by any agency.
2.7.6. Geology
The Appalachian Basin of the eastern United States was a site of
sediment accumulation for most of the Paleozoic geologic era (approximately
570 to 225 million years ago; Figure 2-49). During this time, a large
accumulation of sediments was deposited in the Basin. The coal-bearing or
carboniferous rocks of the central Appalachian Mountains (including West
Virginia) accumulated from approximately 300 to 250 million years ago,
during the Pennsylvanian and early Permian periods.
These carboniferous rocks were deposited in the coastal and nearshore
environments of an inland sea that covered sections of the several eastern
and southern states. The present distribution of the coalbearing rocks is
shown in Figure 2-50.
The carboniferous rocks include beds of coal, limestone, shale,
sandstone and conglomerate. The coastal and nearshore environments
responsible for deposition of these rocks included rivers, deltas, marshes,
swamps, backbarrier lagoons, and barrier island sequences where large
accumulations of carbonaceous material occurred (Figure 2-51). Each of
these depositional environments produced a characteristic sequence of
sedimentary rocks, or facies (Table 2-85). Figure 2-52 is a schematic
representation of the spatial relationships between various rock types that
are laid down in a typical modern backbarrier coastal environment.
It is theorized that the ancient coastline migrated in response to
fluctuations in sea level and tectonic activity. As sea level rose (or as
the Basin slowly settled), the coastal environments would migrate
southeastward (a transgression of the sea over the land). As sea level
fell, the coastal environments would migrate northwestward (a regression).
2-312
-------
Table 2-84.
(By letter
Types are:
cl, cobbly
shaly silt
silt loam;
clay loam;
Soils considered to be indicative of prime farmland in West Virginia
Mr. William Hatfield, USDA-SCS, Morgantown WV, 17 July 1978).
1, loam; fsl, fine sandy loam; sil, silt loam; si, sandy loam;
loam; csil, gravelly sandy loam; gsl, channery silt loam; shsil,
loam; gl, gravelly loam; gsil, gravelly silt loam; ctsil, cherty
ctfsl, cherty fine sandy loam; ctl, cherty loam; sicl, silty
Is, loamy sand. U indicates undifferepitiated slopes.
Series
Allegheny
Ashton
Barbour
and Pope
Braddock
Calvin
Calvin-Berks
Captina
Chagr Ln
Chavies
Cheat
C lyme r
Type
1
fsl
sil
si
cl
fsl
1
sil
fsl
fsl
gsl
gsl
gl
csil
csil
sil
sil
shsil
sil
sil
1
1
fsl
fsl
gsl
1
sil
sil
fsl
gl
1
Slope
(%)
3-8
3-8
0-3,3-8
0-3,3-8
U
U, 0-3, 3-8
U
U, 0-3, 3-8
3-10
U
U
U
U
3-8
3-10
3-10
3-8,3-10
3-8
3-8
0-3
U
U
3-8
U
0-3,3-8
U
U
U
3-8
U, 3-8, 3-10
3-8,3-10
0-3,3-8
3-10
Other
Character-
istics
Shale
substrate
High bottom
High bottom
Neutral
substrate
Neutral
substrate
Gravelly
variant
Slope
Series
Type
Other
Character-
istics
Cookport
Cotaco
Culleoka
Culleoka-
Westmore-
land
DeKalb
Duffield
Dunmore
Franks town
Frederick
Gilpin
Gilpin-
Berks
Hackers
Hagerstown
Hagerstown
&Frederick
Hartsells
Wellston
Holston
Huntington
1
1
sil
sil
sil
fsl
gsil
sil
sil
ctsil
ctfsl
sil
shsil
gl
sil
ctsil
ctl
sil
sil
shsil
1
sil
sil
sil
sicl
ctsil
&
fsl
sil
sil
fsl
1
sil
sil
2-8
U
0-3
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
2-6
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
2-6,3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
0-3,3-8
3-8
0-3,3-8
0-3,3-8,3-10
0-3,2-6,3-8
3-8
3-8
2-6
3-8
2-8
U
U, 0-3, 0-5
U
0-3,3-10
U
Thick surface
Soft shale
substrate
Karst
Local alluvit
2-313
-------
Table 2-84. Soils considered to be indicative of prime farmland in
West Virginia (conclusion).
Series
Huntington
Kanawha
Laidig
Landes
Lily
Linden
Lindside
Lobdell
Markland
Neckers-
ville
Monongahela
Monongahela
and Tilsit
Mo shannon
Murrill
Muskingum
Nolin
Philo
Type
sil
sicl
gfsl
sil
1
fsl
chl
fsl
1
fsl
sil
sil
sil
csil
sil
sil
sil
sil
sil
gsil
gsl
gl
chl
sil
csil
sil
gl
1
fsl
sil
sil
Other
Slope Character
(%) istics
U Low bottom
0-3
U
U
U
0-3,3-8
3-8
U
U.3-8
U
U
U
0-2,2-6
3-8
3-8
0-2,0-3
0-3
0-3,3-8
3-10
U Coarse
subsoil
U
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8,3-10
3-8
U
U
U
U
U
U High
bottom
Series
Pope
Pope and
Linden
Rayne
Scioto-
ville
Seneca-
ville
Sensa-
baugh
Sequatchie
Shelocta
Shouns
Summers
Teas and
Calvin
Type
fsl
fsl
gsl
si
si
1
Is
sil
gsil
fsl
sil
sil
sil
sil
sil
sil
cl
sil
1
cfsl
sil
Other
Slope Character-
(%) istics
U, 0-3, 0-6
U Sandy subsoil
U
U
U Variant
U
U
U
U-
U
3-8,3-10
U,0-3
U.0-3
u (
U
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
Teas-Calvirv-
Litz
Westmore-
land
Wheeling
Zoar
sil
sil
fsl
si
sil
sil
3-8
3-8
0-3,3-8
0-3
0-3,3-8
0-3,2-6
2-314
-------
ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH
DURATION
IN MILLIONS
OF YEARS
(APPRQX.)
MILLIONS
OF
YEARS AGO
(APPROX.)
CENOZOIC
o
o
M
O —
in
UJ
CJ
HH
q
LU
_)
Q-
Recent
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Tertiary Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsy 1 vani an
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Carrbrian
Precarrbrian
. 7 O
3.2 ,.
17-5 „
15.0 „
16-°
11.5
71
l "'fi
54-59
1Q0 195-
30-35 90C.
55 9Rn
40
25
50
35-45
>4 on /i /in
60-70 5Q
70
c;7n
Figure 2-49
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
2-315
-------
O
LU
CO
Oc\j
a:
cc
co
LJ
cow
CD
i
h-
00 CC
D
cc ,
O co UJ
CD LU _J
(J -1 UO
LJ 2 UJ
<:^ uj
O
D
CC
O»
a
2-316
-------
AREA INFLUENCED BY
.MARINE TO BRACKISH WATER-
AREA INFLUENCED
BY FRESH WATER—
BAR-1 BACK- |
RIERI BARRIER |
" I
LOWER
DELTA PLAIN
I I
(TRANSITIONAL)
I LOWER ,
DELTA PLAIN
UPPER
DELTA PLAIN-
FLUVIAL
SCALES
ORTHOQUARTZITE
SANDSTONE
GRAYWACKE
SANDSTONE
SHALE 30i
METERS!
COAL
0 10
KILOMETERS
mmaHrmnf-t*j
MILES
10
Figure 2-51 DEPOSITIONAL MODEL FOR PEAT-FOR MING (COAL)
ENVIRONMENTS IN WEST VIRGINIA. UPPER PART OF
FIGURE IS PLAN VIEW SHOWING SITES OF PEAT
FORMATION IN MODERN ENVIRONMENTS-, LOWER
PART IS CROSS-SECTION SHOWING, IN RELATIVE
TERMS, THICKNESS AND EXTENT OF COAL BEDS
AND THEIR RELATION TO SANDSTONES AND
SHALES IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS (Home et
al. 1978, after Ferm 1976)
2-317
-------
Table 2-85. Criteria for recognizing depositional environments (Perm 1974),
DEPOSITIONAL ENV IROXMENTS
CRITERIA FOR RECOGNITION'
I. Coarsening upward
A. Shale and Siltstone
sequences
1. Greater than 50 feet
2. 5 to 25 feet
B. Sandstone sequences
1. Greater than 50 feet
2. 5 to 25 feet
II. Channel Deposits
A. Fine grained abandoned
fill
1. Clay and silt
2. Organic debris
B. Active sandstone fill
1. Fine grained
2. Medium and coarse
grained
3. Pebble lags
4. Coal spar
III. Contacts
A. Abrupt (scour)
B. Gradational
IV. Bedding
A. Cross beds
1. Ripples
2. Ripple drift
3. Festoon cross beds
4. Graded beds
5. Point bar accretion
6. Irregular bedding
V. Levee Deposits
VI. Mineralogy of sandstones
A. Lithic greywacke
B. Orthoqtiartzites
VII. Fossils
A. Marine
B. Brackish
C. Fresh
D. Burrow structures
FLUVIAL AND
UPPER DELTA
PLAIN'
C-R
N
C-R
R-N
N
R
R
R
R
A
C
A
A
A
A
C-R
A
C
C-A
A
R
A
A
A
A
N
N
R
C-R
R
TRANSITIONAL
LOWER DELTA
PLAIN
C
R-N
C-A
R-C
N
R-C
C-R
C-R
C-R
C
C
C-R
A
A
A
C
A
C-A
C
A-C
R
C
C
A-C
A
N
R-C
C
R-C
C
LOWER DELTA
PLAIN
A
C-A
C-A
C-A
C-A
C-A
A-C
A-C
A-C
C-R
C-R
R
C
C
C
C-A
A
A
C-R
C-A
C-A
R-N
R-C
R-C
A-C
N-R
C-A
C
R-N
A
BACK-BARF IER
C-A
C-A
C-A
C
R
C
C
C
C-R
C-R
C-R
R
C-R
C-R
C
C
A-C
A
R-C
C
R-C
R-N
R-C
R
R
A-C
A-C
C-R
N
A
BARRIER
R-C
R-C
R-C
C-A
C-A
C
R-C
R-C
R
C
C
C-R
R-C
R-C
C-A
C
A-C
A
R-C
C-A
R-C
R-N
R-C
N
R
A
A-C
C-R
N
A
A .
C .
R .
. Ahuml mi
. Common
. Ran-
. Not Present
2-318
-------
2-319
-------
The sediments deposited during the migrations of the shoreline were
preserved in the rock record. They were preserved in a cyclical sequence of
rocks including, from oldest to youngest, coal, siltstone, clay, limestone,
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, coal, etc. Figure 2-53 is a generalized
vertical sequence of the water-laid rock types found in southern West
Virginia.
Large, contiguous sections of the coastline were subjected to varying
rates of sedimentation and subsidence, changes in sediment sources, and sub-
sequent folding and faulting. Roof rock stability, concentrations of
pyritic material, and coalbed thickness and quality were affected by this
history of deposition. Folding of the pre-Pennsylvanian rocks produced
northeast trending ridges.
A northeast-southwest trending zone known as the Hinge Line separates
the Dunkard and Pocahontas Geologic Basins of West Virginia. These Basins
are characterized by differences in the total thickness of their rocks, as
well as by the orientation and distribution of their ancient swamps,
lacustrinemarine environments, and alluvial deposits (Arkle 1974). The
Dunkard and Pocahontas Basins approximately coincide with the Northern and
Southern Coalfields (younger and older mining districts, respectively) of
West Virginia. The Dunkard Basin is characterized by a relatively stable
platform, in contrast to the Pocahontas Basin's relatively rapid subsidence.
The dashed line in Figure 2-54 indicates the location of the Hinge Line with
respect to the Monongahela River Basin.
2.7.6.1. Geology of the Monongahela River Basin
The Monongahela River Basin lies primarily in the Northern Coalfield of
West Virginia, although a small area lies in the Southern Coalfield (Figure
2-54). The Southern Coalfield includes the Pennsylvanian-age and younger
rocks of the Pocahontas Basin. These rocks occur in recognizable sequences,
called Formations and Groups (two or more Formations with similar lithologic
units) both of which represent discrete depositional events that are
separated from one another by long periods of time. The rocks of the
Northern Coalfield comprise the Dunkard Basin, which is characterized by a
thinner sequence of coal-bearing formations in comparison to the Pocahontas
Basin. The combined sequence of Formations in the Monongahela River Basin
comprises the stratigraphic column described in Section 2.7.6.3.
The rocks of the Basin were folded and faulted after deposition. The
major structural features of the Basin trend to the northeast and most of
the ridge and valleys bisect the structural fold axes (Figures 2-55 and
2-56). Most of the younger coal-bearing rocks (Dunkard and Monongahela) are
present in the Basin because of their location in the downwarped Dunkard
Basin. Some older coal-bearing rocks are exposed along the central portions
of the Basin due to the elliptical shape of this geologic Basin. Thicker
sections of younger coal bearing strata have been preserved in minor
down-folded synclinal troughs.
2-320
-------
COAL WITH CLAY SPLIT
SEATROCK,CLAYEY
SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES,ROOTED
SANDSTONE MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED, FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
COAL WITH SEATROCK SPLITS
SEATROCK, SILTY
SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE,
CLIMBING RIPPLES,ROOTED
SANDSTONE MEDIUM TO COARSE
GRAINED, FESTOON CROSS-BEDDED
CONGLOMERATE LAGSIDERITE PEBBLES
SLUMPS
SUTSTONE THIN-BEDDED
COAL WITH CLAY SPLITS
BACKSWAMP
LEVEE
CHANNEL
FLOOD PLAIN
BACKSWAMP
LEVEE
CHANNEL
^"T\ LAKE
FLOOD PLAIN
BACKSWAMP
Figure 2-53 GENERALIZED VERTICAL SEQUENCE THROUGH
UPPER DELTA PLAIN AND FLUVIAL DEPOSITS OF
SOUTHERN WEST VIRGINIA (Ferm 1978)
2-321
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DUNKARD/ BASIN
r..... SOUTHERN • ••.•-•-.-•••y-:
COALFIELD
POCAHONTAS BASIN
100
WAPORA, INC.
Figure 2-54 NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN COAL FIELDS OF WEST VIRGINIA
(Mining Informational Services 1977)
2-322
-------
Figure 2-55
GENERAL GEOLOGY IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVGES 1973)
MAJOR GEOLOGIC UNITS
I QUATERNARY ALLUVIUM
2 DUNKARD GROUP
3 MONONGAHELA GROUP
4 CQNEMAUGH GROUP
5 ALLEGHENY FORMATION
6 POTTSVILLE GROUP
7 MISSISSIPPI SYSTEM
9 CHEMUNG GROUP
10 BRALLIER FORMATION
2-323
-------
Figure 2-56
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVGES 1968)
Amity Ant.
\
0 10
WAPORA.INC
2-324
-------
2.7.6.2. Structural Features of the Monongahela River Basin
Sedimentary rocks which range in age from Devonian through Permian
(Figure 2-49), underlie all of the Monongahela River Basin. The Allegheny
Mountain section of the Basin includes rocks of Devonian and Mississippian
ages which are exposed on northeast-trending upwarps called anticlines.
Elsewhere in the Basin, rocks of Pennsylvanian and Permian age generally are
covered with a veneer of residual soil, except where Mississippian rocks are
exposed or covered by alluvium in deeply incised stream valleys
Over long periods of time, the originally horizontal strata of the
Basin were thrust gently upward and folded into northeast-trending anti-
clines and synclines (Figure 2-56). The intensity of the folding generally
decreases westward and upward through the strata in the Basin. The hinge
line fold separating the Northern and Southern Coalfields trends
east-northeast through southern Lewis, Upshur, Barbour, Tucker, and Preston
Counties. The intermittent folding, upwarping, and downwarping affected
rates of erosion, sediment transport, and deposition, resulting in numerous,
small, structurally controlled basins of deposition containing thinner, less
extensive strata of coal and other sedimentary rocks more often in the
Mountains than in the Plateaus. Upheaval and erosion of horizontal strata
in the Plateau Section set the stage for development of the deeply incised
valleys and rolling hills of the modern landscape.
The coal bearing rocks were deposited in one broad geologic basin of
minor structural relief which is bounded on the southeast by an uplifted
region through Randolph, Tucker, and Preston Counties, West Virginia, and
Garrett and Allegheny Counties, Maryland. The Pennsylvanian strata display
steplike, gentle, symmetrical folds, of comparatively slight disturbance.
The coal bearing strata are nearly horizontal except for the flanks of the
major folds axes. Here, the maximum dip of the strata may reach 20° locally
(Cross and Schemel 1956, Arkle 1979).
2.7 . 6.3. Strat igraphy
The various formations of sedimentary rocks of the Monongahela River
Basin exhibit local differences in strata in teponse to different
depositional environments. For example, the Allegheny Formation and
Conemaugh Group in the Dunkard Basin represent a sequence of marine and
coastal environments, including deltaic, offshore, and alluvial depositional
conditions (Figure 2-57). In the Pocahontas Basin, these formations
predominantly include the alluvial facies of non-marine sandstone, shales,
and channel deposits that generally include only limited coal seams. The
distribution, quantity, and quality of the coal measures are directly
related to their depositional environments and subsequent tectonic history.
The general stratigraphy of the Monongahela River Basin may be
addressed in terms of a unified stratigraphic column (Table 2-86) keyed to
the geologic map of the Basin (Figure 2-55). Local depositional
environments and regional compressive forces, however, typically modified
2-325
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the details of local stratigraphy. The geologic formations are described in
the sections that follow, beginning with the oldest. •
Thick accumulations of sand, silt, and clay formed the majority of
sedimentary rocks in the Appalachian River Basin. Non-coal bearing strata
may be hundreds of feet thick near the periphery of the ancient swamps. The
major water-bearing rocks in the Monongahela River Basin include thick,
continuous sandstones which are confined by impermeable shales and clay
stones. Clay stones also are confining strata for the coal seams which
generally contain significant amounts of water.
The sedimentary rocks of the Monongahela River Basin include strata of
Permian age and younger. Devonian and Mississippian rocks contain important
water-bearing strata locally, but are devoid of coal, which is found only in
rocks of Pennsylvanian and Permian age. The stratigraphy of the coal
bearing rocks is described in more detail in the subsequent section. The
water-bearing rocks of Devonian and Mississippian age are described in
Section 2.1.
Pottsville Group
The Pottsville Group occurs at the surface in the Shavers Fork Valley
(Randolph County), in western Randolph County, and in north-central Tucker
County. It crops out as a thin band in Preston and Monongalia Counties
(Figure 2-55). The Pottsville Group sediments were deposited on an
irregular surface of Mississippian age sediments. Within the Monongahela
River Basin, the Pottsville Group ranges in thickness from 200 to 300 feet. ^
It consists of a series of conglomerates, quartzose sandstones, including ™
sandstones that contain abundant clay and rock fragments (subgraywacke),
shale, clay, and thin coal beds (Arkle 1974). The Group probably is mostly
non-massive and contains little carbonate where it is exposed. Coarser
sediments predominate in the southeastern part of the Basin and become finer
grained in a northwesterly direction. Eleven minable coals have been
identified by Lotz (1970), but of these only the Sewell, Bradshaw, Peerless,
and Alma were mined during 1976 in the Basin (Table 2-86).
Allegheny Formation
The Allegheny Formation ranges in thickness from less than 100 feet in
the southern part of the Basin to 300 feet along the northern border of
Monongalia County. It crops out in two synclines (downwarps) in Tucker
County and in large areas of Upshur, Barbour, Monongalia, and Preston
Counties. It generally is composed of non-marine sandstones and sandy
shales with a few thin limestone beds, coal seams and cherty clay beds. The
thick, freshwater, lacustrine, clayey limestones occur below coal beds that
include the Upper Kittanning, Lower Freeport, and Upper Freeport coals. The
coal beds of the Allegheny Formation are irregularly developed and vary in
thickness throughout the Basin. Of the six coal seams that are minable,
five of them produced coal during 1976 (Table 2-86). Typically, the
overburdens associated with these coal seams include the sandstones which
contain pyrite.
2-328
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Conemaugh Group
The thickness of the Conemaugh Group ranges from 500 feet in the
southwestern part of the Basin to 800 feet in the northeast. The group
generally consists of sandstone, red sandy shale, shale, thin clayey
limestone, and coal seams. Redbeds (shale and sandy shale beds which are
indicative of non-marine deposition) dominate the southwestern part. Marine
sandstones and limestones become more abundant in a northeasterly direction.
Sandstone constitutes 15 to 38% of the Conemaugh Group in the Allegheny
Mountain Section, and this percentage decreases northwestward into the
Monongahela Basin. Coal production occurred from three of the four minable
seams during 1976, including the Mahoning, Bakerstown, and Elk Lick seams
(Table 2-86).
Monongahela Group
The Monongahela Group varies in thickness from 350 feet to 450 feet in
the Basin. The Group includes red and gray shale, sandstones with clay and
rock fragments (Graywackes), coal, shale, and lacustrine limestones.
Sandstone comprises only 29 to 15% of the rocks. Lacustrine sandstones,
which contain significant proportions of clay, are thick, and they occur
over the minable coals. Locally, three coal beds have been identified in
the Group, all of which produced significant quantities of coal during 1976
(Table 2-86).
Dunkard Group
The Dunkard Group crops out along the northeastern part of the Basin in
Lewis, Harrison, Marion, and Monongalia Counties, where it reaches a
thickness of 1,180 feet. The lower 300 feet of the Dunkard Group are
similar to the underlying Monongahela Group and contain gray shale,
limestones, and minable coals (Waynesburg and Washington seams; Table 2-86).
The upper 800 feet of the Dunkard Group contain beds of red shale, clayey
sandstones, some of which are massive, and impure coal beds.
2.7.6.4. Coal Measures
Coal seams were formed by the accumulation and burial of dying plant
material to form peat. The physical and chemical properties of the coals
and surrounding sedimentary rocks are related directly to the depositional
environment in which peat beds accumulated, and to the structural stresses
exerted on the peat beds during and after their deposition and burial.
Numerous swamps, river deltas, tidal deltas, and backbarrier marshes
existed in the coastal area of the ancient inland sea. The thickness and
lateral extent of the swamp was partially dependent on the topographic
surface on which the swamp developed (Home et al. 1978). The extent and
duration of each swamp determined the regional extent and thickness of
individual coal seams (EPA 1978). Discrete depositional events lasting
millions of years, coupled with local and regional uplift, folding, and
2-329
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erosion, produced numerous discontinuous seams. Influxes of clastic
sediments formed the shaly partings, impure coals, and want areas commonly •
found in the Basin coal seams. Stream channel migration within the shifting
fluvial and deltaic drainage systems eroded part of the swamp deposits.
Other ancient stream channels were filled with fine- to coarse-grained
clastic sediments. These ancient areas of erosion and deposition in the
swamp are represented by local thinning and interruption of the coal seams
laterally. Differential compaction and slumping of the newly deposited
clastic sediments also formed irregularities in the underlying swamp
deposits. Such irregularities in coal seams often determine the mining
methods used at a location and also are associated with unstable mine roof
conditions.
The heating and compaction produced by the depth and duration of burial
of the swamp deposits also affected the quality of the coal seam and
overlying material. The acid-forming, iron disulfide minerals known as
pyrite and marcasite and various trace elements occur chiefly in
depositional environments which were associated with slowly subsiding delta
plains and back bays. Most of the coal seams and overburden in the Northern
Coalfield of the Monongahela River Basin were deposited under these
conditions and frequently are associated with acid forming overburden (Table
2-86).
The Northern Coalfield seams in West Virginia are generally thin,
medium to high sulfur (>1.5%), medium to high ash (>6%), and medium to high
volatile coals (ASTM values for volatility, Btu content, and fixed carbon
ratings appear in Table 2-87). Some of these coals may occur locally as low ^k
sulfur, low volatile coals. Coal seams in the Southern Coalfield of West ™
Virginia generally are thicker and of higher quality (low sulfur and low
ash) and frequently are podshaped and less regular than the Northern
Coalfield seams.
Localized areas of low to medium sulfur coals are an exception in the
Basin. The principal coal seams that have had localized areas of low sulfur
coal mined within the Basin are the Lower Kittanning, Upper Freeport,
Bakerstown, Pittsburgh, and Redstone (West Virginia University, College of
Agriculture and Forestry 1971). The irregular occurrence of the Lower and
Upper Kittanning, Lower and Upper Freeport, Mahoning, and Bakerstown Coals
in the Basin has hindered mining activity in the past.
Some Basin coals are of metallurgical grade and can be used as coking
coals. These high-rank coals are most abundant in the Allegheny and
Conemaugh Formations (Table 2-86). Byproducts such as fly ash and clinker
coal also are associated with these coals.
The underlying Kanawha Formation, the youngest formation of the
Pottsville Group, contains more coal seams than any other coal-bearing
geologic formation in West Virginia. However, many of these coals are
considered unminable in the Basin (Table 2-86). In the Allegheny Formation
the Lower Kittanning and Upper Freeport Coals are extensively mined (surface
2-330
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Table 2-87. ASTM classification of coal by rank (WVGES 1973).
Fixed
Carbon %
Volatile
Matter %
Btu
> < > < > <
Class
Anthracitic Semianthracite 86 92 8 14
Bituminous Low vol. 78 86 14 22
Med. vol. 69 78 22 31
High vol. A -- 69 31 — 14,000
High vol. B — — — — 13,000 14,000
High vol. C — — — — 11,500 13,000
10,500 11,500
2-331
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and underground) in the Basin (Arkle 1979). The mined portions are usually
more than eight feet thick in the Basin. These seams commonly are separated m
into benches by shaly partings of irregular thickness. In the Basin, they
are blocky, bright, high volatile (greater than 29%), high sulfur (greater
than 2%) and have a thermal rating of 14,000+ Btu.
The Conemaugh Group coals also have been extensively mined in the
Basin. Like the underlying Allegheny coals, they show differential contents
of volatile matter (Arkle 1979). The Mahoning and Bakerstown coals which
normally are less than 6 feet thick have been mined underground, and the
Mahoning, Bakerstown, and Elk Lick coals have been surface rained in the
Basin. Conemaugh Group coals of northern West Virginia are characterized as
blocky, bright and dull banded, high volatile (greater than 35% volatile
matter), medium to high sulfur (greater than 2%) and rated at 14,000 Btu
(Lotz 1970, Arkle 1979). Elsewhere in the Basin the sulfur content:
generally is medium to high with local areas of low sulfur coal (Lotz 1970,
Cross and Schemel 1956).
In the Basin, the Monongahela Group coals are characterized as blocky,
bright, and dull banded. The Pittsburgh and Redstone coals are usually high
volatile and high sulfur (greater than 2%) coals rated at 14,000+ Btu. In
the Monongahela River Basin, both seams plus the Sewickley and Waynesburg
coals are widespread in the northern part of the Basin. The Pittsburgh coal
is thick and uniform in the Dunkard Basin (Arkle 1979). The younger and
similar Sewickly coal generally has a high sulfur content (greater than 3%).
The Waynesburg coal tends toward high ash (>8.0%) and high sulfur (>2.0%)
content in the Basin. ^
2.7.6.5. Toxic Overburden
Toxic overburden is earth material situated above a coal seam that has
the potential to produce adverse chemical and biological conditions in the
soil, surface water, or groundwater if it is disturbed by mining. Toxic
overburden has a deficiency of five tons CaC03 equivalents or more for
each 1,000 tons of material or has a pH of 4 or less (West Virginia Code
20-6). Toxic overburden also may contain elements that are poisonous to
plants and animals, acid-producing, or both. Excessive amounts of sodium,
salt, sulfur, copper, nickel and other trace elements in the water or the
soil derived from mined overburden have a detrimental effect on aquatic
organisms or plants and may hinder revegetation (Torrey 1978). Arsenic,
boron, and selenium are other elements that may be present in overburden.
If they enter the food chain in low concentrations, these elements may be
concentrated to toxic levels in the tissues of animals at higher levels of
the food chain. Extremely acidic material or material with the potential of
becoming acidic upon oxidation (pH 4.0 or less; chiefly the minerals pyrite
and marcasite) have the capability to cause water pollution by chemical
reactions resulting in increased acidity, low pH, and the presence of
dissolved iron and other metals.
2-332
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Iron disulfides (FeS2) occurring as marcasite or pyrite in the coal
and associated strata are exposed to the atmosphere during mining opera-
tions. These iron compounds readily oxidize to form a series of
water-soluble hydrous iron sulfates. Only framboidal pyrite, one of several
forms in which the mineral is found, oxidizes and decomposes rapidly enough
to produce severe acid mine drainage problems (Caruccio 1970). The other
types of pyrite dissolve at a slower rate. Relatively small amounts of
calcium carbonate in the overlying strata generally can neutralize the
amount of acidity produced by the non-framboidal types of pyrite.
Coal itself has the potential for producing acid water independent of
the overburden material (Table 2-88). Acid-producing coal seams are
especially troublesome when they function as aquifers, and this condition is
fairly common in the Basin. The problem is compounded if the strata
underlying the coal are relatively impermeable or toxic or both. Any one of
these conditions either separately or in combination may require special
mining and drainage control practices. They also may require special
handling, placement, or blending of overburden during surface mining, back-
filling, and reclamation operations. Most of the severe acid mine drainage
problems associated with these coals occur in the Ohio, Elk, Monongahela,
and North Branch Potomac River Basin in West Virginia.
An example of the variability in the potential toxicity of a coal seam
and associated overburden is the Pittsburgh Coal. Wherever bone coal
underlies the Pittsburgh Coal and the overlying massive Redstone Limestone
is absent or thin, there are serious acid drainage problems when the
underlying bone coal is disturbed by mining, especially by underground
mining. Where the Pittsburgh Coal is surface mined, and the massive
Redstone Limestone is present, however, there rarely are acid mine drainage
problems, provided that the operator employs overburden blending techniques
and appropriate drainage control.
The knowledge and experience of the WVDNR-Reclamation, West Virginia
University Department of Agronomy Staff, West Virginia Surface Mining and
WVSMRA, and the WVDNR-Reclamation/Acid Mine Drainage Task Force were relied
upon to identify which of the 14 coal seams associated with toxic overburden
are known to have toxic overburden in the Monongahela River Basin.
Information also was supplied on the variability and trend of the toxic
overburden in the Basin. Other essential data were supplied by USGS and
WVGES published reports and maps.
Acid mine drainage is a potential problem anywhere in the Basin,
because alkaline overburden with high buffering capacity is scarce and
discontinuous, and unweathered zones in the massive sandstones overlying the
coal seams appear to have a high potential for acid production (Smith et al.
1976). In the Basin, mining practices as well as local variability of the
thickness and lateral extent of limestones and other carbonate rich
materials affect mine drainage quality. The variability in acid drainage
problems may be compounded when
2-333
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Table 2-88. West Virginia coal seams commonly associated with acid-
producing overburden, listed youngest to oldest (WVDNR Surface Mining
Regulations, 2.04, 1978).
Geological Unit
Dunkard Group
Monongahela Group
*Conemaugh Group
Allegheny Formation
Kanawha Formation
Coal Seams
Washington Coal
Waynesburg
Sewickley
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Elk Lick
Freeport Coals
Upper Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Lower Kittanning (No. 5 Block)
Stockton-Lewis ton
Peerless
Campbell Creek (No. 2 Gas)
Upper Eagle
*Conemaugh Group - The Bakerstown Coal Seam is a potentially acid-producing
coal seam, especially in the Northern Coalfield (Renton et al. 1973).
2-334
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• More than one coal seam is mined
* T'ue coal seam splits into two or more benches locally
• The material separating the two splits or seams may be
toxic, whereas the material overlying the upper coal is
neutral or alkaline
• Concentrations of sulfur including the framboidal form of
pyrite may occur even if the parting or interval is 20
feet thick (Smith et al. 1976). This probably occurs
because the parting material includes the roof of the
lower coal, which was the dying swamp, and the root zone
of the upper coal swamp. Both of these environments were
places where sulfur became concentrated as the coal seams
and associated rocks were laid down.
The Monongahela River Basin lies mostly in the mining province of the
Northern Coalfield and partially in the province of the Southern Coalfield.
In the Northern Coalfield potentially toxic overburden is widespread (Figure
2-58). However, sufficient occurrences of alkaline material may be
sufficient to neutralize potentially acid-producing seams and overburden
caused by pyritic materials, if blended properly. The minable coal in the
Basin is considered to be discontinuous. Water quality and other
reclamation problems sometimes occur in the Allegheny Formation and basal
sections of the Conemaugh and Monongahela Groups in the Basin. The
overburden usually contains medium sulfur (pyrite) concentrations and the
minable coals in the Basin should be regarded as potentially acid-producing
seams and overburden (Smith et al. 1976). Severity of AMD problems,
however, decreases moving west across the Basin.
The potentially acid-producing coal seams in the Northern Coalfield, in
order of decreasing acid potential, appear to be: the Pittsburgh Coal,
Upper Freeport Coal, and Bakerstown Coal. The acid-producing poter"--'r;l of
the Upper Freeport Coal is more variable in the Northern Coalfield than that
of the other seams. Therefore, acid drainage problems associated with this
coal are especially difficult to predict (Renton et al . 1973, Table 2-88).
In the Northern Coalfield of West Virginia, the proportions of carbonate,
pyrite, and alkaline materials generally increase where the sandstone beds
and size of the sand grains decrease, the limestone deposits incre-;--e, and
the carbonate content of the more numerous shale and mudstone units
increases. In the Basin, calcareous shales and limestones generally
increase to the west and northwest.
Toxic overburden distribution in the Southern Coalfield of the
Monongahela River Basin is laterally discontinuous, highly irregular in
toxicity, and concentrated in the Kanawha and Allegheny Formations. The
coal facies of the Kanawha Formation in the Basin commonly are low in
sulfur. Pyrite is not a ubiquitous mineral in this formation, but
2-335
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Figure 2-58
GREATEST POTENTIAL FOR TOXIC OVERBURDEN IN THE
MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
WAPORA, INC.
2-336
-------
concentrations of fratnboidal pyrite in the coal and associated rocks occur
locally.
In the experience of WVDNR-Reclamation, acid mine drainage problems
associated with Freeport coals are ubiquitous in West Virginia, including
parts of the Monongahela River Basin. Where the Redstone coal is mined
underground, acid mine drainage problems occur in many locations, regardless
of mining techniques used. Bakerstown and Sewickley coals also may be
associated with AMD in underground mining.
The potential problems of acid mine drainage in the Basin are usually
in the areas where the coal seams are overlain by medium to coarse grained,
weakly cemented, pyritic sandstones (e.g., Mahoning and Homewood Sandstone).
The weathered zones of these pyritic sandstones usually are devoid of
significant amounts of acid-producing pyritic minerals. It is the
unweathered zones of these sandstones that pose a serious problem of acid
mine drainage (Smith et al. 1976).
In the case of non acid-producing calcareous sandstones, the alkaline
cement or grain countings generally are insufficient to neutralize any
significant amount of acid material. WVDNR's experience has been that
typical acid-base counts which show alkaline sandstones as having sufficient
neutralizing potential are misleading. Apparently, the alkaline material in
sandstone either 1) reacts too quickly and quickly dissipates its
usefulness, 2) does not react with acid solutions, or 3) reacts too slowly.
In any case, the calcareous sandstones with potentially high alkaline
neutralizing capabilities, do not function as neutralizing agents under
actual reclamation conditions. WVDNR does not consider calcareous
sandstones as suitable neutralizing overburden in the Northern Coalfield of
West Virginia (Verbally Ms. Joanne Erwin, WVDNR-Reclamation, to Mr. John
Urban, August 7, 1980).
Other environmental and mining conditions in the Basin which add to the
occurrence of acid drainage are:
• Insufficient alkaline overburden (e.g., calcareous sand-
stone) available to blend in order to neutralize the acid
or toxic material
• Excessively large volumes of potentially toxic material
that must be blended, isolated and buried, or disposed of
as excess spoil
• Interception of old abandoned underground mine by new
surface mining activity, exposing acid producing materials
to air and water and creating portals for untreated AMD to
flow from the site
• Long exposure of potentially toxic materials to air and
water due to delays in reclamation
2-337
-------
• Interception of old abandoned underground mines by new
surface mining activity, exposing acid producing materials
to air and water and creating portals for untreated AMD to
flow from the site.
• Where surface and underground mining occurs below seasonal
high water or interrupts a perched water table, the sand-
stone or other potentially toxic overburden .acts either as
an aquifer or a confining layer for groundwater.
In the Monongahela River Basin, coal has been mined by many small
underground mines and some old shoot and shove surface mines which have
ceased operations and left numerous piles of spoil, including toxic
overburden, exposed to the air, surface water, and groundwater. The
drainage from these mine operations was not controlled or treated to avoid
the production of acid mine water. Many old, abandoned, acid-producing mine
sites still contribute to the poor water quality in parts of the Basin.
However, it is difficult to ascertain the present or potential toxicity of
surface and underground mining of the coal seams and overburden under
current regulations and mining methods. Site specific information must be
available for each permit application in the Basin.
2-338
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2.8 Potentially Significant Impact Areas
-------
Page
2.8 Potentially Significant Impact Areas 2-339 4
-------
2.8. POTENTIALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT AREAS
Based on the available inventory information, EPA has identified
Potentially Significant Impact Areas (PSIA's) in the Monongahela River
Basin. These are the areas where there is the greatest potential for
adverse impacts as a result of New Source coal mining activity, taking into
account the mining methods used (see Section 3.O.), the current regulatory
controls on new mining (see Section 4.O.), and the likely remaining impacts
(see Section 5.0.) on Basin resources (see Section 2.O.). Consequently
these are the areas where EPA expects to conduct the most detailed NEPA
review of permit applications (see Sections 1.0. and 6.0). The decision
whether a full EIS is necessary prior to permit issuance will be made on a
case-by-case basis. EIS's are expected to be needed most frequently on
applications from PSIA's.
Various resources in the Basin have given rise to PSIA designations
(Figure 2-59). Federal land holdings dedicated to multiple or recreational
use such as the Monongahela National Forest, the Tygart Lake Recreation
Area, and other Federal land holdings and interests in fee-simple or surface
ownership have been assigned PSIA status. Included in the National Forest
are the Otter Creek and Dolly Sods Wilderness Areas, the Fernow National
Experimental Forest, the Bowden Federal Fish Hatchery, the Sinks of Gandy,
the Blackwater Falls Scenic Area, and other resources. Several National
Natural Landmarks (the Gaudineer Scenic Area, Canaan Valley, Shavers
Mountain Spruce-Hemlock Stand, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher
Spring Run Bog) also are included in the National Forest. The Cranesville
Swamp Nature Sanctuary, a National Natural Landmark not located within the
Forest, also has been designated a PSIA. EPA in all cases intends to
maximize input from the respective Federal managing agencies (US Forest
Service for the National Forest and US Army Corps of Engineers for the
Tygart Valley Recreation Area, for example) when issues regarding New Source
mining impacts arise. Regardless of other agency involvement and
coordination, however, EPA will assure that detailed site-specific
evaluations are conducted when New Source mining is proposed in or adjacent
to these special Federal land holdings and interests.
PSIA's also are based on BIA Category II zones which, in turn, reflect
the existence of a wide variety of significant and sensitive aquatic and
water resources (Figure 5-2 and Table 5-5 in Section 5.2.). In many areas,
BIA Category II designations overlap with other PSIA criteria.
2-339
-------
Figure 2-59
POTENTIALLY SIGNIFICANT IMPACT AREAS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
I
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
2-340
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Chapter 3
Current and Projected Mining Activity
-------
3.0. CURRENT AND PROJECTED MINING ACTIVITY
3.1. PAST AND CURRENT MINING ACTIVITY IN THE BASIN
As stated in Section 2.7., the Monongahela River Basin is located
primarily in the Northern Coalfield of West Virginia. Its reserve base is
characterized by higher sulfur, ash, and volatility ratings in contrast to
those of the Southern Coalfield. The Northern Coalfield coals are more
continuous and thicker than those in the Southern Coalfield, characteristics
which are related to the depositional environmental and tectonic setting
explained in Section 2.7. An example of this is the Pittsburgh coal which
is very continuous and ranges between 7 and 9 feet in thickness over large
areas in northern West Virginia. Sulfur ranges are between 2.4% and 3.8%
and ash content is above 6% whereas coals in the Southern Coalfield
generally have less than 1.5% sulfur and less than 6% ash. Even though
these seams are not as high quality, their continuity makes it possible to
plan large underground mines with very high annual production. Most
production in the Basin is from the Pittsburgh coal, where average
production per mine is higher than in the Southern Coalfield, especially for
underground mines. Historically there has been significant mining of the
Pittsburgh coal seam in the Basin. Furthermore, it is believed that this
coal seam, even though heavily mined in the past, will continue to be the
major seam mined in the future.
Recent coal production data have been tabulated by quadrangle, permit
number, coal seam, and seam thickness (underground only) to provide an
indication of where mining and mine-related effects have been substantial in
the Basin. Also, mine and preparation plant locations have been plotted on
the 1:24,000-scale Base Maps, and other more generalized Basin maps. This
mapping was performed to delineate areas currently disturbed by mining as
well as the mining method used in each area. Current mining has been used
as an indicator of where coal seams occur in sufficient quality and quantity
to be mined economically. These areas, if extrapolated on the basis of
quantity and quality of remaining reserves, also can provide an indication
of where future mining will occur. A discussion of the variations in coal
quality and quantity is presented in Section 2.7.6.4. Coal reserve base
data have been compiled by county, mining method, and sulfur content to
determine areas with large amounts of high quality reserve bases.
Data on mining activity are available from several sources, including
WVDM, WVDNR, WVGES, WVHD, USBM, USDOE, and USMSHA. These data vary in
quality, quantity, and currency. To maximize the utility of these data, the
most current data were used, provided that all of the necessary data were of
comparable quality.
3-1
-------
Table 3-1 lists the data sources and types of data available for the
analysis of mining activity in the Basin. The data marked with an asterisk
were used for analysis in this section. USMSHA data on location of surface
and deep mines were found to be incorrect too often to be useful, and the
number of mines and locations reported by USMSHA were less than the number
which had been reported by WVDNR. Some of the WVHD data were compared to
other available data but were found to provide no additional information.
However, the types of loading and transportation facilities at preparation
plants was determined from WVHD maps. Production data from USDOE were
tabulated but were not used because these data were in a preliminary form
and were not available for publication.
Trends in West Virginia and in the Basin have moved together: a drop
between 1950 and 1960 (which continued through the early sixties), an upturn
during the late 1960's which caused the 1970 total to approximate the level
of production in 1950, and severe declines in the early 1970"s followed by a
sharp increase in 1975. By 1975 the production level in the State and in
the Basin was about 75% of the production level in 1950 (Figure 3-1). The
level of coal production is volatile from year to year, and its short- and
long-term trends reflect events in the National economy.
Comparing counties, the three largest producers in 1950 were
Monongalia, Harrison, and Marion, which together accounted for about three
quarters of the total produced in the Basin. In 1975, the same three
producers still accounted for about two-thirds of the total (Table 3-2).
Monongalia County increased its share of the Basin total to about one-third,
but production in the other two leading counties declined both relatively
and absolutely (Table 3-3).
Generally, surface mining production in the Basin has accounted for a
larger proportion of total production than is true of the State (Table 3-4).
Over the period, surface production has accounted for a growing percentage
of total production in the State (9% in 1950, 19% in 1975) and in the Basin
(20% and 30% in those years, respectively). Within the period, the relative
importance of surface mining declined during the 1950's, but increased
significantly during the 1960's.
In general, surface mining production is a larger proportion of total
production in the counties that produce least coal, and conversely. For
example, surface mining production accounted for over 50% of total
production in three counties whose total production was the least (Taylor,
Lewis, and Tucker). In Taylor and Tucker Counties there was no underground
coal production in 1975. By contrast, surface mining accounted for a much
smaller percentage in the counties having the largest production:
Monongalia, 5%; Harrison, 34%, and Marion, 0.5% (Table 3-4).
Both the tonnage and the number of surface mines increased from 1971 to
1975 by 14.3% and 40.8%, respectively (Table 3-5). On the county level
during this time period, large increases were reported in Monongalia,
Preston, Randolph, and Upshur Counties; decreases were reported in Barbour,
3-2
-------
Table 3-1. Sources of data used to analyze mining activity in the Basin.
Type of Data Source
USDA-
WVDM WVDNR WVGES WVHD USGS SCS USBM USDOE USMSHA
Location of:
surface mines * * + *
deep mines * * + *
preparation plants + * *
refuse piles * *
Production and permitting:
surface mines * *
deep mines *
Reserve Base:
surface mines
deep mines
+ available but not used
* data used in analysis.
3-3
-------
Figure 3-1
COAL PRODUCTION IN MILLION OF SHORT TONS IN MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN 1950-1975 (WVDOM 1951-1976)
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Harrison, Marion, Taylor, and Tucker Counties. There appeared to be a very
strong correlation between changes in production levels and the number of
mines in operation.
During 1976, the combined coal production of all counties in the Basin
reached 27 million MT (30 million short tons; Table 3-6). The data in Table
3-6 were reported by county and not by river basin, so the allocations to
counties only partly in the Monongahela River Basin are approximate. Except
for Taylor, Tucker, and the parts of Lewis and Randolph Counties that occur
within the Basin, production in each county of the Basin exceeded one
million MT. Three-quarters of the total coal produced in the Basin was from
underground mines, but surface mine production exceeded underground
production in Preston, Taylor, Barbour, Tucker, Lewis, and Randolph
Counties. All of the production in Tucker and Taylor Counties was from
surface mines.
Two-thirds of the coal produced in the Basin was from the Pittsburgh
seam. Most of this coal was mined underground in Monongalia, Marion, and
Harrison Counties. The Pittsburgh and Redstone coals accounted for 51% of
the coal produced from 17 seams mined by surface methods in the Basin.
Surface mine production from the Lower Kittanning, Upper Kittanning, Lower
Freeport, Mahoning, Bakerstown, and Waynesburg seams approached 7 million MT
in the Basin.
An evaluation of the coal reserves of West Virginia has been underway
recently by the USGS. The extent of past mining in individual coal seams is
being determined from maps, cross sections, and field mapping (Verbally, Mr.
Thomas Arkle, USGS, Morgantown WV, November 1, 1977). The estimated
original Statewide coal reserve totalled greater than 106 billion MT (117
billion short tons), about one-fifth of which was located in the Pittsburgh
and Lower Kittanning (No. 5 Block) coal seams (Mining Informational Services
1977). These two coal seams have been mined extensively, and the Pittsburgh
seam is considered to be exhausted in several parts of the Basin.
Trends in mining previously were discussed in the context of economic
relationships. This discussion identifies the most recent conditions in the
industry. Coal mining activities include surface mines, underground mines,
and coal preparation plants. Surface and underground coal mines both are
divided into two categories: (l) classified mines for which WVDNR permit
numbers and other mine-specific data are available; and (2) unclassified
mines for which WVDNR permit numbers are not available. Coal preparation
plants are divided into two categories: (1) mine-linked operations that are
integrated with permitted mining activity and therefore do not require
individual NPDES or other permits; and (2) freestanding preparation plants
that operate apart from specific mines, and therefore probably require their
own NPDES permits.
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3.1.1. Surface Mining
Data on the location and production of surface mines are available from
WVDNR and WVGES. The location of surface mines permitted since 1971 are
plotted on the 1:24,000-scale Base Maps based on data that were updated to
1977 by the WVGES. WVDNR-Reclamation permit numbers are used to identify
lands currently or previously mined. Mines not permitted but shown as
surface mines on USGS topographic maps also have been outlined on the Base
Maps. Surface mines locations have been generalized in Figure 3-2.
There were 487 surface mines in the Monongahela River Basin for which
WVDNR permit numbers and locational data were available (Figure 3-2 and
Table 3-7). These mines are listed individually in Table 3-8. Fewer than
half of these surface mines were active during the third quarter (July
through September) of 1977. The remainder either are undergoing reclamation
or have been reclaimed. For this report compilation of classified surface
mine data, the outline of each surface mine was traced onto a 7.5-minute
USGS topographic quadrangle from similar maps on file at the Morgantown
office of the WVGES (WVGES 1977a). The file maps show outlines and permit
numbers of active and inactive surface mines, and are based on the
individual maps submitted to WVDNR with permit applications. Surface mine
permit numbers thus traced were reconciled with the October 1, 1977 index of
surface mining activity (Dugolinski and Cole 1977). The mines are shown in
Figure 3-2.
Those surface mines with permit numbers listed in the index were active
during the third quarter of 1977, and thus were listed as active in Tables
3-7 and 3-8. Reclaimed surface mines are those for which final bonds have
been released. Bond data are on file at the Beckley and Philippi offices of
WVDNR (Staten 1978, Beymer 1978). Inactive surface mines have permit
numbers that are not otherwise listed as active or reclaimed, These mines
did not report coal production during the third quarter of 1977, and may or
may not have been undergoing reclamation during that period.
These surface mine data were supplemented from the surface mining
library of the WVGES (1977b). The additional surface mines were located by
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates as points on maps instead of as
outlined areas at the 1:24,000 scale. The status of each mine was confirmed
as previously described. Production data for calendar year L976 were
obtained from the Directory of Mines (WVDM 1976).
Many surface mined areas of the Basin cannot be identified readily by
permit number (Figure 3-3). Unclassified mines are shown on USGS 7.5-minute
topographic maps as stippled areas, and usually are labeled thereon as strip
mines. Such mines may or may not be partly covered by vegetation and may or
may not be important sources of water pollution. No specific data other
than the locations of these mines were compiled for this inventory.
3-12
-------
Figure 3-2
SURFACE MINE LOCATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(adapted from WVGES 1979)
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
3-13
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-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia (WVGES
1977a). Status data (A-Active; I-Inactive; R-Reclaimed) are current through
1 October 1977 (Dugolinsky and Cole 1977; Letter, Miss Carrol Staten, WVDNR,
Beckley WV, 8 January 1978, 11 p.; Letter, Mr. Joe L. Meymer, WVDNR, Philippi
WV. 13 January 1978, 6 p.). Seam and production data are for calendar year
1976.
Quadrangle
Adrian
Audra
Belington
Berlin
WVDNR
Permit No.
198-74
200-74
3-77
219-73
65-74
169-73
257-76
141-77
444-70
P-170-74
194-74
233-74
146-76
92-76 & 1-77
82-77
198-74
226-74
179-75
194-75
78-76
265-76
21-77
91-77
133-71
171-71
302-71
49-73
140-73
185-74
193-74
8-75
111-75
186-75
242-75
Production
Status
A
I
A
I
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
County
Upshur
Lewis
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Lewis
Lewis
Harrison &
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Upshur
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Harrison
Lewis
Harrison
Seam
Redstone
U. Freeport &
U. Kittanning
Redstone
Bakerstown
U. Freeport
U. Freeport
Bakerstown
U. Freeport
Bakerstown
U. Freeport
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone.
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Short Tons
29,936
17,190
13,292
23,409
29,936
47,457
24,280
17,565
10,523
4,547
1,420
29,150
22,115
3-18
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Berlin
(continued)
Beverly W.
Black Water
Falls
Brandonville
Brownton
WVDNR
Permit No. Status
50-76
105-74
171-74
201-74
252-75
79-76,
142-71, 73-73
97-73
224-73
17-74
98-74
109-74
136-74
226-75
172-72
109-73
97-74
85-75
36-72
129-74
79-76
48-76
138-72
87-75
93-75
158-75
215-75
206-76
214-76
231-76
31-77
210-73
139-74
221-74
98-75
181-75
157-76
100-75
314-71
321-71
54-72
188-73
205-73
65-74
I
R
R
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
R
A
A
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
County
Lewis
Lewis
Upshur
Lewis
Upshur
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Production
Seam Short Tons
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Lower Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Sewell
Sewell
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Lower Kittanning
Upper Freeport
Lower Freeport
Lower Freeport
Upper Freeport
Ben's Creek, Upper
& Lower Kittanning
Mahoning
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Mahoning
Upper Kittanning
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
7,402
26,324
14,137
6,649
9,566
25,837
73,987
64,910
20,894
10,043
6,014
18,842
20,246
57,635
19,455
116,649
184,652
3-19
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Browntown
(continued)
Bruceton
Mills
WVDNR
Permit No.
114-74
144-74
146-76 &
248-74
246-75
112-76
131-76
136-76
173-76
227-76
255-76
51-72
146-72
169-72
141-76
102-74
213-74
130-74
37-74
192-74
75-75
9-75
199-75
221-75
235-75
214-73
166-76
10-74
168-72
47-76
18-74
114-75
236-75
18-76
214-76
Status
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
County
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Harrison &
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Barbour
Ba rbo ur
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Production
Seam Short Tons
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburg
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Lower Freeport
Bakerstown
Ben's Creek, Upper
23,409
2,886
11,732
4,219
18,730
106,512
297,330
8,200
24,462
9,897
171,514
6,560
58,748
124,123
32,047
7,921
167,114
44,956
38,797
2,061
and Lower Freeport
201-73
304-71
18-73
143-74
240-74
I
R
R
R
R
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
3-20
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Camden
Century
WVDNR
Permit No.
28-76
202-76
169-72
91-73
188-73
57-74
248-74
45-75
129-75
41-76
171-76
173-76
227-76
239-76
12-77
222-71
257-71
116-72
6-73
63-73
117-73
120-73
11-74
5-74
53-74
57-74
95-74
140-74
241-74
56-75
60-75
62-75
192-75
199-75
223-75
244-75
25-76
10-77
Production
Status
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
County
Lewis
Lewis
Barb our
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Seam
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Preston
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Barbour
Harrison
Barbour
Harrison
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Second Little
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Elklick
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Short Tons
3,009
297,330
116,649
23,409
1,110
1,212
4,219
18,730
68,911
787
4,734
2,885
22,564
28,820
264,711
124,123
113,359
32,417
19,848
3-21
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
WVDNR
Permit
Production
Status County
Clarksburg
Cuzzart
341-71
58-72
86-73
43-74
120-74
131-74
21-75
258-75
62-76
207-76
262-76
49-77
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
A
A
A
A
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Seam
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Elklick
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
78-77
85-77
99-77
124-77
138-77
124-74
65-75
122-75
170-75
182-75
71-76
91-76
55-76
4-75
148-75
191-76
65-72
87-73
211-73
35-74
127-74
205-74
249-74
20-75
103-75
106-75
158-75
4-76
56-76
110-77
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Kittanning
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Mahoning
Upper Freeport
Lower Freeport
Mahoning
Upper Kittanning
Mahoning; Upper &
Lower Freeport
Short Tons
30,416
21,457
24,448
133,327
49,361
1,341
44,477
5,437
22,945
2,068
390
3,383
66,244
96,779
22,572
31,700
5,552
50,552
73,987
88,287
8,389
337-71
Preston
3-22
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Production
Quadrangle
Cuzzart
(continued)
Davis
Durbin SW
Fairmont W.
WVDNR
Permit No. Status County
187-71 R Preston
15-71 R Preston
134-74 R Preston
284-71 A Tucker
25-72 A Tucker
129-74 A Tucker
169-74 A Tucker
96-75 A Tucker
74-76 A Tucker
110-76 A Tucker
175-76 A Tucker
146-77 A Tucker
24-72 I Tucker
72-73 I Tucker
63-74 I Tucker
110-74 I Grant & Tucker
48-76 I Tucker
2-76 A Randolph
Seam
Short Tons
3-76
28-77
SMA-977
214-71
270-75
SMA-1208
A
A
A
I
I
I
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
225-74
142-75
140-76
168-76
243-76
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Ben's Creek &
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Elklick
Upper Freeport
Eagle, Gilbert,
laeger, Castle
Eagle
Sewell
Sewell
Bradshaw
Gilbert
Gilbert & laeger
A
A
A
A
A
Harrison &
Marion
Harrison
Harrison
Marion
Marion
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
93,270
73,761
26,324
4,966
14,137
26,409
44,766
157
6,649
22,948
12,350
39-75
143-75
169-75
195-75
216-75
100-76
46-72
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Waynesburg &
Waynesburg
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
"A"
6,541
41,737
24,128
3-23
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Production
Quadrangle
Fellowsville
Friendsville
Gladesville
Grafton
Junior
Kingwood
Lake Lynn
WVDNR
Permit No.
122-74
16-76
129-76
22-74
268-74
22-71
93-75
98-75
188-74
315-71
126-75
260-71
153-74
219075
Status County
A Preston
A Preston
A Preston
I Nicholas
I Preston
R Preston
A Preston
I Preston
R Preston
A Preston
A Monongalia
I Monongalia
I Monongalia
I Monongalia &
Preston
160-75
37-77
60-77
7-76
230-74
17-75
346-70
342-71
43-76
133-76
4-77
28-72
92-74
112-74
157-74
52-75
123-75
157-75
174-76
52-74
63-73
16-74
56-74
233-75
A
A
A
I
R
R
I
R
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
I
I
I
I
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Randolph
Randolph
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Seam
Bakerstown
Pittsburgh
Cedar Grove
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Lower Freeport &
Upper Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Lower Freeport
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
Lower Freeport
Upper Freeport
Short Tons
8,771
3,149
9,251
25,837
6,995
17,618
3,825
32,640
7,409
13,802
19,445
Redstone
7*289
3-24
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Production
Quadrangle
Leadmine
Masontown
Mingo NE
Mount Clare
WVDNR
Permit No .
138-73
169-74
102-75
74-76
231-74
40-73
132-73
246-74
188-75
239-75
5-76
13-77
36-77
57-77
76-75
243-71
32-75
35-73
216-73
51-74
109-75
232-76
Status
A
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
R
A
I
I
A
A
A
County
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Tucker
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Pocahontas
Randolph
Randolph
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
247-76
32-77
40-77
331-71
59-73
126-74
161-74
97-75
40-76
272-76
Morgantown S. 64-74
236-74
171-75
42-76
245-76
17-77
48-77
13-69
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Seam
Bakerstown
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Short Tons
4,966
74,267
14,137
70,411
325
111,984
45,643
17,567
11,275
42,695
Sewell
22,823
Redstone 37,780
Upper Kittanning 22,393
Sewickley &
Redstone
Sewickley, Redstone
& Pittsburgh
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley 56,542
Sewickley
Redstone 18,265
Sewickley, Redstone
& Pittsburgh
Redstone 18,822
Pittsburgh 9,275
Pittsburgh 10,710
Pittsburgh 5,486
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
3-25
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Mount Clare
(continued)
WVDNR
Permit No.
175-70
252-74
58-75
59-75
111-75
144-75
269-75
261-75
103-76
176-77
156-71
83-75
Production
Status County
Seam
Short Tons
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Pittsburgh 32,426
Pittsburgh 7,781
Pittsburgh 12,476
Pittsburgh 12,889
Redstone
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh 19,460
Pittsburgh 5,896
Pittsburgh 6,066
Redstone
Mount Storm
Lake
Mozark Mtn.
Nestorville
Newburg
Oakland
73-69
72-70
106-70
74-76
224-74
226-76
128-74
277-71
315-71
11-74
122-74
179-76
224-76
25-77
112-77
28-72
44-74
121-75
123-75
127-76
9-73
165-73
223-73
15-75
116-76
I
I
I
A
A
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
A
A
Grant
Grant
Grant
Tucker
Harbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Upper Freeport
Upper & Lower
Kittanning
Bakerstown
Pittsburgh
14,317
5,703
6,995
Upper Freeport 4,734
Pittsburgh 37,092
Bakerstown
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh & Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Bakerstown
Bakerstown
9,474
14,819
5,790
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
80,116
58,451
3-26
-------
Table 3-8. Surface Mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Osage
WVDNR
Permit # Status County
Production
Philippi
Pickens SE
Pickens NW
Pickens SE
Pickens SW
338-71
57-73
117-75
LOC//8 5607
124-73
103-74
222-75
58-76
35-75
217-72
232-72
191-75
54-76
63-76
112-76
102-70
205-72
102-74
130-74
158-74
192-74
75-75
164-75
193-75
196-75
110-71
5-72
13-73
16-73
213-73
210-74
47-76
211-74
190-75
181-74
273-74
143-75
145-76
89-77
35-73
216-73
114-75
68-76
211-74
113-75
89-77
181-74
143-75
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
I
I
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Taylor & Barbour
Taylor
Taylor
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Taylor
Barbour
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Seam
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Upper Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Upper & Middle
Kittanning
Redstone & Pittsburg
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Lower Kittanning
Redstone
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburg
Pittsburg
Pittsburg
Short Tons
36,378
38,391
41,522
25,546
Pittsburg
Sewell
Peerless
175,536
42,809
2,886
35,925
24,462
171,514
36,320
6,560
23,081
66,900
4,550
Filbert, Laeger & Castle
Sewell & Welch
Sewell
Bradshaw
Sewell
Peerless
Sewell-Welch
22,823
41,091
66,900
3-27
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Rivesville
Roanoke
Rosemont
Sago NE
Sago NW
Sago SE
WVDNR
Permit No .
57-73
6-77
101-77
39-73
234-74
255-74
51-75
202-75
211-75
121-72
45-73
84-75
208-76
137-77
142-73
144-76
99-71
21-76
219-76
324-69
157-71
45-74
91-74
29-75
65-75
217-75
207-71
69-75
190-74
101-75
147-76
185-76
252-76
27-77
124-75
112-73
69-74
147-76
252-76
63-77
Production
Status
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
R
R
A
A
A
County
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Marion
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Taylor
Harrison
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Harrison
Harrison
Taylor
Taylor
Harrison
Upshur
Randolph
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Randolph
Upshur
Randolph
Randolph
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Seam
Waynesburg
Wayne sburg
Waynesburg
Sewickley
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Waynesburg
Elklick
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Upper &
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittannning
Upper Mercer
Upper Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Upper, Middle &
Lower Kittanning
Short Tons
38,391
1,400
116,742
412,505
7,897
38,821
7,691
27,642
851
69,565
6,963
89,115
14,911
20,800
14,873
14,911
20,800
97-73
109-74
101-75
79-76
142-76
27-77
A
A
A
A
A
A
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Lower Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Sewell
Upper Kittanning
390,000
89,115
14,911
3-28
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quandrangle
Sago SE
Sago SW
Shinnston
Terra Alta
Thornton
Valley Point
WVDNR
Permit No.
73-73
109-73
97-74
85-75
23-76
163-76
254-76
58-77
138-74
71-75
77-73
170-74
142-75
60-76
66-76
132-76
216-76
228-72
55-74
153-76
162-76
43-73
26-76
15-75
116-76
315-71
40-73
18-74
75-74
246-74
178-75
53-76
130-76
137-76
33-77
565-70
81-72
192-73
201-73
216-74
254-74
94-75
183-75
24-77
Production
Status County
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
I
I
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
R
R
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Marion
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Seam
Short Tons
Upper Mercer
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Middle &
Lower Kittanning
Middle &
Lower Kittanning
Peerless
Alma
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Peerless
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Lower Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper &
Lower Freeport
68,412
48,600
63,338
4,296
22,948
15,562
19,285
3,800
11,071
80,116
58,451
6,995
70,411
4,420
111,984
23,070
10,799
77,063
Elklick
Upper Freeport
2,972
25,140
3-29
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Valley Point
(continued)
Wallace
West Milford
Weston
Whitmer
Wolf Summit
WVDNR
Permit No.
187-71
304-71
33-72
34-72
61-72
1-73
13-74
38-74
134-74
240-74
30-75
111-71
219-71
259-71
118-75
292-70
398-70
66-72
2-73
133-73
176-74
25-75
2-76
119-75
31-76
36-76
21-77
139-77
137-73
182-74
250-74
232-75
Status
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
I
I
R
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
County
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis &
Harrison
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Lewis
Production
Seam
Short Tons
313-70
207-75
62-76
190-76
263-76
73-77
96-77
99-77
144-73
39-74
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
Randolph
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Upper Freeport
Bakerstown
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Redstone &
Pittsburgh
9,275
2,968
17,868
4,912
19,046
177,482
8,004
4,073
3,942
Redstone
Pittsburgh 2,058
Pittsburgh 49,367
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone & Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh 6,993
Redstone 25,202
3-30
-------
Table 3-8. Surface mines of the Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
WVDNR Production
Quadrangle Permit No. Status County Seam Short Tons
Wolf Summit 162-74 I Harrison
(continued) 70-75 I Harrison Pittsburgh 8,410
220-75 I Harrison Pittsburgh 13,297
249-75 I Harrison Pittsburgh 19,734
130-75 R Harrison Pittsburgh 15,452
3-31
-------
Figure 3-3
UNCLASSIFIED SURFACE MINES IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (adapted from WVGES 1979)
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
3-32
-------
3.1.2. Underground Mines
There are 188 classified underground coal mines in the Basin that are
identifiable by permit number and location from available and usable
information. Approximately 72% of these mines were active during the months
of January through June 1977 (Table 3-6). Most of the classified
underground mines listed in Table 3-9 were identified from the coal company
master file (WVDM 1977a). The location of underground mines is shown on the
1:24,000-scale Base Maps and in Figure 3-4.
Additional mines were identified from US Bureau of Mines data (USBM
1977). Names of operators and mines thus identified were used to extract
appropriate permit numbers from a preliminary updated list of underground
mine data (WVDM 1977b). The USBM data do not show the locations by latitude
and longitude for approximately half of the listed mines. Location and
status data for unidentified mines were retrieved from the master file (WVDM
1977a). Production data listed in Tables 3-6 and 3-9 are for calendar year
1976 (WVDM 1977a). Unclassified underground mines are those for which
permit numbers and location data were not available.
Two additional sources of underground mine data were identified, but
such data are not in readily available or usable form. EPA Region III
recently compiled maps and summary data on discharges for 7,000 mines in the
Basin, but no results were reported (Verbally, Mr. Scott McFalmy, EPA,
Wheeling WV, January 23, 1978). The WVDM has approximately 30,000 maps of
abandoned underground mines on file at Charleston. No effort is planned by
WVDM to compile these data (Verbally, Mr. David Kessler, WVDM, Charleston,
WV, December 12, 1977).
3.1.3. Preparation Plants
This inventory identifies only those freestanding coal preparation
plants that are not within the permit areas of classified mines (Figure 3-5
and Table 3-10). Not all such preparation plants in the Basin are
identified, because the base document (USBM 1977) from which these
preparation plant data were compiled does not list locations for
approximately half of its entries. No information was available from the
data source as to whether the nine identified coal preparation plants were
active or not.
3-33
-------
Table 3-9. Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia
(WVDM 1976, 1977a). Status is current through October 1977 (WVDM 1977a;
USBM 1977; A-Active, I-Inactive). Coal seam and production data are for
1976 (WVDM 1976).
Production
~~~ Short Tons
209,941
74,052
Quadrangle
Adrian
Audra
Audra
Berlin
Beverly W
Blacksville
Blacksville
Blacksville
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Brownton
Bruceton
Mills
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Century
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Clarksburg
Cuzzart
Cuzzart
Durbin SW
Durbin SW
Durbin SW
Fairmont E
Fellowsville
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-8291
D-8959
D-5045-S
D-9519-S
D-9499
D-413
D-414
D-6159
D-6338
D-6436
D-8760
D-9721
D-9788
D-8968-S
D-9693
D-9694
D-9819
D-9820
D-10109-S
D-8554
D-505
D-7080
D-8553-S
D-8849-S
D-9471
D-8123-S
D-8178-S
D-8360
D-8989
D-8493
D-9659
D-9902
D-10032-S
D-10043
D-9437
D-9482
D-9686
D-9003
D-8185-S
D-8677
D-9525-S
D-9592
D-8507
D-8935
Status
A
A
I
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
County
Upshur
Barbour
Barbour
Lewis
Randolph
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour .'
Barbour
Barbour
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Barbour
Preston
Barbour
Barbour
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Barbour
Upshur
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Randolph
Randolph
Randol ph
Marion
Preston
Seam
Uppe
Midd
Uppe
Reds
Lowe
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Reds
Reds
Reds
Reds
Camb
Reds
Pitt
Reds
Pitt
Pitt
Reds
Uppe
Reds
Pitt
Reds
Pitt
Lowe
Pitt
Reds
Reds
Reds
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Pitt
Uppe
Uppe
Gilb
Gilb
Brad
Lowe
Uppe
300
1,314,618
1,410,931
1,045,986
53,124
26,380
Middle Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Redstone
Lower Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Cambell Creek &- Peerless
ie
argh 3,949
ie 7,296
irgh 1,814
irgh 2,902
91,128
347,133
650,903
47,575
22,341
31,976
939
2,949
32,192
814
Lower Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Gilbert
Gilbert
Bradshaw
Lower Kittanning
8,616
779,676
24,470
3-34
-------
Table 3-9. Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Gladesville
Gladesville
Glady
Graf ton
Graf ton
Grant Town
Grant Town
Junior
Junior
Kingwood
Kingwood
Kingwood
Lake Lynn
Mannington
Mannington
Mannington
Mannington
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Masontown
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown jj
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Morgantown N
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-8940
D-8941
D-8060
D-9649
D-9735
D-406
D-408
D-5301
D-9527
D-609
D-8733
D-9921
D-8391
D-403
D-405
D-6368
D-404
D-460
D-4893
D-6203
D-6606
D-9052
D-9053
D-9639
D-375
D-376
D-400
D-413
D-415
D-4467
D-5927
D-6798
D-8087-S
D-8223
D-8934
D-9376
D-9494
D-9633
D-9666
D-9687
D-9753
D-4992
D-9688
D-7097
D-9647
D-9783
Production
Status
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
County
Monongalia
Monongalia
Randolph
Barbour
Harrison
Marion
Marion
Barbour
Barbour
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Marion
Marion
Marion
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Seam
Upper Kittanning
Upper Kittanning
Sewell
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Lower Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Upper Freeport
Bakers town
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley
Sewickley
Redstone
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley
Sewickley
Sewickley
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Short Tons
301
17,222
65,207
896,113
302,455
13,790
1,989,929
431,104
364,748
108,070
43,260
31,412
218,701
72,898
1,314,618
2,054,984
73,917
72,262
37,521
96,727
7,203
7,868
161
3-35
-------
Table 3-9. Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Mt. Clare
Nestorville
Nestorville
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Newburg
Osage
Osage
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Philippi
Pickens NE
Pickens NE
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens NW
Pickens SW
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-9784
D-9856
D-9866
D-8664
D-9974
D-9975
D-6200
D-9017
D-9451
D-9602
D-9777
D-5891
D-416
D-8937
D-502
D-4692
D-8827
D-1219
D-6611
D-9298
D-9478
D-8939
D-8958
D-9163
D-9383
D-9524
D-9636
D-8721
D-9209
D-9367
D-9409
D-9415
D-9508
D-9578
D-9635
D-9637
D-9644
D-9769
D-9149
D-8716
D-405
D-4277
D-4846
D-8798
D-9252
Status
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
County
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Barbour
Barbour
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Barbour
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Randolph
Marion
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Production
Seam Short Tons
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone 87,814
Redstone
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport 28,020
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport 26,375
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport 4,370
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh 562,482
Sewickley 46,879
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittanning 223,659
Pittsburgh 1,200
Lower Kittanning 81,910
Upper Kittanning 59,198
Sewell 71,443
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Sewell 91,792
Sewell 27,060
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek &
Peerless 2,395
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Cambell Creek &
Peerless 570
Sewell "B"
Sewell "B" 892
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Sewell "B" 7,482
Cambell Creek & Peerless
Pittsburgh 431,104
Sewickley
Sewickley 46,391
Sewickley 92,200
Sewickley 81,106
3-36
-------
Table 3-9. Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Quadrangle
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rivesville
Rosemont
Rosemont
Rowlesburg
Sago SW
Sago SW
Sago NE
Sago NW
Salem
Shinnstoa
Shinnston
Shinnstoa
Shinnston
Shirmston
Shinnston
Shinnston
Shinnston
Shinnston
Thornton
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Valley Point
Wadestown
Wadestown
Wallace
Wallace
Wallace
Wallace
West Milford
West Milford
Weston
Weston
Wolf Summit
Wo1f S ummi t
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
Wolf Summit
WVDNR
Permit No.
D-9331
D-9541
D-449
D-7041
D-9009
D-9808
D-9157-S
D-8991
D-9581
D-9015
D-9764
D-9014
D-8994
D-657
D-4786-S
D-6169
D-6402
D-9500
D-9501
D-9778
D-9809
D-9894
D-2979
D-4893
D-8182
D-9288-S
D-9509
D-9733
D-9734
D-10168
D-4563
D-5744
D-671
D-4786-S
D-8838
D-9723
D-9722
D-9953
D-8947
D-9691
D-8234
D-8994
D-9305
D-9615
D-9810
D-9903
Production
Status
A
A
I
I
I
A
I
A
A
I
I
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
County
Marion
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Taylor
Preston
Upshur
Upshur
Randolph
Upshur
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Marion
Marion
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Preston
Monongalia
Monongalia
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Lewis
Lewis
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Harrison
Seam Short Tons
Sewickley
Waynesburg
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Mahoning
Middle Kit tanning
Middle Kittanning
Lower Kittanning
Middle Kittanning
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Upper Freeport
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Redstone
Redstone
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh
1,500
12,377
7,638
28,300
78,136
508,867
2,869,470
742,100
14,299
43,260
65,120
113,551
92,027
1,030,406
1,636,238
2,869,470
79,325
415
20,360
41,193
78,136
21,061
3,222
3-37
-------
Table 3-9. Underground mines of the Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
WVDNR Production
Quadrangle Permit No. Status County Seam Short Tons
Wolf Summit D-9998 A Harrison Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit D-10001 A Harrison Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit D-10002 A Harrison Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit D-670 I Harrison Pittsburgh
Wolf Summit D-9665 I Harrison Pittsburgh 2,841
Wolf Summit D-9669 I Harrison Pittsburgh 1,894
Wolf Summit D-9670 I Harrison Pittsburgh
3-38
-------
Figure 3-5
LOCATION OF COAL PREPARATION PLANTS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (adapted from USGS, USMSHA 1979)
0 10
WAPOFU, IMC.
3-40
-------
Table 3-10. Selected coal preparation plants in the Monongahela River Basin,
West Virginia (USBM 1977).
Operator
Maidsville Coal Co.
Route 7 Box 123-H
Morgantown WV 26505
Cheyenne Sales Co.
P. 0. Box 297
Bridgeport WV 26330
Ann-Lorentz Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 695
Buckhannon.WV 26201
Plant
Maidsville Tipple
Colt Tipple
Ann-Lorentz Tipple
USGS 7.5'
Quadrangle Name
Osage
Rosemont
Berlin
Upshur Redstone Coal Co.
Box 666
Buckhannon WV 26201
Electro Tipple
Sago N.W.
GHB Coals, Inc.
P. 0. Box 630
Clarksburg WV
26301
Dexcar Queen Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 8
Buckhannon WV 26201
Ann-Lorentz Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 695
Buckhannon WV 26201
Kano Tipple
Queen Tipple
Ann-Lorentz #2 Tipple
Century
Century; Sago N.W
Century
Badger Coal Co.
P. 0. Box 472
Philippi WV 26416
Kingwood Mining Co.
Box 596
Kingwood WV 26537
Central Preparation Plant
Philippi
Albright Preparation Plant Kingwood
3-41
-------
3.2. MINING METHODS IN THE BASIN
This section briefly describes the predominant mining methods currently
used in the Basin with emphasis on environmental considerations. Several
constraints affect the selection of coal mining methods and techniques to
minimize environmental degradation. Because coal mining traditionally has
been a hazardous occupation, the primary concern in the mining of coal is
the health and safety of the individual coal miner, according to Federal law
(Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977, as amended, Section 2 (a); P.L.
95-164, effective March 9, 1978). Environmental effects of the various
methods and techniques also are of major concern because of past destructive
practices. Other important concerns include the use of mining methods and
abandonment practices which will achieve the maximum recovery of the coal
resource with the least expenditure of energy and labor.
The decision to mine coal by surface or underground techniques gener-
ally is based on site-specific factors. Among the most important site fac-
tors are the depth of cover and coal seam thickness across the proposed
permit area. Development costs for underground mines are significantly
higher than for surface mines. This differential, together with higher
labor inputs, results in a higher cost per ton for coal mined by underground
methods as compared to surface mined coal. To amortize the higher develop-
ment costs, underground mines generally produce coal over a longer term than
surface mines. Surface mining techniques are appropriate where overburden
is too fragmented and weak to form a safe roof above underground tunnels and
the seam is at a relatively shallow depth (generally <150 feet).
The following discussion of mining methodologies currently employed in
the Basin is intended to establish the connection between sensitive environ-
mental resources and mining in the Basin. For more detailed descriptions of
surface mining methods, the reader is referred to Chironis (1978); Grim and
Hill (1974); and Skelly and Loy (1975, 1979). For more detailed descrip-
tions of underground mining methods, the reader is referred to EPA (1976)
and NUS Corporation (1977). The President's Commission on Coal (1980), EPA
(1979a, 1979b), Schmidt (1979), and USOTA (1979a) also provide general
information.
3.2.1. Surface Mining Methods
As described in Section 2.7., West Virginia coal frequently occurs as
more or less horizontal bands of varying thickness between layers of various
kinds of rock. The coal seams may be exposed at the surface along mountain-
sides, where they can be mined using surface methods. To remove the coal by
surface methods, access roads must be built to get equipment to the coal.
Then the vegetation on the surface, the soil, and the associated rock must
be removed, before the coal itself can be transported to a preparation plant
or user. The mine site then must be placed in a suitable long-term condi-
tion by regrading and the reestablishment of vegetation. Throughout the
opeiat ion, environmental standards pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA must be
met .
3-43
-------
Contour surface mines typically are long, narrow operations that undu-
late through the landscape in response to topography, often high above the
valley bottoms. Historically, contour mining involved the "shoot and shove"
technique where overburden, blasted loose by explosives, was bulldozed down-
slope from the coal outcrop. Coal then was loaded onto dump trucks by
shovels and bucket loaders, as the mine operation continued around the
mountain, following the outcrop along the contour. Often the mine operation
was abandoned with little or no post-mining reclamation (EPA 1979a).
Contour surface methods at present have grown more sophisticated and
can be categorized by the manner in which overburden, rock, and coal are
moved about. In the Basin several different mining methods are employed due
to the varied topography. Haulback is the principal method for new contour
mining in steeply sloping areas. Augering also is practiced. Mountaintop
removal involves cross-ridge mining and head of hollow fills. Regardless of
the method employed, some overburden material generally must be placed down-
slope from the mine pit in a controlled manner. Current regulations
prohibit uncontrolled downslope overburden dumping. Because of the import-
ance of overburden disposal, current practices are discussed separately in
Section 5.7.
3.2.1.1. Box Cut and Block Cut Contour Mining Methods
Box cut and block cut methods are traditional forms of contour surface
mining. In a box cut operation, after the timber and soil have been
removed, an initial cut is made into the uppermost rock material with dozers
to form a drill bench (Figure 3-6). The consolidated overburden then is
drilled, blasted, and removed to storage areas. The cut is a rectangular
area that extends to the limits of the highwall (Figure 3-7). No outcrop
barrier of coal typically is left behind in West Virginia. After the
initial "box" has been cut, the pit can be expanded outward.
If the coal on both sides of the pit then is mined and the spoil is
placed in the middle, the method is labeled block cut mining (Figure 3-8).
In this case the sequence of operations is more complex (Figure 3-9).
The final USOSM permanent program regulations, and some States such as
Pennsylvania, require that a band of undisturbed coal be left along the out-
crop as an aid in water retention on the bench and to reduce the potential
for downslope movement of regraded overburden after the mine is reclaimed.
Under West Virginia conditions, the weathered coal has been found to be a
poor road base for trucks and to break down under traffic. Hence operators
frequently remove the weathered outcrop coal (the "blossom"), even though it
generally is not marketable, and replace it with controlled fill material
that provides greater stability and a superior road base.
3.2.1.2. Haulback Methods
The haulback technique, also termed lateral movement or controlled
placement mining, can be adapted effectively to the steep slopes of the
3-44
-------
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3-46
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3-48
-------
Monongahela River Basin. Its environmental advantages include flexibility
in meeting two critical regulatory provisions: 1) reclaiming mined land to
approximate original contour; and 2) eliminating the need for uncontrolled
downslope spoil deposition (which now is prohibited). As a replacement for
older, conventional contour methods, the haulback method is an adaptation
which may use box cut or modified block cut operational sequencing.
Haulback is a more delicate operation which handles overburden material more
effectively and efficiently.
The initial cut is a small box cut or block cut at a point where the
coal seam crops out. Because many of these operations are located in
previously mined areas, old abandoned benches are frequently available for
storage of initial cut overburden. In virgin areas, the initial cut
generally is located adjacent to a hollow. In this manner, a readily
accessible area is provided for controlled placement of the initial cut
spoil material. A head of hollow fill then can be constructed with this
•initial cut spoil in accordance with State and Federal regulatory require-
ments .
After the exposed coal is removed from the first cut, mining proceeds
around the contour of the coal outcrop. Overburden, as the mining name
implies, then is hauled laterally along the mine bench and is placed select-
ively in the mined-out pit area. Generally, overburden from the second
mined area is used to fill the first area, the third area fills the second,
and so on. The operation ordinarily proceeds in only one direction from the
initial cut. Complicated logistical planning and scheduling for drilling
and blasting, overburden removal, coal removal, and hauling sequences, as
well as reclamation operations, must precede the actual mining operation, if
costs and environmental impacts are to be minimized while coal recovery is
maximized. These steps can be illustrated in a flow diagram of unit opera-
tions (Figure 3-10) .
Haulback methods differ mainly in the equipment for overburden loading
and haulage. Hence haulback is distinct from conventional contour methods
which employ direct placement or pushing of overburden. The three basic
types of equipment used in haulback are: 1) front-end loader or shovel/
truck combinations which are presently the most popular; 2) scrapers; and
3) loader (shovel)/truck combinations in concert with scrapers. These three
different equipment combinations create mine pits of somewhat differing
appearance (Figure 3-11).
The site preparation, coal loading, coal hauling, augering, and reclam-
ation unit operations of the haulback method are similar to conventional
contour mining practices. Overburden preparation in the haulback method,
however, does involve a change in drilling and blasting. For haulback
methods, special deck loading and delayed blasting procedures are utilized
to prevent outslope spoil deposition. The blasting is designed to lift the
overburden upward, but not outward. One procedure, devised by a West
Virginia firm, consists of delaying the blast shots in curvilinear rows, so
that overburden is thrown laterally back into the open pit by the blast.
3-49
-------
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-------
""^^^jtH^^
OVERBURDEN\ \ REGRADED
FILL AREA
Haulback operation using trucks and loaders.
EEOBAOtD
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rWK;7^«->C
'*:*%r3:&r
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f'~TJr*V££ UNDISTURBED f?^£V-^LAND ^>'-^-'-''-''
'-'---^-vr^cV^riJX^Tr^ -
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Haulback operation using scrapers.
.v • ••• ROAD ,^\j'-^.^L'])^^/^' -:
fi^llTl^fTll^
^^\,\XN> VJ- J~ - HIGHWALM J y- -l/--r^ OVIKI
\\\ ^\^<^ --i I- \- \ ~ /^'^\~^- Fill
\\^<\-!rJ?°AC\o^ T 1 I t- -L/ ^~JU^r_J--
^\ -v'-r-r'MA": gl Al "mi. -^-T^ - ' ^-rT'i^^ ••• '
CLEARED ^-~-< * X-^-.-^gBSa^^a*1 • '^5.'.° '-^\-)<^ •' . •
""•^'' 'VV^V:'^\^U,?'-H^^V:' HAJ4L.R°AD ^,V;vAJ;'/'A'"('UN DISTURBED LAND '^.'fV; \ /?V '''A- ":'-' ''V '^
Haulback operation using combination loader/truck and scrapers.
Figure 3-11 HAULBACK MINING METHODS (adapted from Chironis 1978)
3-51
-------
Overburden loading and hauling unit operations in the haulback method
also vary from conventional methods. The front-end loader (shovel)/truck
system usually is utilized and is effective if properly managed. Pit
congestion can become a problem due to the narrow working benches resulting
from steep slopes. Dozers may be utilized to construct haul roads and ramps
and generally to push the overburden down to the loader. In this way,
excavation is facilitated for the loader, which then readily can segregate
and deposit spoil material with the use of trucks. Lateral haulage by
trucks gives flexibility to the process and permits ancillary operations,
such as augering, to be conducted without interfering with other mining and
reclamation operalions. Augers can be operated close enough to the
stripping area (active pit) so that the augered coal can be stockpiled on
the seam, thus eliminating the need for a separate haul unit to transport
the augered coal to the main stripping and loading site.
Where geologic and topographic conditions permit, scrapers sometimes
are used in the overburden loading and hauling operation because scrapers
can offer cost advantages over truck transport on short haul distances.
With rippers and other dozers functioning as auxiliary equipment for loading
hard, blocky spoil material, the scraper system has wide-ranging flexibility
and capability to compete with the loader (shovel)/truck system. Further-
more, because scrapers can excavate, readily transport (even over steep
slopes with full loads), deposit, and compact spoil material, their use
offers the advantages of decreased pit congestion, greater production per
hour (at least for short haul distances), and less complicated planning and
scheduling.
The third system sometimes used, a combination of the two previous
equipment types, also offers distinct advantages. Scrapers can remove the
less consolidated material near the surface, while loader (shovel)/trucks
excavate the hard, blocky spoil near the coal seam. In this manner, scra-
pers can traverse the top of the highwall and reduce pit congestion. At the
same time, loader (shovel)/trucks can transport the blocky material along
the pit floor, minimizing truck haulage on steep grades for which trucks are
not well suited.
A recent fourth development in the haulback method uses conveyor
systems designed primarily to reduce the inefficient pit congestion which
results from the numerous pieces of coal removal and overburden handling
equipment necessary in the other three haulback methods. Figures 3-12 and
3-13 illustrate a mine layout plan with a low-wall conveyor haulage system
and an artist's depiction of a low-wall conveyor haulage scheme. There are
disadvantages to the conveyor systems, but conveyor usage probably will
increase due to advantages such as: 1) more continuous transfer and place-
ment of material; 2) reduced haulage costs per ton of overburden removed; 3)
reduction in equipment (and energy) requirements, thereby relieving conges-
tion, reducing safety hazards, and increasing production; and 4) more rapid
reclamation, thus minimizing environmental degradation.
3-52
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3.2.1.3. Augering
Augering is the process of drilling or boring horizontally into the
coal seam. The auger reams out coal to distances of about 200 feet by using
large cutting heads. The diameter of the cutting head is limited by the
thickness of the coal seam and can be as large as 7 feet. Because the auger
tends to sag into the coal seam and may enter strata below the coal seam as
the mining proceeds to greater horizontal distances, cutting heads generally
are undersized by about 30%. Because of this problem, as well as the fact
that coal is left unmined between auger holes (which often are not parallel
due to irregular highwalls), auger mining usually provides a poor percentage
recovery of the total coal reserve. Figure 3-14 illustrates auger hole
spacing as well as the pie-shaped blocks of coal left between the holes.
Augering is used following the lateral haulback method after the
maximum stripping ratio has been reached. Augering recovers additional coal
resources by using the open bench area and exposed highwall as a working
face, with little or no additional excavation of overburden. Augering also
is used by itself to mine coal resources in areas too steep to accommodate
conventional mining methods (that is, generally >60%). In such cases, a
roadway and a narrow bench first must be excavated along the hillside at the
coal seam outcrop to provide access and a working bench area for the auger-
ing equipment.
Auger mining provides relatively cheap coal recovery and is quite use-
ful Ln obtaining coal resources not economically recoverable at present
through other surface or underground methods. Where augering is used,
however, the technique generally precludes the possibility of future
recovery of coal not mined, even as technologies are improved to mine
economically from the surface at greater distances and depths. For this
reason, industry leaders and others increasingly argue against augering in
many areas. Reclamation generally consists of plugging the auger holes with
noncombustible and impervious material and backfilling in front of the high-
wall face to approximate original contour.
3.2.1.4. Mountaintop Removal Mining
This relatively new mining method was first demonstrated in 1967 in
West Virginia. Essentially, this method is an adaptation of area mining to
steep terrain. It affects large blocks of land, rather than sinuous bands.
Mountaintop removal mining typically has been designed to mine an entire
mountaintop down to the coal seam in a continuous series of cuts progress-
ively excavated toward and parallel to the ridge. The highwall either may
parallel the long axis of the ridge along only one side of the mountain or
may encircle the entire mountain. In this manner, the method permits total
coal resource recovery, with the exception of outcrop barriers. Similar to
haulback methods, the initial cut in a mountaintop removal operation
generally is located near an adjacent hollow, which serves as the site for
construction of the head-of-hollow fill. The initial cut usually is
executed in a box cut manner, isolating an undisturbed coal and overburden
barrier at the outslope. The overburden excavated during this first cut is
transported to the head-of-hollow fill. Mining then proceeds in a
continuous series of cuts, parallel to the first. Spoil material is placed
3-55
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AUGER HOLE PATTERN - IRREGULAR HIGHWALL
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF AN AUGER HOLE
< Ul
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^ WALL
u
HOLE DIAMETER = 2/3 X COAL SEAM-
•Man^BBBBBgi
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SPACING OF AUGER
HOLES DRILLED FROM THE HIGHWALL
•X. Note: Unmined coal is left around -j-
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Figure 3-14 COAL LOSSES FROM AUGER MINING (adapted from Grim and
Hill 1974)
3-56
-------
continuous series of cuts, parallel to the first. Spoil material is placed
on the existing solid benches of prior cuts, or into head of hollow fills,
with reclamation following (Figure 3-15). In this manner, the mining opera-
tion eventually removes the entire mountaintop.
After final regrading, the once rugged mountaintop is transformed into
level or gently rolling land offering development potential (Figure 3-15).
The new USOSM regulations mandate a return to approximate original contour
unless the mining operator can demonstrate a financial commitment to post-
mining intensive land uses (industrial, commercial, agricultural, resident-
ial, or public facilities). Obtaining this type of long-term future commit-
ment from banking or other institutions traditionally has been very diffi-
cult, if not impossible, in most instances. Also, because numerous
mountaintop mining operations may be undertaken in the Basin, an excessive
number of flat or rolling mountaintop plateaus not needed for intensive land
use purposes eventually may result. Regional land-use planning authorities
should be consulted to determine the extent and locations of areas where
uses more intensive than timber and wildlife should be implemented following
mountaintop removal.
The same basic types of equipment are used for mountaintop removal as
for conventional contour methods. Front-end loaders generally serve as the
primary overburden mover; occasionally shovels, scrapers, and draglines are
utilized. In addition to trucks and scrapers, conveyor haulage is beginning
to be utilized.
Although mountaintop removal mining has many advantages, including
being environmentally acceptable in meeting many Federal and State require-
ments and permitting total resource recovery, the technique has led to prac-
tical problems. One of the major problems has been the cash flow associated
with this method, which occasionally has prevented total resource recovery.
Premature closing of the mining operation may result. As mining moves
inward toward the ridge of the mountaintop, highwall heights and stripping
ratios constantly increase, resulting in continually escalating mining
costs. If the operation becomes uneconomical, mining may cease prior to
removing the entire mountaintop. An undesirable highwall island or
"applecore" is the result. This problem often occurs when detailed topo-
graphical maps or drilling information is not available prior to mining, and
the operator incorrectly estimates final spoil depths. If the spoil depth
estimate proves low, the operator may attempt to avoid leaving a highwall
island by increasing the height of the final configuration of the reclaimed
land above that originally planned. This practice results in double-
handling of spoil material and greatly increased costs. As the result of
these problems and other factors, a newly-developed technique, cross-ridge
mountaintop mining, is gaining popularity in in West Virginia.
3.2.1.5. Cross-ridge Mountaintop Removal
This technique is similar in general to conventional mountaintop
removal mining, but it differs in the direction of mining. In the cross-
3-57
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Mountaintop
First Cut
(Box (
I
Highwall
Barrier
Overburden
J_
Original Ground Slope
First Cut
(Box Cut)
_ I j .s?y-^- nignw
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Original Ground Slope
Second Cut
Mountaintop
Barrier
Blossom
Second cut
Topsoil
Flat to Rolling Land
Barrier
Barrier
Diversion Ditch
Diversion Ditch-
Final reclamation
Figure 3-15
MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING METHOD
(adapted from Grim and Hill 1974)
-------
ridge technique, mining proceeds perpendicular to the long axis of the
mountaintop ridge (Figure 3-16). By mining across the ridge, constant
operating costs and coal production can be realized by excavating at both
high overburden-to-coal ratio points (high cost coal) near the ridge center,
together with low overburden-to-coal ratio points (low cost coal) near the
coal outcrops on both sides. Consequently, each perpendicular cut achieves
an acceptable stripping ratio. In this manner, several advantages are
offered, in addition to precluding the previously described cash flow
problem and thereby achieving total resource recovery. Minimization of
surface areas disturbed by active mining and by head of hollow fills can be
accomplished by creating an initial cut which provides sufficient space for
overburden backstacking on the mine bench for the following cut. The second
cut mine bench then can serve as a backstacking area for the third cut; and
so on. Thus, mining and reclamation are not only concurrent, but also
create an inherently efficient operation, given proper logistical mine
planning and scheduling, because equipment and manpower are concentrated in
one area. Another advantage of cross-ridge mountaintop removal is a
substantial overall reduction in mine operating costs, primarily due to a
reduction in the head-of-hollow fills and associated haulage requirements
necessary for overburden storage. This reduction in head of hollow fills is
partially due to the fact that, in cross-ridge mining, the top of the head
of hollow fill is used for backstacking. Moreover, less storage space is
required overall, because reclamation is more concurrent with the
operation.
The same basic mining and reclamation procedure as is customary with
conventional mountaintop removal mining is used for cross-ridge mining.
Equipment utilization in cross-ridge mining also is similar to that of any
mountaintop removal. The final reclamation product of cross-ridge mountain-
top removal mining also is similar — a level or gently rolling expanse of
land offering development potential (Figure 3-16).
3.2.1.6. Head of Hollow Fills
When overburden is fractured and removed so that coal can be extracted,
overburden occupies a larger volume than when undisturbed. Typically, the
increase in volume of overburden is greater than the volume of coal removed.
Hence the disposal of excess overburden is a key problem for West Virginia
surface mines. During the years when surface mines were unregulated, the
overburden simply was pushed downslope in an uncontrolled manner. Current
practice is to minimize the volume of fill placed downslope and to place it
in a carefully controlled and stabilized manner.
A controlled overburden storage method known as head of hollow fill can
be utilized in all types of surface mining methods presently being employed
in the steeper areas of the Basin. Topographic and hydrologic restrictions
by the State of West Virginia include permitting head of hollow fills only
in narrow, "V-shaped" hollows near the ridge top which do not contain under-
ground mine openings or wet-weather springs. Generally, the proposed dimen-
sions of the fill are such that the hollow can be filled completely to at
3-59
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least the elevation of the mine bench. In addition, the toe of the hollow
fill must be at least 100 feet from a permanent stream.
Prior to site preparation, a sediment basin is constructed below the
proposed toe of the fill. The fill then is initiated at the toe by clearing
the area of all vegetation. Next, a haul road is constructed within the
disposal area to the projected toe of the fill. A rock core chimney drain
then is started at the toe and is constructed progressively through the fill
mass, from the original valley floor up to the top of the fill bench,
maintaining a minimum width of 16 feet.
Actual fill construction is concurrent with placement of the core and
proceeds in uniform horizontal lifts approximately parallel with the
proposed finished grade. The massive rocks of the core, however, extend
well above the remainder of the fill surface. In accordance with regulatory
requirements, all spoil designated for the fill must be transported to the
active lift, where it is placed and compacted in maximum four-foot thick
layers.
A terraced appearance is created on the fill outslope by recessing each
successive 50-foot lift. Each resultant bench (or terrace) is constructed
to slope into the fill, as well as toward the rock core in accordance with
West Virginia requirements. Upon completion, the top of the fill is graded
to drain toward the head of the hollow, where a drainage pocket is located
to intercept surface water runoff and direct it into the rock core. During
the final outer slope grading, dozer cleat depressions generally are left to
serve as seed traps. In a one-step operation, a hydroseeder usually is used
to apply nutrients, seed, water, and mulch for revegetation (Figures 3-17
and 3-18).
The typical West Virginia head of hollow fill is allowed by USOSM
standards without restrictions when the fill volume is less than 250,000
cubic yards. For those fills greater than 250,000 cubic yards, however,
USOSM requires that the crest of the fill extend to the elevation of the
ridgeline. In instances where large fills are to extend only to the
elevation of the coal seam, a recently defined USOSM "valley fill" must be
constructed (Figures 3-19 and 3-20). The primary difference between the two
methods is that an underdrain system is utilized in the valley fill instead
of the rock core (chimney type) drain. One definite advantage of an
underdrain system over a typical West Virginia rock core relates to
post-mining land use. The rock core that extends several feet above the
surface of the center of the fill severely restricts the land use potential
of the completed fill site, because horizontal movement (farm machinery,
livestock, etc.) across the fill virtually is precluded. Conversely, a
disadvantage to the valley fill is that underdrains create a difficult water
handling problem for surface drainage by concentrating large volumes of
water on the unconsolidated spoil material. Ultimately, this water drains
over the very steep outslope of the fill face and along the line of contact
with undisturbed ground. This can result in severe erosion and
3-61
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FILL SURFACE
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SECTION A-A'
FILL SURFACE
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BENCH
NATURAL HOLLOW SLOPE
SECTION B-B'
ROCK CORE DRAIN
ORIGINAL GROUND
FILL MASS
SECTION C-C'
Figure 3-18 CROSS SECTIONS OF HEAD'OF-HOLLOW FILL (adapted from
Skelly and Loy 1979)
3-63
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ORIGINAL GROUND
UNDERDRAIN
SECTION A-A'
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FILL OUTSLOPE
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UNDERDRAIN
SECTION B THRU BB
FIRST BENCH
RIP-RAP DRAIN
SLOPC 3%-5%
RIP-RAP DRAIN
SLOPE 3 % -5 %
UNDERDRAIN
ORIGINAL GROUND
SEE TEXT
SECTION C-C
Figure 3-20 CROSS SECTIONS OF THE FEDERAL VALLEY FILL
(adapted from Skelly and Loy I979)
-------
sedimentation, as well as a continuing maintenance problem on the fill face
and at the line of contact at the edges of the fill.
3.2.2. Underground Mining Methods
Underground mines are developed by excavating entryways into a coal
seam. Underground mines in the Monongahela River Basin can be classified in
terms of the type of entryway or access to the coal seam: drift, slope, or
shaft (Figure 3-21). Drift mines, the cheapest entry method, enter the coal
seam at the coal outcrop and provide nearly horizontal access to the mine
workings. Slope mines are developed when the coal seam is located at a
distance from the land surface and at an intermediate depth. Slope mines
are driven at a maximum angle of 17° from the surface entry point to the
coal seam. Shaft mines are utilized for coal seams located a substantial
distance under the ground surface or where slope lengths would be
uneconomical. Vertical entryway shafts are driven to the coal seam from the
ground surface, and elevators provide access to the workings.
The coal seams of West Virginia typically dip at only a slight angle
from the horizontal. An underground mine can advance either in an up-dip or
in a down-dip direction. The choice between up-dip and down-dip operations
has a significant effect on considerations of water handling during and
after the mining operation, as discussed in Section 5.7. Water management
during and after underground mining is a complex aspect of mine engineering
and has great potential for long-term as well as short-term environmental
impacts.
The actual mining methods employed in an underground mine are not
necessarily dependent on the type of entryway in use or the dip of the coal
seam. Rather, methods differ in the manner by which coal is removed and the
mine is laid out. The two basic mining layouts are room and pillar, the
more popular, and longwall. In a room and pillar mine, parallel series of
entries or main headings are driven into the coal seam. Secondary headings
or cross-cuts connect these main tunnels in a perpendicular direction at
specified intervals. The configuration of the cross-cuts is planned care-
fully to permit adequate ventilation, support of headings, and drainage of
the workings and to facilitate coal haulage. Blocks of coal then are
extracted in a systematic pattern along both sides of the headings. Pillars
of coal remaining between the mined-out rooms act as roof supports (Figure
3-22). About half of the coal resource typically is left in place to
support the roof during mining.
The two predominant coal extraction techniques currently employed in
room and pillar mines are conventional and continuous mining systems. Both
systems can be used within a single mine under appropriate circumstances.
Conventional mining consists of a repeated series of steps used to advance a
series of rooms concurrently by blasting. The procedure basically entails
the rotation of mining equipment from one room to another in order to keep
all pieces of equipment working with minimal idle time. The mining opera-
tion consists of the following operations: 1) cutting the coal face (at the
3-66
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ICoal
SHAFT ENTRY
Coal
DRIFT ENTRY
SLOPE ENTRY
Figure 3-21 METHODS OF ENTRY TO UNDERGROUND COAL
MINES (adapted from Michael Baker 1975)
3-67
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bottom and sides on an appropriate angle) with a cutting machine having
chain-saw type cutter bars, so that the direction of the coal movement is
controlled upon blasting; 2) horizontally drilling the coal face at
predetermined intervals to permit placement of explosives; 3) blasting the
coal face; 4) loading the coal onto haulage vehicles or a conveyor belt; and
5) roof bolting or timbering to support overburden material where the
coal has been removed. A typical cut sequence for conventional mining in a
five entry heading is presented in Figure 3-23.
The more popular method currently is a continuous mining system which
utilizes a single mechanized unit with rotating chisels to break or cut the
coal directly from the coal face and load it onto haulage vehicles or con-
veyor belts. In this manner, the conventional equipment and operating
personnel for the cutting, drilling, and blasting operational steps are
eliminated. A typical cut sequence for the continuous mining system is very
similar to that for room and pillar mining using conventional blasting
techniques. The continuous system eliminates several of the more hazardous
steps, and less experienced supervision and labor are required. A disad-
vantage of continuous mining is its inability to mine effectively those
coalbeds with high hardness ratings, large partings, and undulating roof and
floor planes. Such coalbeds can be mined by conventional blasting methods.
The longwall mining layout differs from the room and pillar approach in
both equipment usage and mining method (Figure 3-24). In longwall mining,
parallel headings of variable length are driven into the coal with a cross-
heading subsequently driven between the headings at their maximum length,
which may be as long as 4,000 feet. This cross-heading serves as the long-
wall or working face, which usually is between 300 and 600 feet long. The
working face in room and pillar mining systems usually is limited to about
30 feet maximum. A traveling drum shearer or plow advances across the coal
face under the protection of self-advancing, hydraulic-power roof supports.
The cut coal falls onto a chain conveyor beneath the traveling cutting
mechanism and parallel to the coal face. This conveyor then transports the
coal to a perpendicular entry, where the coal is transferred to the mine
haulage system. Upon reaching the end of the coal face, the traveling
cutter mechanism reverses direction and moves back across the coal face in
the opposite direction. As mining progresses, the supports are advanced,
allowing controlled roof collapse behind the support line. The subsidence
is predictable, and the system can be used at great depths.
The longwall system substantially increases the recovery of coal,
increases labor productivity, and is safer than room and pillar mining,
particularly where roof conditions are poor. Longwall is, however, an
expensive method requiring high capital investment and costly equipment
moves. Longwall generally is limited to large, level, straight blocks of
coal free from obstructions.
Shortwall mining is essentially a variety of longwall mining. A con-
tinuous mining machine such as that used in room and pillar mining usually
substitutes for the shearer or plow. The self-advancing roof supports
3-69
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Figure 3-23 CUT SEQUENCE FOR CONTINUOUS MINING
SYSTEM-FIVE ENTRY HEADING (adapted from NUS Corp. 1977)
3-70
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Face length )
Entry take-off conveyor
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Figure 3-24 TYPICAL LONGWALL PLAN (adapted from Michael Baker 1975)
3-71
-------
extend over the top of the continuous raining machine as the operation pro-
ceeds along the coal face." The scale of the operation typically is smaller
than in longwall operations. The face may be 150 feet long and the heading
may extend 1,000 feet. Shortwall mining is a technique with flexibility,
and it can be adapted to variations in the presence of coal, to unsuitable
roof conditions, or to obstacles such as oil and gas wells.
3.2.3. Coal Preparation
Coal preparation includes the crushing and/or cleaning of coal (EPA
1979b). Preparation of coal which is low in impurities only requires crush-
ing and sizing. When impurities in coal occur in quantity, however, clean-
ing also is required. Impurities may include clay, shale, other rock, and
pyrite. Coal cleaning processes vary in complexity and may produce several
types of wastes. The types and quantities of waste products produced by
coal preparation facilities depend upon the size of the facility, the
chemical properties of the coal, and the extent and method of coal cleaning.
Depending on the amount of impurities in the raw coal, refuse volume will
range to as much as 25% of the total coal processed (USDI 1978).
The simplest coal preparation plant utilizes crushing and screening to
remove large refuse material (Figure 3-25). Because this usually is a dry
process, wastes consist of coal dust, solid waste refuse, and surface runoff
from ancillary areas, including coal storage piles and refuse disposal
areas. Other preparation plants are more complex and perform additional
cleansing processes. These processes may utilize water, thermal dryers, and
various separation procedures. Such preparation facilities produce waste-
water, process sludges, and additional air emissions. The characteristics
of wastewater from coal storage, refuse storage, and coal preparation plant
ancillary areas generally are similar to the characteristics of raw mine
drainage at the mine supplying the preparation plant (Table 3-11). The
principal pollutant in coal preparation wastewater is suspended solids (coal
fines and clays) which may be removed by clarification processes (EPA
1976c).
Typical coal preparation operations can be described as a five stage
process (Figure 3-26):
Stage 1: Plant feed preparation—Material larger than
6 inches in diameter is screened from the raw coal on a
grizzly (rectangular iron bar frame). The uniform feed
coal is ground to an initial size by one or more crushers
and fed to the preparation plant.
Stage 2: Raw coal sizing—Primary sizing on a screen or a
scalping deck separates the coal into coarse and
intermediate-size fractions. The coarse fraction is
crushed again if necessary and subsequently is re-sized
for cycling to the raw coal separation step. The
intermediate fraction undergoes secondary sizing on wet or
3-72
-------
(D
ex
I
0>
0>
•5.
o
•o
o
3-73
-------
Table 3-11. Raw waste characteristics of coal preparation plant process water
(EPA 1976c). Data are mg/1 except as indicated.
Parameters
pH (standard units)
Alkalinity
Total iron
Dissolved iron
Manganese
Aluminum
Zinc
Nickel
TDS
TSS
Hardness
Sulfates
Ammonia
Minimum
7.30
62.00
0.03
0.00
0.30
0.10
0.01
0.01
636.00
2,698.00
1,280.00
979.00
0.00
Maximum
8.10
402.00
187.00
6.40
4.21
29.00
2.60
0.54
2,240.00
156,400.00
1,800.00
1,029.00
4.00
Mean
7.70
160.00
47.80
0.92
1.67
10.62
0.56
0.15
1,433.00
62,448.00
1,540.00
1,004.00
2.01
Standard
Deviation
96.07
59.39
2.09
1.14
11.17
0.89
0.19
543.90
8,372.00
260.00
25.00
1.53
3-74
-------
1.
PLANT FEED
PREPARATION
FiU.N OF MINE STO/1AGE
3
2.
RAW COAL
SIZING
INTERMEDIATE PRODUCT
RAW COAL r
SEPARATION
PRODUa WATER
DEWATERING
5.
PRODUCT
STORAGE
AND SHIPPING
Figure 3-26 COAL PREPARATION PLANT PROCESSES
(adapted from Nunenkamp 1976)
3-75
-------
dry vibrating screens to remove fines, which may undergo
further processing. The i
to the raw coal separator.
further processing. The intermediate fraction then is fed 4
Stage 3: Raw coal separation—Most raw coal subject to
separation undergoes wet processes, including dense media
separation, hydraulic separation, and froth flotation.
Pneumatic separation is applied to the remaining raw coal.
The coarse, intermediate, and fine fractions are processed
separately by equipment uniquely suited for each size.
Refuse (generally shale and sandstone), middlings
(carbonaceous material denser than the desired product),
and cleaned coal are separated for the dewatering stage.
Stage 4: Product dewatering and/or drying—Coarse and
intermediate coals generally are dewatered on screens.
Fine coal may be dewatered in centrifuges and thickening
ponds and dried in thermal dryers.
Stage 5: Product storage and shipping—Size fractions may
be stored separately in silos, bins, or open air
stockpiles. The method of storage generally depends on
the method of loading for transport and the type of
carrier chosen.
More detailed descriptions of coal preparation processing and its
environmental consequences can be found in EPA (1979b).
3.2.4. Abandonment of Coal Mining Operations
Recent legislation places great emphasis on the obligation of the coal
mine operator to conclude his activities in such a manner that the potential
long-term adverse impacts on human safety and the environment in general are
minimized. It is possible to reduce adverse post-mining environmental
effects from surface mines and coal preparation facilities to a large
extent. If such operations are conducted in accordance with current laws,
adverse impacts are expected to peak during active production periods. The
adverse impacts of underground mines, however, frequently increase after
active mining ceases.
Timely reclamation of surface mines and preparation plant sites in
accordance with current standards is designed to return the mine site to a
topographic condition and vegetation that bear some resemblance to pre-
mining conditions or that are appropriate to more intensive land uses. If
reclamation is unsuccessful, barren spoil banks, eroded refuse piles, and
neglected haul roads can generate waters laden with sediment and chemicals
toxic to aquatic organisms. In mountainous West Virginia, haul roads
generally are maintained as permanent features following mining. In some
cases haul roads become part of the public road network.
3-76
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As discussed in Section 4.1., the State of West Virginia relies on
performance bonds to assure compliance with reclamation requirements. Part
of the bond is released after inspection of the regraded spoil; the remaind-
er is not released until vegetation and runoff water quality are judged
likely to be acceptable in the long term based on actual post-mining
experience. EPA does not require performance bonds to insure compliance
during mining, but relies on the Federal court system as the basic mechanism
for insuring compliance with Federal law. NPDES permit jurisdiction over
surface mining operations ends when the regrading phase of reclamation is
completed.
The surface workings of underground mines currently are treated
essentially as surface mines with respect to reclamation requirements.
Long-term problems from underground mines originate principally from surface
subsidence and from water collected by the underground passageways. Shallow
underground mines (depth 200 feet or less) are likely eventually to cause
surface subsidence as the overlying strata cave into the voids under the
force of gravity. Subsidence may disrupt surface land uses, and it typical-
ly contributes to the increased flow of water into mine workings. Ground-
water resources can be reduced locally, and groundwater quality can be
degraded. If the underground mine water drains to the surface, it may
create surface water quality problems. At present the placement of alkaline
material such as fly ash in underground mines to neutralize acid mine drain-
age is not a common practice in the Basin.
3.2.5. Coal Mining Economics
Cost data pertaining to coal mining, reclamation, and pollution control
technology generally are drawn either from very site-specific case histories
of actual mines or from very general computer modeling studies. Neither
category can accurately reflect the multitude of variables which affects the
economics of mining. Available studies are of very limited practical value
for characterizing the basic variables of costs related to mining and pollu-
tion control. In each real-world case, the optimization of costs for a
proposed mine is an exercise in applied engineering.
The following discussion summarizes some of the variables which affect
mine economics and presents some of the documented cost ranges from the
literature on mining economics. Generalized cost estimates of reclamation
techniques as discussed in Section 5.0. of this SID also are presented.
Crude approximations for costs resulting from already required mitigative
measures as well as for those additional measures which EPA will require
under the New Source NPDES program are developed. Actual costs can be
expected to be extremely variable in specific instances.
Variables which influence surface mining economics include (but are not
limited to):
• Pre-mining slope
3-77
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Drainage area above mine (extent and characteristics)
Annual rainfall and snowfall
Amount and composition of overburden (sandstone vs. shale;
toxic vs. non-toxic; amount of colloidal material)
Coal seam thickness, stripping ratio, quality of coal
(thermal value, ash, sulfur, volatility characteristics),
and market selling price
Presence or absence of previous mining benches on permit
area
Proximity to housing and other sensitive land uses and
structures (pre-mining blast, water, and groundwater
surveys; restrictive blasting practices; special
protection of water resources)
Exploration (geologic prospecting of coal outcrop vs.
random drilling vs. concentrated pattern drilling)
Mine planning, engineering, and development (mine
operation sequencing and equipment matching; maximizing
efficiency and minimizing equipment dead time)
Mining method
Mine size
Permit costs (consultant or in-house staff; application
and bonding fees)
Equipment usage, leas ing-depreciation schedule, and
maintenance
Market or tipple distance, mode of coal haulage, and
outside contract vs. in-house haulage
Type of reclamation (approximate original contour vs.
mountaintop plateau)
Physical, chemical, and structural root-zone soil
characteristics (soil amendments for revegetation)
Seedbed preparation and type of revegetation (grasses and
legumes vs. seedling trees; outside contract vs.
in-house)
Pollution control (erosion and sedimentation, acid mine
drainage, dust)
3-78
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• Union vs. non-union labor
• Equipment operator skills
• Amount of supervision and administration
• Royalty payments
• Payroll overhead
• Taxes and insurance
• Interest on loans
• Building and other facility construction and maintenance
• Operating supplies
• Power and communication costs.
Each mine site is unique in terms of these different aspects, and
associated costs differ radically for the same unit operations, as well as
for the percentage of total mine costs these represent. For example, over-
burden stripping costs will vary greatly depending upon the stripping ratio,
overburden composition, slope of terrain, mining method and equipment usage,
and equipment operator skills.
In one cost study of contour surface mining and reclamation in
Appalachia, overburden removal costs per ton of coal ranged from $1.39 to
$4.14, which represented 28% and 53% of the total operating mine costs,
respectively (Nephew et al. 1976). The only variables considered in this
study were slope terrain (15°, 20°, or 25°), highwall height (60 feet or 90
feet), and mining and reclamation methods. Backfilling and grading costs to
approximate original contour ranged from $0.80 to $4.64, which represented
18% and 38% of the total operating mine costs, respectively (1974 dollars).
Backfilling and grading costs for truck haulback mining to approximate
original contour ranged from $1.26 to $4.64, which correlated to 22% and 38%
of the total mine operating costs, respectively.
Even for an overall minor cost operation, such as haul road construct-
ion, costs vary significantly. For truck haulback mining with reclamation
to approximate original contour, haul road costs varied from $0.05 to $0.16
per ton of coal. Again, the only variables were slope (15° vs. 25°,
respectively) and highwall height (90 feet vs. 60 feet, respectively). The
total operating costs for these methods varied from $4.92 to $12.31 (Nephew
et al. 1976).
The unit operation costs per ton of coal mined for various contour
methods reclaimed to approximate original contour were as listed below, (the
figures in parentheses represent the respective percentage of total cost per
ton of coal mined):
3-79
-------
• Haul road construction - $0.05 to $0.16 (0.7% to 2%)
• Clearing and grubbing - $0.01 to $0.03 (0.1% to 0.3%)
• Topsoiling - $0.07 to $0.36 (1% to 3%)
• Drilling and shooting - $1.17 to $1.88 (24% to 38%)
• Overburden removal - $1.39 to $3.73 (28% to 35%)
• Loading and hauling - $0.34 (3% to 8%)
• Backfilling and grading - $0.80 to $4.64 (18% to 38%)
• Revegetation - $0.05 to $0.21 (0.7% to 2%)
• Auxiliary - $0.27 (2% to 6%)
• Excess fill storage - $0 to $1.40 (0% to 11%).
Production, reclamation, and total costs per ton of coal mined for
contour mining to approximate original contour under various terrain slope
and stripping ratio conditions based on the Nephew et al. (1976) data were
computed by USDI (Table 3-12). Only a few of the total variables
encountered at actual mine sites were considered, yet the cost differences
are quite substantial under each category. Reclamation costs contributed
from 17% to 50% of the total costs for these model mines and were sharply
higher on the 30° slope than on the 15° and 20° slopes.
At three Appalachian mines the total costs per ton ranged from $11.50
to $15.99, and operation costs per ton of coal mined by each major unit
operation were (1974 dollars):
• Exploration - $0.03 to $0.39
• Planning and development - $0.30 to $0.53
• Topsoil removal and reclamation - $0.99 to $2.88
• Overburden stripping - $8.02 to $11.58, with annual cost
per vertical foot of overburden ranging from $11,910 to
$140,264
• Coal fragmentation and loading - $0.17 to $0.84
• Coal haulage - $0.90 to $2.10, with cost per mile ranging
from $2.25 to $4.38 (Skelly and Loy 1975).
3-80
-------
Table 3-12. Coal mining cost variation per ton of coal mined for surface
contour mining (USDI-Office of Minerals Policy and Research Analysis 1977)
Terrain
Slope
15°
15°
15°
15°
20°
20°
20°
20°
30°
30°
30°
30°
(27%)
(27%)
(27%)
(27%)
(36%)
(36%)
(36%)
(36%)
(58%)
(58%)
(58%)
(58%)
Stripping
Ratio
15:
20:
25:
30:
15:
20:
25:
30:
15:
20:
25:
30:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Production
Costs ($)
9
10
11
12
1
10
12
13
10
12
13
15
.10
.00
.50
.75
.60
.80
.65
.95
.90
.25
.85
.70
Reclamation*
Costs ($)
1
2
2
3
4
3
5
5
10
11
13
15
.90
.40
.50
.00
.00
.85
.45
.85
.61
.75
.58
.50
Total
Costs ($)
11
12
14
15
13
14
18
19
21
24
27
31
.00
.00
.00
.75
.60
.65
.10
.80
.51
.00
.43
.20
*Assumes return to approximate original contour.
3-81
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Operating costs per ton of coal mined ranged from $12.07 to $31.09 (1975
dollars) at seven small West Virginia mines employing the same contour
mining method in similar topography (Skelly and Loy 1976).
The following variables influence underground mine costs:
• Geologic conditions (acid vs. non-acid strata and coal;
fractures, fissures, joint, and fault zones)
• Depth to coal seam (mine entry, coal haulage to surface)
• Coal seam thickness, quality, and market selling price
• Variability or consistency of coal seam (varying seam
dimensions and heights; partings)
• Mining method (room and pillar vs. longwall; up-dip vs.
down-dip)
• Roof and floor conditions (soft vs. hard floor; stable vs.
unstable roof conditions; undulating roof and floor)
• Past area mining history (flooded abandoned workings above
and adjacent to mine; abandoned workings below mine)
• Groundwater hydrology (aquifers; water influx)
• Pollution control (sediment and acid mine drainage water;
air pollution)
• Gas emissions (ventilation)
• Surface land use (subsidence control)
• Mine size
• Mine planning, engineering, and development
• Permit and bond costs
• Exploration
• Surface site preparation
• Market or tipple distance
• Degree of coal preparation
• Equipment operator skills
3-82
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• Amount of supervision and administration
• Union vs. non-union labor
• Royalty payments
• Equipment usage, leasing depreciation schedule, and
maintenance
• Payroll overhead
• Taxes and insurance
• Interest on loans
• Buildings and other facility construction and operation
• Operating supplies
• Power and communication costs
• Mine closure costs (mine sealing, reclamation, and
revegetat ion).
Few underground mine cost studies of a comprehensive nature have been
performed. The same basic equipment, mining method and mine plan, percent
coal recovery rate, wages, depreciation schedules, and other factors were
used to compute costs under similar mine conditions in two analyses by
Katell et al. (1975a, b). The significant variables were mine size and coal
seam thickness. Operating costs ranged from $8.08 to $9.52, and capital
investment costs ranged from $23.83 to $36.36 per ton. Per-ton operating
and capital costs were higher at the mines with smaller production in
thinner seams (Table 3-13). In underground mines using continuous miners in
longwall mining units, operating costs per ton of coal mined ranged from
$7.18 to $8.27, and capital investments ranged from $31.31 to $38.51 (Duda
and Hemingway 1976a, b).
Both surface and underground mine operators also encounter a wide range
of environmental pollution control costs. Incremental costs per ton
expected as the result of implementing USOSM regulations range from $4.61 to
$22.51 for surface mines and from $0.52 to $3.39 for underground mines
(Table 3-14).
The economic aspects of water pollution control technology were
documented by EPA (1976) in developing the effluent guidelines and New
Source Performance Standards for surface and underground coal mines.
Treatment costs vary greatly with mine water quality and quantity.
Construction costs for acid mine drainage treatment plants decline as
capacity increases (Figure 3-27).
3-83
-------
Table 3-13. Summary of estimated operating costs and capital investment for
underground mining methods (see text for sources). Data are in 1975
dollars.
Coal seam
thickness
(inches)
48
48
48
72
72
72
72
48
48
84
84
Production
per year
(million tons)
1.03
2.06
3.09
1.06
2.04
3.18
4.99
1.3
2.6
1.5
3.0
Operating costs
(dollars/ton)
$9.52
8.79
8.61
9.38
8.48
8.18
8.08
8.27
7.48
7.93
7.18
Capital
investment
(dollars/ton)
$36.36
31.16
30.10
33.34
27.23
25.48
23.83
38.51
34.91
34.87
31.31
3-84
-------
Table 3-14. Summary of reported incremental cost increases by specific
requirements ($/ton)*. These data were derived from a joint survey of
65 coal operations by Skelly and Loy and the National Coal
Association/American Mining Congress, 1979.
Requirement
Permit preparation
Blasting
Prime fr ami and
Topsoil handling
Mine closure
Runoff and stream diversions
Sedimentation ponds
Revegetation
Cover for acid and toxic materials
Coal waste embankments and impoundments
Hydrologic monitoring
Fugitive dust control
Backfilling and regrading
Stability analyses
Valley fill drainage
Valley fill construction
Road construction
Underground subsidence control and monitoring
Effluent limitations
Exploration performance standards
Overburden clearing
Total ranges
Surface
Mines
0.19
0.01-0.03
0.45
0.27-5.50
NR
NR
0.44-3.05
0.02
0.04
0.01-0.45
0.06-0.50
0.36
1.48-2.32
0.02
0.10-1.51
0.39-5.56
0.08-1.83
NR
0.04
0.15
0.50
4.61-22.51
Underground
Mines
NR
NR
NR
0.01-0.60
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
0.14-1 .26
0.37-1.53
NR
NR
NR
0.52-3.39
*Values rounded from actual estimates NR = Not reported
3-85
-------
10
w
C/3
PJ
W
H
W
£
O
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03
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a
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TTTI 11 III
103
10
$10
$100
COST/UNIT CAPACITY
DOLLARS PER CUBIC METERS A DAY
$1,000
Figure 3-27 CONSTRUCTION COST VS. CAPACITY FOR ACID
MINE DRAINAGE TREATMENT PLANT
(adapted from EPA 1976)
3-86
-------
Information was developed for USDOE regarding the probable incremental
costs of SMCRA regulations (Table 3-14). These data especially are of
interest in this assessment because of EPA's reliance on the SMCRA permanent
regulatory program (see Section 5.0. discussions of impacts and mitigative
measures; Section 5.1, 5.3, and 5.7 largely reflect SMCRA requirements).
Capital investment costs for water pollution control facilities are quite
variable, because specific mine site conditions dictate the type and extent
of facilities needed. Included in the more sophisticated plants can be
holding or settling ponds; neutralization systems (usually lime) comprised
of such components as tanks, slurry mixers, and feeders (with associated
instrumentation, pumps, and appropriate housing); reverse osmosis
desalination; clarifiers; flocculant feed systems; filtration systems;
aerators; and pumps, pipes, ditching, fences, and land. Figures 3-28
through 3-34 contain graphs developed by EPA which delineate cost range
figures (in 1974 dollars) for some of these components (EPA 1976). The EPA
Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Coal Mining Point Source
Category (1976) presents more detailed information. Sediment pond-related
costs for various structures or modifications, as well as coagulant costs,
are discussed by Hutchins and Ettinger (1979). Actual sediment pond
excavation costs vary with site conditions, pond sizes, and pond types.
Pollution control measures employed at underground mines are summarized
with associated cost data in another EPA study (Michael Baker 1975):
• Grouting fissures, fractures, permeable strata, and
mine seals: $35 to $80 per linear foot for vertical grout
curtains and $12,000 to $20,000 per acre for horizontal
curtains
• Borehole seals: $20 to $40 per linear foot
• Dry seals: $2,500 to $5,000 (masonry block) and $2,500 to
$4,500 (clay) per seal
• Air seals: $4,000 to $6,000 per seal
• Hydraulic seals: $10,000 to $30,000 per seal (double
bulkhead); $5,000 to $10,000 per seal (single bulkhead);
$2,000 to $4,500 per seal (clay)
• Hydraulic shaft seals: $7,000 to $35,000 for backfilling
shafts (100 to 500 feet deep); $20,000 to $25,000 per
concrete seal.
Some of the variables which affect these mine sealing costs
include:
Type, size, and condition of entry opening
3-87
-------
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100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
10
9
8
7
6
5
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
£
.4
.3
DEPTH=3m
DEPTH-2m
_L
.3 .4 .5 .6.7 .8.91.0
2 3 45678910
VOLUME (1.000 mj)
20
30 40 50007080S10
Figure 3-30 POND COSTS (odoptod from EPA (976)
3-89
-------
100
00
80
70
60
50
40
30
3 -
I I I I I I
II I ill
I
I
I I I I I
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
6 7 S 9 10
20
30
40 50 GO 70 8090100
Figure 3-3I FLASH TANK
VOLUME (m3)
COSTS (adapted from EPA I976)
100
90
80
70
60
50
30
20
I
I
I I I I I I
I
I
.3 .4 ,S .6 .7 .8.9.1.0
5 6 7 3 9 10
20
30 40 50 60 708090100
FLOW RATE 11000 hnr/miniiu)
Figure 3-32 CAPITAL COSTS OF INSTALLED PUMPS
(adapted from EPA 1976)
-------
120
no
100
90
I 80
70
60
50
40
30 -
20 -
10 -
JL
J_
J_
56 78 9 10 11
DAILY WASTEWATER FLOW (1000 m3)
12
Figure 3-33
CAPITAL COSTS OF LIME TREATMENT
(adapted from EPA 1976)
100
90
BO
70
60
30
O 10
" 9
I I I 1 I I I
I I I I 1 I I
I I I I I I
.01
.02
.03 .04 .05 OU.07 OUO'J 1
.2 3 .4 .5 .C .7 .8 .9 1
CLAfllFIER VOLUME (1000 m3)
b 6 J U 9 10
Figure 3-34 CAPITAL COSTS OF CLARIFIER (adapted from EPA 1976)
3-91
-------
• Site preparation required
• Expected hydraulic head
• Method of construction and required materials, equipment,
and labor
• Grouting requirements
• Amount of backfilling, grading, and revegetation required.
Perhaps the single greatest cost item which can be estimated and which
EPA will impose as the result of its New Source regulatory program is the
aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing biological monitoring
program (see Section 5.2). Basic costs for these items have been estimated
at $9,000, although considerable local variation can be expected.
More stringent iron limitations than the Nationwide New Source
limitations also will add to mining costs (see Section 5.7), but these
limitations will be necessary to meet the currently proposed State in-stream
criteria. Hence, these costs are not attributable to EPA's New Source
program. Other aspects of the EPA program, not already required by SMCRA
and WVSCMRA, may increase mining costs to some extent.
EPA has attempted to minimize cost to operators whenever possible
through full utilization of existing information for EPA permit reviews.
The net cost effects of the New Source program requirements are not expected
to be significant in the Basin. To the extent that timely reviews can be
expedited by interagency coordination, applicants can realize cost savings.
3-92
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3.3. THE NATIONAL COAL MARKET: DEMAND ISSUES
The preceding sections basically have involved coal supply issues:
location of seams, seam quality, location of recent activity, raining
methods, and so forth. In Section 2.7., the concept of minable coal
reserves was defined solely in terms of coal (supply) characteristics. Some
Basin coals that now are considered "unminable" could be mined in the
future, if market demand were to increase along with the relative price of
coal. Clearly, if costs to obtain alternative energy sources such as crude
oil were to increase dramatically, the market demand for Basin coal would be
reinforced substantially. Therefore, issues involving market demand are
extremely important in assessing the future of coal in the Basin.
The market demand for coal in the Monongahela River Basin and
throughout West Virginia generally is dispersed and difficult to isolate.
Coal may be purchased locally for power generation or exported outside the
State to US and foreign metallurgical and steam coal users.
Market demand is influenced by numerous factors, such as the distance
to coal users. Basin coal is purchased for use in the Basin, for use
elsewhere in the State, for use elsewhere in the US, and increasingly for
foreign export. Basin coal is utilized not only as an energy source for
large coal-fired power plants and a few individual residential units, but
also for coking and for metallurgical purposes in the steel industry.
Because natural gas is abundant locally, relatively little coal is used
directly for home heating in West Virginia. Cyclical swings in domestic
steel production produce sharp changes in metallurgical coal demand, whereas
steam coal market demand is affected to a greater degree by weather and
costs of transport.
The coal market also can be affected when Federal emission standards
for electric utility power plants are altered under the Clean Air Act and
when new synthetic fuel technologies are developed successfully.
In terms of market projections, the following factors that influence
the demand for coal must be taken into account:
• National economic growth rate
• Electricity demand growth rate
• Compliance standards for air pollution from
coal-combusting facilities as well as adequate and
economical technologies to meet these standards
• Implementation of mandatory conversion from oil-burning
to coal-burning power plants and other aspects of
National energy policy
• Success of domestic energy conservation programs
3-93
-------
• Social and environmental acceptability of nuclear power
• Development of western US and other competing coalfields
• Implementation of Federal coal lands leasing programs
• Development of commercially viable, competitively priced
synthetic gas and liquid fuel from coal
• World oil prices and other substitute energy source costs
• Expansion of coal transportation facilities including
slurry pipeline technology
• Federal railroad rate regulation.
3.3.1. General Trends in Market Demand
Although the use of coal as an energy source in the US has decreased
since World War II, the industry has been characterized by boom and bust
cycles. Currently, less than 20% of the total National energy supply comes
from coal, whereas during World War II, 50% of the US energy was produced
from coal. Since World War II, US dependence on oil and gas for energy
production has doubled, with oil and gas imports now constituting 23% of the
US energy market (President's Commission on Coal 1980). Coal clearly has
declined in relative importance as an energy source, forcing widespread mine
closings and creating substantial unemployment among coal miners Nationwide.
During the past several years coal demand has declined even further, causing
substantial coal inventories in many areas. These forces have been felt in
both the State and the Basin.
As of mid-1980, this overall declining trend in the demand for coal
appears to be changing. A recently published World Coal Study contends that
coal demand will increase substantially during the next two decades and
suggests that the United States, with more than one quarter of world coal
resources, will become the "Saudi Arabia of coal exporters." The Study
projects 5% annual increases in coal demand because of rapidly escalating
prices of substitute goods such as oil and nuclear energy (Wilson 1980). The
President's Commission on Coal (1980) also argues that, because of rising
oil and natural gas prices, total US production of coal will increase by 50%
from 620 million tons/year in 1977 to 1 billion tons/year in 1985 and to
nearly to 1.3 billion tons/year in 1990. The National Coal Model similarly
supports these conclusions (USDOE 1978). Using several energy models, the
Energy Information Administration concluded that total world consumption of
coal (including lignite) will increase by 73% to 129% by 1995 from 1976
levels (USDOE 1979).
The potential for coal as an energy source also has been cited at
recent meetings and conferences such as the 1979 ARC Conference in
Binghamton, New York. One of President Carter's major energy initiatives
3-94
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has been to promote the use of domestic coal, in lieu of imported oil, when-
ever possible. At the first US-Japanese Coal Conference (Norfolk, Virginia,
August 1980), Japanese spokesmen projected a dramatic rise in Japanese steam
coal imports during the 1980's. The overall market for metallurgical coals,
hard-hit by current domestic recession trends in the auto and steel indus-
tries, is being buoyed by increasing exports to foreign steelmakers.
These many developments suggest a possible restructuring of the
National coal market and a potential reversal in recent market declines.
The rate or ultimate extent of increased market demand in West Virginia and
the Monongahela River Basin, cannot be assessed accurately, given the
multitude of factors affecting both steam and metallurgical coal demand. An
increase in demand is presaged by very recent permit data in the State,
indicating an increase of 46% in surface mine permits in the period ending
April 1, 1980 over the comparable period ending April 1, 1979. Whether this
trend will continue is impossible to predict, given the influence of so many
exogenous factors.
3.3.2 Specific Trends in Market Demand by End-Use
Electric utility power plants have been the largest users of coal in
the country, accounting for 76% of all US coal consumption in 1976
(Figure 3-35). Power plant coal use is projected to increase from 455
million tons in 1976 to 677 million tons in 1985 (Tables 3-15 and 3-16).
Although industrial coal consumption declined during the past ten years,
industry Nationwide consumes more total energy than any other type of user,
has increased its consumption most rapidly in the recent past, and is
projected to increase energy consumption more rapidly than transportation,
residential, and commercial uses. Because of this overall outlook,
industrial coal consumption is projected to expand between 1976 and 1985,
especially as prices increase for oil and gas.
Reliance on electric utility power plant demand is of such a magnitude
that a more detailed evaluation of the use of coal in the electric utilities
industry is warranted. The future of electric utility power plant demand is
affected by several major factors:
• The growth in the rate of the demand for electricity
• The development of nuclear power plants
• Enforcement of Clean Air Act emission standards restricting coal use
to low sulfur coals
• Federal requirements to convert to coal from oil and gas.
The total US demand for electricity currently is expected to grow at a rate
of 3.4 to 4.4% per year through 1985, representing a significant decline
from the historical growth rate of 6.3% per year. This increase in demand
for electricity is expected to be met by the construction of either new
3-95
-------
MILLION TONS
1200 -
1000 -
1144 million tonsv
200 -
1947 1950
1955 1960
1965 1970
1975 77 1980
1985
1990
Note: Percentage figures represent percent shares of total consumption.
Figure 3-35 US CONSUMPTION OF COAL BY END-USE SECTOR
(USDM 1976, USDOT 1978)
3-96
-------
Table 3-15. US coal consumption by region and sector, 1976, in thousand tons
(USBM 1976).
Electric
Region and State of Destination Utilities
1 NORTHEAST
n SOUTHEAST
ffl EAST NORTH
CENTRAL
IV WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL
V WEST
U.S.
GREAT
LAKES
MOVEMENT
TIDEWATER
MOVEMENT
RAILROAD
FUEL
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Me., N.H., Vt., R.I.
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
Percent of Region
Delaware and Maryland
District of Columbis
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia and Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama and Mississippi
Total
Percent of Region
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
Percent of Region
Arkansas, Louisiana,
Oklahoma and Texas
Percent of Region
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North and South Dakota
Nebraska and Kansas
Colorado
Utah
Montana and Idaho
Wyoming
New Mexico
Arizona and Nevada
Washington and Oregon
California
Alaska
Destination not revealable
Total
Percent of Region
Total
Percent of V.S.
Destinations and/or
Canadian Commercial Docks
Vessel Fuel
U.S. Dock Storage
Overseas Exports
Bunker Fuel
U.S. Dock Storage
United States Companies
Canadian Companies
COAL USED AT MINES AND
SALES TO EMPLOYEES
NET CHANGE IN INVENTORY
TOTAL
DISTRIBUTION
* Includes industrial
** Excludes railroad
storage, coal used
Source: Bituminous
4
816
5,980
2.484
37,249
46,533
57%
5,458
15
5,307
28,115
19,886
5,509
20,665
24,968
21,034
19,428
150,385
83%
50,130
29,239
35,011
21,197
10,978
146,555
73%
13,782
80%
10,448
6,547
20,768
9,808
5,148
7,570
1,805
2,452
8,796
8,089
11 ,784
4,087
254
50
97,606
85%
454,861
76%
SHIPMENTS TO
Coke and Retail
Gas Plants Dealers
5,157
23,281
28,438
35%
4,309
8
5,295
811
172
6,691
17,286
, 10%
12,505
12,450
2,735
4,493
268
32,451
16%
627
4%
647
289
1,110
1,968
1,905
62
5,981
5%
84.783
14%
Consumer Uses Not Ava
9
1
20
192
222
•• 1%
9
254
110
168
85
15
169
142
7
959
•• 1%
692
363
537
248
308
2,148
1%
2
< 1%
90
35
103
80
6
31
121
127
38
7
26
8
14
686
1%
4,017
1%
lable
All
Others*
62
15
22
2,405
13
3,870
6,387
8%
199
188
1,901
2,960
1,177
1,159
499
1,372
1,743
1,527
12,725
7%
7,637
3,785
3,172
3,867
2,017
20,478
10%
2,812
16%
1,137
1,312
1,635
472
602
490
593
596
946
7
437
823
621
444
106
10,221
9%
52,623
9%
=
III"
— _ _
_
Total
71
19
839
13,562
2,497
64,592
81,580
9,975
203
7,470
36,480
21,231
6,753
21,179
27,320
23,09!
27,653
181, 355
70,964
45,837
41,455
29,805
13,571
201,632
17,223
12,322
7,894
22,795
10,360
5,756
9,201
4,487
3,175
9,780
8,096
12,228
4,936
2,526
706
232
114,494
596,284**
4,
1*
351
59,406
277
1,362
- 2,113
— — — — I 659.908
fuel. Canadian Great Lakes commercial docks, U h. Great Lakes and tidewater dock
at mines and sales to employees, net change in mine inventory and overseas exports.
Coal and Lignite Distribution. Calendar Year 1976, Bureau of Mines Mineral Industry
Survey.
3-97
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Table 3-16. US coal consumption by region and sector, 1985, in thousand tons
(USDOT 1978).
Region and State
1 NORTHEAST
H SOUTHEAST
m EAST NORTH
CENTRAL
IV WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL
V WEST
U.S.
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont
Rhode Island
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
Percent of Region
Delaware
Maryland
District of Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Total
Percent of Region
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
Percent of Region
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
Total
Percent of Region
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Colorado
Utah
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
New Mexico
Arizona
Nevada
Washington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Total
Percent of Region
Total
Percent of U.S.
Electric
Utilities
17
4
935
13
18
12,004
2,256
44,620
59,867
50%
2,508
6,572
79
3,870
30,946
2,255
5 , 564 •'
16,812
12,165
37,104
22,233
26,623
1,545
187,276
70%
64,959
41,279
43,556
24,744
20,Z66
194,804
59%
8,448
4,320
11,840
16,791
41,399
80%
20,485
13,629
26,439
4,898
3,087
6,190
16,830
18,044
10,311
7,820
_
13,393
12,290
9,800
12,476
7,044
2.000
9,000
NA
193,736
86%
677,082
68%
Coke and
Gas Plants
_
—
_
_
6,408
_
26,669
33,077
27%
_
4,256
—
—
5,924
I
—
—
1,621
196
7,729
—
19,726
7%
15,181
15,786
3,596
4,449
278
39,290
U%
_
_
—
1,019
1,019
2%
842
—
335
—
—
—
—
1,286
2,217
—
_
—
_
_
—
—
_
NA
7,172
3%
100.284
10%
All
Others*
277
211
182
32
—
14
7,253
488
19,459
27,916
23%
77
3,467
592
8,495
15,356
5,419
4,748
1,073
—
7,436
7,621
8,202
168
61,654
23%
40,180
16,388
15,748
15,789
8,279
96,384
29%
392
_
604
8,058
9,051
18%
3,586
4,521
5,557
1,201
33
1,096
488
1,762
2,323
198
1,268
1,677
25
39
436
941
496
124
NA
25,771
11%
220,779
22%
Total
294
215
182
967
13
32
25,665
2,744
90,748
120,860
(48%)
2,585
13,295
671
12,365
52,226
26,674
10,312
17,885
12,165
46,161
30,050
42,554
1,713
268,656
(48%)
120,320
73,453
62,900
44,982
28,823
330,478
(64%)
8,840
4,320
12,444
25,868
51,472
(99%)
24,913
18,150
32,331
6,099
3,120
7,286
17,318
21,092
14,851
8,018
1,268
15,070
12,315
9,839
12,912
10,477
2,496
9,124
NA
226,679
(98%)
998,145
( ) f Percent increase, 1976-1985.
•Includes industrial, retail, residential, and commercial.
NA = Not available.
Source: Department of Transportation: Rail Transportation Requirements for Coal Movement
m_198_5, December 1978; adapted" from FEA's National Energy Outlook. 1976, Reference
scenario, assuming constant oil price.
3-98
-------
nuclear power plants or new coal-fired power plants. Such new plants will
not be operational for ten years at minimum in most cases. Few new oil- and
natural gas-fired plants are expected to be built because of the rising
costs of these fuels. Furthermore, recent developments in the nuclear power
industry suggest that coal-fired power plants may be considered much more
seriously by the utility industry as an alternative to nuclear plant
construction. Construction of new coal-fired plants could affect coal
market demand favorably in the Basin and State (President's Commission on
Coal. 1980), but these effects would not be felt in the near future.
Conversions of existing, non-coal, fossil-fuel power plants to
coal-fired plants are not expected to be significant in number unless the
Federal government makes conversion mandatory, other fuel costs increase
dramatically, or Clean Air Act provisions regulating power plant emissions
are relaxed. The costs of conversion and the costs of compliance with New
Source Performance Standards may discourage voluntary changeover to
coal-fired plants, unless subsidies are provided to facilitate conversion or
other direct and indirect interventions are put forth by the Federal
government. The costs of conversion include the installation of scrubbers
and coal washing facilities for high-sulfur coals, which currently cannot be
burned economically as the result of Clean Air Act emission standards. If
subsidies are provided for conversion, demand for the Basin's relatively
low-sulfur coals can be expected to increase significantly. If scrubbers
and other NAAQS-related technologies are subsidized, market demand for lower
quality coals will be stimulated as well.
Power plant demand is particularly important to the Basin and State,
because Basin coalfields are relatively close to large population centers
and to existing and future power plants. Coal transportation costs,
therefore, are advantageous for mines in the Basin. In the more distant
future, coal demand in the Basin may be affected positively by the
development of new technologies such as coal gasification and liquefaction
processes that involve the breaking or "cracking" of heavy hydrocarbon
molecules into lighter molecules, which then are enriched with hydrogen.
Gasification processes are categorized by reactor configurations and
include fluidized bed, ent'rained bed, fixed bed, and molten salt.
Liquefaction processes include dried hydrogenation, solvent extraction,
pyrolysis, and indirect liquefaction.
Experimental applications of these new technologies, several of which
are being sponsored by USDOE and others in the State, are being undertaken
at the present time. A new technological innovation relates to facilitating
coal use at the combustion site. New flue gas desulfurization processes,
for example, will be critical to electric utility consumption, given current
S02 regulations by EPA. New "scrubber" technologies include (President's
Commission on Coal 1980):
3-99
-------
• A dual alkali process utilizing sodium-based scrubbing
solutions, disposed directly or regenerated with
limestone
• A magnesium oxide slurry process, whereby magnesium
sulfite is formed and processed further to yield sulfuric
acid and other marketable by-products, and magnesium is
recycled
• Use of nahcolite (sodium bicarbonate in natural mineral
form) as a dry sorbent for S02 removal
• USDOE advanced, "closed loop," regenerable systems with no
waste discharge.
These and other technologies may facilitate compliance with the SC>2,
NOX, and particulate NAAOS's and other requirements and may enable the use
of lesser quality (i.e., higher sulfur) coals in the future.
One of the most significant new technologies is being developed
directly in the Basin. On July 31, 1980 President Carter joined the
Japanese and West German ambassadors in signing an agreement to build a $1.4
billion coal liquefaction plant using solvent extraction near Morgantown,
West Virginia. This Solvent Refined Coal (SRC) II process involves
pyrolysis of powdered raw coal in the presence of hydrogen and a solvent to
obtain a liquified product. It is one of three coal-to-liquid technologies
being developed. From a user's standpoint, this liquid product is somewhat
easier to handle than solid coal-derived products being developed elsewhere.
The SRC I product contains no ash and less than half the sulfur of the solid
SRC II product. In addition to its primary product of liquid boiler fuel,
the SRC II process also produces quantities of a light distillate naptha,
LP-gas, and pipeline gas. All these by-products have applications as fuels
for sale or as refinery and chemical feedstocks.
In July, 1978, the Pittsburgh and Midway Coal Mining Company, a
subsidiary of Gulf Oil Corporation, was awarded a $6 million contract to
design, build, and operate the first phase or demonstration module of a
commercial scale SRC II plant. During this demonstration phase, this
facility will process 6,000 tons of high sulfur coal per day. At a full
commercial size, the plant is designed to consume 30,000 tons per day and
produce the equivalent of a 100,000 barrel-per-day refinery. It will be
among the first three synthetic fuel plants in the US using commercial-sized
equipment.
In September, 1979, Gulf delivered the initial design specifications
and preliminary environmental assessment to USDOE for review. Gulf was then
awarded approximately $50 million for site development and initial
construction of the demonstration phase. A draft EIS recently has been
completed and is being reviewed by EPA. Construction is scheduled to
commence in early spring 1981, and production will begin in mid-1984
(Verbally, Mr. Phillip Schimear, WVGOECD, Charleston WV, January 27, 1981).
3-100
-------
3.3.3. Effects of Legislation and Regulations on the Coal Market
As stated before, market demand directly and indirectly is influenced
by a variety of factors which ultimately are reflected in the prices bid and
asked for coal. Health and safety costs and reclamation costs for
underground and surface mines were estimated to increase the cost of
delivered coal to buyers from $0.90 to $1.00 per million Btu during 1977
(National Academy of Sciences 1977). The Appalachian Regional Commission
(1974) and other agencies have found substantial cost increases as the
result of pollution control requirements. Possibly most important, market
demand has been reduced as the result of the Clean Air Act and related
requirements to use low-sulfur coal to achieve the NAAQS's.
Costs of mine-safety precautions, employee benefits, unionization of
workers, runoff control, and other reclamation efforts negatively affect the
coal industry in West Virginia by increasing prices to levels higher than
those for coal produced in Kentucky, Virginia, and most other States
(Table 3-17 and Figure 3-36). Because of high labor costs, complex coal
seam characteristics, State reclamation requirements, and other factors,
West Virginia coal prices at the mine are much higher than prices for
Western intermountain coal for which extraction costs can be minimized using
large-scale, state-of-the-art techniques on thick seams in flat terrain.
West Virginia coal, however, is much closer to eastern domestic markets and
export terminals.
Current price data are important because the data suggest that the coal
market in West Virginia appears to be relatively marginal. Increased
regulatory costs may affect the vulnerable West Virginia market more readily
than Western markets which are characterized by coal prices that are
substantially lower. Conversely, reduction in additional regulatory costs
through subsidization or modification of the regulations themselves might be
especially beneficial to Basin coal producers.
3-101
-------
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3-102
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1977$ ;TON
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-------
3-104
-------
Chapter 4
Regulations Governing Mining Activities
-------
Page
4.1. Past and Current West Virginia Regulations 4-1
4.1.1. Outline History of State Mining 4-1
Regulations
4.1.2. Current State Permit Programs 4-5
4.1.3. General Framework of State Laws and Regulations 4-7
4.1.4. Specific Permit Applications 4-8
4.1.4.1. Prospecting Permit 4-8
4.1.4.2. Procedure for Identifying Lands 4-9
Unsuitable for Mining Operations
4.1.4.3. Incidental Surface Mining Permit 4-14
4.1.4.4. Surface Mining Permit 4-15
4.1.4.5. Permit for Mine Facilities Incidental 4-23
to Coal Removal
4.1.4.6. Permit for Other Mining Activities on 4-25
Active Surface Mine
4.1.4.7. Drainage Handbook for Surface Mining 4-26
4.1.4.8. Bond Release 4-26
4.1.4.9. Underground Mining Permit 4-27
4.1.4.10. Underground Mining Reclamation Plan 4-30
4.1.4.11. Underground Mine Drainage Water 4-31
Pollution Control Permit
4.1.4.12. Coal Preparation Plant Water Pollution 4-34
Control Permit
4.1.4.13. Air Quality Permits for Coal 4-34
Preparation Plants
4.1.4.14. Mineral Wastes Dredging Operations 4-35
Permit
-------
4.0. REGULATIONS GOVERNING MINING ACTIVITIES
4.1. PAST AND CURRENT WEST VIRGINIA REGULATIONS
This section briefly describes the history of mining regulations in
West Virginia during the past 40 years. It then focuses on specific current
permit requirements.
4.1.1. Outline History of State Surface Mining Regulations
The State of West Virginia enacted its first surface mining control
legislation in 1939. This law recognized the disruptive environmental
effects of surface mining operations and therefore required backfilling of
spoil so as to minimize flooding, pollution of waters, accumulation of stag-
nant water, and destruction of soil for agricultural purposes. It also
required a permit and bond of $150 per acre of coal to be mined (but the
bonding did not include all acreage disturbed). The West Virginia
Department of Mines was given sole regulatory authority over surface mines,
as well as underground mines.
This initial legislation was amended and broadened in 1945, 1947, and
1959. The 1945 legislation established a registration fee of $50 and
increased bonding to $500 per acre of coal mined with a minimum total of
$1,000 per operation. Authority for the revocation of permits and
forfeiture of bonds also was provided, as well as for requiring specific
minimum information on the permit application. A method for approving the
regrading of a mining site also was developed. Specific reclamation
measures mandated were:
• Cover the coal face after mining
• Bury pyritic shales
• Seal breakthroughs to underground mines
• Drain surface water accumulation
• Divert runoff to natural drainageways with as little
erosion as possible
• Remove all metal, lumber, and refuse from site after
completion of mining
• Regrade and refill ditches, trenches, or excavations to
minimize flood hazard
4-1
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• Plant trees, shrubs, grasses, or vines as approved by the
regulatory authority.
In 1947, a special fund for registration fees and forfeited bonds was
established to be used for administration and certain reclamation work. A
waiver was provided from the mandatory covering of the coal face, if a drift
mine was proposed. The 1959 legislation defined surface mining to exclude
auger mining as a method and created five surface mining administrative
divisions within the State, with one inspector assigned to each division.
Registration fees were raised to $100, and an annual permit renewal fee of
$50 per year was established. Both fees were to be deposited into a General
Revenue Account. A Bond Forfeiture Fund was established, to be used
exclusively for the reclamation of areas affected by surface mining.
In 1961, reclamation responsibilities were assigned to the newly
established West Virginia Department of Natural Resources and subsequently
to the Division of Reclamation within the Department. Responsibility for
bonding also was transferred to the West Virginia Department of Natural
Resources. This resulted in a dual-agency responsibility with the West
Virginia Department of Mines, which remained as the principal enforcement
authority concerned with active operations. The Division of Reclamation's
responsibility was broadened in 1963 legislation, and the definition of
surface mining was expanded to include auger mining operations. Also, in
1963, a Reclamation Board of Review (an appeals council) and a Special ^
Reclamation Fund and Program were created. The latter was financed by the M
industry through a $30 per disturbed acre fee. The program's objective was ™
the rehabilitation of abandoned surface mined areas. During the same year,
a requirement that proof of bond deposit ($150 per acre with a minimum total
of $1,000 per operation) was initiated; this bonding was for the entire
disturbed acreage rather than for only the acres from which coal is removed.
Moreover, the 1963 legislation specifically mandated operators to regrade in
accordance with the Department of Natural Resources regulations.
• Regrade spoil peaks and cover the bottom of the final cut
• Remove all rocks which roll beyond toe of spoil pile and
locate them at the toe
• Seal all underground mine openings encountered
• Obtain regulatory approval to retain ponds after mining is
completed.
Regulatory authority was consolidated in 1967, when all surface mining
enforcement responsibilities were transferred to the Division of Reclama-
tion. At that time, the following additional measures were implemented:
4-2
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• Requirement for a prospecting permit with an application
procedure and reclamation bond ($150 per acre)
• Establishment of a thirty-day frequency for inspections of
each mine site
• Determination of bonding rate between $100 and $500
(The Director set the rate at $300 per acre.)
• Inspector's authority to close an operation in violation
of regulations
• Triple damages protection to any person whose property was
damaged by an operation
• All runoff to be impounded, drained, or treated so as to
reduce erosion and pollution of streams.
By this transfer of power, reclamation could be considered not only
after mining, but also during both the pre-planning procedure and the active
mining phase. Consequently the complexity of permit applications
increased.
A multi-division application review process was initiated within WVDNR
during 1971 to include the technical expertise of the Divisions of Water
Resources and Planning and Development. Subsequently the review process was
expanded further to include other agencies in WVDNR, such as the Forestry
Division, Wildlife Resources Division, and Division of Parks and Recreation.
The Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1971 and associated regulations
also contributed to the complexity of regulatory responsibility by including
the following:
• Requiring that all drainage be controlled in approved
structures installed prior to mining
• Mandating topsoil segregation and subsequent replacement
after backfilling in acid-producing overburden areas
• Providing for control of all blasting activity
• Limiting bench widths for contour mining and prohibiting
fill benches on slopes greater than 65%
• Requiring that all highwalls be eliminated if original
slopes were less than 30%; for those slopes greater than
30%, mandating highwall reduction to a maximum of 30 feet
of exposed highwall
• Providing for standards to keep reclamation current with
mining
-------
• Requiring that grasses as well as trees be planted on
completed areas and stipulating minimum survival rate
standards for revegetation
• Increasing inspection frequency to once every 15 days
• Providing for newspaper public notification, adjacent
landowner certified mail notification, and the opportunity
to file protests for any given application
• Increasing the bond range from $600 to $1,000 per acre
(originally set administratively at $750 per acre but
increased to $1,000 per acre during 1975)
• Increasing the Special Reclamation Tax from $30 to $60 per
acre
• Increasing the registration fee to $500 and annual renewal
fee to $100.
• Prohibiting expansion of surface mining into 22 counties,
which essentially lacked surface mining as of 1971, and
which were designated as "Moratorium Counties" for several
years.
In early 1973, an administrative policy revision was enacted in
response to the most notable problem regarding reclamation, that of fill
slope creation in terrain which exceeded an original steepness of 50% (27°).
This policy revision required that mining operations in such steeply sloping
areas propose a method of mining that would not create a fill slope.
Lateral haulback (or controlled spoil placement) methods were developed in
response to this mandate and continue to be refined in response to
environmental concerns.
In 1976, the Reclamation Division's regulatory responsibility was
broadened to include the surface effects of underground mines. This was
followed by State legislative changes in 1977 that provided for final
regrading to approximate original contour, with all highwalls, spoil piles,
and depressions eliminated. Fill slopes in areas having original slopes of
20° or greater were prohibited; an exception was made for initial cut
downslope spoil placement, but only under certain conditions. These
provisions were specifically qualified as 1) not precluding or limiting the
authority of the Director to modify these requirements in order to bring
about more desirable land uses or watershed control, and 2) permitting
mountaintop removal and valley fill techniques, provided prior written
approval of the Director is obtained.
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In 1978, the Director and the State Reclamation Commissionl were
given authority to implement the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclama-
tion Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87) through rule-making. This was followed in
early 1980 by the West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
(West Virginia Code, Chapter 20, Articles 6 and 6C, and Chapter 22, Articles
2, 6, and 6C), which is to bring the State statutes into conformity with
Federal guidelines. As of August 1980 WVDNR had not yet promulgated
regulations based on this new law to form a complete regulatory package to
become the basis for USOSM delegation of the SMCRA permanent program. The
US Secretary of the Interior was expected to issue a decision during
September 1980 on regulatory procedures submitted during March and revised
during April (Verbally, Ms. Christine Struminski, USOSM, to Dr. James
Schmid, August 25, 1980). If approved by the Secretary of the Interior, the
West Virginia Department of Natural Resources will assume regulatory primacy
from the United States Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement
for regulation of surface mining activities in accordance with State and
Federal law following promulgation of regulations.
4.1.2. Current State Permit Programs
In West Virginia the coal mining industry is regulated principally by
two cabinet departments. Underground mining operations, mine safety, and
miner certification are regulated by the West Virginia Department of Mines.
Surface mines, the surface operations associated with underground mines, and
coal preparation facilities are regulated by the West Virginia Department of
Natural Resources.
WVDNR is the principal State agency charged with environmental
protection and with the management of natural resources, recreation, and
State lands (Figure 4-1). Within WVDNR the Division of Reclamation is
responsible for regulating surface mining through permit review, enforcement
and inspection, and abandoned mine reclamation programs. The Division of
Reclamation is also the administrative agency that has been charged with
execution of State regulatory functions pursuant to the Federal Surface
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87). During the
19781979 fiscal year the Division of Reclamation issued 135 surface mining
permits covering 12,005 acres, 44 prospecting permits, and 122 underground
opening approvals. Division personnel made 8,400 mine inspections (WVDNR
current (1980) membership of the Reclamation Commission consists of
the Director of WVDNR (Chairman), the Water Resources Division Chief, the
Reclamation Division Chief, and the Director of the Department of Mines.
Members receive no compensation. The Commission has rule-making and
investigation powers. It also acts on petitions to designate lands
unsuitable for mining (Section 4.1.4.2.). Staff assistance is provided to
the Chairman by the West Virginia Attorney General (WVSCMRA 20-6-7, 1980).
4-5
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Wonderful WV Magazine
Public Information
Environmental Analysis
L
Natural Resources Commission
Reclamation Commission
Public Land Corporation
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
Environmental Protection
DEPUTY DIRECTOR
Recreation & Land
Management Services
February 1979
Figure 4-1 ORGANIZATION OF WVDNR, 1979
4-6
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*
1979). The Division is to administer the rules and regulations promulgated
by the Reclamation Commission (WVSCMRA 20-6-7, 1980).
The Division of Reclamation heretofore has been assisted by the
Division of Water Resources, also a line agency in WVDNR, in permit review
of water quality aspects of surface mining. The Water Resources Division
also supplies technical services including laboratory analyses to assist the
monitoring and enforcement activities of the Division of Reclamation. The
Division of Water Resources issues permits for coal preparation facilities.
During the 1978-1979 fiscal year 15 plants were proposed or under con-
struction, and 29 new or modified plants were put into operation. All of
the 84 active and 294 inactive coal preparation plants in West Virginia are
inspected periodically by Division of Water Resources personnel. This
Division is implementing several Federally sponsored programs in accordance
with the Clean Water Act, and it eventually will be responsible for admini-
stration of the NPDES permit program. In the future, NPDES effluent
limitations will be incorporated into the SMCRA and WVSCMRA permit issued by
WVDNR-Reclamation, possibly following review by WVDNR-Water Resources.
The Water Resources Division establishes baseline water quality data
pursuant to Section 303(e) of CWA and develops stream water quality
standards to protect the uses which it establishes in conjunction with the
State Water Resources Board. The NPDES New Source permit program can be
tailored to achieve a desirable level of protection of the established water
uses by applying, where appropriate, discharge limitations more stringent
than the Nationwide New Source Performance Standards.
The West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission, an independent
agency, is charged with air quality regulation pursuant to the State Air
Pollution Control Act. It also discharges the duties prescribed by the
Federal Clean Air Act pursuant to the revised State Implementation Plan,
which has received conditional approval from EPA (45 FR 159:54042-54053,
August 14, 1980).
4.1.3. General Framework of State Laws and Regulations
The coal mining industry in West Virginia is regulated pursuant to
Chapters 20 (surface mining) and 22 (underground mining) of the West
Virginia Code. The West Virginia Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Act
amended these sections of the West Virginia Code during March 1980.
The State does not have a comprehensive environmental protection law.
It relies on various permit programs, certain of which entail performance
bonds, to assure that reclamation is performed. The ensuing paragraphs
describe the principal State permits required for new mining activities as
of early 1980. Revisions in the regulations as a result of the WVSCMRA are
anticipated. Special attention is given to the environmental information
that must be supplied as part of each permit application, because such
information may be of use to EPA in administering the New Source NPDES
permit program.
4-7
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4.1.4. Specific Permit Applications
There are several State permits and procedures that affect new mining
in West Virginia. Which permits are necessary for a specific facility
depends largely on the nature of the proposed operation. The descriptions
presented here are based on the 1978 edition of the West Virginia mining
statutes; the WVSCMRA; regulations, application forms, and checklists
provided by WVDNR as of early 1980; and the preliminary State regulatory
program submitted to the US Department of the Interior for administration of
the 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act during March 1980.
Mining exempt from WVDNR permits includes:
• Extraction of coal by a landowner for his own
non-commercial use from land owned or leased by him
• Extraction of coal by a landowner engaged in construction,
where the landowner first has demonstrated that
construction will occur within a reasonable time after
disturbance, and not more than one acre of private land is
to be disturbed
• Removal of borrow and fill grading material for Federal
and State highway or other construction projects, provided
that the construction contract requires a suitable bond to
provide practicable reclamation of the affected borrow
area (WVSCMRA, 20-6-29).
4.1.4.1. Prospecting Permit
Before a major coal mine is initiated, particularly in areas that have
not undergone extensive previous mining, it is likely that the area will be
subjected to intensive prospecting as part of mine planning. Prospecting
can entail considerable surface disturbance. In accordance with the State
surface mining statute (WVSCMRA 20-6-8; formerly West Virginia Code 20-6-7),
the WVDNR-Reclamation is empowered to require a permit to excavate overbur-
den from coal deposits for exploration or other purposes in any area not
covered by a current surface mining permit. Application forms (DR-3)
require identification and bond revocation history of the applicant, the
identification of reclamation measures to be used, and information on the
proposed revegetation. A performance bond at $500 per acre must be posted,
and the quantity of minerals allowed to be removed for testing, without
special permission, is limited to 250 tons. Prospecting permit bonds are
released following satisfactory reclamation in accordance with permit
requirements, and the prospecting operation must conform with any
regulations on haul roads, blasting, drainage, underground water protection,
operating requirements, and revegetation that are applicable to surface
mining generally. Prospecting permits are valid for one year.
The WVSCMRA (20-6-8) revises prospecting permit procedures. It
provides that a prospector file with WVDNR a notice of intent to prospect at
4-8
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least 15 days prior to the commencement of prospecting operations. The
notice is to identify the area to be prospected, the period of prospecting,
the cropline and name of seam(s) to be prospected, and other information as
required by WVDNR. The WVDNR can deny or limit permission to prospect
where:
• The proposed operation will damage or destroy a unique
natural area
• The proposed operation will cause serious harm to water
quality
• The operator has failed to reclaim other prospecting
sites
• There has been an abuse of prospecting previously
in the area.
Prospecting operations are subject to inspection, closure, revocation of
approval, and bond forfeiture if the operations, reclamation, and
revegetation are not in accordance with the surface mining performance
standards of WVDNR. Reclamation of prospecting disturbances, however, may
be postponed if the operator obtains a regular surface mining permit and
begins actual mining.
The prospecting permit application must be accompanied by a map that
shows existing oil and gas wells, cemeteries, and utilities. The
reclamation plan must specify the future post-mining land use, drainage
control measures, regrading methods and timetable, and plans for
revegetation in the event that actual mining does not occur promptly. The
special State reclamation tax is not applied until the prospecting area is
approved for actual mining.
The prospecting permit application is reviewed first for completeness
and technical adequacy by a district permit review team with expertise in
engineering, geology, and hydrology. Following on-site inspection, changes
in the proposed plans can be mandated to the applicant. The application
then is processed in Charleston, where special attention is given to
administrative aspects. The WVDNR-Reclamation publishes notices of approved
applications in local newspapers. The procedure is outlined in Figure 4-2,
as it is expected to function in the near future.
4.1.4.2. Procedure for Identifying Lands Unsuitable for Mining
Operations
Section 20-6-22 of the WVSCMRA provides for the designation of lands
unsuitable for mining and incorporates a public participation mechanism in
the designation process. This section replaces Section 20-6-11 of the West
Virginia Code. The Reclamation Commission upon petition is to designate an
area as unsuitable for new surface mining, if it determines that reclamation
of the area is not technologically and economically feasible. The criteria
4-9
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Prospecting Permit Application Procedure
Rgure 4-2 PROSPECTING PERMIT PROCEDURE (WVDNR I960)
4-10
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established by the Legislature for surface areas that may be designated as
unsuitable for certain types of surface mining operations include:
• Areas where operations are incompatible with existing
State or local land use plans
• Areas with fragile or historic resources where operations
could significantly damage important historic, cultural,
scientific, and aesthetic values and natural systems
• Renewable resource lands (including aquifers and recharge
areas) where operations could result in substantial loss
or reduction in long-term productivity of water supply,
food, or fiber products
• Natural hazard lands where operations could substantially
endanger life and property
• Lands with frequent flooding or unstable geology.
The Reclamation Commission is to develop a review capacity and data base to
support the designation process. The Commission is to prepare a detailed
statement on the potential coal resources, demand for coal resources, and
impact of designation on the environment, the economy, and the supply of
coal before designating an area as unsuitable for mining. The designation
of an area as unsuitable is not to prevent prospecting operations, but it
eliminates the value of the coal for purposes of taxation for as long as the
designation is in effect (unless the coal can be mined by underground
methods).
The Legislature repeated the prohibitions on classes of lands
automatically to be considered unsuitable that were mandated by Congress in
the SMCRA, but authorized WVDNR to grant variances upon an affirmative
finding that positive environmental benefits would result from such mining.
The petition procedure for designation of lands unsuitable for mining is
outlined in Figure 4-3).
When inquiries concerning specific parcels are received from coal
operators or from the public, WVDNR will ascertain whether the parcel has
been reviewed for its suitability for mining using its computerized data
bank. Where no apparent conflicts exist, the inquiry from an applicant is
forwarded to State and Federal agencies with responsibilities for historic
and public lands. Where an apparent conflict exists, the applicant, inter-
ested agencies, and WVDNR-Reclamation personnel hold a coordination meeting,
so that the applicant immediately can begin to address impact avoidance and
mitigative measures. The inquiry process is to precede the remaining permit
application procedures for surface mining permit processing by WVDNR (Figure
4-4).
EPA will not review New Source NPDES permit applications for mining
facilities proposed in any area being considered for designation as
unsuitable for mining until the designation process has been completed. No
4-11
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Unsuitable Lands Petition Procedure
Circulole Petition to Othei
Agencies 8 Notify Public
ot Petilion'i Receipt
Inter ve
Procesi
Until 3
Prior to h
nlion
Valid
Ooyi
•annq
12
Adverlne for
Public Hearing
•i n
•+ i
Hold
Public Htannq
13
14
11
Figure 4-3 UNSUITABLE LANDS PETITION PROCEDURE
(WVDNR I960)
4-12
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Unsuitable Lands Inquiry Procedure
Figure 4-4 UNSUITABLE LANDS INQUIRY PROCEDURE
(WVDNR 1980)
4-13
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New Source NPDES permit will be issued to proposed facilities in lands
designated as unsuitable for mining. m
4.1.4.3. Incidental Surface Mining Permit
Coal mining on small tracts of land where coal is to be removed
incidentally to the development of commercial, industrial, residential, or
civic uses is regulated by the WVDNR-Reclamation pursuant to Section 20-6-31
of the WSCMRA. A streamlined permit review procedure applies to tracts
smaller than five acres and also may be used for the reprocessing of
abandoned coal waste piles. Tracts larger than two acres will require the
regular surface mining permit.
The review process is essentially the same as that for prospecting
permits (Figure 4-2). A reclamation bond of $3,000 per acre is required,
together with the $60 per acre special reclamation tax. A pre-plan map
(1:6,000 scale) must be submitted, as for a regular surface mining permit,
showing existing and proposed features, together with detailed plans for the
mining and reclamation activities. Plans for blasting, drainage control,
and the proposed post-mining uses also must be detailed, together with an
explanation of why the coal must be removed as a part of the proposed
development.
The information submitted with the application form (DR-4) must include
the following plans, maps, and drawings for site preparation, development,
and reclamation:
• Pre-plan map, color coded and certified by registered ^
engineer or other qualified professional
-probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
feet
-probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
within 500 feet
-boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
-names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
-names and locations of all streams and water bodies
within 500 feet
-roads, buildings, and cemeteries within 500 feet
-active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
wells on disturbed areas or within 500 feet
-boundary and acreage of land to be disturbed
-coal crop line
-drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
be used for drainage, constructed drainways, and
receiving waters)
-location of overburden acid-producing materials that may
cause spoil with pH <3.5
-method for revegetation for acid spoil
• Description of site preparation and mining sequence, with
time periods
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• Methods and procedures for removing and disposing trees
and brush
• Blasting plans and necessary approvals
• Method of drainage control
• Method of removing and stockpiling topsoil material
• Methods for handling and replacing overburden including
toxic (acid-forming) materials
• Methods for control of overburden after placement
• Total acreage of development and specific acreage for coal
removal
• Description of proposed development, including schedule by
phases
• Other governmental approvals
• Reclamation procedures, equipment, and time schedule
• Typical cross-section of regraded area
• Methods to replace topsoil and expected thickness.
4.1.4.4. Surface Mining Permit
The principal West Virginia surface mining permit application procedure
is a complex process with opportunity for public comment and review.
Detailed mining and reclamation plans are to be prepared by personnel
approved by the Division of Reclamation and then signed and attested as to
accuracy. They are submitted first to the district Surface Mining
Reclamation Inspector for review. This 30-day initial review addresses both
the completeness of the application and the technical adequacy of the
plans.
At the initial review stage the mine plans must include the following
kinds of environmental and engineering information on maps, drawings, and
application forms:
• Limits of proposed permit area, area to be disturbed, crop
line of coal seam, strike and dip of coal seam
• Limits of adjacent active underground mining operations
within 500 feet
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Probable limits of adjacent inactive or mined-out
underground mines within 500 feet
Boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet of
proposed disturbed area
Names and addresses of surface and mineral owners within
500 feet
Names and locations of streams or other public
waters, roads, buildings, cemeteries, active or other oil
and gas wells, and utility lines on or within 500 feet
Natural waterways, constructed drains, and receiving
streams for drainage, with the direction of flow for all
waterways
Location of significant quantities of acid-producing
overburden material that can result in spoil with pH less
than 3.5
Method for treatment of acid-producing spoil for
revegetation and stabilization of surface
Location and extent of access and haul roads, stockpiles,
landfills, observation wells, and other operations
currently under bond, with permit numbers
Cross-sectional scale drawing of disturbed area before,
during, and after mining
Operable equipment to be used for regrading
Method to spread topsoil or other surface material after
regrading, and approximate thickness
Drainage control methods for final regraded area
Map (1:24,000 scale) showing all structures within 0.5
mile of permit area
Evidence of right to affect structures within 300 feet of
disturbed area
Type of proposed mining operation
Premining and postmining land uses
Average pH of soil before mining
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pH and iron concentration in any active discharge from
abandoned underground mine on proposed permit area
Proposed mining sequence and duration
Procedure for constructing and maintaining roadways
Typical cross-section and profile of proposed roadways in
accordance with WVDNR design specifications
Indication of any proposed mining within 100 feet of
public roadway or any need to relocate a public road
Detailed site preparation procedure including removal and
disposal of trees
Location of off-site reference areas for judgment of
successful revegetation
Detailed blasting procedure and calculations according to
WVDNR formulas and requirements
Method for removing and stockpiling soil or upper horizon
material, with stockpile location(s)
Method for placement of overburden
Method for control of overburden after placement (including
haulageways; emphasis on outer slope)
Procedure for final mechanical stabilization of
overburden
Plans to develop cross-sections derived from coreborings
to show:
-Location and elevation of borings
-Nature and depth of overburden strata
-Location and quality of subsurface water
-Nature and thickness of coal and rider seams
-Nature of stratum immediately below coal to be mined
-Mine openings to the surface
-Location of aquifers
-Estimated elevation of water table
-Results of overburden analysis in watersheds of lightly
buffered (critical) streams, except where there is
documentation of absence of past acid problems
-Plans for handling and final placement of toxic strata
Surface water monitoring program plans to develop (during
the period of mine operation):
4-17
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-Data adequate to describe daily and seasonal discharges .
from disturbed area (flow volume, pH, total iron, total f
suspended solids)
-Daily monitoring^ of precipitation using rain gauges
-Daily monitoringi and written records of total iron, pH,
and volume of discharge water
-Monthly report of all measurements and immediate
notification of WVDNR of violations
-Daily monitoring (flow volume, total iron, total
suspended solids) following regrading and seeding to
demonstrate acceptable postraining runoff quality and
quantity without treatment and allow the removal of
control systems (a one year record of meeting effluent
limitations is acceptable evidence that surface water
quality has stabilized)
• Groundwater monitoring procedure to provide:
-Data on background groundwater levels, infiltration rates,
subsurface flow and storage, and quality, from bonded
wells
-Data on effects of mining on groundwater quantity arid
quality
• Data on prime farmlands and plans to restore such
farmland
• Identification of slopes in excess of 20° (36%) •
• Percent original slope at 200-foot intervals along the
contour.
When the site has been inspected by the district Surface Mining
Reclamation Inspector and the application has been revised or appealed as
necessary, the application is filed with the Charleston Office of
WVDNR-Reclamation, and a Surface Mining Application Number is assigned. The
applicant then must repeatedly publish a legal advertisement locally, must
notify adjacent landowners, and must provide a copy of the permit appli-
cation package for public inpsection in the local courthouse. Thirty days
are allowed for public comments. Copies of the completed permit application
are reviewed by the Division of Water Resources as well as by the Division
^Except where operator demonstrates by sufficient data that there is a
reasonable expectation that no violation of State or Federal discharge
standards will occur.
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of Reclamation.1 During the final review of the permit application all
required information must be present. In addition to the information
ordinarily present during the initial review stage, the following data must
be provided:
If a mountaintop removal operation or any change from premining to
postmining land use is proposed, then the applicant must supply:
• Written evidence of any necessary agency approval
regarding zoning or other land use controls
• Specific plans that show the feasibility of the proposed
land use related to needs, and that the use can be
achieved and sustained within a reasonable time after
mining without delaying reclamation
• Provision or commitment to provide necessary public
services.
• Provision or commitment to provide financing and
maintenance of the proposed land use
• Demonstration that the proposed use will not threaten
public health, public safety, water flow diminution, or
water pollution
• Approvals of any proposed measures to prevent or mitigate
adverse effects on fish and wildlife resources
• For changes to postmining cropland uses that require
continuous maintenance, a firm written commitment to
provide the necessary crop management, plus evidence to
show sufficient water and sufficient top soil to support
the proposed crop production
• Background analytical data from natural waterways upstream
and downstream from the disturbed area and from
tributaries to affected streams concerning pH, total hot
acidity, total mineral acidity, total alkalinity, total
aluminum, total manganese, total iron, total sulfate,
total dissolved solids, and total suspended solids prior
draft submission to USOSM by WVDNR procedurally allows for comments
to the Division of Reclamation during WVSCMRA permit review. The weight
that will be given to issues raised by WVDNR-Water Resources and other
agencies by WVDNR-Reclamation is not yet certain, and the detailed
regulations are not yet available.
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to mining operations, with location of sampling stations
shown on the map
• Locations of proposed water monitoring stations for use
during mining
• Locations of proposed rain gauges
• Treatment facilities for water discharges
• Detailed plan for restoration of prime farmland,
including:
-Description of original undisturbed soil profile
-Methods and equipment for removing, stockpiling, and
replacing soil to preserve separate layers, prevent
erosion from stockpiles, scarify graded land, avoid
overcompaction, insure productive capacity, maintain
permeability of at least 0.06 inch per hour in
uppermost 20 inches, prevent erosion of final surface,
and establish vegetation quickly
-Evidence to show that equivalent or higher postmining
yields can be attained as compared with pre-mining
yields
-Evidence to support alternative measures to obtain
equivalent or higher yields, if alternative measures
are proposed
-Plans for seeding or cropping the final graded land for
the first year after reclamation
• Plan for revegetation, including:
-Substantiated prediction of mine soil taxonomic class
following regrading
-Treatment to neutralize acidity
-Mechanical seed bed preparation
-Rate and analysis of fertilization
-Rate and type of mulch
-Perennial vegetation seeding rate and species
composition proposed
-Areas to be seeded or planted to trees and shrubs
-Land use objective
-Maintenance schedule
-Responsible party for revegetation
• Plan for drainage, including:
-Proposed impoundments with adequate storage capacity and
proper design
-Diversion ditches above highwall, if any
-Diversion ditches below spoil, if any
-Method to lower water from bench to drainage control
structures
4-20
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• Plan for blasting, including:
-Survey of dwellings, schools, churches, hospitals, and
nursing facilities within 1,000 feet of blasting areas
-Survey of underground utilities, overhead utilities, gas
wells, and abandoned underground mines within 500 feet
of blasting areas
-List of residents, local governments, and utilities
within 0.5 mile
-List of landowners within 1,000 feet.
Notice of receipt of the completed application is given by WVDNR to:
• Federal, State, and local agencies with jurisdiction or
interest in the permit area, including fish and wildlife
and historic preservation agencies
• Governmental planning agencies with jurisdiction over land
use, air quality, and water quality planning
• Sewer and water treatment authorities and water companies
concerned with the permit area
• Federal and State agencies with authority to issue any
other permit or license known to be needed by the
applicant for the proposed operation.
Following opportunity for an informal conference, the Division of
Reclamation completes its technical review and prepares the written findings
to support its decision on the permit. The recommendations of the Division
of Water Resources are considered in this process. After the decision is
issued and interested individuals and agencies have been notified, there is
a 30-day period for initiation of appeal. The manner in which this process
is expected to work in the near future is outlined in Figure 4-5.
Valid permits are to be renewed by WVDNR at least once during their
term (WVSCMRA, 20-6-19), and permit rights can be transferred following
written approval by WVDNR of an application (DR-19). Permits can be
renewed, if application (DR-17) is made 4 months in advance of expiration,
provided that:
• The terms of the existing permit are being met
• The operation complies with current reclamation
requirements (or will be in compliance within a reasonable
period of time)
• The renewal does not jeopardize the operator's
responsibility on existing permit areas
• The performance bond will remain in effect
• The applicant provides any other information required by
WVDNR.
4-21
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4.1.4.5. Permit for Mine Facilities Incidental to Coal Removal
Mine faciliites incidental to coal removal include non-exclusive haul
roads, coal preparation facilities, tipples, unit train loadouts, sidings,
equipment maintenance areas, sanitary landfills, bath houses, mine offices,
and ancillary structures. For such facilities the application form (DR-23)
must include standard information on the identity and past mining activity
of the applicant, together with proof of notice to landowners within 500
feet. Bond for the disturbed area (including haul roads and drainage
system) is $1,000 per acre, with a $10,000 minimum for tipples, coal
preparation plants, and refuse sites. No special reclamation tax is
required. The procedure is the same as that for regular surface mining
permits (Figure 4-5) .
In addition, the following types of information must accompany the
application:
• Prior land use of site
• Post-reclamation land use of site
• List of residents, local governments, and utilities
within 0.5 mile
• Approvals from local, other State, and Federal agencies
needed for the facility
• List of landowners within 1,000 feet
• Sequence and schedule for clearing and grubbing
• Location and method for disposal of trees, brush, and
debris
• Location, design, and specifications for construction and
maintenance of underdrains, channels, diversions,
culverts, etc.
• Site layout drawings (regrading, revegetation, structures,
parking areas, refuse areas, water courses and
drainageways, all color coded)
• Plans and procedures for construction and maintenance of
haulageways and access roads, including cross-sections and
profiles
• Detailed blasting procedures and pre-plans where
applicable (including surveys of structures within 1,000
feet)
4-23
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Plans for topsoil removal, stockpiling, and reapplication
(with special provisions for prime farmland, if
applicable)
Plans for overburden placement and toxic material
handling
Methods for control of overburden after placement
Procedure for final mechanical stabilization of
overburden
Cross-sections to show original topography, surface
configuration after development, and final regrading and
topsoiling
Method for final mechanical stabilization
Revegetation plan for temporary cover, interim cover
during site use, and post-reclamation cover, including
-seed bed preparation
-soil preparation and treatment
-revegetation species and rates
-mulch
Maps (1:6,000 minimum scale) showing;
-all facilities requiring surface disturbance
-ownership of all lands within 500 feet of disturbance
-location of the permit area in the surrounding area
-percentage slope of original surface at 200-foot
intervals
-occupied dwellings, churches, schools, public buildings,
community buildings, institutional buildings, and
public parks within 300 feet
-cemeteries within 100 feet
-adjacent surface mines, underground mines, haul roads,
stockpiles, landfills, oil and gas wells, and
utilities
-hydrologic data as for regular surface mining permit
-drainage plans
-surface and mineral ownership
Plans for control of discharge water quality and
WVDNR-Water Resources permit number for water discharge
Ambient water quality analyses as for regular surface
mining permit
Runoff storage facilities and capacities
Plans for future monitoring of rainfall and water quality.
4-24
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One copy of this permit application is routed to the Division of Water
Resources.
4.1.4.6. Permit for Other Mining Activities on Active Surface Mine
When an applicant seeks to construct additional haulageways,
underground mines, sanitary landfills, stockpiles, or industrial facilities
(such as tipple buildings) on an active surface mine site, he can do so
without paying a filing fee or special reclamation tax. He must complete an
application form (DR-21), describe the need for the permit, and post a
performance bond of $1,000 per acre. No copy of this application is routed
to the Division of Water Resources, but the approval of that Division is
required for any proposed sanitary landfills. The review procedure is the
same as that for regular surface mining permits (Figure 4-5). The required
information includes the following:
• Topographic map with lands to be disturbed and haulageways
indicated (1:6,000 scale)
• Extent and location of all adjacent operations currently
bonded by WVDNR, including
-surface mines
-underground mines
-haulroads
-stockpiles
-landfills
-other operations
• Ownership and location of landowners within 500 feet
• Pre-plan map, color coded and certified by registered
engineer or other qualified professional
-probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
feet
-probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
within 500 feet
-boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
-names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
-names and locations of all streams and water bodies
within 500 feet
-roads, buildings, and cemeteries within 500 feet
-active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
wells on disturbed area or within 500 feet
-boundary of land to be disturbed and acreage
-coal crop line
-drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
be used for drainage, constructed drainways, and
receiving waters)
4-25
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-location of overburden acid-producing materials that may
cause spoil with pH <3.5
-method for revegetation for acid spoil
• Location map showing permit area in its surroundings
• Slope of original surface as measured at 200-foot
intervals along the contour
• Evidence of notification of landowners within 500 feet
• Scaled cross-sections showing proposed backfill method
• Drainage plan in accordance with WVDNR Handbook showing
pre-plan drainage map features noted above, plus
-sediment control structures (0.125 acre feet capacity per
disturbed acre; possibly less, where controlled
placement of fill, concurrent reclamation, on-site
sediment control, and accessible maintenance are
provided)
-proposed alterations to natural drainways
-proposed surface disturbance within 100 feet of streams
-diversions above highwalls (unless waived by WVDNR)
-diversions on benches
-diversions below spoil slopes
-stream channel diversions
-procedure for abandonment of drainage control structures
• Permission to enter upon lands controlled by parties other
than the applicant, if applicable
• Inspection by district Surface Mining Reclamation
Inspector
4.1.4.7. Drainage Handbook for Surface Mining
The WVDNR-Water Resources Handbook (1975) is intended for use in
designing surface mine facilities so as to minimize adverse effects. The
principal pollutant addressed in the Handbook is sediment, but other
concerns include acid mine drainage, slope stability, and water disposal
measures. Surface mining drainage measures must be designed in accordance
with the Handbook, and the design engineer must certify to WVDNR-Reclamation
that the facilities have been constructed in accordance with the approved
pre-plan.
4.1.4.8. Bond Release
Bond release is a major step in the mining permit process administered
by WVDNR pursuant to the WVSCMRA (and in the future as the regulatory
4-26
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authority pursuant to SMCRA as well). Bonds are released only after appli-
cation has been made to WVDNR, the application has been advertised weekly in
a local newspaper by the permittee for no less than four weeks, the WVDNR
has inspected the site, and objections by commenting individuals or agencies
have been resolved. The procedure is outlined in Figure 4-6). Where
reclamation and revegetation are judged unsatisfactory, performance bonds
are not released by WVDNR.
4.1.4.9. Underground Mining Permit
Underground mines, except those producing 50 tons of coal or less
annually for the operator's own use, must obtain a permit from WVDM before
they can be opened or reopened (VJest Virginia Code 22-2-63). The
application fee is $10.00, and the approval must be renewed annually.
Renewal is granted automatically if monthly reports on employment, tonnage
produced, and accidents have been filed promptly. Certificates of approval
are not transferable. The surface reclamation bond required by WVDM is
$5,000 per disturbed acre (including haulageways and drainageways) to
guarantee the removal of unused surface structures, the sealing of abandoned
mine openings, and the reclamation of surface disturbance that does not
result in an operational underground mine.
The mine map (1:6,000 to 1:1,200 scale) and overlays submitted to WVDM
must contain, in addition to the name and address of the mine:
• Property boundaries
• Shafts, slopes, drifts, tunnels, entries, rooms,
crosscuts, and all other excavations, auger areas, and
surface mined areas in the coalbed being mined
• Drill holes that penetrate the coalbed being mined
• Dip of coalbed
• Outcrop of coalbed within property of mine
• Elevation of tops and bottoms of shafts and slopes, and of
floor at entrance to drift and tunnel openings
• Elevation of floor at 200-foot intervals in
-at least one entry of each working section and mine and
cross entries
-the last line of open crosscuts of each working section
-rooms advancing toward or adjacent to property boundaries
or adjacent mines
• Contour lines for coalbed being mined (10-foot intervals
except for steeply pitching coalbeds)
4-27
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• Outline of existing and extracted pillars
• Entries and air courses with direction of air flow
• Locations of all surface ventilation fans
• Escapeways
• Known underground workings in the same coalbed within
1,000 feet of workings
• Location and elevation of any body of water dammed or held
in the mine
• Abandoned section of the mine
• Location and description of permanent base line points and
bench marks for elevations and surveys
• Mines above or below the current operation
• Water pools above the current operation
• Locations of principal streams and water bodies on
surface
• Producing or abandoned oil or gas wells within 500 feet
• Location of high-pressure pipelines, high voltage power
lines, and principal roads
• Railroad tracks and public highways leading to the mine
and permanent buildings on mine site
• Where overburden is less than 100 feet thick, occupied
dwellings above the mine
• Other information as required.
The mine map must be updated semiannually to show
• Locations of working faces of each working place
• Pillars mined and other second mining
• Permanent ventilation controls constructed or removed
• Escapeways.
Timbering also is to be indicated in the application form (A-7). Mine maps
and updatings may be kept confidential, but must be filed with WVDM and be
available to authorized inspectors. Following mine abandonment, the final
4-29
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map must be filed with WVDM and the Federal mine inspector (WV Code
22-2-1).
Old or abandoned mines cannot be reopened until 10 days written notice
has been given to WVDNR-Water Resources, if mine seepage may drain into a
waterway upon reopening. WVDNR personnel are to be present at the time of
reopening, with authority to prevent any flow in a manner or quantity
judged likely to kill or harm fish in any waterway (WV Code 22-2-71).
4.1.4.10. Underground Mining Reclamation Plan
The WVDNR-Reclamation requires a completed application form (DR-14),
and a bond in the amount of $1,000 per acre for access roads, haul roads,
and drainage system. The Department of Mines requires a $5,000 bond for all
other proposed disturbed surface acres. Where the total length of
disturbance at the outcrop is greater than 400 feet, commercial operations
must post a regular surface mining reclamation bond in addition to the
underground mining reclamation plan bond. Copies of the application are
filed with WVDNR-Water Resources and with WVDM. The sequence of steps for
underground mining permit approvals is the same as that for surface mining
applications (Figure 4-5). Information required by WVDNR includes:
• Pre-plan map (1:6,000 scale), color-coded and certified by
registered engineer or other qualified professional
showing
-probable limits of adjacent underground mines within 500
feet
-probable limits of inactive mines and mined-out areas
within 500 feet
-boundaries of surface properties within 500 feet
-names of surface and mineral owners within 500 feet
-names and locations of all streams and water bodies
within 500 feet
-roads, building, and cemeteries within 500 feet
-active or abandoned oil wells, gas wells, and utility
wells on disturbed area or within 500 feet
-boundary of land to be disturbed and acreage breakdown
(haulageways, access roads, drainage and sediment
structures, underground opening sites and excavations,
overburden storage areas, and other facilities)
-coal crop line
-drainage plan (direction of flow, existing waterways to
be used for drainage, constructed drainageways, and
receiving waters)
-locations of overburden acid-producing materials that may
cause spoil with pH <3.5
-method for revegetation for acid spoil
• Location map showing permit area in its surroundings
4-30
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• Slope of original surface as measured at 200-foot
intervals along the contour
• Evidence of notification of landowners within 500 feet
• Drainage plan in accordance with WVDNR Handbook showing
features noted above, plus
-sediment control structures (0.125 acre feet capacity per
disturbed acre; possibly less, where controlled
placement of fill, concurrent reclamation, on-site
sediment control, and accessible maintenance are
provided)
-proposed alterations to natural drainageways
-proposed surface disturbance within 100 feet of streams
-diversions above highwalls (unless waived by WVDNR)
-diversions on benches
-diversions below spoil slopes
-stream channel diversions
-procedure for abandonment of drainage control structures
• Extent and location of all adjacent operations currently
bonded by WVDNR within 300 feet:
-surface mines
-underground mines
-haulroads
-stockpiles
-landfills
-other operations
• Off-site reference area to be used to measure revegetation
success
• Detailed reclamation plan, with scaled cross-sections at
100-foot intervals along the cropline showing topography
-prior to mining
-during mining
-after mining
• Approval to enter upon lands not controlled by the
applicant, if applicable.
4.1.4.11. Underground Mine Drainage Water Pollution Control Permit
Pursuant to Section 20-5A of the West Virginia Code, the Division of
Water Resources requires a permit to discharge wastewater to streams from
coal mining operations. During on-site inspection by WVDNR-Water Resources
personnel, water samples are taken from the stream and from discharges near
the proposed discharge for analysis by the applicant and by WVDNR. The
application (WRD-3-73) must include the following information, prepared by
4-31
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professional engineer, in addition to standard data on the applicant and
site location:
• Receiving stream name, stream to which it discharges,
major drainage basin, receiving stream flow (estimate or
measurement), probability of flooding of treatment plant,
means to be used for flood protection, and probable
frequency that treatment plant will be out of service
because of flooding
• Mine activity status, type, coal seam name and dip,
location of main portal
• Coal thickness; acres owned, leased, and to be mined;
production (tons/day); surface area to be affected
• Status and type of any adjacent mines
• Solid coal barrier thickness between proposed mine and
outcrop, adjacent surface mines, auger holes, and adjacent
underground mines
• Whether adjacent workings contain water, and whether water
is to be discharged through adjacent workings from
proposed mine or through proposed mine from adjacent
workings
• Whether operation will intercept water table
• If pumps will be used, pump capacities and discharge rate,
control type, backup equipment
• Storage time in mine sumps
• Type of discharge (borehole, mine opening, abandoned
workings)1
• For abandoned workings, discharge, name of abandoned mine,
volume of discharge from tunnel, acreage of abandoned
operations tributary to drainage tunnel
• If wells to be drilled within mine, description of
purpose, method of sealing after abandonment, and method
to protect wells against mine drainage
• Number, design, and locations of mine seals with
cross-sections
4-32
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• Percentage of workings to be inundated after
stabilization
• Probability of mine having discharge after completion of
mining, probability of pollution from the discharge, and
basis for estimate
• Provisions to insure funds adequate for seal construction
after mining
• Expected head of water on barriers at lowest point of
mine
• Highest expected elevation of mining
• Elevation of all portals, fanways, and breakthroughs
• Location of waterbearing strata with reference to coal
seam and elevation of water table
• Method of constructing and sealing surface refuse piles
• Method of replacing refuse in mine
• Plans for drainage treatment facilities and time needed to
construct
• Map to show
-location of owned and leased coal reserves
-owners of adjacent surface and mineral rights
-all mine openings (drifts, shafts, fanways, boreholes)
-boundaries of mining operations
-extent of present mining and projected headings
-points where drainage is likely
-public and private roads on mine property
-gas, oil, and water wells
-known faults and test drill holes
-extent of prevous auger or surface mining
-location and thickness of all barriers
-elevation of entries, fanways, and boreholes
-location of treatment facilities
• Water quality analysis of raw mine water from the new
opening or a nearby discharge from the same seam (Fe, Mn,
Al, Na, Cl, 504, total alkalinity, total acidity, total
solids, suspended solids, pH)
• Water quality analysis of receiving stream sample.
4-33
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4..1.4.12. Coal Preparation Plant Water Pollution Control Permit
If a coal preparation plant is to have a discharge to the waters of the
State, application for a discharge permit must be made to WVDNR-Water
Resources (Form WRD 5-64 as revised). Information to be included consists
of the following:
• Plant type
-wet washing (equipment type, sizes washed, capacity)
-air cleaning (equipment type, sizes cleaned, dust
recovery equipment, disposition of water from dust
collection)
-thermal drying (type, design capacity, sizes dried, dust
recovery equipment, disposition of dust, dispositon of
water from dust collection
• Coal seam from which product is derived
• Water supply
-source
-average use volume
-height, design, material, spillway, volume, drainage area
of impoundment dam, with drawings, if applicable
• Water treatment works
-volume of effluent
-suspended solids in untreated waste to impoundments
-suspended solids in treated effluent to stream
-equipment type or facilities, with dimensions and
capacities
-description and drawings of impoundments
-description of worked out mine used for disposal, with
maps
-description of settling ponds, with drawings
-emergency ponds description
-drainage and runoff control measures
-abandonment plans.
4.1.4.13. Air Quality Permits for Coal Preparation Plants
WVAPCC requires that permits be obtained for various facilities in coal
preparation plants that may function as stationary sources of air pollution.
Section 16-20-llB of the West Virginia Code authorizes the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission to regulate and issue permits for air pollution
sources. In addition to standard information on the identity of the
applicant and the location of the plant, the application (WVAPCC/72-PA 36)
is to include:
• Type of plant
• Proposed startup date for each source
4-34
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• Sources for which a permit is required and other (e.g.,
emergency) emission points
• Pollution control devices and emission points, with design
data for each
• Description of sources of fugitive dust emissions
• Schematic diagram of plant operations
• For each affected source
-name, type, and model of source
-description of features that affect air contaminants,
with sketches
-name and maximum rate of materials processed
-name and maximum rate of materials produced
-chemical reactions involved
-type, amount, sulfur, and ash in fuels combusted
-combustion data
-supplier and seams of coal to be fired
-projected operating schedule
-projected pollutant emissions without control devices
(NOX, S02, CO, TSP, HC, others)
-data on mechanical collectors of particulates
-data on wet collectors of particulates.
Public notice in a local newspaper must be published by the applicant
within five days of filing with WVAPCC for a permit. Additional
requirements for the design, equipment, and operational procedures of coal
preparation plants, including measures to minimize dust, are included in
Section 22-2-62 of the West Virginia Code. These provisions are
administered by WVDM.
4.1.4.14. Mineral Wastes Dredging Operations Permit
Coal that is lost into the waterways of West Virginia becomes the
property of the people, and title is vested in the Public Lands Corporation
in the WVDNR. Recovery of this coal can be undertaken only after approval
is granted by the Public Lands Corporation and a permit is issued by the
Division of Water Resources. The permit application (WRD-10-79) must
include a description of the method, duration, and season of the proposed
dredging operation and the manner in which coal will be transported to the
preparation facility. The length, width, depth, and volume of the dredging
site, the stream cross-section, location, and nearest downstream water
supply intakes must be specified, along with details of the preparation
facility, impoundments for wastes, maintenance, and abandonment plan.
Drawings are a part of the application. The following parameters must be
analyzed as part of the water and sediment information unless other analyses
are mandated:
4-35
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• Benthos sampling, one sample every 300 feet along the
length of dredged area (three samples minimum)
• Shallow bottom sediments, one upstream, one downstream,
and one for each 50,000 sq ft of dredged area
-sieve test
-if >20% fine material passing No. 200 sieve, then results
of elutriate test (SO^, Fe, Hg, Cd, As, Pb, Cu, Zn,
Se, Cr, Ni, Al, Mn, pH, Total Alkalinity, Total
Hardness, and additional organic and other pollutants
if required)
• Bottom core analysis (new dredging), one for each 50,000
sq ft (minimum two, maximum five) to depth of dredging;
sieve and elutriate tests (as for shallow sediments) for
each 5-foot interval.
Water quality upstream (one station) and downstream (two stations) must
be monitored after the initiation of approved dredging during February, May,
August, and November, plus monthly samples during periods of dredging.
Parameters to be reported include total suspended solids, turbidity,
dissolved oxygen, and pH. Shallow bottom sediments also are to be analyzed
quarterly.
4-36
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Page
4.2. Federal Regulations 4-37
4.2.1. EPA Permitting Activities 4-37
4.2.1.1. Existing Source NPDES Permits 4-37
4.2.1.2. New Source NPDES Permits 4-37
4.2.2. SMCRA Permits 4-41
4.2.2.1. Mining Operations 4-42
4.2.2.2. Protection of Surface Water and 4-42
Groundwater Resources
4.2.2.3. Protection of Aquatic and Terrestrial 4-42
Ecosystems
4.2.2.4. Protection of Specific Land Uses 4-42
4.2.2.5. Protection of Air Quality 4-43
4.2.*2.6. Noise and Vibration 4-43
4.2.2.7. Community Integrity and Quality of Life 4-44
4.2.2.8. Special Performance Standards 4-44
4.2.3. Clean Air Act Reviews 4-44
4.2.4. CMHSA Permits 4-50
4.2.5. The Safe Drinking Water Act 4-50
4.2.6. Floodplains 4-51
4.2.7. Wild and Scenic Rivers 4-32
4.2.8. Wetlands 4-52
4.2.9. Endangered Species Habitat 4-53
4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands 4-53
4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic Sites 4-53
4.2.12. United States Forest Service Reviews 4-54
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4.2. FEDERAL REGULATIONS
This section describes the four major Federal programs which regulate
the coal mining industry in West Virginia. These include the EPA National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program created under the
Clean Water Act (33 USC 1251 et. seq.), the Prevention of Significant
Deterioration provisions of the Clean Air Act (USC 7401-7642, as amended by
88 Stat. 246, 91 Stat. 684, and 91 Stat. 1401-02), the Surface Mining
Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87, 30 USC 1201 et. seq.), and
the Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969. Because this assessment in its
entirety deals with the application of NEPA to the New Source NPDES permit
program by EPA Region III, this section focuses on Federal environmental
regulations other than NEPA. EPA intends to minimize regulatory overlap
with other Fedral agencies, so long as every reasonable effort is made to
preserve and enhance the quality of the human environment.
4.2.1. EPA Permitting Activities
The CWA was the vehicle by which Congress established the primary goals
1) to make the waters of the National swimmable and fishable by 1983, and 2)
to eliminate water pollution by 1985. The National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System permit program was created by Section 402 of CWA.
Section 306 of CWA directs EPA to establish New Source Performance Standards
for 27 industries, including coal mining. At present EPA administers the
NPDES program in West Virginia. EPA also administers the PSD provisions of
the Clean Air Act (Section 4.2.3.).
4.2.1.1. Existing Source NPDES Permits
For several years, NPDES permit review focused upon the attainment of
Existing Source Effluent Limitations (also referred to as New Source
Performance Standards), based on the best practicable treatment technology
currently available (Table 4-1). Discharges are exempt from the limitations
when they result from any precipitation event at facilities designed,
constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of discharge
which would result from a 10-year, 24-hour precipitation event.
The publication of the final New Source Effluent Limitations for coal
mining point sources (44 FR 9:2586-2592, January 12, 1979) activated the New
Source NPDES permit program for the industry. Until the New Source Effluent
Limitations became effective on February 12, 1979, all coal mine discharges
were treated as existing sources.
4.2.1.2 New Source NPDES Permits
Classification of a mine discharge as a New Source is determined on a
case-by-case basis. EPA review is based largely upon information supplied
by the permit applicant to WVDNR and to EPA directly. Effective February
12, 1979, coal mining activities requiring New Source NPDES permits are
defined as those which meet one or more of the following criteria:
4-37
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limitations (40 CFR 434; 42 FR 80:21379-21390, April 26, 1977).
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o Coal preparation facilities that are constructed on or
after February 12, 1979, independent of coal mine permit
areas
• Surface and underground mines that are assigned
identifying numbers by USMSHA on or after February 12,
1979
• Surface and underground mines with earlier USMSHA numbers
that meet one or more of the following criteria:
-begin to mine a new coal seam
-discharge effluent to a new drainage basin
-cause extensive new surface disruption
-begin contruction of a new shaft, slope, or drift
-acquire additional land or mineral rights
-make significant additional capital investments
-otherwise have characteristics deemed appropriate by the
EPA Regional Administrator to place them in the New
Source category.
All coal mines defined as New Sources must meet the National New Source
Effluent Limitations for the industry (Table 4-2). These effluent
limitations apply only to wastewater discharged from active mining areas
prior to the completion of regrading operations. Discharges resulting from
any precipitation event are exempt from the New Source limitations at
facilities designed, constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the
volume of discharge which would result from surface runoff from the 10-year
24-hour precipitation event. Runoff solely from lands undergoing
revegetation is considered a subcategory separate from active mines and coal
preparation plants, and no effluent limitations have been applied by EPA to
this subcategory. The Best Practices guidelines for coal mining (issued on
September 1, 1977 in a memorandum to EPA Regional Administrators and
incorporated by reference in the New Source Effluent Limitations) mandate
that mine plans must prevent, minimize, or mitigate the discharge of any
noxious materials that would adversely affect downstream water quality or
uses following the temporary or permanent closing of a mine. Applicants are
to secure New Source permit approval prior to the beginning of construction
of the proposed mining facility.
EPA administers the NPDES permit program in West Virginia, including
the New Source NPDES permit program. Congress defined the issuance of a New
Source NPDES permit by EPA to be a major Federal action [CWA Section
511(c)]. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 USC 4321
et seq.) mandates the consideration of all environmental factors by Federal
decisionmakers during the evaluation of major Federal actions which may
significantly affect the environment. EPA thus must conduct NEPA reviews
when processing NPDES permits for the construction and operation of New
Source coal mines and coal cleaning facilities.
4-39
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4.2.2 SMCRA Permits
Title V of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977
(P.L. 95-87, 30 USC 1201 et seq.) produced the first comprehensive Federal
program intended:
• To set a National standard and define a detailed program
for mining coal and reclaiming mined land
• To prohibit mining from areas where reclamation is not
feasible
• To balance the agricultural productivity of land against
coal resources and ensure adequate agricultural production
following mining
• To allow the public to participate in decisions when
the environment might be affected by coal mining
• To achieve reclamation of previously mined and abandoned
lands.
SMCRA encourages State administration of the Title V program under the
supervision of the US Department of Interior, Office of Surface Mining.
SMCRA regulates all surface mines, together with those underground mines
which will disturb more than two acres of surface lands, including haul
roads. SMCRA also regulates freestanding coal preparation plants located
outside the permit areas of active mines, and substantial coal exploration
activities.
Federal regulations which implement SMCRA establish both minimum
performance standards describing how coal must be mined and reclamation
activities which are required to protect the environment and public health.
State-issued SMCRA Title V permits are not considered to be major Federal
actions, and thus are not subject to the requirements of NEPA.
Nevertheless, the permanent program performance standards address many
environmental issues that also would be raised by EPA during a NEPA review
of a New Source NPDES permit application. The following paragraphs briefly
summarize general and special performance standards and lands unsuitable
provisions of the Act which provide protection to the environment. More
detailed discussions are presented in the Section 5.0. discussions of
specific impacts and mitigations.
During March 1980 USOSM Region I in Charleston WV issued a "Draft
Experimental Permit Application Form for Surface and Underground Coal
Mining." If adopted in essentially its present state, this form would
require the development of additional information not required at present i-
the West Virginia permits outlined in Section 4.1. of this assessment.
Because the form has not yet been adopted, it is not reviewed here, but its
information requirements are noted in the Section 5.0. discussions of
impacts.
4-41
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4.2.2.1. Mining Operations
USOSM, with input from EPA, has developed performance standards for
surface mining operations which include standards for signs and markers to
identify the various working areas of the mine, permit area boundaries, and
buffer zones. Other operational standards discuss nearly every aspect of
coal mining which is generally applicable to the industry. These standards
include coal recovery, disposal of non-coal wastes, and use of explosives in
coal mining, to name a few. They are codified in Title 30 CFR, Chapter VII,
Parts 700 through 899.
4.2.2.2. Protection of Surface Water and Groundwater Resources
Surface water and groundwater resource protection is mandated by
pre-mining study requirements together with performance standards
promulgated under several topics, especially Hydrologic Balance. The
performance standards address surface water and groundwater diversions,
sedimentation ponds, and other surface and subsurface discharge structures.
Dams and embankments of coal wastes are regulated, as are the casing and
sealing of wells and other underground openings. The standards also define
water rights of neighboring groundwater users. SMCRA requires replacement
of legitimate water supplies which have been affected by contamination,
diminution, or interruption resulting from surface mining activities.
4.2.2.3. Protection of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems are not provided direct protection under SMCRA.
They are protected indirectly through Section 515(6)(24), which requires
that the best available control technology be used to minimize disturbances
to aquatic biota, and through the prohibition of mining on lands where
reclamation is not feasible. This includes fragile lands, lands containing
non-renewable resources, and lands containing natural hazards. Terrestrial
ecosystems are protected directly under Section 515(6)(24), which requires
that the best available technology be used to minimize disturbance.
Critical habitats of organisms that have been Federally classified as
threatened or endangered further are protected by the Act in a requirement
that these critical habitats be reported to the SMCRA regulatory agency so
that review procedures established under the Endangered Species Act can be
followed.
4.2.2.4. Protection of Specific Land Uses
SMCRA prohibits outright any new surface mine operations within 300
feet of any public park or within National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges,
the National System of Trails, Wilderness Areas, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and
National Recreation Areas. It also requires that all new coal mining
operations that may affect a public park first be approved by the agency
with jurisdiction over the park. Surface mining activities may be excluded
from Federal lands in National Forests, if the Secretary of Agriculture
finds that multiple uses of the National Forest would be impaired by the
4-42
-------
proposed mining. The public notice provisions of the SMCRA provide
opportunity for owners of private recreational facilities to comment on coal
mine permit applications that may affect the operations of such facilities.
No new coal mines can be permitted that may affect publicly owned
places that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, unless
such mining is approved by the State Historic Preservation Officer. The
regulatory authority's discretionary power to prohibit mining includes those
areas where mining may affect historic lands of cultural, historic, scienti-
fic, or aesthetic value.
SMCRA sets special performance standards for mining on prime farmlands.
Prime farmland is defined as land with suitable resource characteristics (as
determined by USDA-SCS) that also has been used as cropland for at least
five of the ten years before its proposed use for mining purposes. The
SMCRA standards require that soil removal, stockpiling, replacement,
reclamation, and revegetation methods return mined prime farmland to a level
of productivity equal to that which it had before disturbance.
Within the discretionary provisions for designating areas as unsuitable
for mining, the regulatory authority can prohibit surface mining which would
affect lands subject to hazards, including areas subject to frequent
flooding. The regulatory authority also may prohibit mining activities in
areas with unstable geologic characteristics, and it may impose special
standards for such areas related to woody material disposal, topsoil
handling, downslope spoil disposal, head-of-hollow and valley fills, and
pre-existing underground mines. The regulatory authority may designate an
area as unsuitable for mining based on the incompatibility of mining activi-
ties with existing land use plans of local governments. The general perfor-
mance standards of the Act also set forth requirements for mining roads and
require that post-mining land uses on mined sites be compatible with
adjacent land use policies and plans.
4.2.2.5. Protection of Air Quality
Air quality protection is provided through standards for the control
and reduction of fugitive dust emissions from haul roads and areas disturbed
during mining. The USOSM regulations at present do not consider pollutants
other than fugitive dust, but SMCRA requires compliance with all other
applicable air quality laws and regulations.
4.2.2.6. Noise and Vibration
The USOSM performance standards require that noise and vibration from
blasting operations be controlled to minimize the danger of adverse effects
from airblast and vibration to humans and structures. The Act requires
pre-blast surveys, resident notification of blasting schedules, limits on
air blasts, explosives handling rules (including requirements for
blasters-in-charge), and recordkeeping requirements.
4-43
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4.2.2.7. Community Integrity and Quality of Life ^
SMCRA prohibits new mining operations within 40 feet of any roadway, or
within 100 feet of a public road right-of-way (except where a mine haul road
enters or adjoins the right-of-way) without public notice. The public has
opportunity to comment and ensure that it is adequately protected from the
potentially adverse effects of additional traffic and right-of way
acquisition. SMCRA also prohibits outright any surface mining operations
within 300 feet of an occupied dwelling without the owner's consent; within
300 feet of any public, institutional, or community building, church, or
school; or within 100 feet of a cemetery.
SMCRA includes a general public notice provision to facilitate public
involvement in the permit evaluation process before a permit is issued.
Public comments may lead the regulatory authority to revise, condition, or
deny permit applications.
4.2.2.8. Special Performance Standards
The general performance standards summarized above are Nationwide
minimum standards for controlling the surface effects of coal mining. To
address the special considerations of certain geographical areas or coal
mining methods, USOSM has developed a set of special performance standards.
These standards address auger mining, mining in alluvial valley floors,
mining on prime farmlands, mountaintop removal, bituminous coal mining in
Wyoming, steep slope mining, concurrent surface and underground mining,
anthracite mining in Pennsylvania, regulations for underground mining, •
independent coal processing plants and support facilities, and in-situ coal
utilization.
4.2.3. Clean Air Act Reviews
The regulatory program designed to achieve the objectives of the Clean
Air Act is a combined Federal/State function. The role of each State is to
adopt and submit to EPA a State Implementation Plan for maintaining and
enforcing primary and secondary air quality standards in Air Quality Control
Regions. The West Virginia SIP has been approved for overall administration
by the State except for PSD reviews, which still are performed by EPA
(45 FR 159:54042-54053; August 14, 1980). The SIP must be revised from time
to time to comply with EPA regulations. The SIP contains emission limits
that may vary within the State due to local factors such as concentrations
of industry and population.
Coal cleaning operations producing 200 short tons of coal or more per
day and that utilize a thermal dryer or air tube must meet the New Source
Performance Standards promulgated by EPA pursuant to the Clean Air Act
(USC 7401-7642 as amended by 88 Stat. 246, 91 Stat. 684, and 91 Stat.
1401-02). This permit program is administered by the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission under the State Implementation Plan approved by
EPA. The standards reflect levels of control that can be achieved by
4-44
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Table 4-3. New Source Performance Standards for bituminous coal
preparation plants and handling facilities capable of processing more
than 181 metric tons (200 short tons) of coal per day (40 CFR 60.250,
Subpart Y).
Particulate
Equipment Opacity Limitation Concentration Standard
% g/dscm gr/dscf
Thermal dryers 20 0.070 0.031
Pneumatic coal
cleaning equipment 10 0.040 0.018
Coal handling and
storage equipment 20
Table 4-6. Emission tonnages of pollutants that indicate significant
potential impacts subject to PSD review (40 CFR 52.21;
45 FR 154:52676-52748, August 7, 1980).
Significant
Pollutant Annual Tonnage
Carbon monoxide 100
Nitrogen oxides 40
Ozone (volatile organic compounds) 40
Sulfur dioxide 40
Particulate matter 25
Hydrogen sulfide 10
Total reduced sulfur (including H2S) 10
Reduced sulfur compounds (including H2S) 10
Sulfuric acid mist 7
Fluorides 3
Vinyl chloride 1
Lead 0.6
Mercury 0.1
Asbestos 0.007
Beryllium 0.0004
4-45
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Table 4-5. Nondeterioration increments: maximum allowable increase by
class (P.L. 95-95, Part C, Subpart 1, Section 163).
Data are ug/m^.
Class I'
Pollutant* Class I Class II Class III exception
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean 5 19 37 19
24-hour maximum 10 37 75 37
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean 2 20 40 20
24-hour maximum 5** 91 182 91
3-hour maximum 25** 512 700 325
*0ther pollutants for which PSD regulations are "to be promulgated include
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, and nitrogen
oxides.
**A variance may be allowed to exceed each of these increments on 18 days
per year, subject to limiting 24-hour increments of 35 ug/m^ for low
terrain and 62 ug/m^ for high terrain and 3-hour increments of 130
ug/m^ for high terrain. To obtain such a variance both State and EPA
approval is required.
4-47
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applying the best available control technology taking cost into account
(Table 4-3; 40 CFR 60.250; 41 FR 2233, January 15, 1976). Permits are not
to be issued for facilities that would degrade air quality in violation of
the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS's) that are applicable for
areas located downwind from the proposed New Source. Currently there are no
National air pollution performance standards which directly apply to
atmospheric emissions from New Source underground or surface coal mines.
Ambient air quality standards (40 CFR 50) specify the ambient air
quality that must be maintained outside a project boundary or within the
boundary where the general public has access (Table 4-4). Standards
designated as primary are those necessary to protect the public health with
an adequate margin of safety; secondary standards are those necessary to
protect the public welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects.
In 1974, EPA issued regulations for the prevention of significant
deterioration of air quality under the 1970 version of the Clean Air Act
(P.L. 90-604). These regulations established a plan for protecting areas
with air quality that currently is cleaner than the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards. Under EPA's regulatory plan, clean air areas of the
Nation could be designated as one of three classes. The plan allows
specified numerical increments of air pollution from major stationary
sources for each class, up to a level considered to be significant for that
area (Table 4-5). Class I areas need extraordinary protection from air
quality deterioration, and only minor increases in air pollution levels are
allowable (Figure 2-21). Under this concept, virtually any increase in air
pollution in Class 1 (pristine) areas would be considered significant.
Class II increments allow for the increases in air pollution levels that
usually accompany well-controlled growth. Class III increments allow
increases in air pollution levels up to the NAAQS's.
Sections 160-169 were added to the CAA by Congress during 1977. These
amendments adopted the basic concept of the procedure that had been
developed administratively to allow incremental increases in air pollutants
by class of receiving area. Through these amendments, Congress also pro-
vided a mechanism to apply a practical adverse impact test which did not
exist in the EPA regulations. EPA revised its regulations concerning the
prevention of significant deterioration during August 1980.
The PSD requirements apply to new or modified stationary sources of air
pollution that exceed significance thresholds established with reference to
potential tonnage of pollutants emitted following application of control
measures, to potential damage to Class I areas, and to the attainment status
of the construction site. Significant increases in any of fifteen
pollutants would render the facility subject to PSD review (Table 4-6). Any
major new stationary source that would be constructed within 16 miles of a
Class I area and would have a 24-hour average impact at ground level of
1 ug/m3 or greater also would require PSD review. If the area where any
major New Source is to be built has been classified by the State as
"attainment" or "unclassifiable" for any pollutant regulated by a NAAQS,
4-48
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Table 4-6. Emission tonnages of pollutants that indicate significant
potential impacts subject to PSD review (40 CFR 52.21;
45 FR 154:52676-52748, August 7, 1980).
Significant
Pollutant Annual Tonnage
Carbon monoxide 100
Nitrogen oxides 40
Ozone (volatile organic compounds) 40
Sulfur dioxide 40
Particulate matter 25
Hydrogen sulfide 10
Total reduced sulfur (including H2S) 10
Reduced sulfur compounds (including H2S) 10
Sulfuric acid mist 7
Fluorides 3
Vinyl chloride 1
Lead 0.6
Mercury 0.1
Asbestos 0.007
Beryllium 0.0004
4-49
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then the PSD review is triggered (40 CFR 52.21; 45 FR 154:52676-52748,
August 7, 1980). Coal preparation plants with thermal dryers that
potentially can emit more than 100 tons per year of any pollutant regulated
under the CAA are to undergo PSD review as major stationary sources.
Coal facilities are expected seldom to qualify as major sources that
require PSD review. In general, any facility that will emit 250 tons or
more per year of any regulated pollutant following application of control
technology may require PSD review as a major stationary source, but fugitive
dust and mobile-source emissions are not counted toward the 250-ton
threshold (except for preparation plants with thermal dryers). WVAPCC
directs applicants for State permits to EPA Region III when there is a
potential that PSD review will be triggered (Verbally, Mr. Robert Blaszczak,
EPA Region III, to Dr. James A. Schmid, September 4, 1980).
In the 1977 CAA Amendments Congress designated certain Federal lands as
Class I for prevention of significant deterioration. All International
Parks, National Memorial Parks, and National Wilderness Areas which exceed
5,000 acres, and National Parks which exceed 6,000 acres, are designated
Class I. In West Virginia the Dolly Sods and Otter Creek Wilderness Areas
in the Monongahela National Forest are Class I areas. These areas may not
be redesignated to another class through State or administrative action.
The remaining areas of the country are initially designated Class II.
Within this Class II category, certain National Primitive Areas, National
Wild and Scenic Rivers, National Wildlife Refuges, National Seashores and
Lakeshores, and new National Park and Wilderness Areas which are established
after August 7, 1977, if over 10,000 acres in size, are Class II "floor
areas" and are ineligible for redesignation to Class III.
Although the earlier EPA regulatory process allowed redesignation by
the Federal land manager, the 1977 CAA amendments place the general
redesignation responsibility with the States. The Federal land manager only
has a role in the redesignation advisory to the appropriate State or to
Congress.
In order for Congress to redesignate areas, new legislation would have
to be introduced. Once proposed, this probably would follow the normal
legislative process of committee hearings, floor debate, and action. In
order for a State to redesignate areas, the detailed process outlined in
Section 164(b) of the CAA is to be followed. This process includes an
analysis of the health, environmental, economic, social, and energy effects
of the proposed redesignation, followed by a public hearing.
Class I status provides protection to pristine areas by requiring any
new major emitting facility (generally a large point source of air
pollution—see Section 169[1] of CAA for definition) in the upwind impacting
region to be built in such a way and place as to insure no adverse impact on
the Class I air quality related values. A PSD permit may be issued if the
Class I increment will not be exceeded, unless the Federal land manager
demonstrates that the facility will have an adverse impact on the Class I
air quality related values.
4-50
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The permit must be denied if the Class I increment will be exceeded,
unless the applicant receives certification from the Federal land manager
that the facility will not adversely affect Class 1 air quality related
values. Then the permit may be issued even though the Class 1 increment
will be exceeded, (up to the Class I increment exception [Table 4-5]). PSD
permits are administered by EPA until a State is approved for program
delegation.
4.2.4. CMHSA Permits
The Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 is Federal legislation
intended to improve mine safety. The Act was implemented by regulations
requiring approval of mining plans and detailed operational and design
standards for underground and surface mines and coal preparation plants.
Principal health concerns covered by the extensive safety standards relating
to coal industry operations include:
• Ventilation
• Roof Control
• Rock Dusting
• Electrical Power Distribution Systems
• Clean-up.
Extensive information on these aspects of underground mines in particular
must be submitted during the permit process implementing CMHSA. To enforce
the National Standards, US Mine Safety and Health Administration inspectors
may shut down either one section or an entire mine if sufficient danger
exists.
The concerns of CMHSA relate to miners' health and safety and primarily
are non-environmental. Of particular interest to EPA for the NPDES New
Source program is the assignment of an identifying number to plans reviewed
by USMSHA inspectors. USMSHA identifying numbers issued after February 12,
1979 may be used by EPA to identify New Sources among operations that seek
NPDES permits.
4.2.5. The Safe Drinking Water Act
On December 16, 1976, the Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-523) was
signed into law. This Act amended the Public Health Service Act by
inserting a new title concerning the safety of public water systems.
In brief, the Act authorizes EPA to set Nationwide minimum standards
for public drinking water (including bottled water). Enforcement of the
standards and other EPA regulations is to be accomplished primarily by the
States, and Federal funding to the States for this purpose is authorized.
4-51
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EPA also is authorized to sponsor research, train personnel, and provide
technical assistance to State and local governments to advance the goals of
the Act. Citizen suits are authorized to compel enforcement of the Act.
To protect underground drinking water resources EPA was authorized to
promulgate regulations to protect the quality of recharge water that may
endanger drinking water. As part of this enterprise, EPA can determine that
an area has an aquifer that is the sole or principal source of its drinking
water, and that the aquifer if contaminated would constitute a significant
hazard to public health. EPA can act on its own initiative or upon
petition. After publication of such a determination, EPA is to review all
proposed commitments for Federal financial assistance (through grants,
contracts, loan guarantees, or otherwise). Assistance is to be denied to
those projects that create a significant public health hazard by aquifer
contamination through the recharge zone [Section I424(e)]. Groundwater use
is not regulated under the Act. Final Nationwide regulations are still in
preparation.
4.2.6. Floodplains
Undeveloped floodplains are protected by Executive Order 11988 as
implemented by the guidelines of the Water Resources Council (43 FR
29:6030-6055, February 10, 1978). Under these guidelines, an application
for a Federal permit that proposes the structural modification or control
(such as channelization) of a stream or other body of water is subject to
review by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Army Corps of Engi-
neers as mandated by the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (16 USC 661
et seq.) and Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act of 1899. These agency
reviewers and the general public may identify additional Federal authori-
zation or specific mitigative measures that are necessary to ensure an
adequate permit review and a sufficient level of environmental protection.
EPA, under the provisions of Executive Order 11988, must avoid wherever
possible the long- and short-term impacts associated with the occupancy and
modification of floodplains and avoid direct and indirect support of flood-
plain development wherever there is a practicable alternative. The Agency
also must incorporate floodplain management goals into its regulatory
decisionmaking processes. To the greatest extent possible EPA must:
• Reduce the hazard and risk of flood loss, and wherever it
is possible, to avoid direct or indirect adverse impact on
floodplains
• Where there is no practical alternative to locating in a
floodplain, minimize the impact of floods on human safety,
health, and welfare, as well as the natural environment
• Restore and preserve natural and beneficial values served
by floodplains
4-52
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• Identify floodplains which require restoration and
preservation, recommend management programs necessary to
protect these floodplains, and include such considerations
in on-going planning programs
• Provide the public with early and continuing information
concerning floodplain management and with opportunities
for participating in decisionmaking including the
evaluation of tradeoffs among competing alternatives.
4.2.7. Wild and Scenic Rivers
The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (16 USC 1274 et seq.) provides that the
Secretary of Agriculture or Interior and the State of West Virginia review
and comment on permit applications for proposed facilities that would affect
lands in the Federally designated Wild and Scenic River System or rivers
that are being considered for such designation. EPA cannot assist, through
permits or otherwise, the construction of a mining facility that would have
a direct and adverse effect on rivers designated as wild or scenic under
Section 3 of the Act or those designated as having potential for inclusion
under Section 5 of the Act. If, after proper consultation with the
Secretary of Agriculture or Interior, an action is found to have a direct
and adverse impact, EPA and the applicant must provide mitigative measures.
No action may be taken if the adverse effect cannot be avoided or
appropriately mitigated.
4.2.8. Wetlands
Executive Order 11990, entitled "Protection of Wetlands", requires EPA
to avoid, to the extent possible, the adverse impacts associated with the
destruction or loss of wetlands and to avoid support of new Federal
construction in wetlands if a practicable alternative exists. The EPA
Statement of Procedures on Floodplain Management and Wetlands Protection
(January 5, 1979) requires that EPA determine whether proposed permit
actions also will occur in or will affect wetlands. If so, the responsible
official must prepare a wetlands assessment, which will be part of the
overall environmental assessment or environmental impact statement. The
responsible official is either to avoid adverse impacts or minimize them if
no practicable alternative to the action exists.
In addition, Section 404 of CWA requires USAGE permit approval for
activities that would result in the placement of fill in wetlands. The
USDA, USFWS, USAGE, and the public have opportunity to review and comment on
NPDES permit applications that propose activities that may affect wetlands.
These comments may address the identification of impacts, mitigations, and
additional regulatory activities on a case-by-case basis.
4-53
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4.2.9. Endangered Species Habitat
I
The EPA is prohibited under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 USC
1531 et seq.) from jeopardizing species in danger of extinction or
threatened with endangerment and from adversely modifying habitats essential
to their survival. If listed species or their habitat may be affected,
formal consultation with USFWS under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act
is required. If the consultation reveals that the action will affect a
listed species or habitat adversely, acceptable mitigative measures must be
undertaken or the proposed permit will not be issued.
4.2.10. Significant Agricultural Lands
It is EPA policy to encourage the protection of environmentally
significant agricultural lands from irreversible conversion to uses which
result in their loss as an environmental or essential food production
resource. This policy is stated in EPA's Policy to Protect Environmentally
Significant Agricultural Lands (Draft memorandum from Douglas Cos tie,
Administrator, to Assistant Administrator, Regional Administrators, and
Office Directors, undated). Significant agricultural lands include the
prime, unique, and additional farmlands with National, statewide, or local
significance, as defined by USDA-SCS. EPA also has a special interest in
protecting those other farmlands that: (1) are within or contiguous to
environmentally significant areas and that protect or buffer such areas; (2)
are suitable for the land treatment of organic wastes; or (3) have been
improved with significant capital investments for the purpose of soil
erosion control. A
4.2.11. Historic, Archaeologic, and Paleontologic Sites
EPA is subject to the requirements of the National Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 as amended (16 USC 470 et seq.), the Archaeological
and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (16 USC 469 et seq.), and Executive
Order 11593, entitled "Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environ-
ment." These provisions and regulations establish review procedures which
EPA must follow when significant cultural resources are or may be involved.
Under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and
Executive Order 11593, if an EPA undertaking affects any property with his-
toric, architectural, archaeological, or cultural value that is listed or
eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places, the
responsible official shall comply with the procedures for consultation and
comment promulgated by the US Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (36
CFR Part 800). The responsible official must identify properties affected
by new coal mining that are potentially eligible for listing on the National
Register and must request a determination of eligibility from the Keeper of
the National Register, Department of the Interior (36 CFR Part 63). Under
the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act, if an EPA activity may
cause irreparable loss or destruction of significant scientific, prehis-
toric, historic, or archaeological data, the responsible official or the
Secretary of the Interior is authorized to undertake data recovery and
preservation activities (36 CFR Parts 64 and 66).
4-54
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In general, EPA will not issue a New Source NPDES permit for a mining
operation which would affect a National Register site prior to the
completion of formal interagency coordination. EPA relies on applicants to
supply on-site data to document the presence or absence of cultural
resources and the State Historic Preservation Officer to make determinations
of eligibility for the National Register and recommendations for mitigative
measures.
4.2.12. United States Forest Service Reviews
USFS has lead NEPA authority in reviewing permits for coal mining on
Federally owned lands, but may delegate this authority to another agency
such as EPA. There are presently no National Forest lands in the Guyandotte
River Basin of West Virginia, so it is not anticipated that USFS reviews
would be required in this area. The USFS will be afforded the opportunity
to comment on EPA permits applications for facilities that might affect its
areas of responsibility, even though the National Forest land is outside the
Basin.
4-55
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Page
4.3. Interagency Coordination 4-55
4.3.1. USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of Understanding 4-55
4.3.2. Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility 4-59
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4.3. INTERAGENCY COORDINATION
This section first addresses coordination between EPA and USOSM. Then
it discusses NEPA lead agency coordination during the environmental review
process and EPA response to the designation of lands unsuitable for mining
pursuant to SMCRA.
4.3.1. USOSM-EPA Proposed Memorandum of Understanding
SMCRA regulatory provisions largely overlap many of the environmental
review responsibilities required of EPA pursuant to NEPA. Table 4-7
indicates the various areas of responsibility for each agency and the
authorizing legislation. Sections 503(a)(6) and 504(h) of SMCRA require
coordination between USOSM and other agencies to avoid duplication of the
Title V permit program review activities with other applicable Federal or
State permitting processes.
A proposed Memorandum of Understanding between USOSM and EPA provides
for coordination of the permanent SMCRA Title V and NPDES permit programs
for surface coal mining and reclamation operations or SCMRO's. The
agreement will apply only in states where EPA is the NPDES permitting
authority (44 FR 187:55322-55325, September 25, 1979). EPA encourages
states with approved NPDES programs to coordinate with USOSM in a similar
manner. The major provisions of the agreement as proposed are outlined
below:
• EPA will issue one or more Statewide NPDES special coal
mining permits covering SCMRO's which are subject to both
Title V and NPDES permit requirements
• In States where USOSM primacy has been delegated, EPA may
issue two separate NPDES special coal mining permits.
Once special permit will apply to all SCMRO's which are
New Sources as defined by the CWA and would provide for
NEPA obligations. The other special permit will apply to
all other SCMRO's.
• The applicable NPDES special coal mining permit will take
effect for a particular SCMRO upon the issuance of an
effective Title V permit covering the discharging facility
• If EPA's environmental review under NEPA results in a
determination that a particular New Source SCMRO cannot be
regulated adequately by the NPDES special coal mining per-
mit, EPA may issue an individual NPDES permit to that
SCMRO. If EPA recommends that a SCMRO's Title V permit
include certain permit conditions to carry out the
provisions of the CWA and the SMCRA regulatory authority
decides not to include those conditions, EPA may issue an
individual NPDES permit containing those conditions.
4-56
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• Except where EPA has indicated that it will issue an indi-
vidual NPDES permit, the standard NPDES permit conditions
and requirements will be incorporated into the Title V
SMCRA permit
• The SMCRA regulatory authority will be responsible for
permit decisions and monitoring. EPA will have the oppor-
tunity to review and suggest appropriate modifications to
each permit application.
• Where USOSM and EPA both have NEPA responsibilities for a
particular New Source, USOSM will be the designated lead
agency
• Where a State is the SMCRA regulatory authority and only
EPA has NEPA responsibilities, EPA will comply with its
environmental review requirements by performing either a
Statewide or regional review of all non-Federal lands
where coal mining may occur. On the basis of this review,
EPA may decide: (1) to issue the Statewide NPDES special
coal mining permit; (2) to issue the NPDES special (area-
wide) coal mining permit only to certain classes of
SCMRO's; (3) to issue the NPDES special coal mining permit
subject to certain conditions; or (4) not to issue the
NPDES special coal mining permit. The exclusion of some or
all classes of SCMRO's from coverage by a special NPDES
coal mining permit will not preclude the issuance of an
individual NPDES permit to such SCMRO's following site-
specific environmental reviews.
This proposed MOU has not yet been implemented. Discussions are
continuing between EPA and USOSM concerning the detailed regulations
necessary for its implementation (Verbally, Mr. Frank Rusincovitch, EPA
Office of Environmental Review, to Dr. James Schmid, August 25, 1980).
Another MOU* between EPA and USOSM became effective on February 13,
1980. It deals with procedures for EPA to review State SMCRA programs prior
to their delegation. USOSM will not delegate regulatory authority to any
State until EPA has approved the State program.
1"Memorandum of Understanding Regarding Implementation of Certain
Responsibilities of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department
of the Interior Under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of
1977," signed by EPA Deputy Administrator Blum (for Administrator Cos tie)
and by USDI Secretary Andrus.
4-59
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4.3.2. Lead Agency NEPA Responsibility
Under the present regulatory framework, USOSM or the approved State
regulatory authority has the major responsibility and expertise under SMCRA
to regulate the methods and environmental effects of coal mining (Section
4.2.2.). As discussed in Section 4.3.1., proposed memoranda of under-
standing between USOSM and EPA establish USOSM as the lead NEPA agency in
those situations where both agencies are involved. If the State assumes
NPDES responsibility, no Federal actions would be involved and NEPA would
not apply to issuance of New Source NPDES permits for coal mining or other
industries.
On Federal lands or Federally administered land the Federal agency
responsible for land management would be the lead NEPA agency for SMCRA
permits. The administering agency may delegate NEPA responsibility to EPA
or USOSM if a New Source NPDES permit is involved.
4-60
-------
Page
4.4. Other Coordination Requirements 4-61
4.4.1. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 4-61
4.4.2. Local Notification 4-61
4.4.3. Lands Unsuitable for Mining 4-61
-------
4.4. OTHER COORDINATION REQUIREMENTS
Several other interagency coordination requirements affect EPA when it
issues NPDES permits. EPA will combine these coordination requirements with
NEPA reviews for proposed New Sources of wastewater discharge.
4.4.1. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 requires that all
Federal permit actions be reviewed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service to
evaluate the biological effects of alterations to streams and other water
bodies. USFWS also is to coordinate with USOSM or the State regulatory
authority in the evaluation of reclaimed surface mining lands, if the post
mining land use is to be wildlife habitat. Before its review of permit
actions is complete, USFWS must coordinate with WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
4.4.2. Local Notification
Through Office of Management and Budget Circular A-95, the Federal
Government established a procedure for coordination of projected Federal
actions with Statewide, areawide, and local plans and programs. In Part II,
Section 4 of Circular A-95, Federal agencies responsible for granting
permits for development activities which would have a significant impact on
State, interstate, areawide, or local development plans are strongly urged
to consult with State and areawide clearinghouses and to seek their
evaluations of such impacts prior to granting such permits (41 FR 8:
2052-2065, January 13, 1976). In certain situations, EPA will utilize the
A-95 clearinghouse mechanism in special ways to notify local governments
concerning New Source NPDES permits.
The State clearinghouse in West Virginia is the Governor's Office of
Economic and Community Development in Charleston. Other areawide
clearinghouses are identified in Table 4-8.
4.4.3. Lands Unsuitable for Mining
The proposed WVDNR-Reclamation procedure for designating lands as
unsuitable for mining pursuant to SMCRA, WVSCMRA, and the USOSM permanent
program regulations was described in Section 4.1.4.2. As soon as EPA
receives notice that an area is being reviewed by the SMCRA regulatory for
suitability, all New Source permit applications from that area will be held
in abeyance pending completion of the suitability review. No New Source
NPDES permit for mining activities will be issued in lands designated as
unsuitable pursuant to SMCRA and/or WVSCMRA.
4-61
-------
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4-62
-------
Page
4.5. Potential for Regulatory Change 4~63
4.5.1. Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program ^-63
4.5.2. SMCRA Permit Program 4"63
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4.5. POTENTIAL FOR REGULATORY CHANGE
The administration of the EPA New Source NPDES permit program in West
Virginia will be affected most significantly by two potential regulatory
changes. These are, first, the delegation of the NPDES program to West
Virginia, and second, the ultimate disposition and content of the SMCRA
permit program.
4.5.1. Delegation of the NPDES Permit Program
The CWA provides that States may assume responsibility for the
administration of the NPDES permit program upon approval by EPA. No time
frame was specified by Congress for delegation of this program. West
Virginia has adopted a Water Pollution Control Act (West Virginia Code
Article 20-5A), which authorizes takeover of the NPDES permit program. EPA
Region 111 continues to work with the WVDNR-Water Resources toward the
eventual approval of the State-administered NPDES program, which as of
August 1980 was expected to occur by October 1, 1981, provided that interim
milestones are met. West Virginia is the only State in Region III which
does not administer its own program.
Should West Virginia be approved to administer the NPDES program, New
Source permits will become State rather than Federal permits. Hence NEPA
will no longer apply.
4.5.2. SMCRA Permit Program
The permanent regulatory program for implementation of SMCRA also is
designed for administration by the States (outside Federal and Indian
lands). West Virginia has drafted a State program, which is under review at
this time. USOSM regulations detail at length what features must be present
in the State programs in order to qualify for approval by USOSM. EPA also
must approve the State program before USOSM can delegate authority to West
Virginia.
Several features of the USOSM program implementing SMCRA may change.
During recent months litigation has been underway in various Federal courts
to determine the extent of USOSM powers to regulate mining under SMCRA.
Moreover, during 1979 the so-called "Rockefeller Amendment" was passed by
the Senate (S.1403, 96th Congress, 1st session). Essentially this amendment
would giv-^ additional time for the development of State programs and would
enable the States (rather than USOSM) to declare their regulatory programs
in compliance with SMCRA. It is possible that the West Virginia program
could diverge from the proposed USOSM mandate for State programs, if this
amendment should be enacted into law.
4-63
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Chapter 5
Impacts and Mitigations
-------
5.1 Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.1. Water Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-1
5.1.1. Surface Waters 5-1
5.1.1.1. Geohydrology 5-1
5.1.1.2. Erosion and Sedimentation 5-6
5.1.1.3. Water Quality 5-8
5.1.2. Groundwater 5-14
5.1.2.1. Availability of Groundwater 5-14
5.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality 5-15
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5.0. IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.1. WATER RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.1.1 Surface Waters
This section addresses the potential impacts of coal raining on surface
waters in the following categories:
• Geohydrology: physical alterations in volume, direction,
and flow of surface waters
• Erosion and Sedimentation: alteration in water quality
through turbidity, sedimentation, and siltation
• Water Quality: alterations in water chemistry, especially
from acid mine drainage.
General mitigative measures are presented here for each impact category
related to future coal mining in the Monongahela River Basin. The actual
effects of coal mining activities will vary with particular site character-
istics, with pollution control methods employed at each site during and
after active mining, and with the water quality regulations that apply
together with their accompanying degree of compliance and enforcement.
5 .1.1.1. Geohydrology
Surface mining activities disturb the topographic, hydraulic, and geo-
logic characteristics of each permit area. Surface mining operations affect
both the quantity and the rate of runoff from the mined area. During
mining, the protective vegetation is stripped from the mine surface; topsoil
is translocated; and overburden rock is shattered and transported. After
the coal has been removed, the overburden is regraded, topsoiled, and
replanted. The impacts of rainfall during mining can be minimized by
keeping reclamation current and minimizing the extent of exposed areas, as
required by SMCRA and WVSCMRA (Section 4.O.).
The impact of current surface mining methods on water runoff rates and
the resulting effect on flooding are the subject of considerable contro-
versy. To minimize flood potential, the maximum amount of water should be
retained on a permit area for the longest possible period, with a gradual
release to waterways. This objective must be attained with due consider-
ation of other significant regulatory goals including reestablishment of
approximate original contour, achievement of slope stability, and prevention
of AMD. Large amounts of overburden and other mine waste historically were
lost by landslides during and after mining operations. Stream blockage due
to landslides may cause upstream flooding, with the further effect of down-
stream flooding when the loose material suddenly gives way. Because most
mining and related construction occur on steep slopes in West Virginia,
accelerated runoff, erosion, and sedimentation may affect adjacent and
downstream floodplains.
5-1
-------
Extensive coal mining may generate the need to construct support
facilities, such as coal preparation plants. Floodplains typically are the m
only low-slope areas in the Basin (except for some flat hilltop areas and
gentle valley slopes in the Appalachian Plateau Province), so the
construction of these facilities may eliminate some of the best agricultural
lands in the Basin. If operators construct flood control dikes or fills to
protect floodplain structures, the downstream flooding potential may be
increased due to the reduced flood storage capability.
One of the first attempts to evaluate the hydrologic impact of surface
mining was made on Beaver Creek in southeastern Kentucky (Musser 1963,
Collier et al. 1964 and 1966). In this study, streamflow was measured in
three watersheds, one without mining and two with mining. Flow in the mined
watersheds was found to be more variable than in the control watersheds and
tended to be higher during storms and during dry periods. Because data on
runoff characteristics of the watersheds for the period before mining were
not available, and because of the relatively short period of record, the
results of the study were inconclusive.
A more recent study, also in Kentucky, compared peak flows before
surface mining with flows after surface mining and reclamation (Curtis
1972). One hundred fifty storms were monitored in several small watersheds
where surface mining was conducted between 1968 and 1970. Flood heights
doubled in one watershed where 30% of the area was stripped. Two water-
sheds, .which were 40% and 47% stripped, each produced a five-fold increase
in flood heights. The study concluded that surface mining does increase
flooding in the Appalachians. Another study of the effect of contour 4
surface mines on flooding in a large river basin showed similar results. ™
Five percent of the 400 square mile upper New River Basin in Tennessee was
surface mined between 1943 and 1973. During this period, the height of a
one year frequency flood increased 21% (Minear 1974). For this reason, the
State of West Virginia requires an emergency spillway to allow twice as much
water to flow from a settling basin serving an area 50% surface-mined, as
from a spillway serving an undisturbed area (WVDNR 1975).
On the other hand, Curtis (1977) reported that during one major storm
in Breathitt County, Kentucky, and Raleigh County, West Virginia, on April
4, 1977 the streamflow from surface-mined watersheds peaked lower than that
from nearby unmined watersheds. This study did not compare the streamflows
between pre-mining and post-mining conditions in the same watershed.
Instead, it compared the streamflows between the mined and unmined water-
sheds. Because the similar nature of hydrologic characteristics of the
watersheds was not established, the general conclusion that mining reduces
stormflow peaks was not demonstrated unequivocally.
There is no question that runoff increases when a forested site is
mined. Sediment ponds that are required to maintain water quality, however,
also serve to attenuate peak runoff flows leaving the mine site. Hence
downstream flood levels will not necessarily increase as a result of mining
under current regulations during the mining operation.
5-2
-------
The extent to which streamflow and flooding are affected by surface
mining in individual streams depends upon the hydrologic characteristics of
the specific watershed such as slope steepness, vegetation, and proportion
of impermeable surface before, during, and after mining. The degree to
which reclamation is kept current and the success of revegetation efforts
following regrading also affect flooding. Clear-cut timblerlands and
clean-cultivated cropland without erosion control measures may produce less
runoff following mining and reclamation than prior to mining.
The USOSM permanent program requires that runoff be calculated in
detail by applicants for surface mining permits, and that measures be
adopted that will minimize changes to the existing hydrologic balance in the
area covered by the mine plan and in adjacent areas [30 CFR 816.41(a)].
Drainage facilities must be constructed so as to pass safely the peak runoff
from a 10-year 24-hour storm, and embankments must be designed with a static
safety factor of 1.5 to preclude failure and the release of ponded water
that could raise flood levels downstream (30 CFR 816.43, .45). The smallest
practicable area is to be disturbed at any one time through progressive
backfilling, grading, and prompt revegetation. Backfill is to be stabilized
so as to reduce the rate and volume of runoff and minimize off-site effects
[30 CFR 816.45(b) and .101(b)(2)]. Sedimentation ponds must be designed and
maintained to contain the runoff that enters during a 10-year, 24-hour storm
for not less than 24 hours, unless a shorter detention time is approved by
the regulatory authority upon a detailed demonstration by the applicant that
water quality and other environmental values will be protected [30 CFR
816.46(c)] .
Compliance with the USOSM permanent program regulations means that new
mines will be designed and maintained so as to minimize potential downstream
flood impacts as a result of increased runoff, erosion, slope failure, and
dam failure. Positive benefits may be realized during mining (Figure 5-1).
Following reclamation and the removal of sediment ponds, however, runoff may
or may not increase above premining values, depending on the success of
revegetat ion.
EPA will check to make certain that these aspects have been addressed
by the applicant in his surface mining permit application. Only in cases
where initial permit review indicates that potential flooding of downstream
uses is a serious issue will EPA request further measures from applicants
beyond those imposed under SMCRA and WVSCMRA. If these measures should be
unenforceable by the surface mining regulatory authority pursuant to SMCRA
and WVSCMRA, EPA independently will implement them pursuant to NEPA and the
Clean Water Act.
Surface mining also affects the relationship between surface water flow
and groundwater flow. Unconsolidated, cast overburden has a greater
porosity than the undisturbed bedrock which existed before mining (Spaulding
and Ogden 1968). Hence, there is likely to be increased infiltration. The
cast overburden may assume the characteristics of an aquifer with a rela-
tively greater groundwater storage capacity than existed under the
5-3
-------
RUNOFF FROM 10-YEAR, 24-HOUR STORM IN PERMIT AREA (SHOWN ABOVE)
BEFORE MINING
,peak= 140 cfs
DURING AND AFTER MINING WITHOUT
SEDIMENT POND OR REVEGETATION ON
MINED LAND
DURING MINING WITH SEDIMENT POND BUT
WITHOUT REVEGETATION
INCREASED RUNOFF AS A RESULT OF
MINING WITHOUT REVEGETATION
I 2
Hours after storm begins
Figure 5-1 THEORETICAL HYDROGRAPH ILLUSTRATING RUNOFF FROM A
PERMIT AREA ON THE KENTUCKY-WEST VIRGINIA BORDER (Ward.Haan and
Taap 1979) The 120-ocre site has slopes ranging from 20 to 60% (average
45%) and is on Muse-Shelocta (hydroiogic type b) soils with 50% of acreage
in dense forest,30% in thin forest, and 20% in poor pasture. Post-mining
uses were projected to be 40% dense forest- 30% thin forest; 20% bare,
regraded mined land; and 10% poor pasture. Revegetation according to State
and Federal requirements would reduce the runoff shown in this worst-case
example.
5-4
-------
pre-mining conditions (Corbett 1965). Current reclamation regulations,
however, require the compaction and regrading of spoil to minimize the
penetration of water below the topsoil layer. The compaction is necessary
both to insure that the overburden remains stable on the slope (rather than
becoming fluid because of infiltrating water) and to reduce the amount of
water that reaches toxic material in the overburden. The temporary storage
of water within the spoil of regraded New Source mines is expected to be of
significant volume relative to that flowing across the surface.
Mitigation measures to minimize flooding in most cases are incorporated
in current reclamation requirements (see Section 4.O.). Typical measures
include the following:
• Settling basins constitute an effective mitigative measure
for flooding (Minear 1974, Corbett 1969, Curtis 1972).
These and other drainage control measures must be in place
prior to the start of mining.
• The best contour surface mine drainage system for con-
trolling flooding involves the temporary storage of all
runoff on the bench. This practice can only be used where
no spoil has been pushed below the bench. The diversion
of runoff around mines, an important pollution control
measure required on all drainage systems, may increase
flood heights (Minear 1974).
• Reclamation of surface mines may increase runoff. Sedi-
ment ponds are to be removed following mining, unless the
regulatory authority approves their retention. Also,
retained ponds may become filled over time. Surface
grading itself temporarily increases flooding, especially
during extensive wet periods (Minear 1974). The uncon-
trolled flow of water over the edge of regraded mountain-
tops can be prevented by sloping the finished grade away
from the downslope edge of the bench. Special discharge
channels can be armored with rock or otherwise protected
against erosion. The energy of the water can be dissi-
pated by appropriate structures, if necessary, where the
water is discharged to a stream.
Hardwood forests, which typically cover mine sites in the Basin prior
to mining, transpire significant amounts of water. The forests generally
are replaced by grasses and crown vetch which transpire less water after
mining. Much or all organic topsoil that helps retard runoff can be lost if
mining does not follow current State and Federal requirements for soil
removal, storage, replacement, and revegetation (Section 4.O.). The breakup
of underlying bedrock and the provision of underdrains in spoil and valley
fills may speed up drainage of groundwater into streams. Factors such as
these may combine to increase flooding from surface mines which are
reclaimed to approximate original contour.
5-5
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The soil material eroded from mountainsides is transported by runoff to
floodplains, where it can reduce the temporary flood storage capacity of the
channel. Hence erosion control upslope can benefit flood levels down-
stream. Revegetation is the primary method to slow runoff from slopes.
5.1.1.2. Erosion and Sedimentation
Underground mines and coal preparation plants result in relatively
little direct surface disturbance and hence cause only minor physical
pollution other than the siltation from haul roads, surface rock dumps, mine
waste piles, and tailings piles. Such piles historically have been particu-
larly vulnerable to erosion because of their siting (often in or adjacent to
waterways), their inability to support vegetation, and their fine particles
(EPA 1975). Current USOSM and State regulations prevent placement of such
piles in floodplains and mandate their reclamation and revegetation
following mining.
Surface mining typically results in open cuts and large amounts of
spoil. The construction of roads to facilitate mining and prospecting, the
removal of vegetation, and the loosening and breaking up of overburden may
degrade stream water quality and aquatic habitat. Mining may entail ero-
sion, stream channel modifications (widening or filling), diversion or loss
of permanent stream flow, turbidity caused by massive quantities of silt and
sediment, loss of fish spawning gravels by burial or removal, and compaction
of stream bottoms. Erosion potential is influenced by soil type, vegetation
cover, climate, topography, and erosion control structures (Hill and Grim
1975, Hill 1973, Spaulding and Ogden 1968).
Cast overburden and increased surface runoff may cause accelerated
erosion in surface-mined areas. The erosion, in turn, causes significant
increases in turbidity and sedimentation in streams downslope from the
mining operation.
Erosion and sedimentation resulting from stormwater runoff are affected
by four primary factors: (1) rainfall intensity and volume; (2) flow charac-
teristics as determined by slope steepness and length; (3) soil characteris-
tics; and (4) vegetation densities and protective effects.
Surface mining alters all of these factors except rainfall. Flow
characteristics are altered by the creation of highwalls, access roads,
spoil piles, and water handling structures. Soil structure characteristics
are changed greatly. Topsoil, subsoil, and substrate rock fragments may be
intermingled, and less fertile and sometimes highly acidic soil can result
if current State and Federal reclamation requirements are not met. Acidic
soil material with sparse vegetation seldom can withstand the forces of
rainfall or stormwater movement. Vegetation is absent during the mining
process, and can be absent for several to many years after regrading if not
replanted in accordance with current State and Federal requirements (see
Section 4.0.) .
5-6
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The rate of sediment loss as a result of uncontrolled surface mining
may increase one thousand times over natural levels (Spaulding and Ogden
1968) . In one study of pre-SMCRA and WVSCMRA surface mining in the Elk
River Basin of West Virginia, active mines near Webster Springs were found
to have contributed a high level of suspended solids (Landers 1974) .
The specific sediment control measures currently required by surface
mining regulations are described in Section 5.7. of this assessment. These
measures can be summarized as follows:
• Diverting offsite runoff around the surface mine, passing
mine runoff through settling basins, regrading to minimize
disturbed areas, and revegetation minimize erosion. Where
these requirements have been followed, sedimentation has
been reduced (Light 1975). Unacceptable sedimentation
still may occur when surface mines employ these control
measures (Phares 1971).
• Settling basins detain runoff polluted by sediment.
Settling pond size should be based on a calculation of the
storage space needed to hold the runoff expected to be
discharged by a surface mine and for the efficient
settling of the sediment. The State of West Virginia
requires settling basins to be 0.125 acre-foot volume per
-acre of disturbed land, but this sizing criterion alone
may not be sufficient to reduce concentrations of sus-
pended solids during heavy rainstorms (Light 1975). West
Virginia regulations also have required that the capacity
of the basin be maintained by removing accumulated sedi-
ment when it is 80% filled, although the WVDNR-Water
Resources Drainage Handbook recommends cleanout when 60%
capacity is reached. Some basins can fill up after only
one moderate storm. Therefore, doubling the size of
settling basins was recommended in a report commissioned
by the West Virginia Legislature (Schmidt 1972). The
USOSM permanent program requires cleanout at 60% of
capacity [30 CFR 816.46(h)l. It is theoretically possible
to construct settling basins large enough for all surface
mines, but site availability, road access, and cost are
major problems in West Virginia terrain. In the steeply
sloping areas where need is greatest, space is most
constrained. The effectiveness of ponds can be enhanced
by using baffles to maximize water retention time and by
adding flocculants to maximize sediment deposition.
• An efficient means to remove sediment from large volumes
of runoff is to capture and store water temporarily on
the mine bench. Sediment settles on the bench, and the
water is released to a settling basin at a rate slow
enough to allow adequate treatment. This method is fully
5-7
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applicable only on contour or tnountaintop removal surface
mines where spoil has not been pushed downslope and valley
fills have not been used.
Sediment is most difficult to control when surface mine
spoil has a high clay content. Due to its electrical
charge, clay particles resist physical means of settling
and coagulation/flocculation treatment systems are
necessary (McCarthy 1973). Problem soils in the Basin are
identified in Section 5.7.
Landslides historically have been the source of much of
the sedimentation which occurs after completion of surface
mining. Engineered valley fills, modified block cut
mining, mountaintop removal, and compaction of spoil
during regrading in accordance with current regulations
should reduce sedimentation resulting from landslides.
Permanent erosion control can be provided by the estab-
lishment of healthy vegetation over the entire area.
Since 1970, revegetation requirements in West Virginia
have required fertilization and liming, with the main-
tenance of vegetation for two growing seasons prior to
release of a reclamation bond. USOSM requires that
eastern surface miners be held responsible for effluent
from a mine site for five years after their last seeding
to make sure that revegetation is permanent. Settling
basins must be maintained to control sedimentation until
revegetation is complete.
5.1.1.3. Water Quality
Chemical pollution occurs when soluble or leachable compounds present
in mine wastes enter streams, lakes, or reservoirs. Most chemical pollution
results from oxidation of sulfide minerals, resulting in acid mine drainage.
(EPA 1973). During surface mining for coal, the removal of overburden often
exposes rock materials containing iron sulfide (marcasite and amorphous
pyrite). As the following equations indicate, the oxidation of iron sulfide
results in the production of ferrous iron and sulfuric acid (Equations 1 and
2); the reaction then proceeds to form ferric hydroxide and more acid
(Equations 3 and 4), which reduce the pH level in the receiving streams and
potentially affect aquatic biota.
5-8
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2 FeS2 + 2H20 + 702 2FeS04 + 2H2S04 (1)
(pyrite) + (water) + (oxygen) — > (ferrous iron sulfate) + (sulfuric acid)
14Fe+3 + 8H20 15Fe+2 + 2804-2 +
(pyrite) + (ferric iron) + (water) — > (ferrous iron) + (sulfate) + (hydronium ion)
4FeS04 + 02 + 2H2S04 2Fe2(S04)3 + 2H20 (3)
(ferrous iron sulfate) + (oxygen) + (sulfuric acid) — > (ferric sulfate) + (water)
Fe2(S()4)3 + 6H20 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2S04 (4)
(ferric sulfate) + (water) — > (ferric hydroxide) + (sulfuric acid)
The amount and rate of acid formation and the quality of water discharged
are functions of the amount and type of iron sulfide in the overburden rock
and coal, the time of exposure, the buffering characteristics of the
overburden, and the amount of available water (Hill 1973, Herricks and
Cairns 1974, Hill and Grim 1975). Framboidal pyrite generally poses the
most serious AMD potential. Limestone is readily soluble, and hence
provides more effective buffering than dolomite.
The quality of Basin water affected by acid mine drainage is variable,
but generally Appalachian streams which have received mine drainage are
characterized as follows (Herricks and Cairns 1974):
pH Less than 6 .0
Acidity Greater than 3 mg/1
Alkalinity Normally 0
Alkalinity/Acidity Less than 1.0
Iron Greater than 0.5 mg/1
Sulfate Greater than 250 mg/1
Total suspended solids Greater than 250 mg/1
Total dissolved solids Greater than 500 mg/1
Total hardness Greater than 250 mg/1
Physical changes from AMD result both from the deposition of ferric
hydroxide floes on the substrate and from the hydroxides that may remain
suspended within the water column where they reduce light penetration.
Chemical changes result from reduction in the receiving water pH, alteration
in the bicarbonate buffering system, chemical oxygen demand (if the mine
drainage is poorly oxidized), and the addition of many metal salts (Herricks
1975, Gale et al . 1976, Huckabee et al . 1975).
As a result of the low pH in acid mine runoff, the dissolved solids may
contain significant quantities of iron, aluminum, calcium, magnesium,
manganese, copper, zinc, and other heavy metals, depending on the
mineralogical composition of the coal deposit and associated strata (Table
5-1). There are few actual data reating heavy metals pollution and coal
-------
Table 5-1. Composite characterization of untreated acid mine drainage
(Nessler and Bachman 1977)
Constituent
pH
Acidity
Alkalinity/Acidity Ratio
Specific Conductance
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Total Solids
Hardness
Sulfate
Total Iron
Aluminum
Magnesium
Manganese
Chloride
Calcium
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Sodium
Potassium
1.1-7.3
0-35,000 mg H2S04/1
Less than 1
1,400-12,000 umhos/cm
Greater than 500-5,500 mg/1
Greater than 250 mg/1
1,000-11,000 mg/1
250-13,600 mg CaC03/l
20-31,000 mg/1
0.5-7,600 mg/1
30-500 mg/1
150-2,990 mg/1
5-675 mg/1
10-270 mg/1
20-500 mg/1
0-18 mg/1
0-0.5 mg/1
0-0.7 mg/1
15-70 mg/1
3-16 mg/1
5-10
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mining in West Virginia. During December 1979, USOSM analyzed water samples
from an unnamed tributary to Panther Fork in Upshur County (Buckhannon River
drainage of the Monongahela River Basin). The cadmium concentration
increased by two orders of magnitude, from 0.01 mg/1 upstream to 1.34 mg/1
downstream from a coal mine. At a point 0.5 mile farther downstream, the
cadmium was measured at 0.05 mg/1. At the same three stations iron
concentrations varied from <0.10 to 0.5 to <0.10 mg/1; manganese values were
0.40, 31.00, and 0.90 mg/1; and sulfate values were 4.0, 412.32, and 9.0
mg/1. The mine was not demonstrated to be the source or the only source of
the cadmium or other elevated parameters. No fish were reported in the
Panther Fork, and long-term studies of the water quality were recommended
(G. E. Hanson and J. D. Generauz, Memorandum to J. A. Holbrook, USOSM,
Charleston WV, January 24, 1980).
The following discussion summarizes general water quality impacts from
coal mining in terms of individual water quality constituents. Most of the
levels discussed below will not occur if the New Source Performance
Standards are met. Thus the effluent limits mandated by the NSPS
effectively should protect human health. As pointed out in Section 5.2.,
however, the New Source standards are not necessarily sufficient to protect
aquatic organisms.
Water hardness becomes objectionable at about 150 mg/1 and generally
makes water unusable for certain domestic or industrial uses at concen-
trations greater than 300 mg/1. High hardness levels shorten the life of
pipes and water heaters and greatly increase the amount of soap which is
needed for cleaning. Water can be softened by treatment, but this is
expensive and may be inadequate (Light 1975).
Excessive iron, manganese, and sulfate concentrations can cause
objectionable taste and staining. In addition, sulfate levels greater than
250 mg/1 can produce a laxative effect (EPA 1976).
Some of the tolerance levels recommended in Table 5-2 are based more on
aesthetic than toxicological considerations, such as iron, manganese, and
zinc. A specific limit has not been established for nickel because it is
considered relatively non-toxic to humans (EPA 1976). With the exception of
possible high sulfate levels, effluents from New Source mines should pose
little threat to public health.
With respect to most of the Basin, the New Source standards will be
sufficient to maintain existing water quality. The limitations govern four
of the most important constituents of mine effluents (iron, manganese, pH,
and suspended solids). Three of these (iron, pH, and suspended solids) have
been the principal cause of damage to the aquatic biota of the Basin
(see Sections 2.2 and 5.2.). Additional limitations will be necessary in
certain areas to protect aquatic organisms. Also significant improvement in
the water quality of degraded streams in the Basin will not occur until the
numerous abandoned mines in the Basin are reclaimed.
5-11
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Table 5-2. Tolerance levels for selected drinking water parameters
associated with coal mine effluent (after Casarett and Doull 1975, EPA
1976, USPits 1962).
Limits in mg/1
Element
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium (Cr+"'
Copper
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Selenium
Sulfate
Zinc
Mandatory Upperl
0.05
1.0
0.010
0.05
—
—
0.05
—
0.002
0.01
250
—
Desirable Upper2
0.01
—
—
—
L.O
0.3
—
0.05
—
—
—
5.0
Ifiased primarily on health considerations
primarily on taste, odor, or aesthetic considerations.
5-12
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Generally, iron is precipitated as yellow ferric hydroxide (FeOH3).
Occasionally red ferric oxide (Fe203) is precipitated. Both of these
precipitates form gels or floes that may be detrimental, when suspended in
water, to fishes and other aquatic biota. Dissolved iron is also toxic to
certain aquatic organisms. A detailed discussion of the effects of iron on
aquatic organisms is presented in Section 5.2. To insure that the concen-
tration of iron in the stream does not exceed 1 mg/1 as mandated by the
State stream standard proposed by WVDNR-Water Resources (1980) and
recommended by EPA (1976), the mine operator may elect to retain his
discharge during low flow conditions or to treat the discharge to iron
concentrations less than 3 mg/1. In trout waters the State has proposed a
0.5 mg/1 maximum in-stream iron limitation, and the State may require more
stringent discharge limitations than the NSPS or other measures to protect
the quality of trout waters.
Acid also is a major concern in the Basin because of the frequently low
buffering capacity in streams. Careful pH control is very important in the
streams identified as lightly buffered.
The NSPS effluent limitations do not apply under all weather
conditions. Any overflow, increase in volume of a discharge, or discharge
from a by-pass system caused by precipitation or snowmelt in excess of the
10-year 24-hour precipitation event is not subject to the limitations. In
addition, discharges during small precipitation events also are not subject
to the NSPS, provided that the treatment facility has been designed,
constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of water which
would fall on the area subject to the NSPS limitations during a 10-year
24-hour or larger precipitation event (44 FR 250:76791, December 20, 1979).
One important aspect of the exemption described above is suspended
solids concentrations. That is, properly designed and operated ponds will
remove large (settlable) solids, but not fine, colloidal material. Where
clay colloids are present, chemical or physical treatments such as those
described below may be required in order to meet the NSPS and protect
designated water uses.
Of the various advanced treatment techniques developed over the past
two decades primarily for large scale treatment of salt water, the reverse
osmosis desalinization technique has been most successfully applied to acid
mine drainage (ARC 1969). Another chemical treatment method for colloidal
material is flocculation. Both of these techniques are applicable in the
Basin to promote the settling of a significant proportion of fine suspended
clay particles during the sedimentation process. Removal of these fine par-
ticles also affects metals impacts, because metals are usually associated
with colloidal material and thus are removed along with the suspended
solids. Best Available Control Technology and the NSPS apply to total metal
concentrations, defined as metals in solution (dissolved) together with
metals in suspension as part of the solids loading. The choice of specific
methods for meeting the NSPS is left to applicants by EPA. Information
5-13
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regarding cost and effectiveness of these and other techniques is presented
in Section 3.2.
Other abatement techniques that have been used and proven practical for
Basin mine drainage treatment are listed in Section 5.7. These include
techniques that can be used for underground as well as surface mining
operations (ARC 1969). The abatement of acid mine drainage in the
Monongahela River Basin could involve the use of a variety of techniques.
The application of specific abatement techniques will depend upon the type
of mining (surface, underground, or both), whether the mining operation is
active or temporarily inactive, the characteristics of the mine drainage,
the desired resultant water quality, its suitability for the uses intended,
and the secondary effects of the abatement technique on the environment.
5 .1 .2 . Groundwater
5.1.2.1. Availability of Groundwater
Pumping water from an aquifer can lower the water level in nearby wells
in the same aquifer. The amount of lowering of the water level and how far
away an effect can be found are functions of the rate at which the water is
withdrawn and the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer. The effect also
occurs if water is allowed to drain from an aquifer due to mining activity.
Again the extent of the effect may be short-term, as when water drains into
a cavity until it is filled, or it may be long-term, if the water continues
to drain or is pumped.
There is a scarcity of evidence documenting well failure due to mining ^
activity in the Basin. Historically there have been few accurate ^
measurements of nearby well capability before mining activity begins.
Consequently, it has been hard to confirm whether well failures are caused
by mining activity or are caused by gradual deterioration or other natural
causes.
One recent study of the major aquifers (the Allegheny, Conemaugh,
Monongahela, and Dunkard Formations) in Monongalia County, which are major
aquifers in the Monongahela River Basin, concluded that vertical air shafts
were responsible for groundwater drainage and well dewatering (Ahnell 1977).
Where the air shafts were not pregrouted prior to construction, some were
found to affect groundwater levels for a distance of at least 1.5 miles from
the shafts. Wells located near pregrouted air shafts experienced no
noticeable reduction in levels. Wells located above underground mines with
less than 300 feet of overburden between the bottom of the well and the coal
mine commonly lost water. The geological similarity between the Basin and
the Monongalia County study area indicates that similar effects can be
anticipated in the Basin.
5-14
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5.1.2.2. Groundwater Quality
As with groundwater availablility, there is a scarcity of documented
information on the effect of mining activities on groundwater quality in the
Basin. In general, local groundwater quality can be affected by a variety
of parameters (Table 5-3). The intrusion of mine drainage into rock-strata
aquifers can be expected to result in higher sulfate and hardness in the
groundwater, but low pH and high iron concentrations generally have little
effect on groundwater, because they usually are neutralized by the
carbonates in the aquifers, precipitated, or filtered out by tiny
passageways in the rocks. Rauch (1980) reported that severe contamination
of groundwater supplies is generally is restricted to groundwater located
within about 200 feet horizontally of mine drainage sources.
There is some indication that underground mining may cause an increase
in sulfate and hardness content, but the amount of increase is not usually
so great as to restrict the utility of the water, based on information
obtained from similar situations outside the Basin and from statistically
derived inferences. Friel et al. (1975) reported several instances of well
contamination from mining activities, however, data verifying the magnitude
and extent of the contamination were not presented. Skelly and Loy (1977)
similarly contend that groundwater quality has been affected seriously as
the result of mining activity. More information on the relationship between
groundwater availability and quality within the Basin is needed.
Rauch (1980) recommended that groundwater should be directed away from
mine sites both during and after mining. In contour mines, drainage pipes
can be installed at the foot of the highwall just prior to reclamation.
This will result in a lower water table after reclamation and less ground-
water contact with fill material. The groundwater then can be piped to a
nearby stream channel. Another approach recommended by Rauch is to install
an impermeable barrier in the backfill material a few feet below the
surface. This has the effect of directing infiltrating rainfall downslope
away from the mine and buried toxic overburden.
Additional recommendations of Rauch are that (1) surface mining be kept
at least 200 feet away from any well or spring water supply, especially
those supplies located downhill from the mine and (2) all bore holes created
by coring operations and all old abandoned wells be filled with concrete
grout: at the mine site during mining to prevent polluted mine drainage from
recharging aquifers underlying the mine. Other mitigative measures are
discussed in Section 5.7.
The USOSM permanent program regulations address in detail the measures
necessary to protect groundwater supplies and quality (30 CFR 816.51, .52;
817.51, .52). Pre-mining monitoring data must be supplied with the permit
application (30 CFR 779.15; 783.16), and recharge capacity must be restored
to a condition that (1) supports the approved post-mining land use, (2)
minimizes disturbance to the hydrologic balance on the permit area and in
5-15
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Table 5-3. Water quality parameters that potentially affect local groundwater
quality (Landers 1976).
Substance
Cohtorm Bacteria
Iron
Calcium and
Magnesium
Sodium and
Potassium
Sulfate
Chloride
Nitrate
Dissolved Solids
Total Hardness
Dissolved Oxygen
Suspended Sedi
ment or Turbidity
Sources
Present in very large quantifies in human and animal wastes,
some types are found in soil
1, Natural sources Oxides, carbonates, and sulfides of iron
2 Man made sources WeU casing, piping, pump parts, stor
age tanks, and other objects of cast iron and steel which may
be in contact with the water
Dissolved from practically all soils and rocks, but especially
from limestone, dolomite, and gypsum Calcium and mag-
nesium are found in large quantities in some brines. Mag-
nesium ts present m large quantities in sea water
Dissolved from practically all rocks and soils Found also in
ancient brines, sea water, industrial brines, and sewage.
Dissolved from rocks and soils containing gypsum, iron sut-
fides, and other sulfur compounds Commonly present in
mine waters and m some industrial wastes.
Dissolved from rocks and soils. Present in sewage and found
m large amounts in ancient bnnes, sea water, and industrial
brines
Decaying organic matter, sewage, fertilizers, and nitrates
in soil
Chiefly mineral constituents dissolved from rocks and soils.
In most waters nearly all the hardness is due to calcium and
magnesium. All of the metallic cations other than the alkali
metals also cause hardness
Dissolved in water from air and from oxygen given off in the
process of photosynthesis by aquatic plants
Erosion of land, erosion of stream channels Quantity and
particle-si/e gradation affected by many factors such as
form and intensity of precipitation, rate of runoff, stream
channel and flow characteristics, vegetal cover, topography,
type and characteristics of soils in the drainage basin, agn
cultural practices, and some industrial and mining activities.
Greatest concentrations and loads occur during periods of
Storm runoff
Significance
Used as an indicator that the water may be contaminated and
may contain disease-caus'ng organisms
More than 0 1 mg/l precipitates after exposure to air, causes tur-
bidity, stains plumbing fixtures, laundry and cooking utensils,
and imparts objectionable tastes and colors to foods and drinks.
More than 0 2 mg/l is objectionable for most industrial uses
Cause most of the hardness and scale-forming properties of
water, soap consuming («»e hardness) Waters low in calcium
and magnesium desired in electroplating, tanning, dyeing, and
manufacturing.
Large amounts, in combination with chloride, give a salty taste
Moderate quantities have little effect on the usefulness of water
for most purposes Sodium salts may cause foaming in steam
boilers and a high sodium content may limtt the use of water for
irn§dtion.
Sulfate in water containing calcium forms hard scale m steam
boilers In large amounts, sulfate in combination with other
irons gives bitter taste to water Some calcium sulfate is con-
sidered beneficial in the brewing process
fn large amounts, in combination with sodium, gives salty taste
to drinking water In large1 quantities, increases the corrosive-
ness of water
Concentration much greater than the local average may suggest
pollution Waters of high nitrate conteni have been reported to
be the cause of methemoglobmemia (an often fatal disease in in-
fants) and therefore should not be used in infant feeding. Ni-
trate has been shown to be helpful m reducing intercrystallme
cracking of boiler steel It encourages growth of algae and other
organisms that produce undesirable taste'i and odors
Waters containing more than 1,000 mg/l of dissolved solids are
unsuitable for many purposes.
Consumes soap before a lather will form Deposits soap curd on
bathtubs. Hard water forms scale in boilers, water heaters, and
pipes Hardness equivalent to the bicarbonate and carbonate is
called carbonate hardness Any hardness in excess of this is
called non carbonate hardness Waters of hardness up to 60
mg/l are considered soft, 61 to 120 mg/l, moderately hard, 121
to 200 mg/l, hard, more than 200 mg/l, very hard
Dissolved oxy
-------
adjacent areas, and (3) approximates the pre-mining recharge rate. Mine
operators must replace the water supply of users whose supplies are affected
by mining activities (30 CFR 816.54; 817.54).
Compliance with the USOSM permanent program regulations means that new
mines will be designed so as to minimize adverse impacts on groundwater
quality and quantity. EPA will check to see that groundwater aspects have
been addressed by applicants in their surface mining permit applications.
If these measures should be unenforceable by the regulatory authority
pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA, EPA independently will implement them
pursuant to NEPA and CWA.
5-17
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5.2 Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations
-------
5.2. Aquatic Biota Impacts and Mitigations 5-19
5.2.1. Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage to Aquatic 5-19
Biota
5.2.1.1. Impacts of Sedimentation and Suspended 5-20
Solids
5.2.1.2. Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage 5-20
5.2.1.2.1. Iron Impacts 5-20
5.2.1.2.2. pH Impacts 5-22
5.2.1.3. Impacts of Trace Contaminants 5-24
5.2.2. Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts 5-24
5.2.2.1. Fish 5-26
5.2.2.2, Benthic Macroinvertebrates 5-27
5.2.2.3. Other Organisms 5-28
5.2.3. Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining Impacts 5-28
5.2.4. Mitigative Measures 5-40
5.2.5. Erroneous Classification 5-49
Page
4
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5.2. AQUATIC BIOTA IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
Water pollution from mines occurs when dissolved solids, suspended
solids, or other mineral wastes and debris enter streams or infiltrate the
groundwater system. Mine drainage includes both the water flowing from
surface or underground mines by gravity or by pumping and runoff or seepage
from mine lands or mine wastes. This pollution may be physical (sediments)
or chemical (acid, heavy metals, etc.; EPA 1973, Hill and Grim 1975). In
subsequent sections, the effects of sediment and acid mine drainage on
aquatic biota, the response of the biotic community to sediment and acid
mine drainage, and measures to reduce sediment and acid mine drainage are
discussed in turn.
5.2.1. Major Mining-Related Causes of Damage to Aquatic Biota
The major causes of damage to the biota of an aquatic system are:
1) destruction of habitats through direct physical alteration; 2) reduction
or elimination of any component of the physical, chemical, or biological
system which is essential for continued biotic functioning; and
3) destruction or injury of the biota by the addition of acutely or
chronically toxic materials (Herricks 1975). In the eastern United States,
aquatic biota usually are affected adversely by mineral mining through the
following mechanisms (Mason 1978, Hill 1973):
• Excess acidity
• Silt deposition on streambeds and in ponds, lakes, and
reservoirs
• Turbidity
• Heavy metal contamination of waters and sediment
• Secondary impacts such as decreased dissolved oxygen
concentrations, decreased plankton populations (which
provide food for fish and macroinvertebrates), increased
water temperatures, and decreased reproductive capacities
of fish and macroinvertebrates
• Synergistic effects of mining wastes acting in combination
with other types of pollutants
The effects of acid mine drainage include fish kills, reduction in fish
hatching success, failure or inhibition of fish spawning, reduction in the
numbers and variety of invertebrate organisms, elimination of algae and
other aquatic plants, and inhibition of bacterial growth and consequent
retarding of decomposition of organic matter (Stauffer et al. 1978). The
reduction in the diversity of benthic invertebrates is well documented
(Parsons 1968, Koryak et al. 1972).
5-19
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5.2.1.1. Impacts of Sedimentation and Suspended Solids
Sediment eroded from surfaces exposed by mining may cover the stream
substrate. Apart from any acutely toxic effects, sedimentation decreases
substrate heterogeneity, fills interstices with silt, severely reduces algal
populations, and directly affects the bottom-dwelling invertebrates (Ward et
al. 1978, Matter et al. 1978). Secondarily, sedimentation may reduce fish
populations by reducing habitat (filling pools), by eliminating food
supplies (algae and benthos), by eliminating spawning sites, by smothering
eggs or fry, or by modifying natural movements or migrations (Branson and
Batch 1972, EPA 1976). The ecological effects of suspended solids include:
1) mechanical or abrasive effects (clogging of gills, irritation of tissues,
etc.); 2) blanketing action of sedimentation; 3) reduced light penetration;
4) availability as a surface for growth of bacteria, fungi, etc.; 5)
adsorption and/or absorption of various chemicals; and 6) reduction of
natural temperature fluctuations (Cairns 1967).
Mechanical or abrasive action is of particular importance in the higher
aquatic organisms such as mussels and fish. Gills frequently are clogged
and their proper function impaired (Cairns 1967). Herbert and Merkins
(1961) exposed rainbow trout to suspensions of kaolin and diatomaceous earth
and found that concentrations of 30 ppm had no observable effect. A few
fish died at 90 ppm; at 270 ppm, more than half of the fish died in 2 to 12
weeks. They also observed considerable cell proliferation and fusion of
lamellae in the gills of the exposed fish. The gills are important not only
in respiration but also in excretion; gills may remove six to ten times as
much nitrogenous wastes from the blood as the kidneys (Smith 1929).
The reduction of light penetration may restrict or prohibit the growth
of photosynthetic organisms that form the base of the aquatic food chain.
Any significant change in the populations of these organisms has widespread
effects on the organisms dependent upon them for food (e.g., filter-feeders
such as gizzard shad, various insects, etc.). Non-nutritive suspended
particulate matter may affect the feeding efficiency of many aquatic
organisms adversely. In addition, because a number of aquat ic predators
such as trout and darters depend on sight to capture their prey, any
increase in the turbidity of the water will lower prey capturing efficiency
(Cairns 1967).
5.2.1.2. Impacts of Acid Mine Drainage
In streams receiving acid mine drainage, microbial growth is minimal
due to low pH (Koryak et al. 1972). Likewise at low pH, many inorganic
elements and compounds enter receiving water bodies in a non-adsorbed or
non-absorbed state, and may exert toxic effects on the resident organisms.
5.2.1.2.1. Iron Impacts. Coal mine effluents typically contain large
amounts of ferrous iron that oxidize into insoluble ferric compounds (mostly
ferric hydroxide) as mine effluents are oxygenated and neutralized by
receiving waters. Much of the ferric hydroxide precipitates onto the stream
5-20
-------
substrate and blankets the substrate in a manner analogous to ordinary
sediment (Gale et al. 1976, Ward et al. 1978),
Ferric iron affects plants by reducing light penetration, by coating
the surface of algal cells and macrophytes, by precipitating algal cells,
and by reducing the substrate heterogeneity necessary for periphytic algae
to attach and grow successfully. By increasing turbidity and by coating
outer plant surfaces, ferric iron (in concentrations ranging from 1.65 to
6.49 mg/1) effectively decreases the amount of light available for photosyn-
thesis. Besides shading the phytoplankton, ferric hydroxide floe may carry
algal cells out of the water column as it settles to the bottom. This
settling effectively reduces phytoplankton density in a receiving stream.
Periphytic algae are especially vulnerable to ferric iron, because, in
addition to being shaded, they may be prevented from attaching to a stable
substrate by the ferric coating on the streambed. Outer layers of this
coating tend to be loose, and cells attached to it may be dislodged by
slightly elevated stream discharges (Gale et al. 1976).
Ferric compounds affect benthic organisms by decreasing habitat
heterogeneity, reducing available food, coating the organisms directly, and
exerting an oxygen demand, thus reducing oxygen availability. Iron precipi-
tates also fill small crevices in the substratum that ordinarily are used by
various invertebrates. Probably of greater significance, however,
precipitating iron reduces the standing crop of algae and vascular plants
which serve as food for many benthic invertebrates. Burrowing organisms are
affected if the oxidation of ferrous iron occurs in interstitial waters in
the stream sediment, thereby depleting the dissolved oxygen concentration.
Similarly, precipitated iron may seal the substrate and prevent the exchange
of dissolved oxygen between the stream water and the interstitial water.
Respiration by macroinvertebrates or their eggs may be upset by heavy
coatings of iron (Gale et al. 1976, Koryak et al. 1972, EPA 1976).
Fish are impacted by iron compounds as the result of reduced algal and
invertebrate food supplies. Iron also reduces spawning success because the
increased concentrations of ferric hydroxide flocculants reduce the ability
of fish to locate suitable spawning sites, blanket suitable substrates, and
smother the eggs and embryos (Gale et al. 1976, Sykora et al. 1972).
The toxicity of iron to fish and macroinvertebrates is directly
proportional to acidity. Menendez (1976) reported the survival of brook
trout exposed to various iron concentrations. He found that the "no effect"
level of iron for brook trout was 1.37 mg/1 at pH 7.0. In later bioassays
using brook trout exposed to iron Menendez (1977) found the 96-hour LC5Q
(lethal concentration for 50% of test animals) for iron to be 2.3, 3.3, and
8.4 mg/1 at pH 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0 respectively. Carp may be killed by
concentrations of iron as low as 0.9 mg/1 when the pH is 5.5 (EPA 1976).
Trout and pike were found to die at iron concentrations of 1 to 2 mg/1 (EPA
1976).
5-21
-------
Sykora et al. (1972) evaluated the toxicity of suspended ferric
hydroxide to two invertebrates. Crustacean and aquatic insect larvae
(Gammarus minus and Cheumatopsyche sp., respectively) were tested at iron
concentrations of: 100, 50, 25, 12, 6, 3, and 20, 10, 5, 1.75, 0.80 mg/1.
The crustaceans, especially younger specimens, were especially susceptible
to ferric hydroxide. The safe concentration of iron for reproduction and
growth of Gammarus minus is less than 3 mg/1. The insect larvae showed a
greater tolerance of suspended ferric hydroxide. Adults emerged from the
highest concentration tested (20 mg/1).
For mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, which are important stream
insects in West Virginia, the 96-hour LC5Q values were found to be 0.32
mg/1 iron (EPA 1976). These macroinvertebrates are important when
considering the impacts of iron in mine effluent, because they form an
integral link in the aquatic food chain, utilizing plants and microfauna and
providing a major food source for the fish.
Based upon the variable sensitivity of aquatic organisms to iron,
EPA (1976) suggested a limit of 1.0 mg/1 iron in natural waters to protect
freshwater biota. The State Water Resources Board (1980) also is
establishing a 1.0 mg/1 maximum iron in-stream standard to be met Statewide,
except where more stringent standards are necessary or natural iron values
exceed 1 mg/1 (a limit of 0.5 mg/1 iron in trout waters has been proposed).
5.2.1.2.2. pH Impacts. Concomitant with the addition of acid mine
drainage to a receiving water body is the depression of pH, a measure of
hydrogen ion activity. The impact of low pH, in the absence of other
parameters normally associated with acid mine drainage, was evaluated under
field conditions by Herricks and Cairns (1974) and by Ettinger and Kim
(1975), and in the laboratory by Bell (1971). Bell performed bioassays with
nymphs or larvae of caddisflies (two species), stoneflies (four species),
dragonflies (two species), and mayflies (one species). The 30-day LC5Q
values ranged from pH 2.45 to 5.38. Caddisflies were the most tolerant;
mayflies, the least tolerant. The pH values at which 50% of the organisms
emerged ranged from pH 4.0 to 6.6, and increased percentages emerged at the
higher pH values.
Ettinger and Kim (1975) evaluated the invertebrate fauna of Sinking
Creek, Pennsylvania, a stream receiving acid water from a bog but lacking
high concentrations of ferrous or ferric iron and sulfate. They observed
that the number of benthic insect species present decreased as the pH
decreased. The insects affected most adversely were beetles, mayflies, and
stoneflies. T)ragonflies and caddisflies were affected less severely.
True flies seemed unaffected, and the number of taxa of alderflies,
fishflies, and dobsonflies increased in the more acidic waters of the
stream.
Herricks and Cairns (1974) experimentally acidified a reach of Mill
Creek, Virginia, and recorded the response of the benthic invertebrate
community to pH. Two days after acidification, benthic invertebrate density
5-22
-------
and diversity were reduced in the acid-treated reach, as compared to a
reference reach. Herricks and Cairns concluded that the low invertebrate
density resulted from loss of benthic algae and diatoms, a source of energy
for benthic invertebrates, and, through the food chain, for fish.
Pegg and Jenkins (1976) identified 13 stress symptoms during a study
that evaluated the physiological effects of sub lethal levels of acid water
on fish. The species evaluated were the bluegill, pumpkinseed, and brown
bullhead. When exposed to acidified tap water or water acidified with coal
mine drainage, the following stress symptoms were noted:
• Rapid movement of pectoral fins
• Dorsal fin fully depressed or fully erect
• Pectoral fin pressed against body
• Hemmorhagic region at base of pectoral fin
• Mucus frilling on fins, body, and opercular regions
• Coughing reflex (gill cleaning movements)
• Mucus coagulation on eyes (opaque cornea)
• Gill congestion (thick mucus accumulation on gill
surfaces)
• Alternate swimming to top and bottom of respiration
ch amb e r
• Few swimming movements, resting on bottom of chamber
• Shallow ventilation movements
• Intermittent ventilation movements (2 to 10 second pauses
for sunfish; extended pauses of 5 to 10 minutes for brown
bullhead)
• Increase in ventilation rate (from <50 to 100
movements/minute).
Species differences were apparent, particularly between the brown bullhead
and sunfish. The sunfish displayed an increased rate of swimming and
opercular movement, but brown bullheads slowed or ceased activity and
opercular movements. When the acid water conditions were maintained for
several days or longer, long-term effects such as reduced growth or even
death resulted.
5-23
-------
As mentioned later under acid mine drainage mitigations, State and
USOSM regulations require the pH of mine discharge waters to be between 6.0
and 9.0. This is adequate to protect the aquatic resources of the Basin
from pH-related mining impacts.
5.2.1.3. Impacts of Trace Contaminants
Many contaminants remain in wastes or process by-products as a result
of the mining, processing, and utilization of coal. Over 60 elements have
been identified from coal, coal mine spoils, mining waste dumps, coal
preparation plant wastes, sludge resulting from acid mine drainage
neutralization, flyash recovered from precipitators in coal-burning plants
and bottom ash, and solid reaction products recovered from flue gas
scrubbers on coal burning power plants. Metallic elements in coal can be
assumed to be solubilized into the environment as these materials oxidize
after exposure (Grube et al. n.d.), and many of the trace contaminants
originating from coal and other fossil fuels are known to exert toxic
effects on aquatic animals.
Birge et al. (1978) conducted embryo-larval bioassays on 11 metals
that commonly affect aquatic habitats. The test organisms used during this
study included rainbow trout, largemouth bass, and the marbled salamander
(Table 5-4).
Coal trace metal contaminants that proved most toxic to trout eggs and
alevins included mercury (Hg), silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu),
which had median lethal concentrations (LC5o) of 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, and
0.09 ppm, respectively. Bass eggs and fry were most sensitive to silver,
mercury, aluminum (Al), and lead (Pb), which had LC5Q values of 0.11,
0.15, 0.24, and 0.42 ppm respectively. Trout eggs and alevins were
considerably more susceptible to coal elements than were embryo-larval
stages of bass and salamander. Teratogenic defects were common among
exposed trout larvae, less significant for bass, and generally infrequent
for the salamander. Percentages of anomalous survivors were higher for
cadmium (Cd), copper, mercury, and zinc (Zn; Birge et al. 1978).
5.2.2. Responses of Aquatic Biota to Mining Impacts
The recovery of stream communities from mine discharges or other
chronic stress can be related both to distance from the point of stress and
to a time-related decrease in stress intensity to levels where aquatic
community structure and function are reestablished following cessation of
discharges. In general, recovery from chronic pollutional stress can occur
if: (1) the stress is reduced and damaged habitats are restored; (2)
sources of recolonizing organisms are available; and (3) seasonal varia-
bility in stream conditions does not preclude maintenance of stream communi-
ties (Herricks 1975). Because AMD problems tend to be permanent, unless
costly cleanup is successful, recovery of biota historically has not been
widespread.
5-24
-------
Table 5-4. Results of embryo-larval bioassays on coal elements (Birge et al. 1978).
Element
Ag
(AgNO_)
j
Al
(Aid.)
3
As
(NaAsCL)
2
Cd
(CdCl_)
2
Cr
(CrOj
J
Cu
(CuSO.)
4
Hg
(HgCl2)
Ni
(NiCl2)
Pb
(PbCl2 )
Sn
(SnCl2 )
Zn
(ZnCl2)
Animal
Species
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
Trout
Bass
Salamander
LC50
(ppm)
0.01
0.11
0.24
0.56
0.17
2.28
0.54
42.1
4.45
0.13
1.64
0.15
0.18
1.17
2.13
0.09
6.56
0.77
0.005
0.13
0.11
0.05
2.02
0.42
0.18
0.24
1.46
0.40
1.89
0.85
1.06
5.16
2.38
Confidence Limits
Lower (ppm) U
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
21
2
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
4
1
.01
.04
.16
.40
.07
.53
.42
.2
.89
.10
.41
.10
.07
.85
.34
.05
.66
.52
.004
.09
.07
.04
.46
.28
.10
.12
.00
.23
.77
.54
.75
.58
.60
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
84
6
0
1
0
0
1
3
0
7
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
4
1
1
5
3
PJper
.02
.23
.34
.70
.40
.29
.67
.9
.66
.18
.88
.20
.31
.58
.34
.15
.54
.11
.005
.17
.15
.06
.77
.59
.32
.46
.05
.67
.32
.32
.39
.78
.44
LC
b
i
(ppb)
0
3
7
256
1
67
40
4601
63
6
89
8
19
11
17
1
1592
21
0
9
3
0
9
15
2
2
64
16
8
4
20
966
71
.2
.7
.1
.0
.1
.1
.8
.2
.7
.7
.6
.7
.5
.1
.6
.8
Confidence Limits
Lower (ppb) Upper
0
0
2
53
0
17
16
63
14
1
57
2
0
4
3
1
893
5
0
3
1
0
3
4
0
0
18
2
3
1
5
671
18
.1
.1
.0
.1
.8
.5
.4
.5
.0
.0
.8
.1
.0
.0
.2
.7
.2
.2
.2
.1
.9
.0
.7
0.4
14
16
371
5.1
155
72
12086
161
13
127
17
56
22
48
4.5
2234
49
0.3
19
8.3
1.2
20
32
8.1
7.5
138
43
43
13
33
1266
164
aLC5o
= lethal concentration for 1% of the population.
5-25
-------
Streams and rivers subjected to acid mine drainage respond in
predictable ways based on both the interaction between physical, chemical,
and biological components of the stream system and the type, intensity, and
duration of the stress. Chronic discharges have the highest potential for
causing damage, and recovery is related to reduction of stress to levels at
which normal structure and function can be re-established. Generally, the
chronic stress caused by a point source is reduced in the receiving stream
as a function of the distance from the discharge source. The relationship
between recovery and distance can be described by an expression which
includes parameters relating to physical factors (discharge, watershed
morphology, and geology), chemical factors (water quality), and biological
factors (presence and abundance of biota, toxicity, and sources of
recolonizing organisms) affecting the receiving stream and the
characteristics of the discharge or event that increased stress and caused
damage. This expression also should include time-related parameters that
may affect both the physical, chemical, and biological nature of the
receiving stream (e.g., seasonal changes in flow, oxygen, or biological
conditions) and those characteristics of the stress whose effect is changed
through time (e.g., degradable compounds; Herricks 1975).
The response of the biotic community to traditional point sources of
acid mine drainage is readily identifiable and well documented. For streams
receiving acid mine drainage, three longitudinal zones are recognizable: an
undisturbed zone upstream from the source of acid mine drainage, together
with unaffected tributaries; a pollution zone where mine drainage enters;
and a zone of recovery downstream from the pollution zone (Parsons 1968,
Roback and Richardson 1969, Herricks 1975, Warner 1971, Koryak et al. 1972,
Dills and Rogers 1974, Winger 1978, Matter et al. 1978). In the undisturbed
zone, the biota typically are rich in species, have a high diversity, have
many species intolerant of mine drainage, and may have high standing crop
biomass. In the pollution zone, species richness is depressed; diversity
generally is reduced; only species tolerant of low pH and high iron
concentrations are present; and standing crop biomass may be given to
extremes (most populations will be low but densities of tolerant species
will be high).
The following paragraphs discuss taxa in various major biotic groups
(fishes, macroinvertebrates, and other organisms) that can tolerate gross
pollution by acid mine drainage. Aquatic biota that are sensitive to low pH
and high iron concentrations and that generally are reduced in the pollution
zone associated with acid mine drainage also are identified. In addition,
the interdependence of aquatic biota is discussed for each group of
organisms.
5.2.2.1. Fish
The diversity, richness, and biomass of fish are reduced in streams
affected by acid mine drainage (Winger 1978, Branson and Batch 1972). Fish
generally do not inhabit waters severely polluted by acid mine drainage
(Warner 1971, Nichols and Bulow 1973). Surveys conducted in Roaring Creek,
West Virginia, revealed that fish inhabited only those reaches of the stream
5-26
-------
where the median pH was 4.9 or higher. Nichols and Bulow (1973) reported
extirpation of fish along 40 miles of the Obey River, Tennessee, that
received acid mine drainage. This reach had pH values ranging from 3.3 to
8.0 and iron concentrations ranging from 0.0 to >300.0 ppm.
Trout and gamefish are among the most sensitive fish species.
Fedearally threatened or endangered fish and State fish species of concern
are also usually either very sensitive to pollution or only found in
restricted habitats where they are very susceptible to any habitat
destruction, which could eliminate them. These fish are usually the first
to suffer from mine-related impacts and the last to recover.
Repopulation of pollution zones by fish occurs by migration or
recolonization from upstream unaffected zones, from tributaries, or from the
downstream recovery zone. Physical barriers (waterfalls and culverts) may
be effective in preventing the upstream migration by fishes from downstream
populations (Vaughan et al. 1978).
5.2.2.2. Benthic Macroinvertebrates
These biota are extremely important components in the diets of nearly
all fish species in the State. Changes in the species composition and
relative numbers of individuals in the macroinvertebrate community can
greatly affect feeding and growth in the fish species which prey upon them.
These fish include trout, gamefish, and darters.
Roback and Richardson (1969) studied the effects of both constant and
intermittent acid mine drainage on the insect fauna of selected western
Pennsylvania streams. Under conditions of constant acid mine drainage, the
dragonflies, mayflies, and stoneflies were eliminated completely. Caddis-
flies, fishflies, alderflies, dobsonflies, and true flies also were reduced
in number. A caddisfly (Pt ilostomis sp.), an alderfly (Sialis sp.), and a
midge (Chironomus attenuatus) were tolerant of the conditions produced by
acid mine drainage. Non-benthic true bugs and beetles were little affected
and developed large populations in the stations with acid mine drainage.
Under intermittent acid mine drainage, a diverse but slightly depressed
insect fauna was able to develop.
In other studies of Pennsylvania streams receiving acid mine drainage,
Tomkiewicz and Dunson (1977) and Koryak et al. (1972) reported that the most
numerous invertebrates in the stream sections exhibiting high acidity and
low pH were midge larvae (especially Tendipes riparius), an alderfly
(Sialis sp.), and a caddisfly (Ptilostomis sp.). The number of insect
groups increased steadily with progressive neutralization in the recovery
zone until crustaceans and aquatic earthworms appeared, indicating
considerable improvement in water quality.
Parsons (1968) found Pantala nymenea, Procladius sp. , Probezzia sp.,
Spaniotoma sp., and Sialis sp. to be tolerant of severe mine drainage condi-
tions in Cedar Creek, Missouri. In the Obey River of Tennessee, Nichols and
5-27
-------
Bulow (1973) found that Chironomus sp. and Sialis sp. were the only acid-
tolerant genera collected in abundance; Chironomus sp. was closely
associated with the algal species Euglena mutabilis. In the New River of
Tennessee, Winger (1978) found that fishflies and midges dominated the
invertebrate fauna stressed by acid mine drainage and sedimentation.
Caddis flies (particularly Cheumatopsyche sp. and Hydropsyche sp.) and may-
flies (mainly Stenonema sp.) were tolerant of moderate stress from acid mine
drainage and sedimentation. The alderfly (Sialis sp.), the midge
(Chironomus plumosus), other midges, and dytiscid beetles were reported to
tolerate high concentrations of -acid mine drainage in Roaring Creek, West
Virginia (Warner 1971). Warner reported that these forms locally were
abundant in severely polluted reaches; up to 16,675 individuals per square
meter of the midge (C. plumosus) were collected from a swamp having a median
pH of 2.8. During summer, the caddisfly (Ptilostomis sp.) also was present.
These more pollution tolerant macroinvertebrates generally do not provide so
good a food source for fish as do the more sensitive orders of insects such
as stoneflies, mayflies, and dragonflies.
5.2.2.3. Other Organisms
Microflora and zooplankton form the base of the aquatic food chain and
perform important biological functions. These functions include photosyn-
thesis and the assimilation of nutrients and detritus into plant and animal
tissue. Therefore, changes in the community composition of these biota can
affect the feeding behavior and hence the growth and survival of larger
organisms.
Parsons (1968) found large zooplankton populations that were composed
of relatively few species in mine drainage-polluted areas of Cedar Creek,
Missouri, and small populations composed of many species in the nearby
undisturbed zone. During that study 16 taxa were collected altogether, of
which 13, 5, and 12 taxa were collected from the undisturbed zone, pollution
zone, and recovery zone, respectively.
5 .2 .3 . Sensitivity of Basin Waters to Coal Mining Impacts
BIA Category I and Category II Waters
On the basis of all information collected for this report and the BIA
criteria outlined in Section 2.2., EPA has classified Basin areas as either
unclassifiable, nonsensitive, or a BIA. BIA Category I and Category II
differentiations have been based on the best professional judgement of
technical experts consulted, following public and State agency review.
Applicants must comply with different requirements depending upon the permit
area's classification.
BIA waters in the Basin that should receive special attention in regard
to their aquatic biota are identified in Table 5-5 and are shown in Figure
5-2. The rationale behind protecting these streams is also given in the
Table. Of the waters listed in the Table, the general mitigative measures
listed in Section 5.7. should be adequate to prevent significant
5-28
-------
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Figure 5-2
BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT AREAS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (WAPORA 1980)
CATEGORY I
CATEGORY H
I
MILES
0 10
WAPORA, INC
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environmental degradation for the Monongahela River, Dunkard Creek, Westover
Park Lake, Buffalo Creek, West Fork River (Weston to Clarksburg), Temnile
Creek (above Rockcamp Run), Elk Creek, Markers Creek, Tygart Valley River,
Buckhannon River (Panther Fork to mouth), Coopers Rock Lake, Big Sandy
Creek, Cheat River (above Pringle Run), and Thomas Park Lake.
Because of the nature of the aquatic biota of the Basin (the presence
of many fish species that require a silt free substrate to survive and
reproduce, many native trout streams, important warmwater sport fisherys,
the small size of most of the streams, and the poor buffering capacity of
many Basin streams), for the remaining waters (and their watersheds) listed
in Table 5-5, EPA will require that biological assessment studies be
conducted before mining can be allowed. These site specific assessments
will allow EPA to better define the species composition, assess their
susceptibility to mining, and determine what mitigative measures beyond
those described in Section 5.7. may be necessary. The scope of these
biological assessments will be determined by EPA on a case by case basis in
conjunction with the applicant. For all of the waters listed in Table 5-5
EPA probably will require biological and chemical monitoring during mining
and use of mitigative measures such as those that will insure that maximum
total iron concentrations in the receiving stream do not exceed 1 mg/1 (as
currently proposed SWRB). Additional requirements may be made by EPA,
depending upon the biological assessment findings. The specifics of the
biological assessment required will vary from site to site according to
waterbody size and especially according to the resources that are being
assessed. The assessment and any required sampling program should be
designed to address the reasons used for BIA Category II identification.
Three streams were exemptions to the general BIA classification system:
Laurel Run, Middle Fork River, and the Blackwater River. As determined from
1977 records, Laurel Run supported trout and had a high equitability value
(Table A-l in Appendix A, Stations 99, 185). Recent water quality data
(2 July 1980), however, showed a pH of only 4.2. Mining has occurred in
this watershed since the fish data was gathered and the previous fish
community may have been reduced or eliminated (Verbally, Mr. D. Gasper,
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, to Mr. G. Seegert, 18 December 1980). Because of
the confusion over its current aquatic population, it was not considered a
BIA.
Two stations (114 and 187, Table A-l in Appendix A) on the Middle Fork
River had high equitability values. Both these stations, however, were
surveyed in the 1960's. Station 49, which had XLO macroinvertebrate taxa
and _>50% sensitive individuals, was sampled in 1965 (Table A-5, Appendix A).
Since the 1960"s the Middle Fork has become increasingly acidic due to
mining activity on Cassity Fork and other tributaries. Recent water quality
data collected at Audra and Ellamore showed pH values of 4.1 and 4.0,
respectively. Because of its present acid condition the lower Middle Fork
River was not designated a BIA.
Station 20 on the Blackwater River yielded two or more intolerant
macroinvertebrates during a collection made in 1972 (Table A-4, Appendix A).
The lower Blackwater River is now degraded by acid drainage coming from two
of its tributaries: North Branch and Beaver Creek. Thus, it was not
considered a BIA.
5-35
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Table 5-6. Non-sensitive streams in the Monongahela River Basin.
Non-sensitive area confined to the mainstem unless otherwise indicated.
Sub-Basin WVDNR-Code
M Robinson Run (watershed) M-4
M West Run M-3
M Courtney Run M-5
M Scott's Run M-6
M Decker's Creek M-8
M Brand Run M-ll
M Flaggy Meadow Run M-14
M Birchfield Run M-15
M Parker Run M-20
MWF West Fork mainstem (Clarksburg to mouth)
MWF Homer's Run (of Booths Creeks) MW-2-D
MWF Purdy Run MW-2-D-1
MWF Mudlick Run MW-9
MWF Simpson Creek MW-15
MT Three fork Creek (watershed) MT-12
MT Sandy Creek (watershed) MT-18
MT Ford Run MT-27
MT Tygart Valley R (from confluence with Roaring
Creek to confluence with
Buckhannon R) MT
MT Mud Lick Run (of Fink Run) MTB-ll-B
MT Bridge Run (of Fink Run) MTB-ll-D
MT Middle Fork River (from Cassity Fork to mouth) MTM
MT Whiteoak Run MTM-8
MT Cassity Fork (watershed) MTM-16
MT Island Creek MT-36
MT Beaver Creek MT-37
MT Grassy Run MT-41
MT Roaring Creek (watershed) MT-42
MC Cheat River (from Pringle Run downstream) MC
MC Scott Run MC-7
MC Bull Run MC-11
MC Conner Run No code
MC Greens Run (watershed) MC-16
MC Muddy Creek (below Jump Rock Run) MC-17
MC Martin Creek (watershed) MC-17-A
MC Jump Rock Run No code
MC Roaring Creek (below confluence with Lick Run) MC-18
MC Morgan Run (watershed) MC-23
MC Heather Run MC-24
MC Lick Run MC-25
MC Pringle Run MC-27
-------
Table 5-6. Non-sensitive streams in the Monongahela River Basin
(concluded).
Sub-Basin WVDNR-Code
MCB Blackwater River (below confluence with Beaver
Creek) MC-60-D
Big Run MC-60-D-1
Tub Run MC-60-D-2
Lindy Run No code
Finley Run No code
North Fork (watershed) MC-60-D-3
Shays Run No code
Engine Run No code
Beaver Creek (watershed except for Chaffey
Creek) MC-60-D-5
5-37
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Figure 5-3
NONSENSITIVE AREAS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WAPORA 1980)
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
5-38
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Non-Sensitive Areas
Despite an improvement in water quality for the Basin as a whole (see
Section 2.1.), numerous polluted waters still exist (Table 5-6). Given
extensive rehabilitation these areas could become high quality aquatic
environments. However, in their present condition, additional limitations
beyond those mandated by the New Source regulations are not necessary.
Non-sensitive streams include all those shown in Figure 5-3.
Unclass i fied Are as
All areas and waters not identified as BIA's or non-sensitive were
categorized as unclassified (Figure 5-3). These are waters for which either
there is no data or for which the data is not sufficient to accurately
determine what category they should be in. Conditions in the upper portions
of the Basin have been comparatively well documented. However, recent data
is sparse for the lower portions of the drainage, especially in the West
Fork Sub-Basin and in Big Sandy Creek. Additional studies will be necessary
before these areas can be assigned to a specific category.
The procedure EPA will follow for determining the sensitivity of the
aquatic biota in the unclassifiable areas is as follows: EPA will examine
available data on iron concentrations and pH in any unclassified stream
proposed to receive New Source mine effluents. This information will be
obtained from copies of one of the following State permit forms: WRD-3-73,
Mine Drainage Water Pollution Control Permit Application, or Application for
Mine Facilities Incidential to Coal Removal (see Section 4.0.). If the data
on the forms indicate stream pH to be at or below 5.0 or iron concentrations
to be at or above 3.0 tng/1, the stream will be considered degraded and the
applicant will follow the standard New Source effluent limitations and not
be required to conduct any subsequent sampling. If the pH of the stream or
streams is between 5.0 and 9.O., and the iron concentration is less than 3.0
mg/1, the applicant will be asked to conduct an original field survey to
determine the sensitivity of the aquatic biota present.
A one-time, intensive fish and macroinvertebrate sampling is to be
conducted under the auspices of a professional aquatic biologist. Aquatic
habitat types are to be sampled at one station upstream and one station
downstream from each site where mine effluent or drainage will enter the
stream(s). Habitat might include pools, riffles, boulders, large rocks,
gravel, clay, and soft mud. Streams may range in size from intermittent
creeks to large rivers. Sampling is to be conducted during any season other
than winter and during any non-flood period (for intermittent streams, the
streams must be flowing).
Sampling methods and gear types are to be utilized that will collect
thoroughly all possible species of fish and macroinvertebrates from the
stream. For example, to collect fish, backpack shockers and seines should
5-39
-------
be used in small streams. In large streams and rivers, fish should be
collected by large gill nets, trammel nets, seines, and boom shockers
mounted on a boat. To collect macroinvertebrates, Surber or similar
samplers should be used for hard substrates, and dredge- or grab-type
samplers should be used to sample soft substrates. In general for fish, at
least two gear types should be used. Estimated costs for this intensive
one-time sampling are approximately $750 to $1,000.
Upon the completion of this intensive, one-time stream sampling, the
supervising biologist is to prepare a brief report documenting the numbers
of individuals by species of fish and macroinvertebrates captured. The
report also is to describe all station locations and their proximity to the
proposed mine; the aquatic habitat at each station; conditions when the
sampling took place; the methods used; and the qualifications of the
personnel who conducted the sampling including name, education, and
experience.
On the basis of this report, EPA will classify the area either as
non-sensitive or as a Category I or II BIA according to the criteria
discussed in Section 2.2. Based on this determination, the applicant will
be asked to develop the appropriate mitigations as discussed subsequently.
In lieu of the original field investigation outlined here, the
applicant may supply EPA with equivalent data collected by WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources, together with a statement from that agency that the data are
believed to represent current conditions.
State High Quality Streams
Streams listed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources as high quality with respect
to their recreational fishery are not necessarily identified as BIA's. For
those high quality streams not considered to be BIA's, EPA will contact
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources district biologists to solicit comments during New
Source NPDES permit review. Comments received will be considered carefully
during permit review, and may form the basis for special permit conditions,
designation as a BIA Category I or II, and so forth.
5.2.4. Mitigative Measures
As stated in Section 2.2., the essential difference between BIA
Category I and Category II areas is that mitigative measures (pre-mining
biological and chemical surveys, ongoing mining biological and chemical
monitoring, permit conditions, etc.) can be advanced in Category I areas
which will protect the sensitive aquatic biota identified. However, in
Category II areas, these mitigative measures may not be adequate because of
the extreme sensitivity of the biota to mining-related pollutants.
Consequently more detailed investigations (biological assessments) must be
undertaken initially to evaluate the extent and nature of the biological
community in detail as well as the effects of the proposed mining action (or
alternative mining techniques). These evaluations may indicate that BIA
5-40
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Category I-type mitigative measures are adequate or may indicate that more
stringent state-of-the-art-type mitigative measures must be required or may
indicate that mitigation is not possible (permit denial).
Because technologies presently do not exist to guarantee complete AMD
and erosion control, pre-mining biological and chemical surveys will be
required both prior to permit approval and during mining for all mining
operations planned in those areas designated as a BIA Category I
(Table 5-5). BIA Category II waters, if permitted, also are likely to
require this program, depending upon the results of the required biological
assessment discussed in the following section. BIA Category II requirements
may be more extensive, however.
When the pre-mining survey information called for in Table 5-7 has been
provided by the applicant, EPA will determine those mitigative measures that
will be necessary to protect Basin streams from future coal mining. This
determination can be expected to be made in BIA Category I areas and may
occur in BIA Category II areas, depending upon biological assessment
results. (It is possible that biological assessment results in BIA Category
II's may indicate that no mitigative measures entirely are adequate and that
the New Source permit must be denied.) Based on the available information,
mitigative measures for BIA Category I areas and possibly for BIA Category
II areas include:
• Prompt follow-up action. When biological and chemical
monitoring detects apparent degradation during mining,
quick response is necessary to ensure that possible
irreversible environmental damage will not occur. As soon
as an apparent downward trend is identified in any of the
appropriate indicators (e.g., biomass, species diversity,
species numbers, etc., depending upon the reasons for BIA
Category I or Category II classification of the stream),
more intensive sampling is to be initiated promptly by the
applicant to determine whether environmental damage
actually has occurred or whether the observed downturn was
a result of a sampling anomaly or statistical error. If
significant environmental damage is verified, mining
activities either must be modified or halted if further
harm is to be prevented.
» Iron limitations. Appropriate measures can be taken to
ensure that in-stream iron concentrations regularly do not
exceed 1.0 mg/1. The West Virginia stream standard for
trout waters proposed during 1980 is a more restrictive
0.5 mg/1, and may be imposed by the State (SWRB 1980).
Control measures with generalized cost estimates are
discussed in Section 5.7. and include chemical treatment,
flocculation, and isolation of iron-containing refuse from
ground and surface waters, and controlled release of
effluent discharges during low-flow periods. EPA will
-------
Table 5-7. Aquatic biological and chemical water quality pre-mining survey
and mining monitoring requirements for proposed New Source coal mines in
BIA Category I areas. These requirements and other requirements may be
required in BIA Category II areas, if permitted.*
A report prepared by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources under the direction of
the Director of the Division of Wildlife Resources which contains data for
this area equivalent to that required in this program may be submitted to
EPA in lieu of conducting this aquatic biological and chemical water quality
pre-mining survey and ongoing mining monitoring program. Applicants are
advised to confer with EPA prior to initiating field investigations. For
mine sites adjacent to or discharging into EPA BIA Category I streams, the
NPDES New Source Coal Mining permit applicant's baseline aquatic biological
survey of fish and macroinvertebrates must be provided prior to permit
approval. For each permit site, the exact details of the survey will vary
according to the size and type of mining, steepness of slope, size and
number of receiving streams, and the chemical and biological makeup of the
receiving streams. The sampling program is to be conducted under the
auspices of a professional aquatic biologist, as described below.
An ongoing mining monitoring program also is required in BIA Category I
areas, and may be required in BIA Category II areas, if permitted. The
nature of the monitoring program is similar to the pre-mining survey, as
described below. Table 5-8 provides additional examples of aquatic
biological premining surveys and ongoing mining monitoring programs in
different contexts.
1. Sampling Locations for Aquatic Biota
At least one control and one downstream station are to be sampled for
aquatic biota in each potentially affected stream. Each station is to
include all the habitat types found in the stream near the mine, such as
pools, riffles, boulders, large rocks, gravel, sand, and mud. Wherever
possible the control station should be located so that it is not affected by
confounding influences (e.g. effluents from a sewage treatment plant,
adjacent to an active logging site, etc.) that may be present above the mine
site.
2. Time of Year and Frequency for Sampling Aquatic Biota
Aquatic biota sampling will be conducted during the period April to
November for a 20 week period before a mining permit is issued. Further
sampling of similar intensity is to continue throughout either active mining
or until it can be determined that no detrimental effects have or are likely
to occur. If the applicant documents the absence of adverse effects on
aquatic biota, a reduction in aquatic biota sampling frequency may be
warranted, but aquatic biota sampling will not be discontinued completely.
*WVDNR-Wiidlife Resources currently requires collectors permits for aquatic
biological sampling conducted in the State. EPA will coordinate all NPDES
sampling requirements with State procedures to the maximum extent.
5-42
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Table 5-7. BIA monitoring requirements (continued).
3. Methods for Collecting Biota
Intensive sampling of both fish and macroinvertebrates will be con-
ducted for the habitat types within the affected stream using appropriate
gear. Examples are the use of backpack shockers and seines for fish in
small streams and boat-mounted boom shockers, gill nets, and seines for fish
in pools and riffles in larger streams and rivers. For fish a minimum of
two gear types and a number of repetitive applications of the gear are to be
used to collect the greatest number of individuals and the greatest diver-
sity of species in every stream or river sampled. Gear for macroinverte-
brates should include Surber or similar samplers for hard substrates and
dredges or grab samplers for soft substrates. Artificial substrate samplers
(e.g., Hester-Dendy and rock-filled baskets also should be used.
4. Pre-Mining Chemical Water Quality Survey and Ongoing Mining Chemical
Water Quality Monitoring
Chemical monitoring is to accompany the aquatic biological survey
described above. The same stations are to be sampled as for the biological
data, at minimum one upstream and one downstream from the proposed
discViarge. Significant tributaries also should be sampled. Measured
parameters are to include temperature, specific conductance, pH, total
dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total iron, dissolved iron, total
manganese, sulfate, hardness, acidity, alkalinity, and heavy metals that
exist: in the toxic overburden at levels that potentially could be toxic.
Samples are to be collected weekly during the low-flow period and monthly at
other times for one year prior to mining. Water quality data collected to
accompany any other State or Federal permit application may be submitted to
EPA, so long as it includes the requisite information.
During mining the same chemical water quality monitoring program is to
be conducted as specified for the pre-mining survey. Again, if these data
already are being supplied to other State or Federal agencies, they can be
submitted to EPA and no additional monitoring is required.
5. Reports
Upon the completion of the 20-week intensive pre-mining aquatic
biological sampling surveys, the supervising biologist will prepare a brief
report documenting the number of individuals by species of fish and
macroinvertebrates and showing the diversity and equitability index values.
This report is to describe all station locations and their proximity to the
proposed mine; the aquatic habitat at each station; when the sampling took
place; the methods used; and the qualifications of the personnel who
conducted the sampling, including name, education, and experience. All
water quality data also will be included in this report.
5-43
-------
Table 5-7. BIA monitoring requirements (continued).
Specifically, each pre-mining survey report is to:
• Describe sampling methodology (equipment, station
locations, sampling dates, organisms reported to be of
concern)
• Summarize biological habitat conditions, (3) report
chemical water quality parameters
• Identify organisms present with emphasis on organisms of
special concern
• Assess overall quality of aquatic ecosystem using
qualitative information and quantitative analyses
(diversity, equitability, etc.)
• Forecast susceptibility to coal mining impacts
• Identify measures to avoid or minimize adverse impacts.
Once mining has begun and after each aquatic biological sampling
effort, EPA will require the prompt submission of a report by the
applicant; this report should compare quantitatively the baseline data to
the data obtained subsequent to mining. This report also will compare data
from stations upstream from the mine site with those downstream from the
site. Similarly, chemical water quality data collected during ongoing
mining monitoring must be submitted to EPA.
Each biological monitoring report is to cover the same topics as the
pre-mining survey report, and in addition is to:
• Compare survey baseline data with available monitoring
data
• Evaluate professionally any apparent habitat trends and
mining impacts
• Assess the effectiveness of any measures actually
implemented to avoid or minimize adverse impacts on
aquatic resources
• Recommend modifications in the monitoring program, if
appropriate.
Reports ordinarily will be expected to be about 10 text pages in length and
are to include supporting tables and figures as needed. Each report is to
highlight the significance of any changes or trends that are apparent in
the data, with due consideration to the relative importance of mining and
non-mining influences on the stream ecosystem.
5-44
-------
Table 5-7. BIA monitoring requirements (concluded).
6. Costs
Costs for a 20 week biological monitoring program (such as the one
described in Table 5-8, Example 1) are estimated to be approximately $9,000
annually. Laboratory analyses for the water quality data will not add
additional costs; these analyses currently are required under SMCRA
permanent program regulations.
5-45
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Table 5~8. Examples of aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing
mining monitoring programs.*
EXAMPLE 1 Pre-Mining Survey
A 20 week program designed to assess fish and macroinvertebrates, and
composed of the following elements should be developed.
Station Number:
Station Length:
Habitat:
Gear:
Frequency:
Time of Year:
For each stream affected one upstream from and at least
one downstream from the mine.
Sufficient to characterize the stream accurately.
All habitat types (pool, riffle, run, etc.) must be
sampled.
Fish - At least two types. Seining and electrofLshing
will be sufficient in most small and medium streams.
Additional gear types (e.g., hoop nets, gill nets, etc.)
will be necessary in large rivers and lakes.
Macroinvertebrates - Gear should include Surber or similar
samplers for hard substrates and dredges or grab samplers
for soft substrates. Artificial substrate samplers (e.g.
Hester-Dendy, rock-filled baskets) also should be used.
Fish - A survey should be conducted at the beginning,
middle, and end of the 20 week program. Each survey
should be conducted for two consecutive days and
repetitive applications of each gear type should be used
each day.
Macroinvertebrates - Triplicate ponar and Surber samples
should be taken at the beginning and end of the 20 week
program. Triplicate artificial samplers should be used
for six week periods at the beginning and end of the 20
week period.
April - November
*These examples are designed to illustrate several situations that typically
might be encountered. They do not attempt to cover all possible situations.
Further, the above examples should not be construed as limiting the
professional biologist in his design of a pre-mining survey and mining
monitoring program for aquatic biota. They illustrate several approaches to
answering the issue in question; other approaches may be equally valid.
5-46
-------
Table 5-8. Examples of aquatic biological pre-mining survey and ongoing
mining monitoring programs (concluded).
EXAMPLE 2 - Trout Stream
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources should be contacted to determine whether (1)
the stream is still considered a trout stream, (2) the stream supports a
reproducing population of trout, and (3) the location of known spawning
areas. If WVDNR confirms the presence of trout, the biological sampling
program should be designed to determine exactly which sections of the stream
contain trout. Backpack electrofishing gear would be the method of choice.
If the section of the stream potentially affected by mining is downstream
from the stream section containing trout, the NSPS should be sufficient
protective measures. For streams containing naturally reproducing
populations, the sampling program also should attempt to determine the
principal spawning areas through a combination of visual observations and,
where appropriate, seining with a fine mesh net. Sampling should be
conducted at least three times during the year and should be correlated with
the critical periods determining trout survival (e.g., summertime low flow
period, high temperatures, spawning season, etc.).
EXAMPLE 3 - Presence of WVDNR-HTP Species
If the presence of a WVDNR-HTP species is the sole basis for
classifying an area as a BIA, then the sampling program should be directed
towards confirming the presence of that species and assessing its
population. The gear type(s) used and the habitat examined should be
appropriate to the species in question. If, for example, the investigator
is looking for a darter, appropriate gear types would be seines (kick
seining techniques should be employed) and electrofishing. Gill nets, hoop
nets, etc. would be inappropriate. Similarly, the investigator would
concentrate his sampling in preferred darter habitat riffles and runs, not
pools. Conversely, for species preferring sluggish currents (e.g., bullhead
minnow), the investigator should concentrate on pools and backwater areas.
5-47
-------
require that all applicants within BIA Category I areas
control iron concentrations in their effluent so that
30-day average in-stream iron concentrations are not more
than 1 mg/1. The 1 mg/1 standard for total iron also
probably will be required in BIA-Category II areas, following
evaluation of biological assessment information and
stream buffering capacity. When the ambient concentration
of iron in the stream receiving the mine discharge is
higher than 1.0 mg/1 but less than 3.0 mg/1, EPA expects
that the State stream standard will be set at the stream's
low-flow, 30-day average ambient iron concentration in
BIA-Category I areas and, where appropriate, in
BIA-Category II areas, consistent with the proposed (1980)
State water quality standards promulgated by WVDNR-Water
Resources. EPA will require that the applicant's effluent
quality will be such that the State stream standard will
be met. At no time is the 30-day average total iron
concentration in the New Source discharge to exceed 3.0
mg/1.
Special measures. Whatever measures are taken to minimize
the adverse effects of mining on aquatic resources, there
is likely to be some measure of adverse impact in BIA
Category I and Category II (if permitted) areas even
following the application of the best available water
pollution control technology as a result of unavoidably
increased sedimentation, AMD, and toxic substances.
Various mitigative measures can be implemented to offset
such unavoidable adverse impacts. Some of these concepts
have been applied in West Virginia; some have not. EPA
encourages applicants for New Source permits to propose
and, in appropriate instances, may require through special
NPDES New Source permit conditions that one or more such
mitigations be implemented in BIA Category I and Category
II (if permitted) areas after a detailed, case-by-case
review. These state-of-the-art mitigative measures may be
applicable especially in BIA Category II areas, if EPA
deems that the permit can be issued following thorough
evaluation of biological assessment issues.
In some instances it may be appropriate that an applicant
reclaim nearby abandoned mines to current standards when
New Source mining is undertaken. In this way the
unavoidable adverse effects of the new mining can be
offset by the beneficial results of reclaiming an existing
pollution source, thus producing a long-term net
environmental benefit on aquatic habitats. Regrading and
revegetation can reduce erosion from barren sites. Forest
along streambanks can be re-established to shade the
waterway and reduce sediment influx by filtering runoff.
5-48
-------
Some AMD sources can be eliminated, or the AMD can be
treated. Stream flow can be augmented to improve water
quality, particularly during low-flow periods. Although
State and Federal programs envision the eventual
reclamation of abandoned mine lands using publicly
administered funds, applicants doubtless could accelerate
the reclamation process through private initiative. It is
the policy of EPA Region III that New Source applications
that propose reclamation of abandoned mines receive
priority consideration during permit review.
• Restocking and other special restorative programs.
Aquatic habitats affected by past or by New Source mining,
if free of continuing, long-term pollution by AMD or other
toxic substances, eventually can be expected to regain
some or all of their pre-mining biota. The pace and the
extent of biological rehabilitation can be enhanced
significantly by appropriate interventions, once favorable
habitats have been created. Applicants can undertake
restocking programs aimed at restoration of a diverse
aquatic fauna. At present there is only limited knowledge
concerning the reestablishment of communities that contain
the myriad organisms present in undegraded natural
waterways. Research has focused almost exclusively on the
propagation of a handful of game fish. Hence applicants
could mitigate adverse impacts by funding both the
development and the implementation of stream
rehabilitation techniques.
• Special mining practices. Finally, because natural
recolonization is most probable and most rapid where there
is an undisturbed upstream source for organisms, appli-
cants can propose sequences of mining activity that will
maximize the probability of biological recovery. Small
subwatersheds can be set aside and protected as
sanctuaries while mining proceeds nearby. Then, when the
mined streams have recovered and a viable and diverse
fauna is established, the sanctuaries themselves can be
mined. Applicantsponsored research aimed at minimizing
the time needed for restoration of the aquatic biota will
reduce the waiting period before mining can proceed in
such sanctuaries.
5.2.5. Erroneous Clas s i ficat ion
EPA recognizes that biological conditions change over time and that
some of tVie data available for this assessment may no longer reflect ambient
conditions. Applicants may develop original data or provide current data
from State or other sources to challenge the EPA classification of any
watershed as a BIA. If EPA and WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and Water Resources
5-49
-------
personnel concur in the erroneous classification of an area as a BIA, then
the requirements that otherwise would apply to the BIA may be relaxed with
respect to the stream reach in question. Either chemical or biological data
may be considered adequate to challenge the BIA classification, as long as
the data are adequate to demonstrate with confidence that no significant
aquatic biota are present.
Likewise, areas not currently classifiable as. BIA's in the fviture may
qualify for such designation. EPA will consider all available evidence
during each permit review, and will extend the BIA designation to additional
streams where appropriate.
5-50
-------
5.3 Terrestrial Biota Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.3. Terrestrial Biota 5-51
5.3.1. Impacts Associated with Mining Activities 5-51
5.3.1.1. Prospecting 5-51
5.3.1.2. Road Construction 5-51
5.3.1.3. Mining 5-54
5.3.1.3.1. Contour Surface Mining 5-55
5.3.1.3.2. Auger Mining 5-57
5.3.1.3.3. Mountaintop Removal 5-57
5.3.1.3.4. Room and Pillar Underground 5-57
Mining
5.3.1.3.5. Longwall or Shortwall Mining 5-58
5.3.1.4. Transportation of Coal or Coal Refuse 5-58
5.3.1.5. Coal Preparation 5-58
5.3.1.6. Reclamation 5-58
5.3.1.7. Secondary Impacts 5-60
5.3.2. Mitigation of Impacts 5-61
5.3.2.1. Pre-mining Mitigations 5-61
5.3.2.2. Mitigations During Mining 5-63
5.3.2.2.1. Prospecting 5-63
5.3.2.2.2. Road Construction 5-63
5.3.2.2.3. Mining 5-63
5.3.2.3. Post-mining Mitigations 5-74
5.3.3. Revegetation 5-75
5.3.3.1. Factors That Control Revegetation 5-75
5.3.4. Long-term Impacts on the Basin 5-77
5.3.4.1. Overall Landscape and Ecosystem Changes 5-77
5.3.4.2. Potential Impacts on Known and Unknown 5-80
Significant Resources
5.3.5. Data Gaps 5-80
-------
5.3. TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
5.3.1. Impacts Associated with Mining Activities
Impacts on terrestrial ecosystems from coal mining have been reduced in
scope and intensity in recent years. State and Federal regulations have
been issued to control the coal mining industry (see Section 4.O.). Techno-
logical advances have occurred that have made new methods of mining and
reclamation feasible, and the industry itself has taken an active interest
in environmental protection and the return of mined areas to productive use.
Impacts from clearing of vegetation, excavation, blasting, placement of
spoil, sedimentation, fugitive dust, and acid mine drainage still occur, but
to a lesser degree. This section includes a description of the potential
direct and indirect impacts on terrestrial biota at each step in the coal
mining process, from prospecting to reclamation. Both beneficial and
adverse effects are discussed.
An overview of the major beneficial and adverse impacts associated with
each activity is given in Table 5-9. The relationships that each major
"impact mechanism" or influencing factor may have on various biotic compo-
nents of the ecosystem are summarized in Table 5-10. This table is taken
from Moore and Mills (1977), and was prepared as part of a document on the
effects of surface mining in the western US. The majority of the
information presented also is applicable to mining in the eastern US,
because of the general similarity of the phases of a mining operation and
the basic ecological relationships involved. The emphases on wild and feral
ungulates, fencing, and competition with livestock are distinctly western.
5.3.1.1. Prospecting
Prospecting is conducted by drilling core samples or by excavating
trenches to reach the minable coal seam (Grim and Hill 1974). The immediate
impacts from drilling are localized noise and dust. Trenching with
bulldozers has greater immediate impacts on vegetation and wildlife, because
the vegetation is removed from the area of the trench or buried under spoil,
and an uncovered or incompletely filled trench acts as a pitfall for
animals. Exploration may be a temporary intrusion into undisturbed or
remote habitat (Grim and Hill 1974). If the coal seam subsequently is
mined, the impacts from exploration would be redundant with those of mining.
Therefore, the impacts from exploration would be insignificant (Streeter et
al. 1979). A prospecting permit is required by WVDNR-Reclamation (see
Section 4.1.4.1.).
5. 3.1.2. Road Cons true t ion
The impacts on terrestrial biota from construction of an access road or
haul road would depend on the length and distribution of the road and the
coincidence of road construction with other mining activities. USOSM
requires applicants to control adverse impacts from road construction and
use (see Section 4.2.2.). If the coal mine, the coal preparation
5-51
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IMPACT MECHANISMS
A. Airborne Contaminants/Emissions
Gaseous effluents
Fugitive dust
B, A Ground Water Quality
Toxic materials
Nutrients
Pathogens
Other Chem./Phys. Parameters (Temp, Ph, TDS, SS)
C. A Surface Water Quality
Toxic materials
Uotrients
Patnogens
Other Cheni./Phys. Parameters
L). A Water Supply
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Instream flow changes
Removal of creation impoundments
E. A Soi Is
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Change in soil moisture
Change in soil structure
Change in soil nutrients
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Modification of species composition
A food value
A in cover/density
G. A Topography
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A wildlife habitat enhancement
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5-53
-------
facilities, and existing public roads all are proximate, the extent of
private access roads will be less. Access roads and haul roads that
coincide with existing or future mine benches have negligible impacts.
The major adverse effects of road construction include removal of
vegetation (discussed in detail in Section 3.2.); temporary disruption of
wildlife behavior (including daily or seasonal movements) because of noise
and intrusion; localized fugitive dust deposition on vegetation, which may
reduce photosynthesis and palatability of roadside plants; and mortality of
less mobile animals during grading and excavation activities (Cardi 1975,
Dvorak et al. 1977, Lerman and Darby 1975, Michael 1975, Rawson 1973, USDOE
1978). Coal haul roads also are a source of sedimentation, which can bury
downslope vegetation and microfauna. However, this problem largely can be
eliminated with proper design and maintenance (Grim and Hill 197A, Scheidt
1967, Weigle 1965, 1966).
The beneficial effects of coal mine road construction include possible
improved access for hunting, fishing, and fire control (although accessi-
bility also can lead to abuse [Boccardy and Spaulding 1968, Rawson 1973,
Thomas et al. 1976]). Roadside vegetation often is preferred by white-
tailed deer for browse, and the open corridor adds diversity to the forest
habitat, thus resulting in a richer variety of bird species in the area
(Bramble and Byrnes 1979, Michael 1975). These roads also can be used as
travel corridors by deer and other wildlife.
5.3.1.3. Mining
Mining operations are subject to USOSM and State regulations. These
regulations are described in Sections 4.2,2. and 4.1.4. respectively.
Regardless of the technique used to remove coal at a specific mine, the
following information should be considered to determine the significance of
the terrestrial resource and potential adverse mining impacts at the site
(Smith 1978):
• The current protection status of the resource - is it
under Federal or State protection?
• The particular role and function of the species within the
ecosystem - are there other species more tolerant in the
vicinity that can perform those functions, or will the
reduction in number or loss of this species adversely
affect other components of the ecosystem in the area?
• The relative uniqueness of the resource in the State - are
there only a few locations known for this resource?
• The tolerance to disturbance and manageability of the
resource - can it recover and reinhabit the area (with or
without human help), or is it fragile, easily damaged,
with strict habitat or reproduction requirements (such as
5-54
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a critical population size, or a plant community or
wetland that cannot be replaced)?
• The size and quality of the population of the resource at
that site, as compared to others of that resource in the
State.
The location of significant terrestrial resources can be determined
from the 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1. This information also is to be provided
by the permit applicant on the USOSM Draft Experimental Form to some
extent.
After information on significant terrestrial resources has been
obtained, the site must be evaluated. Questions such as: "Will the area or
adjacent areas fulfill the habitat and other requirements of the element
during and after mining?" and "Are there other populations of the element
nearby that can repopulate the area?" must be answered. Habitat require-
ments are presented in Tables 5-13 through 5-16 and should be consulted to
answer the first question. Information of the populations of the species in
the surrounding area is available from WVDNR-HTP and/or WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources depending on the species involved. In some instances, a species
may be included in the WVDNR-HTP listing as having been present some years
previously, but it is not known whether it still is present in that area.
Because of this uncertainty, and because of the value of the habitat for
this species and possibly for other species, WVDNR-HTP continued to keep the
information on that location on file until such time as more information is
known about the status of the resource in the State or the presence of other
rare species at that location.
The major impacts of various mining techniques employed in West
Virginia are described in the following sections.
5.3.1.3.1. Contour Surface Mining. The major direct effects of
surface mining excavations and spoil placement are removal of vegetation and
disruption of the soil (Cardi 1973, Rawson 1973, Smith 1973, Streeter et al.
1979, USDOE 1978, WAPORA, Inc. 1979). Vegetation is the basic food source
and energy-gathering medium for the ecosystem. Vegetation also is a climate
modifier; plants intercept direct sunlight, wind, and precipitation, and
increase humidity. The vertical stratification and horizontal mosaic of
plant communities provide diverse wildlife habitats (Balda 1975, McArthur
and Whitmore 1979, Willson 1974).
Mining removes tree-, shrub-, and groundlayer nesting sites, including
snags, fallen logs, rock dens, humus, and burrows. Less mobile animals can
be killed because they are not able to avoid the disturbance (Dvorak et al.
1977, Streeter et al. 1979). Species able to migrate to adjacent habitats
survive only to the extent that adjacent habitats are able to support them.
Displaced individuals then compete with resident individuals for food,
cover, mating grounds, and brooding sites. Species that exhibit strong
territorial behavior especially can be stressed. The increase in
5-55
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populations of vertebrate consumers exaggerates the high and low points of
population cycles in higher- and lower-order consumers, although a natural
balance eventually can be expected to be attained. The net effect is a loss
of those individuals that exceed the carrying capacity (ability to support
wildlife) of the adjacent habitats (Dvorak et al. 1977, Streeter et al.
1979). The populations of most species of game animals in the Monongahela
River Basin are near the carrying capacity of their habitats (WVDNR-Wildlife
Resources 1980). Most of these species are farm game animals and their
numbers are expected to decrease as farmland is abandoned. The additional
loss of habitat associated with mining will result in further reductions of
game populations during the short term, but may offset the loss of: farmland
during the long term by providing successional plant communities on
reclaimed mine lands.
Noise from operation of equipment and from blasting temporarily dis-
turbs some species of wildlife, although most authors have indicated that
acclimatization eventually occurs. It has been speculated that man-made
noise alters the behavior of animals and interferes with communication among
individuals (Memphis State University 1971, Streeter et al. 1979), but
the most severe reaction of wildlife to noise actually noted has been local-
ized avoidance (Fletcher and Busnel 1978). It is possible that abandonment
of nests and/or young can occur in some species, as individuals leave the
area to avoid noise or ground shock (Moore and Mills 1977).
Contour mining aggravates erosion and sedimentation. Sedimentation has
both direct and indirect impacts on terrestrial biota, although the major
impacts are directed to the aquatic environment (see Section 5.2.).
Vegetation on downslopes and valley floors can be buried under alluvium.
Slides of improperly placed or insecure spori.1 represent the most severe
example of this problem (Cardi 1973, Rawson 1973).
The terrestrial ecosystem is affected indirectly when the aquatic
ecosystem is affected. Many species of terrestrial animals are dependent on
the surface water system or on wetland and riparian vegetation for essential
elements of survival, such as drinking water, food, dwelling space, travel
corridors, and mating and brooding areas. Sedimentation beyond the
buffering capacity of riparian or wetland plant communities can damage these
uncommon community types (Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973, Streeter et al. 1979).
Among the species closely linked to the aquatic system are furbearers such
as raccoons, opossums, muskrats, skunks, minks, and beavers; game animals
such as wild turkeys, woodcock, and ducks; wading birds and shorebirds such
as herons, bitterns, rails, and sandpipers; many reptiles; and most
amphibians (Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973). Because wetlands in the Basin
generally are small, and are extremely limited in occurrence, any adverse
impacts that can be expected to reduce their quality should be considered to
be severe.
Alteration of the topography of an area by contour mining has both
beneficial and adverse effects on terrestrial biota. Excavation and grading
impinge on microhabitats and temporarily isolate upslopes from downslopes.
5-56
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This isolation provides the benefit of protection from human intrusion
(WVDNR-Reclamation 1978), but has the adverse consequence of interference
with wildlife movements (Anonymous 1976, Knotts 1975). Depressions become
filled with water and provide new aquatic habitats. North-facing or
southfacing slopes can be converted to create new habitat types, due to
different amounts of insolation (solar radiation) received (Streeter et al.
1979).
5.3.1.3.2. Auger Mining. This method of mining usually is performed
concurrently with contour surface mining. The only effects not redundant
with those resulting from contour surface mining are effects from acid mine
drainage. These effects occur if groundwaters are intercepted and the auger
holes are not sealed. Acid mine drainage is a function of the overburden
chemistry and is a severe problem in the Monongahela River Basin. Acid mine
draiiage can impact the aquatic system adversely, and thus indirectly affect
the terrestrial system. Acid mine drainage seepage and surface runoff also
can affect the- terrestrial environment directly by limiting the species of
flora and fauna to those that can tolerate acid conditions (Blevins et al.
1970, Cardi 1979, Rawson 1973). AMD especially can affect wetland biotic
communities.
5.3.1.3.3. Mountaintop Removal. This method of area mining has the
same major impacts from clearing of vegetation, noise, dust, erosion, intru-
sion, and displacement of wildlife as contour mining. Mountaintop removal
differs in the amount of topographic alteration and in the fact that
orphan mines often are involved. Conversion of a mountain peak to a flat or
rolling plateau results in a radical conversion of plant communities, habi-
tat types, and resident wildlife, especially if there is a concomitant
change in the post-mining use of the land (see Section 3.2.). A mountaintop
removal operation on an orphan mine might benefit the terrestrial environ-
ment if the orphan mine previously had exposed toxic spoil and was not being
revegetated naturally through succession. The new mining operation would
ensure revegetation and proper handling of spoil through conformance with
State and Federal regulations. However, some researchers have suggested
that, where natural succession has provided excellent native wildlife
habitat on orphan mines, it would be a negative impact to replace the
natural successional stage with cultivated vegetation (Haigh 1976, Smith
1973, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). The time required for various stages of
natural succession varies considerably within the Basin and State. Timing
and extent of natural succession is dependent on specific environmental
factors (i.e., moisture, altitude, soils topography, amount of available
sunlight, etc.) at a particular site, and thus cannot be determined except
in a site-by-site basin.
5.3.1.3.4. Room and Pillar Underground Mining. This type of under-
ground mining leaves the terrain generally intact, with no major alteration
of wildlife habitats. The principal disturbances result from subsidence,
disposal of mine refuse, and acid mine drainage (Aaronson 1970, Dvorak
1977).
5-57
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Subsidence affects terrestrial vegetation and wildlife moderately or
not at all, depending on the individual circumstances. In more severe
cases, trees can be toppled and sinkholes appear within one day. Subsidence
also can occur sporadically for years after closure of the mine (Grim and
Hill 1974). In general, however, subsidence is gradual and little wildlife
mortality results.
The disposal of mine refuse involves some commitment of land if the
refuse is not placed on a mine site. Besides resulting in the removal of
vegetation, the reconstruction of a mine refuse pile can be a source of dust
or toxic runoff (Dvorak et al. 1977, Rawson 1973, USDOE 1978).
5.3.1.3.5. Longwall or Shortwall Mining. In this type of underground
mining, subsidence is immediate and controlled (Moorman et al. 1974). Any
impacts on the surface vegetation and wildlife associated with subsidence
is temporary. Subsidence does not occur sporadically during subsequent
years (Grim and Hill 1974, Moorman et al. 1974).
5.3.1.4. Transportation of Coal or Coal Refuse
The major modes of coal transport are truck, belt conveyor, railroad,
barge, and slurry pipeline (Dvorak et al. 1977, Hummer and Vogel 1968).
Each mode of transportation has some impact on terrestrial biota as a result
of the construction and operation of loading and storage facilities and
rights-of-way (Dvorak et al. 1977). Transportation of coal by truck results
in roadkills of wildlife, noise, and dust, but these impacts are minor
compared to the overall effects on terrestrial biota from mining operations.
Impacts from the construction of linear facilities, such as conveyors or
pipelines, are similar to the impacts associated with road construction
previously discussed.
5.3.1.5. Coal Preparation
The construction of a coal preparation or processing plant involves a
commitment of land and results in the generation of noise and dust. If the
plant is located on the mine site, these impacts are negligible. Cleaning
processes used in coal processing plants are listed in Section 3.2.3.
If coal is used for fuel in the processing plant, emissions of sulfur
dioxide can affect sensitive species of plants. The potential effects of
these emissions include reduced productivity, physical injury, reduced
forage and habitat for wildlife, and selective extirpation of sensitive
species in the fumigation area (Cardi 1979, Dvorak et al. 1977, Glass 1978,
Mudd 1975, Nunenkamp 1976). These impacts are unlikely if appropriate
control technology is used (Dvorak et al. 1977, also see Section 5.4.).
5.3.1.6. Reclamation
The impacts from the regrading and revegetation of mined areas on the
terrestrial environment generally are beneficial, although some adverse
5-58
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effects also can result. Regrading restores integrity to the landscape and
allows wildlife access to areas above former highwalls. Ac id-forming spoil
is buried, and both direct and indirect effects of acid mine drainage are
minimized (Brown 1975, Hill and Grim 1977). Spoil is consolidated and
slopes are reduced to control erosion and sedimentation (Glover et al.
1978). A variety of microhabitats, including new aquatic habitats, can be
created by topographic alteration (Allaire 1979).
Among the potential negative impacts on terrestrial biota from
regrading is spoil compaction which especially is evident in spoil with
greater than 15% clay (Chapman 1967). This compaction reduces moisture
retention and retards the establishment of plant seedlings (Glover et al.
1973, Potter et al. 1951, Riley 1963, Vimmerstedt et al. 1974). Some
mountaintop removal operations and head-of-hollow fills create level land
that replaces the previous natural habitats (Bennett et al. 1976, Bogner and
Perry 1977, Jones and Bennett 1979). The nonnative herbaceous species,
commonly planted because of their tolerance to the possible limiting factors
of mine spoil, provide habitat that would be inferior to that provided
through natural succession (Haigh 1976, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Smith
(1973) has indicated that herbaceous cover is not a suitable replacement for
commercially valuable forest. However, Bones (1978) stated that forest area
and volume are increasing in West Virginia, despite revegetation with
herbaceous cover on some mine sites.
There are several viewpoints on whether the conversion of unbroken
forest to combinations of meadow, shrubland, and forest has beneficial or
adverse effects on wildlife populations. Allaire (1979a and 1979b), Cardi
(1979), Holland (1973) and Whitmore (1980) have ascribed benefits to this
diversification, both for the provision of new habitat and the increase in
species and numbers of grassland fauna. Approximately 21,700 acres of new
grassland were created in West Virginia during the period 1972-77, mostly in
small patches (Whitmore 1980). Populations of birds on these patches have
been shown to fluctuate rapidly and to have high turnovers, and it has been
suggested that reclaimed areas would be more suitable for grassland species
if larger: than approximately 100 acres (Whitmore 1980). Remining in pre-
viously reclaimed areas, mining of extensive areas, and the coalescence of
small reclamation sites may provide such larger-sized habitats. This could
benefit species such as the grasshopper sparrow, which has been declining in
population in recent years (Whitmore 1980). Balda (1975), Haigh (1976), and
members of the Wildlife Committee of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency
Evaluation of Surface Mine Reclamation (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978) recognized
the possible loss of native forest-dwelling species and the subsequent
introduction of exotic plant species as a negative impact. Fragmentation of
forested areas and subsequent replacement of neotropical migrant birds (that
use the forest interior) by less migratory species (that use edge areas) has
been identified as a significant problem in the eastern US, particularly
around urban areas (Lynch and Whitcomb 1980, Whitcomb 1977). Populations of
some species of forest birds begin to decrease when the size of the parcel
in which they reside is reduced to 750 acres, depending on the degree of
isolation and the intensity of human-related disturbance (Lynch and Whitcomb
5-59
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1980, Robbins 1979). Likewise, if forestland is replaced with an extensive,
unbroken grassland, the diversity of species of birds has been found to
decline radically (Whitmore and Hall 1978). A decrease in species diversity
does not result necessarily in a direct decrease in the total number of
birds in an area. However, a reduction in the total population of birds is
likely to occur if forest land is replaced with grassland, because the
decrease in the structural diversity of the vegetation may result in a
decrease in the number of habitats available.
Whether revegetation has a beneficial or an adverse effect depends to a
great extent on the type of vegetation previously present on a site and the
vegetation present on surrounding areas. Revegetation that results in a
different type of cover, such as grassland openings in a forested area or
shrubland or forest in a pasture or agricultural setting, will provide addi-
tional diversity and increase the ability of the area to support more or
different species and more individuals of those species (increase the
carrying capacity). Revegetation with grasses in a previously forested site
that is surrounded by grassland areas results in a reduction in diversity
from the premining condition, and thus constitutes an adverse impact.
Replacement of part of a grassland area with another grassland area has
little long-term effect (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
The potential beneficial effects of revegetation include: further
consolidation of spoil and reduction of sedimentation; increased vertical
stratification and provision of edge that would enhance wildlife habitat;
provision of multiple food sources and breeding areas that would increase
the carrying capacity for many species of wildlife; and increased potential
for desirable species of game animals or commercially valuable plants
(Barnhisel 1977, Bennet et al. 1976, Brenner et al. 1975, DeCapita and
Bookhout 1975, Jones and Bennett 1979, Riley 1977).
5.3.1.7. Secondary Impacts
Impacts associated with temporary and/or permanent increases in human
population due to inmigration of miners, construction and road-building
crews, and their families constitute indirect effects of mining-related
activities. The land area required for housing and transportation of this
increased population and for the development of associated community infra-
structure (public services and facilities) may be significant in terms of
effects on wildlife and wildlife habitat. Other sociologically-related
impacts (Streeter et al. 1979) such as increases in human presence and
recreational activities, hunting pressure, poaching, predatory domestic
pets, and road kills may create additional stress on resident wildlife
populations and further reduce the availability and suitability of habitats
in the area. The long-term secondary impacts associated with the major
changes in land use, population, and economic growth that may accompany
mining, are discussed further in Sections 5.3.4. and 5.6.
5-60
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5.3.2. Mitigation of Impacts
Measures to mitigate adverse impacts from mining on the terrestrial
environment can be incorporated before, during, and after mining activities.
The pre-mine plan as required by the State should include comprehensive
information on baseline conditions, sensitive terrestrial resources, mining
operations, mitigative measures suited to the type and scale of impacts
anticipated to occur at the particular site, and appropriate reclamation
plans. Thus the pre-mine plan contains the major compilation of mitigative
measures, which are identified and approved before mining begins. Mitiga-
tive measures also are to be identified by the applicant on the USOSM Draft
Experimental Form. An overview of the factors to be considered and steps
that can be taken in each of the three stages (before, during, and after
mining) is presented in Table 5-11.
5.3.2.1. Pre-mining Mitigations
Many of the mitigative measures included in the pre-mine plan simply
involve foresight. Careful land use planning and future regulations require
identification of physical limitations (toxic overburden, erodible soils,
groundwater systems), the biotic resources (including rare or endangered
species and unique plant communities or habitats), and the desired
postmining land use(s) at a particular site prior to the initiation of
mining.
The description of the post-mining land use(s) for the site should
include detailed revegetation plans complementary to existing and proposed
land uses for adjacent areas. For example: Pasture should not be proposed
as a post-mining land use where slopes are steep (greater than 20%).
Restoration to original contour should not be proposed for a mountaintop
removal site where level land for development is needed. Level land for
development should not be proposed for a remote site where access is
difficult. Wildlife habitat should incorporate all of the habitat
components necessary for the desired species. Several of the members of the
Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation (WVDNR-Reclamation 1980) commented
that many incompatible land uses are being proposed because the planning
decisions are made somewhat arbitrarily, on the basis of limited information
and without knowledge of the management techniques, technical information,
and assistance available as well as the ecological relationships involved.
Input from professional landscape architects, wildlife ecologists, and plant
ecologists was recommended to disseminate this information. For a wildlife
habitat land use, target species should be identified and their respective
habitat requirements should be provided. The members of the Wildlife
Committee of the Interagency Tour also suggested that planning be performed
on a watershed basis so that cumulative impacts can be assessed and plans
developed for specific sites can be made compatible with a regional scheme.
Planning for reclamation that features wildlife habitat as a final land
use should consider the value of the pre-mine habitats. Both the Federal
and State regulations require that the mine site be returned to a use as
good as or better than that of the pre-mine state. However, neither set of
regulations requires that the pre-mine wildlife habitats be evaluated to
5-61
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ensure that the post-mining habitats are of equal or higher value. Many
techniques are available for pre-mining assessment of existing habitat
values (Bramble and Byrnes 1979, Farmer 1977, Harker et al. 1980, Lines and
Perry 1978, Norman 1975, Whitaker et al. 1976). Nongame birds, particularly
songbirds, can be valuable indicator elements in habitat evaluations because
many species are associated with a single habitat or stage of succession and
their high visibility facilitates the counting of individuals (Eddleman
1980, Graber and Graber 1976). West Virginia and USOSM regulations require
that the revegetation on the reclaimed site conform to that on a similar
reference area. No reference areas have been designated in West Virginia,
and the requirement is not expected to be included in the final regulatory
program (Verbally, Mr. William Chambers, WVDNR-Reclamation, to Ms. Kathleen
M. Brennan, WAPORA, Inc., April 24, 1980).
5.3.2.2. Mitigations During Mining
Few impacts are unavoidable or irreversible. Mitigative measures
are available for most impacts of mining on the terrestrial environment. In
some cases, the impact can be mitigated by the replacement of lost resources
with, resources of equal value (such as replacement of one type or area of
wildlife habitat with another, or restocking of some species after mining).
The latter mitigative measures will be described under post-mining
mitigations and will require the type of pre-mining evaluation techniques
referenced previously.
5.3.2.2.1. Prospecting. The impacts associated with prospecting
include noise, dust, intrusion into undisturbed wildlife habitat, and small
excavations. Because most of these impacts probably are redundant with
eventual mining activities, they are not considered to be significant.
However, in instances where the noise and intrusion will disrupt seasonal
mating and brooding of significant species of wildlife, one mitigative
technique is to avoid the performance of these operations during these
periods.
5.3.2.2.2. Road Construction. The impacts associated with road
construction include removal of vegetation, disruption of wildlife activi-
ties, generation of dust, and increased sedimentation. These adverse
impacts are mitigated somewhat by the beneficial effects of road construc-
tion described in Section 5.3.7. Additional mitigative practices include
watering exposed ground and spreading wood chips or salt to control dust
(Grim and Hill 1974, Williams 1979). Sedimentation can be controlled with
proper design (Weigle 1965, 1966). Besides using the prescribed grades and
drainage controls, proper design includes removal of overhanging vegetation
so that the roadway is exposed more to the sun and thereby dries faster
after a rain, constructing the road during dry weather, contemporaneous
revegetation, and using filter strips of vegetation between the road and the
side ditches (Barfield et al. 1978, Grim and Hill 1974).
5.3.2.2.3. Mining. Impacts from mining include loss of vegetation,
displacement of wildlife, topographic alteration, degradation of water
5-63
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resources, fugitive dust, noise, acid mine drainage, and creation of toxic
spoils. Adherence to State and Federal regulations reduces many of these
adverse effects. However, the emphasis on protection or enhancement of
wildlife habitat in the USOSM regulations generally is not carried through
to the actual mining operation, as noted by members of the Wildlife
Committee of the Fourteenth Annual Inter agency Evaluation (WVDNR-
Reclamation 1980). Remedies include enhancement of adjacent undisturbed
habitats with nest boxes, wildlife food plantings, or other acceptable
management techniques that increase the ability of the adjacent habitats to
support wildlife displaced from the mine site. These remedies may be
necessary in parts of the Monongahela River Basin where the habitat is
decreasing or limited for some species of wildlife.
Additional mitigative measures include limiting the extent of the
actively-mined area. This particularly is relevant to mountaintop removal
operations, where large areas are disturbed and left unvegetated until a
large-scale revegetation effort is performed. Members of the Wildlife
Committee recommended more contemporaneous revegetation of smaller areas of
active mining. This practice reduces dust and sedimentation, as well as
partially replace the lost habitat more rapidly.
Allaire (1978) recommended a buffer area of undisturbed vegetation at
least 100 meters wide to protect bird breeding grounds from active mine
sites. Blasting he argues, should be conducted on a regular schedule, so
that wildlife can become acclimated. Dust is less of an impact if blasting
is performed only on still days or on days when the wind is blowing away
from the adjacent undisturbed vegetation (Allaire 1978).
Federal regulations also require that the location, design, and
construction of electric transmission lines meet criteria set by USDOI
(1970). These criteria were developed to minimize the impacts of power
lines in rural areas, and stress preservation of the natural landscape.
Examples of the criteria are:
• Only vegetation that presents a possible hazard should be
cleared
• Brush blades rather than dirt blades should be used on
bulldozers to preserve the ground cover
• Cleared vegetation should be piled to provide habitat for
small animals
• Native vegetation should be preserved or planted for
screening
• Natural features should be protected from damage during
construction
5-64
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• Construction activities should be avoided during critical
periods for wildlife
• Temporary roads should be restored to original slopes and
planted with native ground cover
• Restored vegetation should be maintained in rights-of-way.
If the mining operation affects a significant terrestrial resource,
such as a wetland, remnant forest, or rare species of plant or animal,
mitigations should be agreed upon by the applicant before a permit is issued
(Table 5-12). If location data on the sensitive terrestrial resource are
fragmentary, State agencies should be contacted to check the data. For rare
plants, nongame animals, and remnant forests, WVDNR-HTP should be contacted.
For game species, mitigations, or habitats, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources should
be contacted. To check on the presence of a Federally endangered or
threatened species, the USFWS Area Office in Harrisburg PA should be
contacted.
If an examination of the requirements of the resource or the factors
required for its presence (Tables 5-13, 5-14, 5-15 and 5-16) shows that
mitigative measures are known and available that will allow preservation
and/or protection of the resource, a determination should be made as to the
feasibility and practicality of these measures at the particular site and
the willingness of the mine operator (and sometimes the surface owner) to
implement them or to work with the appropriate State agency personnel to
implement them. In some cases this may not be feasible for technical or
economic reasons, or not agreeable to the parties involved. A judgment must
then be made as to whether to issue or deny the permit or to place a
restrictive condition on the permit that would require the use of the
measure or action.
Water quality related impacts on terrestrial resources may be mitigated
by standard prescribed methods for sediment control and water quality
treatment (see Sections 3.2. and 5.1.). Other mitigative measures can be
applied specifically to restore affected elements to the terrestrial
ecosystem. For example, acid-tolerant plants can be used to replace aquatic
plants lost because of acid mine drainage (Chironis 1978). Members of the
Wildlife Committee of the 1979 Interagency Evaluation Review (WVDNR-
Reclamation 1980) indicated that sediment ponds and other artificial
impoundments that are scheduled to be filled in conformance with State and
USOSM regulations can be preserved and used as replacement or enhancement of
degraded aquatic habitats, particularly on mountaintop removal sites.
Allaire (1979a) recommended several low-cost improvements to provide
water-related diversity in the landscape. These include the maintenance of
a rolling topography, where water may collect to form shallow puddles or
mudflats that would attract shorebirds, and leaving farm ponds for small
flocks of ducks and geese that also would provide water for amphibians,
5-65
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reptiles, deer, or other wildlife. He also recommended the development of
multipurpose ponds and cattail swamps. These are described in Appendix C.
Biologists from the TVA presently are conducting research on the use of
sediment ponds by amphibians, reptiles, and other species of wildlife in
cooperation with the USFWS Eastern Energy and Land Use Team (TVA 1980).
Preliminary reports of these investigations are expected to be available in
late-1980.
5.3.2.3. Post-mining Mitigations
Most post-mining mitigations are encompassed within required reclama-
tion procedures (Section 4.O.). Some of these reclamation efforts, however,
have adverse impacts, such as soil compaction, alteration of the structure
of native plant communities, replacement of native species of plants with
nonnative species, replacement of forest-dwelling species of wildlife with
open-land species, and removal of successional plant communities from aban-
doned mine sites.
Federal regulations require avoidance of compaction and creation of a
rough surface. Spoil handling techniques have been developed that lease the
seedbed rough and friable (Glover et al. 1978). Soil amendments and mulches
also can be used more effectively to improve reclamation results. Members
of the 1979 Interagency Evaluation Tour noted a lack of individualized
attention to detailed spoil characteristics (WVDNR-Rec1amation 1980). Fer-
tilizers and mulches for example, were being used indiscriminately. Soil
amendments, final grading, and mulches should be used only where an analysis
of soil characteristics has shown a need for such measures. Federal and
State regulations contain only general requirements for the use of mulches
and fertilizer^.
The replacement of native forest with grass-legume herbaceous communi-
ties must be viewed from a regional perspective. If a proposed mountaintop
removal or valley-fill operation is proposed for an area in which many simi-
lar operations have been performed, and thus large tracts of forest are to
be replaced with grassland, the impact will be more severe than the impact
from an isolated operation creating a small woodland opening. In the former
case, some reforestation should be prescribed, or the extent of mining in a
watershed should be controlled so that recently mined areas are reclaimed
and allowed to begin succession back to forest cover before additional
extensive areas are mined. Control of the amount, extent, and frequency of
mining helps maintain forest communities and reservoirs of desired species
of wildlife to repopulate reclaimed areas. In the latter case, the change
to a grassland area might diversify the forest habitat with maintained
grass-legume-shrub openings, provide new sources of food and a new "edge"
habitat, and thus be beneficial for wildlife.
The introduction of nonnative species of plants can be mitigated by
revegetation with some native species, but commercial availability of native
species is limited at present. State regulations stipulate species mixtures
and rates, and many of the recommended plants are nonnative species.
5-74
-------
Another approach to encourage the reestablishment of native species
would be to selectively plant species to provide a ground cover that would
not impede natural succession. This could be accomplished by thinly
planting nonagressive species. If an abandoned mine is to be reopened, the
successional vegetation already developed on the site should be evaluated
for its potential for wildlife. If the potential is high, as much of this
vegetation as possible should be preserved. Compliance with State and
Federal regulations that require return to approximate original contour
results in a regrading process on reopened mines in which most or all of
this natural vegetation is removed. Stands of native vegetation can be
preserved on new mine sites to provide seed sources for more rapid
reestablishment of native vegetation. Artificial structural features such
as nest boxes can be placed on the site to replace the original structural
features such as snags and den trees. Seeds of shrubs can be included in
the seed mix to be used in hydroseeding to add both diversity and to provide
additional sources of food (Samuel and Whitmore 1978). A summary of the
types of mitigative measures that can be taken to alleviate the major
adverse impacts on terrestrial biota is given in Tables 5-11 and 5-12.
5.3.3. Revegetation
5.3.3.1. Factors That Control Revegetation
Revegetation is controlled largely by three factors:
• State and Federal regulations (see Section 4.0.)
• Provisions of the pre-mine plan, as required by the State
• The physical conditions at the site.
The State and Federal regulatory frameworks are dissimilar, but both
sets of regulations address revegetation to a great extent. Where the
frameworks vary, the stricter requirements are discussed herein. Seeding
and mulching are required after the abandonment of fill sites, access roads,
and drainage systems. During the mining operation, topsoil must be separ-
ated and stockpiled for later resurfacing of the mine site. Toxic
overburden must be buried under at least four inches of non-toxic material.
All land must be returned to a condition suitable for its pre-mining use or
for a higher use. State regulations require that herbaceous plantings must
achieve at least 80% ground cover before the performance bond is released.
Woody plantings must exceed 400 stems per acre (600 per acre on steep
slopes), with at least 60% herbaceous ground cover. The Federal regulations
stress wildlife habitat considerations more than do the State regulations.
For example, the Federal regulations contain specifications that wildlife
values should be protected to the greatest extent possible, and enhanced
when practicable, by the following:
• Locating and operating haul roads to minimize impacts to
signif ica it species of wildlife
5-75
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• Protecting fauna from toxic waters
• Restoring unique habitat
• Restoring, enhancing, or maintaining riparian vegetation
and other wetlands
• If wildlife habitat is a designated post-mining land use,
the vegetation to be used must provide cover, have proven
nutritive value, and be capable of supporting and
enhancing wildlife populations after the bond is released
• Wildlife plantings must optimize edge effects
• Land for row crops or development must have cover belts
for wildlife.
Furthermore, the State regulations contain specifications of the species of
plants to be used and the combinations of species and rates of planting for
particular physical situations. The WVDNR-Reclamation pre-mine plan should
contain specifications for the post-mining land use and the revegetation
plan. It should take into account both the physical conditions of the site
and the adjacent land use (Anonymous 1974, Wahlquist 1976).
Because of these regulations no special conditions on vegetation in New
Source NPDES permits are envisioned by EPA, unless the Federal or State
reclamation requirements were to become unenforceable. In that event EPA
will require an EPA-approved reclamation plan as a condition in granting a
New Source permit.
The physical site factors that influence revegetation efforts include
(Bennett et al. 1976, Berg and Vogel 1973, Deely and Borden 1973, Goodman
and Bray 1975, Schimp 1973):
Slope
Stoniness
Soil color
Moisture availability
Aspect
Elevation
Friability
Fertility
Stability
Reaction
Toxicity.
These factors are discussed in greater detail in Section 2.7. and 5.7.
Other factors that affect the rate and success of revegetation include pH,
nutrient supplies, soil microorganisms, and surface temperature. In
addition, ions of metals such as aluminum are particularly inhibitory to
plant growth (D'Antuono 1979).
Information on state-of-the-art wildlife and vegetation management
techniques which should be utilized in reclamation plans is included in
Appendix C.
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5.3.4. Long-term Impacts on the Basin
5.3.4.1. Overall Landscape and Ecosystem Changes
The removal of an entire ecosystem in an area and the disruption of
biological communities in adjacent areas are unavoidable during surface
mining. Some adverse effects also are associated with deep mining and other
mining-related activities such as coal transportation and coal processing.
Additional surface mining in the Basin can be beneficial for some species
and detrimental to others, depending on the sensitivity to disturbance and
habitat requirements of the species, the type and extent of mitigation and
reclamation techniques employed, and the post-mining use of the area. Most
species of plants, reptiles, and amphibians are affected adversely because
of their lack of mobility. Stable native plant communities with a diversity
of species that are best suited to the area's particular conditions will be
lost. Many associated components of the ecosystem, such as invertebrates
and soil organisms, also will be eliminated. Species that require
undisturbed wilderness, such as black bear and turkey, may abandon areas
temporarily or permanently. In some cases, the change to a simpler plant
community with fewer species will reduce the natural diversity of habitats
in an area and, as a result, the number of species of wildlife. In others,
the creation of openings in the forest cover will provide increased amounts
of edge area for various successional plant communities and also enhance the
structural and species diversity of the area.
The removal of forest cover and change in landform over large areas of
the Basin also affect drainage patterns, water quality, soil moisture
levels, and local climatic conditions. The long-term effects of acid mine
drainage, erosion, and siltation on terrestrial ecosystems are not well
known. Fragmentation of ecosystems can produce islands of various habitat
types, including artificial prairies of reclaimed grasslands, that are not
large enough nor diverse enough to satisfy the needs of many species. Some
of these areas might not be located near "continents" or corridors of
similar habitats that could serve as reservoirs or migration routes,
respectively, for the continued colonization of the islands by the species
that have been destroyed or driven away.
Most secondary or sociologically-related impacts that occur as a conse-
quence of mining can be detrimental to terrestrial biota. This is
especially significant in areas where coal mining activity may induce
development to occur in response to the needs of the increased human
population. The induced development can remove wildlife habitat.
The long-term effects of mining on the terrestrial biota of a particu-
lar site depend on the conditon of the site and the surrounding land prior
to mining, the post-mining land use of the site and the adjacent area, the
type and uniqueness of the biological communities affected, and the amount
of additional disturbance in the watershed. The long-term effects on the
watershed depend on the percentage of the total amount of each type of
community that is lost or degraded, the magnitude and extent of other
5-77
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stresses on these communities, and the size of the areas that are segmented
and separated from areas with similar biotic components. Habitats of
limited extent generally are considered to be more "valuable" than those of
greater extent because of their scarcity, the fact that they tend to contain
more unique or rare species, and their limited capability to recover from
damage because of the lack of a suitable adjacent reservoir of replacement
individuals. In the Monongahela River Basin, the types of communities of
limited extent are primarily wetlands, riparian habitats, stands of
relatively undisturbed cove hardwood forests, and other communities that
also are restricted in other parts of the State. Individual mine permit
applications should be examined in the light of past and present raining in
the same area of the watershed to evaluate the amount of each community or
habitat type that will remain and the cumulative effects of mining on
proposed buffer areas and the Basin as a whole. This information can be
augmented and verified by contacting the WVDNR-Reclamation officer
responsible for overseeing that particular nining operation Involved.
In the Monongahela River Basin, the other known stresses on the
ecosystem include the effects of logging practices and air pollution
(including acid rain). Increased coal mining can have long-term adverse
consequences due to both the initial coal extraction and its combustion as
fuel, although the latter issue is not necessarily restricted to coal mining
in the Basin. The potential for terrestrial resource damage within the
Basin by atmospheric pollutants such as S02 and NOX and acid precipi-
tation are just beginning to be realized. The effects on forest ecosystems
noted have included loss of productivity, reduced photosynthesis because of
leaf injury, decreased soil fertility, decreased uptake of nitrogen and its
fixation by legumes, reduction in species diversity, decreased resistance to
pests and diseases, reduced height, inhibited bud formation and seed
germination, soil acidification, leaching of calcium from the soil, and
increased solubilization of aluminum and heavy metal ions (which are known
to be toxic to plants in more than minimal concentrations; Bucek 1979, Glass
and Rennie 1979, Kozlowski 1980, Likens et al. 1979, Miller and McBride
1975, Vitousek 1979). These effects are more pronounced where soils contain
relatively low levels of nutrients and thus cannot adequately buffer
increased acidity. The podzolic soils in eastern deciduous forests in the
Appalachian area are included in this category. Major air pollution sources
are discussed in Section 2.4.
The leaching of nutrients from the soil also may affect adversely the
success of revegetation in some areas, especially if monoculture plantings
of one or only a few species are used. Revegetated areas also may be
affected adversely if the species used are susceptible to particular air
pollutants, if these are present in significant concentrations. The species
composition of certain areas may change because the different levels of
tolerance of the various species may give some a comparative advantage over
others.
Conversely, the nitrogen content in acid rain may have a slightly
positive effect on soil fertility that can offset the other adverse effects.
5-78
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However, nitrogen generally is stored in the lower (B) horizon of forest
soils, and the release of stored nitrogen after clearcutting or forest fires
also causes increased acidification of soil and water resources. The
overall economic benefits available from forest resources in the Basin
(timber, recreation, wildlife production) can be expected to be reduced as
the quality of the forest resources declines.
In summary, the overall response of an ecosystem to disturbance such as
mining can be separated into two components: resistance (the relative
magnitude of the system's response to the disturbance) and resilience (the
relative rate of recovery after the disturbance [Vitousek 1979]). In the
case of coal mining in the Monongahela River Basin, the ecosystem may have
considerable resistance because of the complexity and patchwork effect of
the various types of biological communities, but the resilience may be low
for a number of reasons: the extent of damage; the loss of many structural
and functional components of that complex system; and the complexity of the
replacement and repair process, especially when altered by the introduction
of nonnative species and the inhibiting effects of other stresses on the
system mentioned previously. The time required for various stages of
natural succession will vary considerably in different parts of the Basin
and with particular site conditions, and some areas may require considerably
longer to return to pre-disturbance conditions (such as remnant forests
requiring nearly a century to recover). These effects typically are not as
severe in the case of remining of previously mined areas because the systems
still exhibit evidence of disturbance and are less complex. Fewer and less
extensive rnitigative measures should be required in these areas, although
disturbance of successful revegetation, especially natural succession,
should be limited where this provides valuable wildlife habitat.
The use of Federal and State required mitigation, reclamation, and man-
agement techniques and procedures can benefit both wildlife and human popu-
lations. Populations of desirable species of both game and nongame animals,
particularly birds, may be increased after surface mining if reclamation
plans include topographic diversity, structural and species diversity of the
vegetation, and water sources necessary for their existence. Species not
previously sighted or common in the Basin, such as various types of grass-
land birds, may increase in number because of the new type of habitat, the
"artificial prairie", that is associated with the revegetation of surface
mine sites. The retention of sediment ponds in particular provides
significant opportunities for enhancement of wildlife populations and
consequent provision of additional recreational opportunities (Turner and
Fowler 1980). This measure has special value because of the current and
projected levels of hunting pressure and recreational usage of land and the
high potential for the development of mountaintop removal sites. The
addition of numerous sediment ponds will supplement the limited availability
of wetland habitats within the Basin and should be employed whenever
possible.
5-79
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5.3.4.2. Potential Impacts on Known and Unknown Significant Resources
Species that are considered to be rare, threatened, or endangered
usually are those associated with habitats that presently are of limited
extent in the Basin, such as caves, wetlands, and riparian areas. Rare
species of mammals and birds require a relatively large area of a climax
community (the most advanced successional stage possible under the physio-
graphic, climatic, and soil conditions at a particular site). These species
usually inhabit the interior of such areas, are less tolerant of distur-
bance, have specific food, cover, activity, or reproduction requirements,
reproduce more slowly, and care for their young for longer periods than do
more opportunistic species that inhabit the edge areas where two types of
communities meet. Black bear, turkey, and various species of warblers are
examples of the former "wilderness" species. The latter "weedy" species,
such as the cottontail rabbit, have high reproductive potentials, can
colonize an area quickly if conditions are favorable, and can use a wider
variety of habitats.
Rare species of invertebrates and plants, on the other hand, often are
limited to very localized areas because of their requirements for specific
food plants, soil types, or microclimatic conditions, such as those found in
wetlands. Any mining approved in areas of limited habitat or previously
undisturbed areas within the Basin should be conditioned and monitored care-
fully to avoid adverse impacts on significant or sensitive resources, espec-
ially those that are endemic (restricted in distribution to the State).
Because of the concentration of coal resources in several areas in the
Monongahela River Basin, it may be possible, preferential, and time- and
cost-effective to mitigate effects on significant or sensitive resources on
a Basin-wide basis, at the locations where assistance would benefit the
resource most, rather than at each individual mine site. This approach
would provide the flexibility necessary to adjust to fluctuations in game
and nongame wildlife populations, other environmental conditions or stress
factors, and the general patterns and timing of mining activities and land
use changes. In such a system, mine operators would comply with the State
and Federal requirements for reclamation of a particular mine site,
including implementation of measures for the protection and enhancement of
species previously present, but primarily would concentrate mitigation
activities or funds in areas where these would be most effective, as deter-
mined by WDNR or other appropriate State agency personnel on the basis of
current information on conditions within that part of the Basin. The high
proportion of lands in private ownership in the Basin, however, could
present problems in the implementation of such a system unless adequate
information distribution to and communication with the public were developed
and maintained.
5.3.5. Data Gaps
During the preparation of the information presented on impacts,
mitigations, and revegetation, various gaps were noted in existing informa-
tion. These deficiencies, including those reported by other investigators,
involve:
5-80
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• The long-term effects of acid mine drainage on watersheds,
and particularly on terrestrial biota, are not known
(Wildlife Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evalua-
tion, WVDNR-Reclamation 1980)
• Few data are available on the rates at which wetlands or
riparian areas perform various water purification
functions, such as absorption of nonpoint source pollu-
tants and groundwater recharge (Clark and Clark 1979).
The data on threshold levels of nutrient loadings are
extremely limited, except for a few studies on assimila-
tion of sewage effluent. Most studies have focused on
plant uptake of heavy metals and have not considered
subsequent effects on wetland and terrestrial food chains
or the long-term effects of pollutant loads on the species
composition and functions of wetland communities.
• The "ripple" effect of displacement of wildlife into
unmined areas and the resistance and resilience of those
communities needs additional investigation, particularly
in regard to the number and magnitude of the stresses in
the same locality (Risser 1978)
• As indicated by Anderson et al. (1977), the data base
available for use in assessing the impacts of energy
developments in eastern ecosystems on terrestrial wildlife
populations and their habitats is meager. The information
is scattered among many sources and is incomplete or
lacking for most topics or groups of organisms. A prelim-
inary discussion of alternative methods proposed to ful-
fill data requirements for such assessments is contained
in Anderson et al. (1977).
• Few, if any, studies have been conducted on wildlife
populations on the same mine site before, during, and
after mining. Some studies have been done on abandoned
mine sites (Chapman et al. 1978, Karr 1968, Riley 1952,
1957, 1977), others on the use of reclaimed sites several
years after mining (Allaire 1979, DeCapita and Bookhout
1975, Jones 1967, Whitmore and Hall 1978, Yahner and
Howell 1975), and others on the use of abandoned or
reclaimed areas by a particular species, such as grouse
(Kimmel and Samuel 1978), turkey (Anderson and Samuel
1980), fox (Yearsley 1976), and white-tailed deer (Knotts
1975). However, no comprehensive baseline inventory and
subsequent follow-up have been done for an entire mine
site with its various biological communities. Those
studies performed several years after mining ceased
generally do not contain descriptions of premining
conditions, mining history, and post-mining land use
5-81
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(Vogel and Curtis 1978). Little information has been
published on the changes in species diversity, community
composition, population size, food habits, and vigor of
terrestrial and aquatic biota, or on the effects of
changes in land use patterns on wildlife species
composition and human use of the area. This information
would be helpful in the determination of appropriate
mitigations and reclamation plans. Current research by
TVA biologists, who are conducting a five-year research
project, is expected to satisfy some of the data gaps on
wildlife populations (TVA 1980).
The cumulative effects of multiple or sequential mining in
a watershed on terrestrial biota have not been examined
The concept of mitigation as employed in this section is
relatively recent, and most of the literature on
mitigation measures for terrestrial biota has been
developed for large-scale water resource development
projects in the western US, where large areas of
alternative lands can be acquired with Federal funds for
mitigation of habitat and population losses. Information
on techniques for mitigation of impacts on individual
species has been developed primarily for raptors, large
grazing animals, and large populations of waterfowl.
Little information is available for the more complex
forest ecosystems in the eastern US with their diversity
of vegetation types and species, particularly nongame
mammals, songbirds, reptiles, and amphibians. The
information available primarily has been prepared for the
enhancement of populations of game animals such as deer,
turkey, cottontail rabbit, and grouse.
Additional work needs to be done to identify native
species of plants that can tolerate conditions at
reclaimed mine sites, have significant value to wildlife,
and are economically feasible to plant (Wildlife
Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1980). Methods should be developed for
commercial production of hawthornes, other species in the
rose family, and any other multivalue species that may be
identified. Species should be classified according to
their suitability for the various physiographic areas and
altitudinal zones within the State.
Methods should be developed for the transfer of available
information on reclamation procedures that would benefit
wildlife resources to permit-granting agencies, reclama-
tion planners, and mine operators. This would include
information on wildlife habitat requirements and manage-
ment practices and suitable native vegetation (Wildlife
5-82
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Committee, Fourteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1980).
Little information is available on the establishment,
increase, and management of wildlife populations on
reclaimed surface mines, particularly nongame species, as
indicated previously. Recent research by Samuel and
Whitmore (1979) and Whitmore (1979, 1980) in West
Virginia, by Allaire (1979a) in Kentucky, and by TVA
biologists in Tennessee (TVA 1980) has been designed to
provide data in this area. This type of information
should be distributed as widely as possible when it
becomes available. General information on wildlife
management for many species of game animals currently is
available from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
5-83
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5.4 Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations
-------
Page
5.4. Air Quality and Noise Impacts and Mitigations 5-85
5.4.1. Air Quality Impacts 5-85
5.4.2. Noise Impacts 5-87
-------
5.4. AIR QUALITY AND NOISE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.4.1. Air Quality Impacts
Coal related impacts on air quality occur principally as a result of
the combustion of coal to generate electricity and to fuel industrial
operations. The point and non point emission of air pollutants from surface
coal mining and coal preparation operations can affect air quality for
relatively short distances down wind from mine sites. The principal and
significant impacts on local air quality result from the particulate matter
and fugitive dust generated by coal mining, hauling, and storage. Emissions
from vehicles on mine sites generally are relatively minor in magnitude
(Table 5-17) and remote from sensitive receptors.
Point source emissions from coal mining (that is, emissions through
smoke stacks) are associated principally with thermal dryers that may be
used in coal preparation plants. Thermal dryers and any other emission
sources in preparation plants must receive prior approval by WVAPCC
according to the State Implementation Plan, and information on thermal
dryers must be provided also in the State water pollution control permit for
preparation plants (see Section 4.1.)
EPA has not yet delegated administration of the Prevention of
Significant Deterioration program to West Virginia. Hence EPA will review
in detail those coal preparation plants that meet the threshold criteria for
PSD analysis as presented in Section 4.2. It is unlikely that proposed
mining facilities other than preparation plants with thermal dryers will
trigger PSD reviews, because their emissions of regulated pollutants are too
small.
Dust control measures are mandated by the USOSM permanent program
regulations. A plan must be prepared by the applicant to control dust, and
the plan as approved by the regulatory authority must be implemented by the
operator during mining (30 CFR 816.95, 817.95). On-site monitoring data may
be required by the regulatory authority for use in developing the plan
(30 CFR 780.15, 783.15). Dust control measures such as the following are to
be included as appropriate:
• Periodic watering of unpaved roads, with an approved minimum
frequency
• Stabilization of unpaved roads with nontoxic chemicals
• Paving of roads
• Prompt, frequent grading and compaction of unpaved roads to
remove debris and stabilize the surface
• Restriction of vehicle speed
• Revegetation and mulching of areas adjoining roads
• Restricting travel by unauthorized vehicles
5-85
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5-86
-------
• Enclosing, covering, and watering loaded trucks and rail
cars
• Substituting enclosed conveyors for haul trucks
• Minimizing the disturbed land area
• Prompt revegetation of regraded lands
• Restricting dumping and wetting disturbed materials during
handling
• Planting of windbreaks at critical locations
• Using water sprays or dust collectors to control drilling
dust and dust at coal and spoil transfer points
• Restricting areas blasted at one time
• Limiting dust-producing activities during episodes of
stagnant air
• Inspecting and extinguishing areas of burning coal.
EPA estimates of the efficiency of dust control measures applicable to
unpaved roads range from 25% to 85% (Table 5-18 ). Industry sources suggest
that dust from other sources in coal operations can be reduced by 50% to 90%
by appropriate control measures (Table 5-19).
EPA will check to see that appropriate dust control measures have been
incorporated into permits issued pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA. In the
event that the USOSM practices are not enforceable by the regulatory
authority, EPA independently will implement them pursuant to NEPA and CWA
WVAPCC also requires a dust control plan as part of its air pollution
control permit for preparation plants (see Section 4.1.4.13.). Should air
quality issues other than dust control be determined to be potentially
significant during the review of a New Source permit, EPA will utilize the
resources of its in-house staff to determine such significance and to
develop appropriate permit conditions.
5.4.2. Noise Impacts
The major sources of noise impacts associated with coal mining include
blasting, equipment operation, and coal transportation. Table 5-20 presents
a comparison of sound intensity, pressure level, and common sounds to
provide a frame of reference for the following discussions.
Blasting noise is the most intense noise associated with the operation
of a New Source coal mine. Blasting is the most annoying type of noise and
has the greatest potential for damaging structures near the site. The USOSM
permanent program performance standards require that noise and vibration
from blasting operations be controlled to minimize the danger of adverse
impacts (30 CFR 816.61-68; 817.61-68).
-------
Table 5-18. Efficiency of dust control methods for unpaved roads (EPA 1975)
Control Method Approximate Control Efficiency,(%)
Paving 85
Treating surface with penetrating chemicals 50
Working soil stabilizing chemicals into roadbed 50
Speed control ("uncontrolled" speed is 40 mph)
30 mph 25
20 mph 65
15 mph 80
5-88
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Table 5-19. Dust emission factors from coal operations compiled by
D'Appolonia (1980).
Emission Source
Emission Factor
Reduction factor it Control is
Utilized
Achievable Lmissiun F,ictc>rs
for Controlled Processes
Drilling
Coal
Overburden
Topsoil Removal
Overburden Removal
Blasting
Coal
Ove rburden
0.22 Ib/hole
1.5 Ib/hole
0.38 lb/ydJ
0.07 Ib/ton
72.4 Ib/blast
85.2 Ib/blast
0.0035 Ib/ton
Coal Removal
Raw Coal Dump hopper 0.02 Ib/ton
Coal Crushing 0.18 Ib/ton
Enclosed operation: 90%
1.8 x 10 2 Ib/ton
Conveyor Transport:
Raw Coal
Crushed Coal
Clean Coal and
Coal
Refuse
Raw Coal Stacker
Clean Coal Stacker
Refuse Chutes
0.02 Ib/ton
0.02 Ib/ton
0.02 Ib/ton
0.0004 Ib/ton
1.32 Ih/ton
Stored
1.32 Ib/ton
Stored
0.02 Ib/ton
Cover conveyors: 902
Cover conveyors: 90%
Cover convevors: 90%
Wet process coal: 85%
Arrange stacker to provide
enclosure: 90%
Wet process coal: 852
Arrange stacker to provide
enclosure: 90%
Uet refuse in process: 85%
2 x 10_:! Ib/ton
2 X 10 Ib/ton
2 x 10~3 Ib/ton
3 x 10~4 Ib/ton
1.3 x icf1 Ib/ton
Stored
2.0 x 1G~2 Ib/ton
Stored
3.0 x 10 3 Ib/ton
Coal Refuse Storage
Bin 0.20 Ib/ton
Enclose storage bin: 90'u
Wet refuse In process: 85%
3 x 10 3 Ib/ton
KefuM- Dumping 0.02 lb/ci>n
Haul Koads, (Inpaved) 0.45 Ib/vmt
[rain Loadout 0.20 Ib/ton
Reclama tion &
Maintenance 16 Ibs/hr
Wind Lrosion 0.25 ton/acre
Wet refuse In process: 50%
Spray water on road: 50%
Wet process coal: 85%
1 x 10 2 Ib/ton
2.2 x 10 Ib/vnt
3.0 x 10"2 Ib/ton
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Table 5-20. Comparison of intensity, sound pressure level, and common
sounds (USAGE 1973).
Relative
Energy Intensity (units)
1,000,000,000,000,000
100,000,000,000,000
10,000,000,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
100,000,000,000
10,000,000,000
1,000,000,000
100,000,000
10,000,000
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
1,000
100
10
1
Decibels
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Loudness
Artillery at 500 feet
Jet aircraft at 50 feet
Threshold of pain
Near elevated train
Inside propeller plane
Full symphony or band
Inside auto at high speed
Conversation, face-to-face
Inside general office
Inside private office
Inside bedroon
Inside empty theater
Threshold of hearing
5-90
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Air blast must be controlled so that it does not exceed the following
values at any dwelling, public building, school, church, commercial
structure, or institutional building that is not owned by the operator
(30 CFR 816.65, 817.65):
Low frequency limit of Maximum level
measuring system (Hz) dB
-------
Table 5-21. Measured noise levels of construction equipment (EPA 1971b).
Equipment
Noise Level
in dBA at 50 feet
Equipment
Noise Sources
(in order of importance)
Earthmoving
Front loaders
Backhoes
Dozers
Tractors
Scrapers
Graders
Trucks
Pavers
79
85
80
80
88
85
91
89
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
D
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
H
H
H
W
W
W
T
Stationary
Pumps
Generators
Compressors
76
78
81
E C
E C
E C H
Impact
Pile drivers
Jack hammers
Rock drills
Pneumatic tools
101
88
98
86
W P E
P W E C
W E P
P W E C
Other
Saws
Vibrators
78
76
W
W E C
Sources:
C Engine Casing
E Engine Exhaust
F Cooling Fan
H Hydraulics
I Engine Intake
P Pneumatic Exhaust
T Power Transmission Systems, Gearing
W Tool-Work Interaction
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Table 5-22. Results of noise surveys of coal-related facilities (Watkins
and Associates 1979) . Measured noise levels can be expected to decrease
by 6 dB for each doubling of distance from the source, but terrain
features can modify this general decay rate.
Type of Measurement 1
Plant/Source Distance (feet) Noise Level
Coal preparation 150 81.4
Mine vent fan 270 63.0
Coal preparation 250 69.5
Mine vent fan 1,500 59.2
L (24) - The equivalent steady state sound level which in a 24-hour period
of time would contain the same acoustic energy as the time-varying
sound level actually measured during the same time period, in dBA.
-------
90
80
70
60
50
40
\
f
COAL
PREP
PLANT
MINE
VENT
FAN
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
DISTANCE FROM SOURCE-FT
1,400
Figure 5-4 Leq VERSUS DISTANCE FROM MAJOR NOISE SOURCES AT
A TYPICAL COAL MINE AND PREPARATION PLANT
(Watkins and Associates 1979)
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Table 5-23. Typical public reaction and health impacts associated with
various 24-hour average noise levels.
24-hour Leq
(dBa)
51-54
54-57
24-hour Ldn
(dBa)
55-58
58-61
57-60
61-64
60-63
64-67
63-66
67-70
66-69
>70
70-74
>74
Typical Effects on
Health and Welfare
Few problems except in unusual
nighttime situations.
Sensitive individuals may
become annoyed and
sporadically complain,
especially concerning
nighttime noise.
A substantial number of people
become annoyed and begin to
have difficulty conversing
outdoors.
Many people are unable to talk
or relax outdoors and
experience considerable
stress.
Most people experience severe
emotional stress, finding
outdoor areas totally unusable
for work or play. Strong
official complaints.
Individuals with sensitive
hearing may begin to suffer
temporary hearing loss.
EPA suggested limit to prevent
permanent hearing loss,
including factor of safety.
5-95
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Equipment
Noise Level at 50 feet
2 front loaders @ 79
2 dozers @ 80
2 graders @ 85
2 scrapers @ 88
4 trucks @ 91
82
83
88
91
97
Total
99 dBA; round to
100 dBA for calculations
Also assume background noise levels [15-hr Leq] of 55 dBA during the
hours 7 am-10 pm and [9-hour Leq] of 45 dBA during the hours 10 pra-7 am.
This is a background Ldn of 55 dBA.
Noise levels decline away from the noise source at the rate of 6 dB(A)
per doubling of distance. Weighted day/night noise levels (Ldn) that
will result from a noise source of 100 dBA are as follows, based on the
formula:
- 10 log
10
,Leq(l)
-
7am-10pm
Leq(l)+lQ
10 expl 10 J
10pm-7am
where Leq(l) is the 1-hour noise level assumed to prevail throughout
the shift(s):
One 8-hr shift
(7 am-3 pm)
Two 8-hr shifts
(7 am-11 pm)
Three 8-hr shifts
100
94
88
85
82
76
70
64
58
95
89
83
80
77
71
65
60
54
95
89
83
80
77
71
65
60
54
Ldn
100
94
88
85
82
76
70
65
59
L (24)
eq
98
92
86
83
80
74
68
62
56
Distance (feet)L (1)L, L (24) L
eq dn eq
50
100
200
300
400
800
1,600
3,200
6,400
EPA recommends that yearly averaged outdoor L(jn values not exceed 55
dBA in order to protect public health and welfare with an adequate margin of
safety where there are sensitive land uses. Examples include residential
districts and recreational areas. The worst-case situation in Example 1
would produce noise levels in excess of the EPA-recommended limit at
sensitive receptors located within about 1 mile of the source.
Given the temporary nature of surface mining operations, it is not likely
that the hypothetical worst-case values will be experienced at a given
Ldn
106
100
94
91
88
82
76
71
65
L (24)
eq
100
94
88
85
82
76
70
64
58
5-96
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sensitive receptor for an entire year. Moreover, SMCRA bans mining within
300 feet of sensitive receptors.
Example 2. Underground Mine Vent Fan
Assuming the same background conditions and computation methods as in
Example 1, the noise impacts produced by a underground mine can be
illustrated. The dominant surface noise source at the underground mine can
be assumed to be the vent fan, which must be operated continuously, 24 hours
per day until the mine is abandoned (unless a special permit is granted to
shut down the fan). Assuming that the vent fan generates 59 dBA at
1,500 feet (Table 5-22), then:
Distance (feet) Leq^24) Ldn
188 77 83
375 71 77
750 65 71
1,500 59 65
3,000 53 59
6,000 47 53
In Example 2 the noise levels at sensitive receptors surrounding the mine
may exceed the averaged yearly L^n of 55 dBA recommended by EPA within
about 1 mile of the mine fan site.
Example 3. Coal Preparation Operations
Assuming the same background conditions and computation methods as in
Examples 1 and 2, the noise impact from coal preparation activities can be
assessed hypothetic ally based on a noise level of 81 dBA at 150 feet
(Table 5-22):
One 8-hr shift Two 8-hr shifts _, 0 , , .-
/-, T \ i-, 11 N Three 8-hr shifts
(7 am-3 pm; (7 am-11 pm)
Distance
(feet)
150 81 76 81 87
300 75 70 75 81
600 69 65 69 75
1,200 63 59 64 69
2,400 57 56 57 64
4,800 55 55 56 61
As in the two preceding examples, the EPA-recommended yearly average
Ldn °f 55 dBA would be exceeded at sensitive receptors less than 1 mile
from the preparation plant, particularly if the plant operates two or three
shifts every day during the year.
All of the illustrative calculations are approximate, and modifications
in the assumptions concerning background noise levels and the behavior of
noise with distance would be appropriate in actual cases. Mobile equipment
5-97
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will be dispersed across a surface mine site, rather than concentrated in a
tight circle at the boundary. Vegetation and intervening ridges will reduce
the noise experienced at a receptor to levels less than those expected on
the basis of distance decay. Conversely, highwalls may serve as sound
reflectors, increasing the values actually measured above those expected at
a given distance.
As part of the New Source NEPA review process, EPA will check to see
whether any sensitive receptors (such as residences, parks, campgrounds, or
schools) are present within a 1-mile radius of the proposed facility. If
so, EPA will request the applicant to furnish data concerning his proposed
noise sources and to project noise levels at the sensitive receptors.
During the public notice period affected persons will have the opportunity
to express concerns regarding future noise levels to EPA.
On a case-by-case basis EPA may condition New Source NPDES permits to
insure that noise levels do not cause unacceptable levels. Measures that
may be imposed include limitation of operations to one or two shifts and/or
to seasons when impacts would be least (surface mines and coal preparation
plants), specification of maximum permissable noise ratings or less exposed
locations for mine vent fans (underground mines), or additional buffer zones
beyond those mandated by SMCRA.
Off-site haul truck noise on public roadways will not be regulated as
part of the NPDES permit process. Pursuant to the Noise Control Act of
1972, EPA has set maximum noise standards for trucks of 10,000 Ibs gross
vehicle weight or larger that are used in interstate commerce (40 CFR 202;
38 FR 144: 20059-20221, July 27, 1973). The passby standards are 86 dB(A)
at 50 feet and 35 mph posted speed and 90 dBA at 50 feet and 55 mph. For
the stationary runup test, EPA uses a standard of 88 dBA at 50 feet.
The most appropriate governmental level at which local truck traffic
noise can be addressed is that of the municipality, which can set local
speed limits to control both noise and vibration. EPA provides technical
assistance both to the States that seek to develop intrastate standards and
to municipalities through its Quiet Communities Program.
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5.5 Cultural and Visual Resource Impacts and
Mitigations
-------
Page
5.5. Cultural Resource and Visual Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-99
5.5.1. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources 5-99
- Historic Structures and Properties
5.5.1.1. Primary Impacts 5-99
5.5.1.2. Secondary Impacts 5-100
5.5.1.3. Mitigation 5-100
5.5.2. Potential Impact of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources 5-102
- Archaelogical Resources
5.5.2.1. Primary Impacts 5-102
5.5.2.2. Secondary Impacts 5-102
5.5.2.3. Data Available and Need for Supplementation 5-102
5.5.2.4. Mitigation 5-104
5.5.3. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual Resources 5-105
5.5.3.1. Mining Impacts 5-105
5.5.3.2. Mitigative Measures for Impacts on Primary 5-106
Visual Resources
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5.5. CULTURAL RESOURCE AND VISUAL RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
5.5.1. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources - Historic
Structures and Properties
5.5.1.1. Primary Impacts
Primary impacts on historic resources are those that would result from
construction or operation of coal mines or related facilities. These
resources may include historic sites, properties, structures, or objects
that are listed on or determined eligible for the National Register of
Historic Places. Should coal mining activities result in primary impacts to
known historic properties presently listed on or determined eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places, or to sites that are determined
eligible as a result of mitigative investigation, Section 106 proceedings,
as outlined in the US Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of
Historic and Cultural Properties, must take place. These requirements must
be met, regardless of NEPA and USOSM requirements (see Section 4.2.).
Primary or direct impacts of New Source coal mining on historic
resources may be beneficial or adverse. Beneficial effects of New Source
coal mining activities are those which improve the aesthetic setting of
historic structures, or enhance the surrounding landscape. Adverse effects
are more common and may consist of one or more of the following (36 CFR 800
as amended):
• Destruction or alteration of all or part of a property
• Isolation from or alteration of its surrounding environment
• Introduction of visual, audible, or atmospheric elements
that are out of character with the property or alter its
setting
• Transfer or sale of a Federally-owned property without
adequate conditions or restrictions regarding
preservation, maintenance, or use
• Neglect of a property resulting in its deterioration or
destruction.
To date, few surveys have been conducted in the Basin to identify those
historic places that presently are not listed on but may be eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places. Cultural resources on a mine site not
listed on or nominated for the National Register and not recognized during
the permit review process are likely to be destroyed during any mining
activity that significantly alters the land surface.
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5.5.1.2. Secondary Impacts
Secondary impacts are those beneficial or adverse affects that may
occur indirectly as a result of New Source coal mining activities.
Secondary adverse impacts of a proposed project on historic resources can
include the indirect impacts that result from induced related growth, such
as subsidiary industrial development, development related to distribution
and marketing of coal, or housing development. Development related to coal
mining or alteration of open space surrounding known historic structures and
constituting an integral part of their historic setting potentially may
diminish the historic integrity of such properties. Similarly, alteration
of the character of designated or potential historic districts by the intro-
duction of structures, objects, or land uses that are incompatible with the
historic setting and buildings of the district constitutes an adverse impact
on the historic quality of the district. Occasionally, induced growth and
industrialization increase pressures to demolish historic buildings in order
to make way for new development. Should coal mining activities result in
indirect effects on historic resources that are listed on or eligible for
the National Register, compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic
Preservation Act is required.
5.5.1.3. Mitigation
In order to identify all historic structures, properties, and places
that may be eligible for the National Register of Historic Places and that
may be affected adversely by coal mining operations, a mechanism is needed
to ensure that any necessary visual surveys will be conducted, and that
significant resources will be identified prior to issuance of New Source
NPDES permits. The present Federally (partially funded by USHCRS) supported
State Historic Preservation Plan in West Virginia is incomplete. Only a few
of the potentially significant historic places in the Monongahela River
Basin have been surveyed, evaluated, and/or nominated to the National
Register of Historic Places. Thus the mapping of known historic resources
may not be sufficient to guarantee adequate consideration and protection of
all historic resources that may be eligible for the National Register of
Historic Places and may not satisfy requirements of Executive Order 11593.
Additional studies may be required to assure recognition and protection of
all significant historic resources.
The State Historic Preservation Officer is the mandated administrator
of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, in the State
of West Virginia. As such, the SHPO maintains responsibility for National
Register and National Register eligible sites as well as substantial file
data not made available for EPA use (see Section 2.5.). Hence EPA Region
III will contact the SHPO concerning each application for New Source NPDES
permit. This SHPO contact immediately will follow EPA's examination of
their 1:24,000-scale environmental inventory maps sets to determine proxi-
mity to and potential impact on Overlay 1 mapped sites. The SHPO then will
advise EPA of (1) the possibility that important historic resources will be
impacted by the coal mining activities proposed for a Federal permit (based
on EPA data, State files, or any other information), and (2) whether
on-the-ground surveys will be required to locate and evaluate such resources
5-100
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if data are lacking. The SHPO will evaluate whether an historic place that
satisfies Criteria of Eligibility for the National Register of Historic
Places in and adjacent to the permit area for the mining operation will be
impacted significantly. This finding will be considered carefully by EPA
during NPDES permit review to comply with Section 106 procedures. Recommen-
dations made here are adequate to satisfy requirements of the USOSM regula-
tory programs as well (i.e. the SHPO will provide the same information to
both EPA and USOSM).
Early notification of New Source coal mine permit applications received
by EPA will be accomplished through monthly publication in EPA ALERT. This
notification will be sent directly to Mr. Clarence Moran (SHPO) and Mr.
Roger Wise (State Archaeologist). Also, EPA formally will alert the SHPO
and State Archaeologist to the proposed action (the draft NPDES permit)
during the 30 day public notice period. If a reply is not received prior to
the close of the public notice period, EPA will assume that the SHPO and
State Archaeologist have reviewed the proposed action and have no comments
on potential cultural resource impacts.
The SHPO is familiar with the amount of survey work previously
conducted in the vicinity of each potential minesite in West Virginia, for
which a permit is sought. Should there be insufficient available informa-
tion regarding historic resources of the area, the SHPO may recommend that a
historic resources survey be conducted by the applicant. The SHPO also is
authorized under the US Advisory Council Procedures for the Protection of
Historic and Cultural Properties (36 CFR 800 as amended) to delineate the
area of impact of any New Source coal mine.
Such surveys may be expedited in several ways. Applicants for coal
mining NPDES permits may wish to retain cultural historians as consultants.
Thus, should the need for a survey arise, such work could be initiated by
the applicant without time-consuming contract negotiations. Additional
Federal grant monies may be applied for by the SHPO's office to support
State-appointed regional cultural historians. Such experts could be
supported by Federal monies authorized to the State of West Virginia under
the National Historical Preservation Act of 1966. Regional cultural
historians, which act for the SHPO's office, could be available for brief
reconnaissance of coal mine sites.
If the applicant is required by the SHPO and EPA to conduct a survey of
a mine site and if resources that may be eligible for the National Register
of Historic Places are identified, concurrence with such a determination
should be sought by the applicant from the SHPO. If the SHPO concurs,
nomination forms should be submitted by the SHPO to the US Secretary of the
Interior for a determination of eligibility for the National Register of
Historic Places. The Secretary's opinion will be final.
If significant resources are identified that will be affected by coal
mining operations, several options are available as mitigation. The SHPO,
the appropriate EPA officials, and the Executive Director of the US Advisory
5-101
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Council are required under US Advisory Council Procedures (36 CFR 800) to
confer and decide upon appropriate mitigations on a case-by-case basis.
Such mitigations can range from permit conditions that require the avoidance
of disturbance to the historic structure (if demolition is indicated) to
planting of trees and shrubs to screen the mining activities from the
historic property in order to retain its historic setting. When mitigations
have been agreed upon, a Memorandum of Agreement concerning the necessary
NPDES permit conditions will be executed formally. If mitigations either
cannot be identified or if the applicant will not accede to permit:
conditions required, the New Source permit will not be issued by EPA.
5.5.2. Potential Impact of Coal Mining on Cultural Resources -
Archaeological Resources
5.5.2.1. Primary Impacts
Primary impacts to archaeological resources may occur wherever the
ground surface will be disturbed by construction activities associated with
coal mining facilities. Any activity that will result in total or partial
destruction, disturbance to, or disruption of information contained within
or related to an archaeological site may be considered to be a primary
impact on the archaeological resource.
Historic and archaeological resources are highly susceptible to damage
by the mining of coal, particularly by surface mining that entails an exten-
sive modification of large surface areas. Mine pits, roads, and fills
frequently encompass several landforms, all or any of which may contain
archaeological sites .
Site accessibility may be reduced when spoil heaps accumulate over
sites. Surface or near-surface sites will be destroyed. More deeply buried
sites may not be disturbed significantly by stratification from waste
dumping, but such inaccessibility is tantamount to destruction.
5.5.2.2. Secondary Impacts
Beneficial impacts of coal mining may include road construction that
provides greater access to archaeological resources for scientific investi-
gation, and a possible increase in the site location data base, if surveys
are made during the permit application process. Enhancement of the positive
aspects can be accomplished if archaeological sites adjacent to coal mine
permit areas are formally registered with the SHPO. If unreistricted access
is provided to looters and vandals, however, the potential scientific
benefits from the added roads can be negated.
5.5.2.3. Data Available and Need for Supplementation
Comprehensive archaeological surveys have not been conducted on a
Statewide basis. The WVGES-Archaeology Section maintains a central State
file of previous surveys undertaken in the Monongahela River Basin. Limited
5-102
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information has been published, and other archaeological data may be on file
at some universities.
With some exceptions, archaeological resources recorded by the WVGES-
Archaeology Section have not been field tested or evaluated for their
National Register potential. Also, site distributions and variability for
the Monongahela River Basin are considered moderately to poorly known
because of the limited amount of survey work conducted in the Basin and in
the State. Site-specific surveys may be required by the SHPO and EPA to
supplement existing data for the following reasons:
• West Virginia's known and registered archaeological sites
represent only a small fraction of the potential total
number of prehistoric and historic archaeological sites
that are believed to exist. Entire classes of site types,
such as ridge-top and "bear wallow" sites, are almost
unrepresented in the catalogs. Obviously, it is possible
that many more archaeological sites exist but are not
listed in National, State, or any other files. Data gap
areas cannot be treated as areas with no resource values;
they therefore require additional field investigations,
application of substantial local insight, and/or use of
predictive models to evaluate potential adverse impacts
(at this time application of predictive models is not
practicable).
• Only those cultural resources that satisfy Criteria of
Eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places
and ultimately have been determined eligible by the US
Secretary of the Interior warrant protection under current
Federal historic preservation legislation. Evaluated
sites and unevaluated sites are mapped in the State files
and by inference are accorded equal protection. A
substantial number of known recorded cultural resources
may not be of National Register quality. At the same
time, there is a high probability that numerous, signifi-
cant, unrecorded resources, potentially eligible for the
National Register of Historic Places, occur in the
Monongahela River Basin. Because these State files were
not made available and were not reviewed, serious data
base questions remain.
• No mechanism is provided for identifying unknown
resources. There is a need for case-by-case professional
evaluation of identified cultural resources when such
resources may be affected by a proposed mine and selection
of only those that warrant protection.
5-103
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• There is a high probability that, in many cases, the frequencies of
recorded sites related to certain landforms, altitudes, and
environmental zones are as much a function of former unsystematic
survey and reporting methods as of actual site densities and
distributions.
5.5.2.4. Mitigation
The EPA review procedure for potential impacts on archaeological
resources is similar to that used for historic structures and properties.
Upon receipt of a New Source permit application, EPA will examine the
1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets (Overlay 1) that show the
locations of known archaeological sites listed on (or eligible for) the
National Register of Historic Places. Early notification of New Source coal
mine permit applications received by EPA will be accomplished through
monthly publication in EPA ALERT. This notification will be sent directly
to Mr. Clarence Moran (SHPO) and Mr. Roger Wise (State Archaeologist). The
SHPO will be expected to identify potential impacts on known archaeological
resources, to recommend special NPDES permit conditions to protect signifi-
cant archaeological resources, and/or to recommend on-the-ground surveys to
identify unknown archaeological resources, as appropriate. If a reply is
not received from the SHPO and State Archaeologist during the public notice
period, EPA will assume that the SHPO and State Archaeologist have reviewed
the proposed action and have no comments on potential cultural resource
impacts.
In general EPA recommends to applicants that an on-ground survey by a
qualified archaeologist be conducted early in the mine planning process.
Such a survey may minimize potential processing delays, if the SHPO requires
an original survey, and if significant resources are identified on or
adjacent to a permit area.
If archaeological resources that may be eligible for the National
Register of Historic Places are identified during surveys, nomination forms
should be submitted by the applicant to the SHPO. Resources considered
eligible by the SHPO then are forwarded by him to the US Secretary of the
Interior for a determination of eligibility. If eligible, mitigative
measures probably will be necessary where significant National Register
archaeological resources potentially would be affected by proposed mining
operations. EPA officials, the US Advisory Council, and the SHPO are
required to confer and develop appropriate mitigative measures on a case-by-
case basis. If mitigations either cannot be identified or if the applicant
will not agree to the permit conditions required, the New Source permit will
not be issued by EPA.
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5.5.3. Potential Impacts of Coal Mining on Visual Resources
5.5.3.1. Mining Impacts
Impacts of coal mining on visual resources are influenced by the type
of mining activity proposed, the natural characteristics of the site, and
the proximity of primary visual resources. The potential for adverse impact
is especially important to recognize, especially if coal mining activities
increase significantly, more areas are disturbed, and more expensive lands
closer to developed areas (and therefore more visible) can be affordably
-nined as the price of coal increases.
Historically, unregulated mining activities of all types (surface and
underground) have affected visual resources adversely. Where old surface
mines were abandoned prior to the implementation of current laws, the long-
term scars from mining are quite apparent. Highwalls are prominent; spoil
may be heaped in irregular piles on the downs lopes below the excavation
bench; and little or no vegetation may have recolonized the area. In the
past improper abandonment of strip mining sites, coal preparation plants,
and tipple sites have created:
• Disturbed landscapes resulting from improper reclamation
or lack of reclamation
• Improperly handled waste stock piles
• Abandoned and derelict equipment and structures.
Requirements of WVDNR-Reclamation and USOSM (return to approximate original
contour, for example) have reduced the potential for significant adverse
impacts. Furthermore, many areas that can be expected to be mined in the
future will be in areas not accessible or visible to tourists or to local
residents. These lands, privately owned, often are posted against trespass
and typically are not viewed publicly. During mining operations the public
is excluded for safety reasons; before and after mining, exclusion of the
public is a prerogative of the surface landowner. Nevertheless, currently
regulated mining activity, particularly surface mining, can affect adversely
visual resources in areas that are near public roadways and are within view
of scenic overlooks.
Surface mining typically is conducted along the contour of the
mountainsides high above the valley floor and takes place in side hollows,
removed from major public roads. The actual pit operations are not
attractive, and all vegetation is removed before the overburden is stripped
from the coal. Sites reclaimed and revegetated in accordance with current
State and Federal standards usually resemble grassy pastures with somewhat
steeper slopes than those originally present. The return of scrub and
forest vegetation to mined lands is a slow process. In a few places, sur-
face mines are visible at a considerable distance from public roads that
extend along high ridges. Currently, mountaintop removal operations in the
Basin are not readily observable but they can bring substantial topographic
changes with visual resource impacts. Often, mining activities cannot be
seen from adjacent or nearby roads situated in steeply sloping valleys, but
are visible from more distant roadways, overlooks or other viewpoints.
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The storage and disposal of the mining wastes is another visual
intrusion created by surface mining. Mine dumps, tailing ponds, and spoil
piles cause disturbances of land form and vegetation creating visual
contrasts. These waste areas tend to be located near the coal-preparation
plants that may be located along public roadways. These plants also cause
visibility problems resulting from the emission of fugitive dust and exhaust
fumes. Dust and fumes create localized haze and discoloration of the
atmosphere, visible from long distances as well as from the site vicinity.
Structures associated with these plants also cause some intrusion because of
their height and possible poor state of repair. Conveyor systems and
transmission lines leading in and out of the preparation plants traverse the
landscape, disturbing vegetative cover.
5.5.3.2. Mitigative Measures for Impacts on Primary Visual Resources
The sensitive area that is associated with a prime visual resource is
defined by the vista that is presented to visitors to the resource. In many
cases in the Basin, vistas extend beyond the limits of public lands and into
private lands with coal resources. Furthermore, the severity of these
impacts is a function of the amount of time needed for the mining site to
return to the point where it is similar to its original state and blends in
with the surrounding landscape.
When New Source permit applications for new mining operations are
reviewed by EPA personnel, consideration will be given to potential impacts
on primary visual resources at minimum. Table 2-45 (see Section 2.5) will
be consulted to determine existence of primary visual resources and
potential adverse impacts on these resources. To determine the potential
adverse impact on primary visual resources, an assessment of visibility will
be required. This assessment is executed in a straight-forward manner
through topographic analysis. All proposed mining activity, including pits,
spoil areas, coal haul roads, preparation plants, conveyors, tipples, and so
forth, are first located on the topographic base map and then evaluated in
terms of primary visual resource points of access or user potential. In
effect, EPA will ascertain if these primary visual resources are "down
basin" or "down slope" from proposed mining activity and judge whether or
not these activities will be visible from these primary visual resources
(and their access points such as State Park roads, overlooks, and so forth).
This assessment of visibility assumes no special mitigations, buffering, or
special circumstance and serves to identify potential adverse impact.
If the determination of visibility indicates potential for adverse
impact, the permit applicant is responsible for demonstrating that signifi-
cant adverse impacts will not occur. This demonstration may be accomplished
by the applicant's detailed analysis of proposed mining activity and
potentially affected primary visual resources. The applicant's detailed
analysis may indicate that, because of specific attributes of the mining
5-106
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proposal and site (e.g., timing, buffering of deciduous and evergreen
vegetation, and effective use of mitigations on a long and short-term basis)
as well as attributes of the primary visual resources (patterns of use, for
example), significant adverse impacts will not result. This requirement
essentially is a request for additional information from the applicant.
Because of the relative scarcity of primary visual resources in the Basin,
this requirement will be made by EPA relatively infrequently. The appli-
cant's additional information also should be supplied or copied to the
agency/entity responsible for the primary visual resource (WVDNR-Parks and
Recreation, WVDNR-HTP, and so forth) for notification of and concurrence
with potential adverse impacts and their mitigation. If no such
agency/entity has been designated, special mention of this potential impact
issue should be included in the advertisement for the public notice period.
If potential adverse impacts either can be avoided or mitigated without
disagreement, EPA will proceed with permit issuance. The permit may require
conditioning, if the applicant proposes the use of specific mitigative
measures to minimize primary visual resource impacts. Examples of specific
mitigative measures are given below. If the applicant is unable or
unwilling to demonstrate mechanisms to avoid potential adverse impacts on
these resources and/or responsible agencies/entities do not concur with
avoidance of potential adverse impacts, then EPA will require additional
detailed evaluations, meetings, mitigations, and alternatives to the
proposed action.
Although it would not be appropriate for EPA to dictate the specific
approach to be used in the applicant's demonstration of no significant
adverse impact or of effective mitigation, applicants may choose to utilize
all or a portion of the following:
• Use of a landscape architect to undertake recommended
detailed studies
• Preparation of photographic inventories from primary
visual resource perspectives for all seasons
• Preparation of profiles for analyzing visibility of
proposed mine activity locations from resource points
• Clarification of long-term versus short-term primary
visual resource impacts
• Introduction of mixed vegetative species to avoid a
monoculture effect
• Use of native species to reduce the color and texture
contrasts of incompatible species
• Design of irregular clearing edges to avoid unnatural
appearing straight lines and opening configurations
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• Introduction of woody plants other than grasses to serve a
variety of functions such as to provide wind breaks;
provide wildlife habitats; absorb solar radiation;
attentuate noise; control circulation; provide shade;
separate incompatible uses; modify vegetative edges for
smooth visual transition; screen undesirable features from
view; mask visual contrast in form, line, color or
texture; and many more (Tuttle 1980)
• Use of shoreline configuration of sediment basins with
flowing irregular lines, rather than geometric shapes as
is common practice, whenever possible. Natural vegetation
should be planted at the water's edge.
• Siting of structures in accord with existing topography
and vegetation; natural screening is preferable and should
be investigated as an inexpensive technique
• Selection of rights-of-way for transmission towers arid
conveyor systems that are sited to preserve the natural
landscape and minimize conflicts with present and future
land use schemes
• Use of joint rights-of-way should be utilized in a common
corridor whenever feasible
• Design of rights-of-way to avoid heavily timbered areas,
steep slopes, proximity to main highways, shelter belts
and scenic areas
• Placing of overhead lines and conveyors beyond the ridges
or timbered areas where ridges or timber areas are
adjacent to public view
• Consideration of underground placement
• Use of long spans when crossing roadways to retain natural
growth and provide screening from view in forested areas
• Design of power line rights-of-way to approach highways,
valleys, hills, and ridges diagonally
• Placing of transmission lines and conveyors part way up
slopes to provide a background of topography and/or
natural vegetation as well as to screen them from public
view whenever possible
• Avoidance of placing towers and conveyors at the crest of
hills and ridges
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• Use of irregular patterns of rights-of-way through scenic
forest or timber areas to prevent long corridors
• Use of right-of-way clearings that maximize preservation
of natural beauty, conservation of natural resources, and
minimize scarring the landscape (USDI and USDA 1970).
This proposed process requires no special mechanism for treating
unrecorded primary visual resources (data gap areas) or secondary visual
resources such as Basin landscapes. During the required public notice
period, EPA may receive comment on these issues, potentially requiring use
of special mitigative measures on the part of the applicant (i.e.
designating the area as a Mitigation Area) or, in the extreme, requiring a
PSIA designation.
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5.6 Human Resource and Land Use
Impacts and Mitigations
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Page
5.6. Human Resources and Land Use 5-111
5.6.1. General Background 5-111
5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Significant 5-112
Human Resource and Land Use Impacts
5.6.2.1. Macroscale Socioeconomic Impacts 5-113
5.6.2.2. Transportation Impacts 5-117
5.6.2.3. Land Use Impacts 5-118
5.6.3. Special Considerations for Detailed Impact and 5-121
Mitigation Scoping
5.6.4. Employment and Population Impacts and Mitigative 5-122
Measures
5.6.4.1. Boom and Bust Cycles in Coal Production 5-126
and Lack of a Compensating Economic Base
5.6.5. Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse Impacts 5-127
5.6.5.1. Direct Corporate Mitigations 5-130
5.6.5.2. Indirect Corporate Mitigations 5-132
5.6.5.3. State, Federal, and Local Governmental 5-132
Mitigations
5.6.6. Transportation Impacts and Mitigative Measures 5-134
5.6.6.1. Roads 5-134
5.6.6.2. Railroads 5-136
5.6.7. Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigations 5-137
of Adverse Impacts
5.6.7.1. Health Care 5-137
5.6.7.2. Education 5-139
5.6.7.3. Public Safety 5-140
5.6.7.4. Recreation 5-140
5.6.7.5. Water and Sewer Services 5-140
5.6.7.6. General Community Fiscal Impacts 5-141
5.6.8. Indirect Land Use Impacts 5-143
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5.6. HUMAN RESOURCES AND LAND USE
This section first describes the probable nature of coal mining
impacts on human resources and land uses in the Monongahela River Basin.
Then, it outlines a method whereby EPA can identify or screen proposed
operations that may entail adverse effects if no coordination or direct
raitigative measures are undertaken. Next, EPA special notification
procedures for use in such cases are indicated. If, after all notification
and coordination actions are taken by EPA for those operations screened as
potentially adverse, there remains substantial concern regarding potential
adverse impacts, more detailed analyses (such as EIS's) can be undertaken.
Finally, potential impacts and mitigations are discussed in greater detail,
for the purposes of scoping such detailed analyses.
5 .6 .1. General Background
In general, the expansion of the coal industry in the Basin should not
bring serious negative social and economic impacts such as those that have
occurred in the West, where major new coal mines and other energy-related
projects bring sudden change to sparsely populated areas (USGAO 1977).
Eastern coal areas such as the Monongahela River Basin will derive
relatively great net human resource benefits from increased coal development
because of their traditionally high unemployment and depressed economies.
The overall economic situation can be expected to improve, at least
temporarily, as new mining and mining-related jobs are created. This can be
an important step toward reducing the socioeconomic problems that the area
has experienced (USGAO 1977b) . For example, coal development that occurred
during the 1970's resulted in significant relative income gains for the
Mononghela River Basin although income levels are still below the National
average (see Section 2.6).
Local conditions greatly influence the impacts of new coal raining and
processing facilities (Van Zele 1979). Local familarity is by far the most
important factor in forecasting the nature and magnitude of potential
impacts. This was shown by a recent model of the local socioeconomic and
fiscal impacts of new mining activity in Wayne County (southern West
Virginia) conducted by Argonne National Laboratory (Verbally, Mr. Dan
Santini, Argonne National Laboratory, to Dr. Phillip D. Phillips, May 6,
1980).
Three major factors that affect the nature and severity of the local
impacts of increased coal mining were described in a report prepared by the
USOTA (1979):
• The current residual deficit in community facilities
• The problem of continued uneven coal demand as it
affects particular communities or sub-State areas
• The rapidity of coal development.
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USOTA concluded that "the social, political, and economic effects of coal
mining have been most severe where communities were totally dependent on
coal, where the terrain was inhospitable to other activity, and where mining
was the principal socializing force in community life". Various other
studies also have indicated that the negative impacts of new coal mining
typically are severe:
• In sparsely populated areas (USGAO 1977, Argonne National
Laboratory 1978)
• In areas with low levels of urban population (USGAO 1977)
• In areas where the number of employees in the new mine or
mines is large in relation to the existing population
(Cortese and Jones 1979)
• In areas where the buildup in employment in the new mine
is rapid, the period of mine operation is short, or the
mine shutdown is rapid (Cortese and Jones 1979) .
Communities that have had a long history of economic and population
decline generally welcome a major new development, at least initially. As
negative impacts become apparent, however, community attitudes may become
less enthusiastic (Gilmore 1976). Moreover, the ability of a community to
benefit from coal-related development depends to a great extent on the
nature of the community's existing economic and fiscal problems. Where
existing problems already are evident, coal-related development will
generally produce more serious negative impacts (USOTA 1979). An especially
serious problem for sparsely populated areas and areas with long-standing
economic problems is how to find another economic base after the mine or
processing plant reaches the end of its lifespan and closes (Cortese and
Jones 1979).
Early notification to the local government concerning coal development
plans is a major factor in helping communities to prepare for such
development (Cortese and Jones 1979). To the extent that coal operators
recognize the value of advance community planning for impacts, they can seek
to inform local communities of proposed development projects (USGAO 1977).
In addition to the problems caused by the lack of prior information, many
communities are handicapped by the lack of local planning capabilities (see
Section 2.6).
5.6.2. EPA Screening Procedure for Potentially Significant Human Resource
and Land Use Impacts
This section first describes how EPA can screen significant adverse
socioeconomic impacts on a macroscale. Then, it sketches the screening
procedure for microscale (site-related) impacts on transportation and
adjoining land uses.
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5.6.2.1. Macroscale Sqcioeconomic Impacts
Impacts of new coal mining and processing facilities on overall
employment, population growth, provision of housing, need for developed
land, and governmental expenditures for services and facilities are closely
related, as indicated by Figure 2-34 in Section 2.6, Based on the data
presented in Section 2.6. and the information about impacts that is detailed
in this section, equations can be constructed. The maximum potential impact
(in dollars) of a new mining operation on employment, population, housing,
land use, and governmental expenditures in the Monongahela River Basin may
be represented by the following equations:
(Em) (B/T) = TE (1)
(TE) (T/P) = P (2)
P r 0 = DU (3)
(P) (0.16) = LU (4)
(P) (C) (i) = G (5)
where:
Em = new employment in the proposed mine or processing
plant, as adjusted for existing unemployment. An
estimate of employment at full operation is to be
obtained from the applicant (required on NPDES short
Form C).
B/T = the basic employment/total employment ratio, which is
1:3.46 in the Monongahela River Basin (derived in
Section 2.6.)
TE = total new employment generated by a new mine or
preparation plant
T/P = the total employment/population ratio, which is
1:3.02 for the Monongahela River Basin (derived in
Section 2.6.)
P = total potential population increase generated by a
new mine or preparation plant
0 = the occupancy rate for dwellings in the Monongahela
River Basin, which is 3.0 persons per occupied
dwelling (1970)
DU = the total additional demand for dwelling units
generated by a new mine or preparation plant
0.16 = the acres of additional developed land that is
required for each new resident (land absorption
coefficient derived based on information in Section
2.6.)
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LU = the total acres of developed land that is required
for the total potential population increase
C = the cost of government services and infrastructure
per capita for a new mining operation or preparation
plant (in 1975 dollars, the cost per capita is
$3,121, as explained in Section 5.6.7.6.)
i = an inflation factor, which is the current consumer
price index divided by the 1975 consumer price index
(values for this factor may be obtained from the
USBLS)
G = the total potential for additional governmental
expenditures.
This sequence of equations is easier to understand if they are used on an
example of a new mining operation. Assume that a new mine will employ 700
persons at full operation. Also assume that for this example the inflation
factor (i) is 1.5. Thus, Em = 700, and
Total new employment (TE), using Equation 1 =
(700K3.46) = 2,422
Total potential population increase (?), using Equation 2 =
(2,422)(3.02) = 7,314
Total additional demand for dwelling units (DU), using
Equation 3 =
7 > 314 = 2,438
3.0
Total potential demand for additional developed land (LU),
using
Equation 4 = (2,438)(0.16) = 390 acres
Total potential for additional governmental expenditure, with
assumed 50% increase in consumer price index 1975 to date of
analysis, (LT), using Equation 5 = (7 ,314)(3,121)(1.5) =
$34,240,491.
The calculations presented above indicate the maximum potential
financial impact must be reduced to reflect the following offsetting
factors: the increase in mining employment (Em) should be discounted by
the number of currently unemployed miners in the host county. WVDES (Mr.
Ralph Halsted) will provide an estimate for the number of unemployed miners
at the time of analysis. In the example above, if there were 300 unemployed
miners in the host county, Em would be reduced from 700 to 400.
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The current unemployment that exceeds 4% (the assumed frictional
unemployment level) for non-miners in the host county should be subtracted
from the total potential new employment (TE) generated. In the example
above, if the host-county, non-mining labor force were 10,000, of whom 1,000
(10%) were unemployed, a total of 600 (1,000 - 400 = 600) unemployed persons
should be considered as available to fill jobs stimulated by the new mining
operation. WVDES (Mr. Ralph Halsted) will provide the most recent data on
non-mining unemployment.
EPA will consider a single new mining operation to have potentially
significant impacts on human resources if it generates a 5% or greater
increase in population, employment, dwelling units, or need for developed
land within a given county. This criterion is intended to provide a rough
estimate of the size of mining operation that may produce significant
adverse impacts. The cutoff values for new mine employment that generates
total employment, as well as population, dwelling unit, and land use demands
which all result in potentially significant impacts are presented in Table
5-24. These values were derived using the equations presented in this
section. These cutoff values assume that 80% of all employment and other
impacts will occur in the county where the mine is situated.
Cumulative impacts also will be analyzed on the basis of this
framework. Thus, if two or more permit applications together create the
potential for new employment that will exceed the threshold value during a
12-month period, EPA will consider these impacts as potentially significant.
In an area like West Virginia, which has traditionally been characterized by
many small mines (as compared to the western US), cumulative significant
impacts may occur frequently, even though individual mines or processing
plants rarely exceed the threshold values presented in Table 5-24.
When an identified threshold is exceeded (and, thus, when potentially
significant adverse impacts on human resources have been screened), EPA will
notify the appropriate Regional Planning and Development Council (see
Section 4.4) and request their estimate concerning the severity of the
potential adverse impacts, the conformance of the potential project with
local plans and policies, and any specific mitigative measures that may be
undertaken by local agencies or recommended as New Source NPDES permit
conditions. This notification will be undertaken by EPA in writing. The
councils will be given ample time to exercise their A-95 review
responsibilities.
EPA1s primary objective in notifying RPDC's is to verify the nature and
extent of the potential human resource impacts as well as to specify
mitigative measures or permit conditions recommended for issuing permits.
These permit conditions may require that the applicant commit himself to
mitigations directly or indirectly. For example, if a housing shortage is
exacerbated, the applicant may commit himself to providing additional
housing units directly or may present a demonstration from a relevant
agency/party that such housing is committed. In any case, EPA expects to
receive more detailed information upon which to evaluate the permit.
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Table 5-24.
Employment thresholds for potentially significant mining
impacts in the Monongahela River Basin (see text for method of
calculation). Minimum threshold value of estimated employment
for each county is underlined.
ADDITIONAL MINE OR PREPARATION PLANT EMPLOYMENT REQUIRED TO
PRODUCE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON:
County
Barbour
Harrison
Lewis
Marion
Monongalia
Preston
Randolph
Taylor
Tucker
Upshur
Total
Employment
75
495
107
413
481
115
143
55
35
98
Population
(1970)
92
449
121
376
401
161
155
91
45
126
Dwelling Units
(1970)
93
469
105
400
379
156
154
93
50
119
Developed
Land
80
485
125
371
327
157
184
85
62
105
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If the screening process suggests potentially significant adverse human
resource effects, if RPDC coordination corroborrates this showing, and if
mitigations cannot be or are not committed by the applicant, a potentially
significant impact has been identified and additional detailed study is
required. Sections 5.6.4. through 5.6.8. provide information that will help
specify the content of detailed studies. A good example of a detailed study
is the evaluation of the socioeconomic impacts of two new coal mines in
Wayne County, which was conducted by Argonne National Laboratory in
conjunction with the ARC (Argonne National Laboratory 1978). In the case of
the Wayne County study, the original request for the study was made by the
Wayne County Board through the WVGOECD; funding was provided by the ARC.
5.6.2.2. Transportation Impacts
Off-site transportation impacts are to be expected from new mining
operations, but these impacts are not addressed currently in the State or
Federal surface mining regulations. In EPA's review of New Source permit
applications, the major concern for transportation impacts is based on human
health, safety, and general welfare.
EPA will contact the appropriate transportation agencies on a case-by-
case basis when significant transportation issues have been identified
during the public comment period. Typically, the identification of
potential transportation impacts that are adverse may be accomplished
through written or oral comments from citizens, special interest groups, or
public agencies. When a New Source coal mine application has had
potentially adverse transportation impacts identified, the applicant will be
requested to provide the following information:
• Origin point of coal shipments to market by public road,
railroad, or waterway
• Destination point(s) of shipments by public road, rail-
road, or waterway (when known)
• Route(s) of shipment (when known)
• Volume of shipment by route and destination, in tons per
year average (when known).
EPA personnel then will contact the appropriate transportation
agencies, will provide to the agencies the information about transportation
that was submitted by the applicant, and will request that these agencies
evaluate potentially significant adverse impacts. Contacts with agencies
will be done on a case-by-case basis, depending upon the issues identified.
The transportation agencies that may be contacted to evaluate impacts
include:
• Railroads — West Virginia Rail Maintenance Authority
• Roads -- West Virginia Department of Highways.
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Again, if either the authorized transportation planning, and management
agency or RPDC verifies potentially significant adverse impacts that the
applicant cannot or will not mitigate, additional detailed analyses
(and possibly EIS's) will be required by EPA. An extended discussion of
potential transportation impacts and mitigations of adverse impacts is
provided in Section 5.6.6. and is provided for the purposes of planning
such detailed analyses.
5.6.2.3. Land Use Impacts
Potential land use impacts associated with New Source coal mining
include both direct impacts of the mining activity itself and indirect
impacts associated with the induced population growth that may be associated
with a new mine. The nature and severity of these impacts reflect a variety
of factors, including:
• The type of mining activity. Short-term surface mining
generally has a larger potential to produce direct land
use impacts on surrounding areas than long-term
underground mining with comparable production tonnage,
unless there is damage from subsidence. Underground
mining operations may produce greater induced population
growth impacts, because of the larger number of workers
required to produce a given tonnage.
• The physical characteristics of the specific site on which
the mine is located. Generally, impacts on surrounding
areas are potentially more severe when the site is steeply
sloping or is upslope or upstream from developed areas.
• The general land use characteristics of the area in which
a mine is located. Adverse secondary impacts of induced
population growth will be especially severe in areas of
steeply sloping terrain and concentrated land ownership
(see Section 2.6.).
Direct mining impacts on land use occur where the proposed mining
operation is incompatible with surrounding land uses. USOSM permanent
program regulations are designed to minimize these impacts by prohibiting
surface mining:
• Within 100 feet of a cemetery
• Within 300 feet of public buildings (schools, churches,
and community or institutional buildings)
• Within 300 feet of occupied residences (unless the consent
of the owner is given)
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• Within 100 feet of public roads except where the mine road
joins the public road, (exceptions are allowed following a
public hearing)
• Within National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, the
National System of Trails, Wilderness Areas, the National
Wild and Scenic Rivers System, and National Recreation
Areas
• On prime farmlands, unless there is special reclamation to
restore productivity following mining
• In State Parks
• In State Forests (except by underground methods)
• On State Public Hunting and Fishing Areas (except by
underground methods)
• In areas where the mining would adversely affect National
Register-eligible or listed historic sites (unless full
coordination is accomplished)
• In areas where a public park would be affected adversely
(unless the consent of the agency administering the park
is given).
Under the SMCRA permanent program regulations, mining may be banned at
the discretion of the regulatory authority where the regulatory authority
determines that the mining would:
• Be incompatible with land use plans
• Be damaging to important or fragile historic, cultural,
scientific, or aesthetic values (see Section 5.7.)
• Result in substantial loss of water supply or food or
fiber productivity
• Affect natural hazards that could endanger life and
property, including areas subject to frequent flooding and
areas of unstable slopes.
Mining activities may be incompatible with surrounding uses and
generate negative impacts, however, even if they are in conformance with
existing regulations. Factors that may lead to such incompatibility
include but are not limited to:
• Excessive noise from machinery, haul trucks, or blasting
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• Excessive vibration from machinery or haul trucks
• Fugitive dust
• Rockfalls and other forms of earth movement in the
vicinity of the mine site
• Aesthetic intrusion of mining in residential and
recreational areas or high-quality natural landscapes.
Certain uses are especially sensitive to mining impacts,. Such uses
include educational institutions, both public and private primary and
secondary schools, colleges and universities, and institutions designed for
exceptional populations (e.g., schools for those with learning disabilities
or other impairments). Other sensitive uses are:
• Health care facilities, including hospitals, clinics, and
nursing homes
• Public and private recreational facilities, including
parks, playgrounds, campgrounds, and fishing areas
• Governmental facilities, including all local, State or
Federal offices or installations
• Public meeting places, including churches, auditoriums,
and conference centers.
Because of the potential for significant adverse impacts to these
facilities, even when existing State and Federal mining regulations are
satisfied, EPA will request that the applicant identify (by name, address,
phone number, etc.) all sensitive uses and facilities (as described above)
within 2,000 feet of the boundary of the proposed operation. Then EPA will
notify all owners, managers, or other individuals responsible for the
operation of these sensitive facilities. (To avoid duplication of effort,
evidence of previous notification to any of these persons in connection with
other mining permits is acceptable to EPA.) This special notification
process is designed to ensure that operators of all such facilities are
aware of the proposed mining activity and are given the opportunity to make
responses to the mining proposal directly to EPA. Notification by EPA is to
contain all information found in the general public notice required pursuant
to SMCRA and WVSCMRA.
The use of this notification process will provide EPA with information
in addition to that received during the public comment period that is in
regard to permits that may impact sensitive facilities. Moreover, the list
of sensitive facilities within 2,000 feet of the proposed mining activity
will provide EPA with an adequate current data base for potential land use
and human resource impacts even in the event that no public response is
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received and the EPA permit reviewer determines that potential significant
adverse significant impacts may result. Because much of the new mining
activity in the Basin will take place in areas remote from sensitive land
uses, EPA expects that its notification requirements will affect only a
small proportion of New Source NPDES permit applicants.
5.6.3. Special Considerations for Detailed Impact and Mitigation Scoping
The assessment of specific human resource impacts of new coal-related
facilities and the development of mitigative measures for adverse impacts
are made difficult by a variety of factors, including:
• Secondary as well as primary impacts; for example,
increased employment in mining operations that generates
additional, secondary employment in service industries.
• Significant positive as well as negative impacts. In an
area with high unemployment, especially in the mining
sector, new mining activity substantially can reduce
unemployment. The additional income generated by new
mining employment also serves as a boost to the entire
economy of an area because of its secondary impacts.
• Human resource impacts have "spread effects"; that is,
they are regional in nature. Frequently, mine workers
commute as much as 50 miles (one way) to work. As a
result, economic, demographic, and land use impacts
associated with mine operation typically are spread over a
wide radius. This necessitates a regional approach to
impact analysis.
• Short-term variability in demographic, economic, and
financial characteristics stemming from rapid changes are
common in migration patterns, unemployment rates, and
governmental financial conditions.
• Lag times and lead times affect the prediction and
interpretation of impacts. Mitigative strategies can
counteract problems of impact timing, especially on local
governmental finances (see Section 5.6.7).
• Many human resource impacts involve measurement of
conditions that are difficult to quantify objectively,
such as quality of housing, adequacy of public services,
and local fiscal capability.
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• Institutional mitigations can offset adverse human
resource impacts, especially in housing supply and
government finance.
• The adverse impacts of an individual facility may not be
significant, but the cumulative impacts of several
facilities may be significant. Cumulative impacts must be
examined on a regional, as well as a local, basis because
of the "spread effect" described above.
The complexity and interactive nature of human resource impacts has led
to the development of sophisticated analytical models, including the Social
and Economic Assessment Model (SEAM) and the Spatial Allocation Model (SAM).
The implementation of these models is not necessary for the routine permit
review process to be conducted by EPA, but it may be useful for scoping
SIS's or detailed analyses of New Source proposals whose socioeconomic
issues require thorough evaluation.
5.6.4. Employment and Population Impacts and Mitigative Measures
Potential employment and related economic impacts of coal mining
operations are strongly influenced by three factors:
• General boom and bust cycles in the coal industry
• The mix of surface .and underground mining, which have
distinctly different labor requirements for given levels
of production
• Trends in miner productivity (tons of coal mined per
worker day).
The largest economic gains from coal-related growth go to young workers
with needed skills, who will constitute the largest fraction of the expanded
labor force. The biggest losers in areas with coal-related growth will be
persons on fixed incomes, whose incomes cannot keep pace with local.
inflation, and marginal businessmen, who cannot pay higher wages in
competition for the remaining local labor force (Paxton and Long 1975,
Mountain West Research 1975).
Eastern coalfields have received much less attention than western coal-
fields as potential recipients of coal mining impacts, despite the fact that
over 85% of the Nation's additional mining employment needs are expected to
occur in the East. Employment growth in coal mining in the East expanded
much more rapidly during the mid-1970"s than either the Edison Electric
Institute or the USBM predicted (USOTA 1978).
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An important factor in forecasting community impacts of increased coal
production is the local ratio of underground to surface mining. Underground
mining now requires roughly 550 miners to produce 1 million tons of coal per
year; surface mining requires only about 160 miners for the same level of
production (USOTA 1979). This difference must be considered when potential
employment impacts are analyzed.
One of the most serious impacts of coal mining is the cyclic problem of
boom and bust periods. Perhaps the best example of the impacts of cyclic
coal development during the post-1970 period is the Raleigh County (Beckley)
area. Beckley grew rapidly during the mid 1970's, as a regional center for
the metallurgical coalfields of southern West Virginia. Employment,
population, and incomes rose rapidly. During 1978, however, Raleigh County
experienced a severe economic slump, with slack demand for local
metallurgical coal (USOTA 1978). Between 1978 and 1980, a total of 2,243
coal miners were laid off in workforce reductions.
New coal mining workers may come from a variety of sources, including:
• Unemployed workers with previous experience in coal mining
and related occupations (see Section 2.6.)
• Persons formerly employed in mining, but now employed in
other occupations
• New entrants to the local labor force
• Commuters into the area
• In-migrants to the area.
Adverse impacts will be reduced to the extent that persons already
living in the local area can be employed. To the extent that new mining
operations can provide employment to miners laid off during earlier periods,
new mining will have distinctly beneficial local economic and employment
impacts.
Commuters to new mining operations in the Monongahela River Basin from
areas relatively distant from those operations are a significant factor in
the mining labor force. A common consequence of new mine development,
especially in small towns and rural areas, is the development of an
extensive commuter field. A survey of commuting patterns to one large coal
mining operation revealed the following pattern of commuting distances (Bain
and Quattrochi 1974):
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Residence Distance from Mine (miles) Percentage of Workers
0-15 32
16-29 40
30-44 17
45 or more 11
A study by Argonne National laboratory (1978) of commuting distance (in
hours) of job applicants for a large new coal mine to be operated by the
Monterey Coal Company in Wayne County, West Virginia, revealed the following
potential distances:
Percentage of Workers
Residence Distance from Mine (miles) Urban Rural
0-15 37 40
16-20 20 23
21-30 20 23
31-39 8 11
40 or more 15 3
100 TOO~
Coal miners tend to commute long distances to work for the following
reasons :
• Limited life-span of mines, making a permanent move to the
mine area undesirable
• Inability of workers to find suitable housing sites in the
mine area (see Section 2.6.)
• Inability of workers to sell houses that they already own
that are relatively distant from the mine.
Commuting over long distances has a variety of impacts, both negative
and positive. These include:
• The consumption of large amounts of fuel for commuting
(negative)
• Reduction of worker reliability (negative)
• "Leakage" of wages and taxes outside the host communLty
and county in which the mine is located (negative)
• Preservation of socioeconomic stability in the community
that otherwise could be reduced by in-migration (USGAO
1977; positive)
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• Reduction of increased loads on host community
infrastructure that otherwise would result from
in-migration (positive).
At the proposed new coal mine in Wayne County, West Virginia, the 1,565
applicants for the 1,540 anticipated jobs had the following
characteristics (Argonne National Laboratory 1978):
• Incomes were near local averages, but well below mine-
worker averages
• 86% of all applicants had no previous mining experience,
which may reflect the fact that Wayne County is not a
traditional coal mining area
• 91% of all applicants were male
• 81% of all applicants for whom information was available
were 18 to 35 years of age
• 98% of all applicants were white
• 88% of all applicants for whom information was available
were at least high school graduates, making the applicants
better educated than the general population of the area.
The low incidence of previous mining experience among the applicants
indicated that new employees could be drawn from people having a relatively
wide range of previous occupations. This would be especially pronounced in
areas that traditionally have not had high levels of mining activity. Many
non-mining workers are willing to switch to mine employment because of the
high salaries offered.
The primary employment impacts of mining are amplified by the
"multiplier effect" described in Section 2.6.1.1.5. An overall multiplier
ratio of 2.46 service (non-mining) jobs to one basic (mining) job was
calculated for the Monongahela River Basin. Because coal mining is a basic
occupational sector, this ratio indicates both a significant multiplier
effect and a significant generation of secondary impacts. It is highly
unlikely, however, that the full multiplier effect will be felt because of
"dampening" factors, such as current levels of unemployment among miners,
commuting, and the limited life span of coal mines. Thus, use of the stated
employment multipliers developed in this analysis probably will tend to
produce a high, or "worst case", estimate of employment and population
growth. This estimate also will indicate the maximum potential demand for
additional housing, transportation facilities, government services, and
developed land.
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Employment and population growth potentially have favorable impacts as
well as adverse impacts. Beneficial impacts include:
• The reduction of unemployment in areas of chronically high
unemployment
• The reduction in the poverty-level population, especially
in areas with a high proportion of poverty level
population
• Potential for former out-migrants to return to the area,
if they desire
• Re-employment of coal miners who have been laid off during
recent work force reductions and mine closings.
The direct employment and population growth consequences of increased coal
production that are described above produce three major categories of
negative impacts that may require mitigation, as discussed in the following
paragraphs.
5.6.4.1. Boom and bust cycles in coal production and lack of a
compensating economic base. The local economic base of coal producing areas
should be diversified. This may be accomplished by developing industrial,
commercial, and recreational areas. This development can be undertaken by
municipalities, counties,. RPDC1s, and the State, primarily through the
WVGOECD and the WVEDA. Coal mining companies may aid in these efforts by:
• Encouraging their personnel to donate time and expertise
to local industrial development efforts
• Providing "seed money" for local development through
grants and low-interest loans
• Providing services-in-kind (e.g., use of earth-moving
equipment) at sites for industrial, commercial, and
recreational development
• Planning mine development so as to provide additional land
suitable for post-mining commercial and industrial use,
especially in areas with less land capable of being
developed.
Generation of additional employment that will induce in-migration,
population growth, and additional demand for land and governmental
services. To the extent that new local miners can be found, in-migration
and its potential impacts will be reduced. Mining companies can work to
increase local employment through:
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• Supporting mining-related vocational education (primarily
a responsibility of county boards of education as assisted
by the State Bureau of Vocational. Technical, and Adult
Education)
• Providing on-the-job training
• Planning intensive job advertising campaigns to seek local
workers, including women and minority group members.
Increased long distance commuting to mining areas and associated
excessive energy consumption. Coal companies, and/or local governmental and
quasi-governmental agencies may seek to reduce long-distance commuting by
either facilitating the construction of housing near new mine locations or
through providing alternative transportation strategies, such as carpools,
vanpools, and bus service. Alternative strategies could be coordinated
through the WVGOECD, the WVDH, and the RPDC's.
The employment and population impacts described here are cumulative for
the various coal mining activities that have an impact on any local area.
As a result, individual permit-by-permit analysis is not sufficient to
determine all impacts. A cumulative record of increased employment and
population is needed. It is useful to maintain such data both on a
county-by-county basis and on a Basin-wide basis. The accumulated total
additional employment and population for all permitted facilities within the
Basin and each of its cons.tituent counties will be monitored by EPA on a
continuous basis as new permit applications are received. This monitoring
is necessary in order to detect overall changes and local concentrations of
employment and population impacts that may be significant based on the
criteria presented in Section 5.6.2.
5.6.5. Housing Impacts and Mitigations of Adverse Impacts
The USOTA (1979) calls housing "the most severe coal impact that
communities have been unable to resolve." Problems of housing quantity and
quality can be greatly increased by the impacts of new mining activity. The
recent slump in demand for coal temporarily has reduced the need for new
housing in the Monongahela River Basin. Increased coal mining activity in
the Basin will exacerbate the housing shortage.
Housing impacts are complicated by the age of the existing housing
stock and the increase in population during the 1970's (see Section 2.6.).
The existing vacancy rates in the Basin are very low and allow little
absorption of additional population. Failure to provide adequate additional
housing can result in the overcrowding of the existing housing stock and
the development of substandard housing, which creates potential reductions
in the availability and productivity of coal mine workers.
Housing for employees is an important factor in the financial success
of a mine (Metz 1977). Housing conditions affect the productivity of
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miners, especially when they are aspiring toward higher living standards.
Many mining companies have come to accept the fact that a convenient,
desirable housing supply is needed in order to attract a stable workforce,
to raise productivity, and to decrease downtime. It has been found that the
investment of time and money in developing an adequate housing stock is more
than compensated by more efficient mine operation for companies that help to
provide housing for their work force (Metz 1977).
There are impediments to providing adequate housing in the Monongahela
River Basin; the effort is subject to both physical and institutional
constraints. The limitations resulting from steep slopes and flooding and
from concentration of land ownership are described in Section 2.6. Among
the many institutional factors that limit availability of housing in the
Basin are (President's Commission on Coal 1979):
• Regional capital shortages. Banks are generally small,
rely on local depositors for funds, and are very
conservative in their lending policies.
• The high risks and uncertainties of boom and bust cycles
have reinforced the conservatism of local lending
institutions. Lending institutions do not want to risk
foreclosure on a house in a mining region during the
downside of a coal cycle because the house will have
little resale value.
• Regulatory constraints, especially on branch banking,
restrict the flow of funds to smaller towns and rural
areas
• The inability of local governments to obtain the necessary
funds to provide public service support for needed housing
- especially roads and water and sewer facilities
• Federal programs generally have had limited success in
meeting needs in rural areas. Little USHUD money has gone
to rural areas and USFmHA programs have experienced
cutbacks.
• Program cost standards, particularly for USHUD and FHA, do
not adequately take into account high site development
costs in steeply sloping areas
• Federal housing program standards often require
development and construction practices that are suited to
densely populated urban areas
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• Land development controls and building codes that are
suited to local environmental factors and construction
practices are often non-existent.
• Housing assistance staffs in Charleston or Philadelphia
are often too far away to benefit rural areas.
Knowledgeable local observers report that the lack of
local administrative staff has effectively prevented
maintenance of a USHUD Community Development Block grant
program in the coalfield areas.
• The area's history of limited and cyclical housing demand
has reflected the cyclical nature of coal development. As
a result, high volume, low cost development has not been
undertaken.
• Few local builders have the resources, either in working
capital or available credit, needed for large-scale
development
• There are shortages in the types of skilled labor
necessary for major residential development
• Scattered sites also have prevented the use of
cost-reducing "industrial" housing construction
techniques
• Subsidence, water contamination, and reduced groundwater
availability resulting from previous mining activity limit
housing development in some areas.
Such constraints on housing supply make it difficult to provide adequate new
housing for the substantial increases in population that might be associated
with new mining activity.
New housing that is required in coalfield areas may be provided by the
coal companies themselves; by local, regional, State, and Federal agencies;
by nonprofit corporations; and by quasi-governmental agencies. As a result,
the roster of potential mitigative techniques for adverse impacts is long.
Also, the problems that make housing provision difficult are closely
related. For example, the high cost of site development on steep slopes
usually makes it difficult to obtain sufficient capital for housing
development.
Because of the complex and interrelated nature of the impacts and
their mitigations, this section has been divided into three parts. The
first part describes mitigations that may be undertaken directly by the coal
mining companies and is arranged in sequence from the least direct to the
most direct corporate intervention in providing housing. Examples of recent
corporate housing aid in West Virginia also are provided. The second
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part describes measures that may be undertaken by public and quasi-public
corporations, often with the assistance of mining corporations. The third
part addresses actions to be undertaken by governmental agencies.
5.6.5.1. Direct Corporate Mitigations
Direct corporate mitigations include the following (Metz 1977):
Provision of Professional Advice and Guidance. Professional advice or
guidance can be offered to local governmental agencies by the corporation
proposing a new mining development. A company can lend staff and provide
staff or consultant time in developing housing plans, untangling legal
issues, and preparing applications for grant assistance. This is especially
helpful in rural areas where governmental units have no professional staffs
with experience in housing matters; few, if any, ordinances regulate growth;
and little knowledge exists about available State and Federal grants.
Provision of Equipment and Manpower. The company proposing a mining
development can lend equipment and manpower to aid in housing site clearance
and grading and to aid in community projects.
Provision of Financial Aid. The company proposing a development can "prime
the pump" with regard to housing development by providing either temporary
or permanent financial aid to developers, municipalities, or individual
employees. The company that gives financial assistance may expect total
monetary recoupment of investment or a limited direct monetary loss, to be
recouped through trade-off benefits. "Trade-off" benefits to the company
may include lower employee turnover, reduced absenteeism, higher
productivity, and easier employee recruitment.
Direct Provision of Housing. A mining company may want to direct a housing
development part or all of the way from initiation to the unit sale or
rental stage. The direct provision of housing units for sale or rent or
provision of mobile home pads for rent allows a company wide latitude in
land development. The company then has control over the housing
development's layout, recreation facilities, open areas, commercial sector,
landscaping, protective covenants, government involvement, and services.
Two major decisions a company involved in the direct provision of housing
must make sooner or later are the percent of investment it seeks to recoup
and when it should extricate itself from the housing development's operation
(Metz 1977).
Options in the direct provision of housing include:
• A company or consortium of companies may set up or use a
subsidiary to handle the whole housing development from
project initiation through operation
• A company may hire an outside firm to manage the project,
deal with the subcontractors, and ultimately sell or rent
the units for the company.
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Many coal companies have been reluctant to enter the housing field
because of the hatred and bitterness arising from the company towns of
earlier eras. A few companies have begun to make housing available again,
often in conjunction with Federal, State, and local agencies. Rarely does a
coal company assume responsibility for provision of housing (Metz 1977).
Examples of direct provision of housing in West Virginia are provided
by the Eastern Associated Coal Company, which built two subdivisions and a
mobile home park for its workers in West Virginia during the coal boom of
the mid-1970's. These developments included (Metz 1977):
• A subdivision near the Federal #2 Mine in Marion County.
Eastern bought theland, developed the infrastructure, and
sold lots to a house builder at cost. Eastern did not
find this subdivision successful and concluded that
isolated, suburban-style subdivisions that were near
mines, but separated from surrounding public sector
facilities and nearby communities, would not be
successful.
• A subdivision in Raleigh County, West Virginia. Eastern
provided financial support, and the Appalachian Power
Company made 1,200 acres of land available for development.
• A mobile home park in Boone County, West Virginia. This
park was initiated by the company because workers were
having difficulty finding suitable home sites in Boone
County and because many young miners could not afford
conventional housing. The Mobile Home Manufacturers
Association aided in the layout of this 35-unit park.
Eastern committed several hundred thousand dollars for a
sewer and water system, blacktopped streets, underground
power and telephone lines, cable television, landscaping,
and pad construction. The monthly pad rentals do not
cover the park's operating costs, but Eastern feels that
the investment is easily recouped in mine efficiency.
Coal companies also can work through non-profit housing development
consortia. An example of such a corporation is the Coalfield Housing
Corporation (CHC) in Beckley. CMC is a joint venture of seven large coal
producing companies (US Steel, Consolidated, Georgia-Pacific, Eastern, Armco
Steel, Westmoreland, and Beckley Mining) and the United Mine Workers of
America. CHC was founded in 1976 to help identify and purchase suitable
housing sites and then bring together potential developers and public and
private agency lenders. No other similar agencies have been instituted
elsewhere in West Virginia (USOTA 1979).
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5.6.5.2. Indirect Corporate Mitigation
Numerous options are available to a mining company that wants to
provide financial assistance for housing. The magnitude of financial aid,
the degree of risk entailed, and the degree of anticipated financial
recoupment will vary with the corporation's philosophy about the expected
trade-off benefits. Options available to a company include the following
(Metz 1977):
• Mining companies can offer aid in the purchase of land
and/or in infrastructure development; proceeds from a
possible land sale could be returned to the company or
placed in a revolving fund for future land and/or
infrastructure ventures. A company also can provide
collateral to a bank making possible a loan to a developer
for subdivision preparation.
• Mining companies can guarantee a builder/developer that a
certain number of housing units will be purchased during a
specified time period. The housing units either would be
purchased on the open market (the company buying the
unsold difference) or directly by the company, for resale
or rental to its employees (possibly discounted). Such
guarantees by a company often are sufficient to secure a
developer's loan application approval with no monetary
outlay.
• Mining companies can offer inducements in various forms to
employees for house rental or purchase subsidies and
discounts. They can offer interest free or monthly
reduced loans for down payments, closing cost absorption,
sale of house at cost, house cost not reflecting land
and/or infrastructure costs, payment of several points on
FHA, VA, and even conventional mortgages, and
company-sponsored mortgage insurance programs.
5.6.5.3. State, Federal, and Local Governmental Mitigations .
A wide variety of Federal, State, and local progrpTi^ is available to
provide housing. These include:
• Section 601 Energy Impact Assistance Grants. This is a
USDOE program administered by the USFmHA. It is
applicable to coal and synfuel impacts in West Virginia.
The Governor's Office is responsible for designation of
impact areas, with the approval of USDOE. Eligible impact
areas either have had an 8% population growth over the
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past year or are projected to have 8% growth per year for
the next three years. An energy impact growth management
plan, which will become part of the State Development
Plan, is now in preparation. Funding under Section 601 is
for land acquisition and site development costs; it does
not cover actual dwelling construction costs. Community
facilities, such as parks, hospitals, schools, and sewage
treatment plants, are covered.
• ARDA Section 207 grants. This program encompasses most of
ARDA's housing assistance and provides catalyst money
through three mechanisms. (1) "Up-front" risk capital is
available for low and moderate income housing and for site
engineering and preparation. The 207 program provides 80%
of funding; local sources (including other Federal grants)
must provide the remaining 20%. (2) Outright grants of
10% (up to 25% under pending legislation) help reduce site
preparation costs in areas with steep terrain and/or high
infrastructure costs. (3) Technical Assistance Grants
support program development. The State implementing
agency for this program is the West Virginia Housing
Development Fund.
• ARDA Section 302 grants. These are research and
demonstration grants administered by ARC. Through this
program, guidelines .for other housing programs can be
waived for energy-impacted areas.
• Community Development Block Grants. USHUD Block Grants
were provided in 14 West Virginia counties in Fiscal 1980
and are scheduled to be provided in 19 counties in Fiscal
1981. The State implementing agency for this program is
the WVHDF.
• USHUD/USDA Rural Demonstration Programs.
• The WVHDF provides assistance for low and moderate income
housing through bond sales as well as serving as the State
implementation agency for the ARC and USHUD programs
described above
• Regional Planning and Development Council in the
appropriate region (Figure 6-1; Table 6-3)
• Local public housing authorities.
The sponsoring agencies provide detailed information about program
specifications, eligibility, and current funding levels for their programs,
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The President's Commission on Coal (1979) recommended improving the
skills of construction workers to improve housing availability. Manpower
training programs in construction skills could be developed through the
State Bureau of Vocational, Technical, and Adult Education. The Commission
also urged reexamination of Federal housing program standards to bring them
more in line with conditions in areas like the Monongahela River Basin.
5.6.6. Transportation Impacts and Mitigative Measures
Transportation impacts and potential mitigations for adverse impacts
differ substantially among the various coal hauling modes. The discussion
first describes impacts for the major haul modes in use in the Basin (road
and rail) and then presents mitigative strategies for each mode. No
descriptions of the impacts and mitigations of slurry pipeline haulage are
presented, because no slurry pipelines are known to exist currently or to be
planned for construction within the Basin. Also, a limited description of
the impacts of barge hauling of coal is presented, because use of this mode
is not pertinent to the Basin and not expected to become significant in the
future.
5.6.6.1. Roads
A variety of adverse impacts is associated with coal haulage over
public roads. The major categories of negative impacts described by the
USDOT (1978) and the USOTA (1979) are:
• Safety of other vehicles using the roads. Coal trucks
often travel on roads originally intended only for
farm-to-market access. Vehicle weights often exceed road
weight limits (USDOT 1978). The resulting deterioration
of the roads makes passage by lighter vehicles both unsafe
and difficult. Passing, whether by coal trucks on
downhill grades or by non-coal vehicles on uphill grades,
may be extremely dangerous on many narrow, winding roads
in the Basin.
• Noise from coal hauling vehicles. For example, a demsity
of 100 automobiles per mile of roadway will generate a
median sound level of 69 dB(A) at a distance of 100 feet
from the edge of the roadway. If 20% of this traffic is
coal trucks, sound level would rise to 75 dB(A). This
increase in noise levels is equivalent to quadrupling the
number of passenger automobile sound sources. FHA design
level noise standards for residences, schools, libraries,
hospitals, and parks provide that a level of 70dB(A) not
be exceeded more than 10% of the time (USDOT 1978).
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• Vibration from passing coal traffic, especially when coal
roads are in poor condition or contain potholes, cracks,
etc. (USDOT 1978)
• Dust and spillage of coal on roadways
• Increased traffic congestion that is associated with mine
employment, induced secondary employment, and population
growth. These impacts are especially severe during shift
changes at the mines. Beckley, in Raleigh County, is a
good example of the problems that arise from the increased
local population associated with the growth of mining
employment. Despite the fact that Beckley is a relatively
small city (population about 35,000), some employees face
more than three hours of driving time to and from work
because of traffic congestion (USOTA 1978).
• Increased costs of road maintenance. The estimated cost
of improving existing public coal haul roads in West
Virginia ranges from $1.2 to $2.3 million (see Section
2.6.). Additional coal haul vehicle traffic will increase
the cost of road maintenance, both by increasing wear on
roads currently utilized for coal hauling and by
increasing road repair costs when roads not currently used
for coal hauling are so utilized. Impacts will be
especially severe on. roads not currently used for coal
hauling. Not only will they need increased maintenance
but also widening, realignment, and construction of new
bridges may be required if the roads are to meet State or
Federal standards.
USDOT (1978) stated that "Appalachia"s coal road problems could become
so severe as to become a bottleneck on coal production ." Transportation
impacts are likely to be most severe in towns and cities currently
experiencing little coal truck traffic. Impacts are likely to be especially
significant if the town itself is not a coal production center but only a
pass-through point between coal production sites and coal preparation or use
sites (USDOT 1978).
Mitigative measures include:
• Improvements in road width, alignment, pavement quality,
and bridges that will improve highway safety and reduce
the levels of noise, vibration, and dust generated by
coal trucks
• Strict enforcement of weight limits and speed limits
• Rerouting of coal truck traffic around urban centers to
reduce noise and vibration impacts in populated areas
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• Restrictions on the hours during which coal trucks may
operate to eliminate noise and vibration impacts at those
times when they cause greatest problems.
In West Virginia no local funds are used for road construction or
improvement. State responsibility is implemented by WVDH. Planning
functions are handled by the WVDH Advance Planning Section.
5.6.6.2. Railroads
If rail movements of coal increase, impacts will be less than if the
coal moves by truck. Nevertheless, some adverse consequences may develop:
• Disruption of traffic on local streets. This impact is
especially severe because rail lines pass through most
towns at grade level. Passing trains temporarily sever
towns, disrupting traffic on local streets, and delaying
essential hospital, fire, and police services. The
severity of this impact depends upon the frequency of
train movements, the length of trains, and the speed of
trains.
• Increases in grade-crossing accidents. More than 1,900
persons were killed and 21,000 persons were injured in
rail accidents Nationwide during 1974. Most of these
accidents occurred at grade crossings. USOTA (1979)
estimated that approximately 15% of all rail accidents
involved coal hauling. The proportion of coal related
rail accidents can be expected to increase in the Basin,
if coal hauling by rail increases. No Basin-specific
statistics on coal hauling related rail accidents were
found during this assessment.
Increased coal hauling also will have significant impacts on the need
for railroad maintenance. These needs will be balanced by increased carrier
revenues. Overall, increased coal traffic is expected to have significant
positive effects on the financial condition of railroads (USOTA 1979).
Mitigative measures for adverse impacts include:
• Provision of grade separation at critical rail crossings
to reduce the potential for accidents and reduce the
degree of disruption of community life from frequent train
movements
• Provision of improved crossing signals to reduce the
potential for accidents.
Responsibility for these programs is the concern of WVRMA and WVDH.
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5.6.7. Local Public Service Impacts and Mitigation of Adverse Impacts
The impacts of energy development fall most heavily on local govern-
ments. This is the case not only because employment and population grow,
thus creating a demand for government services in a particular area, but
also because local governments generally have limited financial and manpower
capabilities to deal with such impacts (Argonne National Laboratory 1978).
Two major themes recur throughout all analyses of the mining impacts on
local public services and the potential mitigation of adverse impacts:
• Advance information and advance notification of
development plans by mining companies is the key to
successful local governmental response
• Local governments should have initial financial
assistance.
The remainder of this section reviews both the need for key services —
health care, education, public safety, recreation, water and sewer, and
solid waste disposal — and also the need for local planning. The current
status of these services and planning within the Basin was presented in
Section 2.6. This section also reviews standards for service delivery and
suggests mitigative measures designed to allow local governments to plan
adequately for development and to achieve or maintain desirable standards of
service.
Local public services that would be affected most significantly by new
mining development include health care, education, public safety,
recreation, and water and sewer services. New coal mining activity also
will have overall fiscal impacts on local governments.
5.6.7.1. Health Care
Health care impacts are a result of both the primary impacts caused by
increased mining with its potential for mine-related accidents and diseases
and of secondary impacts caused by general population increase and need for
additional health care facilities and personnel. These impacts are made
more serious because much of the Basin is rural in nature and because of the
existing health care deficiencies, as described in Section 2.6.
Additional coal mining employment will produce the following direct
impacts:
• Immediate need for increased availability of emergency
care facilities to deal with accidental injuries in mines.
This will include not only increased emergency care
personnel but also improved emergency transportation
f ac i 1 i t i e s .
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• Longer terra need for increased medical personnel and
facilities to deal with coal-related occupational
illnesses, especially pneumoconiosis (black lung).
An indirect impact will be an increased need for the full range of
health care facilities proportional to any induced population growth. The
most serious impacts will occur when a proposed new mine is located in
health care manpower shortage areas, as designated under Section 329(b) and
332 of the Public Health Service Act.
Detailed goals, objectives, and strategies for achieving adequate
health care are contained in the Health Systems Plan and Annual
Implementation Plan for West Virginia (WVHSA 1979). No mitigations will be
undertaken by EPA unless they are within the framework of the Plan and are
coordinated with the State Health Department. A recent report by the USOTA
(1979a) suggested the following options, designed either to improve the
provision of health care in coalfield areas or to reduce the demand for
health care facilities by mine workers by reducing on-the-job health
hazards:
• Institute a rural health care system for coalfields
• Reassess the inherent safeness of the current respirable
dust standard
• Consider alternatives to current dust sampling, including
continuous in-mine monitoring, and possibly more effective
ways of carrying out sampling, such as miner or USMSHA
control of the program
• Encourage the establishment of health standards for
nonrespirable dust, trace elements, fumes, etc., that are
now unregulated
• Consider lowering the Federal noise standard for mining
• Promote occupational health training for miners
• Consider the feasibility of requiring or encouraging
conversion to the "safest available mining equipment"
(adjusted to individual mine characteristics), consistent
with the intent of the 1969 and 1977 Federal safety
standards for mine equipment
• Establish Federal safety standards for mine equipment
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• Require 90-day apprentice training before a miner is allowed to
operate an unfamiliar piece of mobile mine equipment
• Clarify the right under Federal law of individual miners
to withdraw from conditions of imminent danger.
• Establish Federal limits on fatality and injury frequency
for different kinds of mines with substantial penalties
for mine operators who exceed those limits.
• Establish performance standards for USMSHA.
5.6.7.2. Education
Adverse impacts of new mining activity on schools can arise because of
possible increases in enrollments that result from induced population
growth. It has been calculated that, on the average, each family attracted
to an area brings 0.70 school age persons, consisting of 0.23 high school
age students and 0.47 elementary school age students (Argonne National
Laboratory 1978). Thus, concentrated population growth resulting from
mining activity can result in the overcrowding of schools.
Moderate increases in school enrollment may have significant beneficial
impacts. In West Virginia, as in the rest of the Nation, school enrollments
have been declining, forcing teacher layoffs and school closings. Moderate
coal-induced increases in school enrollment may help to prevent teacher
layoffs and school closings. Also, a large proportion of school funds comes
to local districts from the WVDE. These funds are allocated on a per-
student basis. As school enrollment goes up, so does State aid, thus
reducing the burden on local school districts.
West Virginia has made significant gains in educational attainment
within the last two decades (see Section 2.6.). A variety of measures may
be taken to help minimize any problems created by induced population growth
that results from New Source coal mining. These include:
• Prepayment of taxes by coal mining companies so that
educational facilities will be available as they are
needed (USGAO 1977b)
• Use of programs such as USFmHA grants, ARDA Section 207
grants and Section 302 grants, USHUD Community Development
Block Grants, and WVHDF grants, as described in Section
5.6.5.3., to help provide for schools as infrastructural
facilities associated with new residential development
• Development of additional school programs for energy
impacted areas through the WVDE.
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5.6.7.3. Public Safety
Impacts of increased mining activity on police and fire protection
include increases in personnel and equipment needs because of induced
population growth. The USGAO estimated additional costs of fire and police
protection to range from $71 to $148 (in 1975 dollars) for each new resident
of a coal-impacted area. No specific mitigative measures for the impacts of
coal on public safety services are generally available.
5.6.7.4. Recreation
Induced population growth associated with new mining activity will
generate additional needs for local recreation facilities. Each additional
1,000 persons within an area requires approximately 4 acres of additional
public playground area and 3 acres of additional community park area, based
on currently accepted standards (Argonne National Laboratory 1978).
Those housing programs designed to provide infrastructure facilities as
well as housing (see Section 5.6.5.) can be used to help provide
recreational facilities. Additional facilities might be developed with the
help of donated land, services, advice, or equipment by mining companies.
5.6.7.5. Water and Sewer Services
The problems of inadequate existing water and sewer facilities and the
difficulties that the topography and settlement patterns of the Monongahela
River Basin pose for the provision of additional water and sewer facilities
were reviewed in Section 2.6. Increases in population that may be induced
by additional mining activity will create adverse impacts because of:
• Overloading of existing systems that are often already
outmoded and inadequate
• High costs of providing sewer and water facilities to new
res idences
• New residences that are built in areas that do not have,
and are not programmed to have, centralized sewer and
water services, and that do not have soil characteristics
suitable for septic tanks or aquifer characteristics
suitable for wells
• The provision of government aid for construction of water
and sewage treatment facilities on the basis of
determining prior need. As a result of governmental
restrictions on funding, many programs such as EPA Section
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201 (CWA) water and sewer grants are not available for
growth-induced housing in mining areas with rapid
population increases. Most rural areas in the Basin must
rely on a limited number of USFmHA grants and loans, which
pay only 50% of costs rather than the 75% provided by EPA
grants (President's Commission on Coal 1979).
Problems that result from the overloading of existing water and sewer
systems, high density development in areas where centralized water and sewer
development is not cost-effective, and low-density development in areas
where the use of individual wells or septic tanks is not feasible can be
mitigated by:
• Development and enforcement of local zoning and building
codes
• Use of various housing development programs described in
Section 5.6.5. to help the development of centralized
water and sewer systems
• Prepayment of taxes by companies that propose to develop
new mines, so that needed facilities can be in place
before population growth occurs
• Reworking for eligibility requirements EPA Section 201
(CWA) construction grants program to make it easier for
coal-impacted rural areas and small towns to qualify.
5.6.7.6. General Community Fiscal Impacts
Estimation of potential fiscal impacts on local governments for
providing additional facilities and services may be accomplished through a
variety of fiscal analysis methods. Standard methods in use for such
estimation include (Burchell and Listokin 1977):
• Per capita multipliers
• Service standards
• Proportional valuation
• Case study
• Comparative study
• Employment anticipation.
Each method has advantages, but for a simple "first cut" analysis of
potential impacts of New Source mining facilities on local governmental
expenditures, the per capita multiplier method is the simplest and most
effective way to estimate the general magnitude of impacts.
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USGAO (1978) developed the following range of per capita costs for coal
induced development of new community facilities:
COSTS (1975 DOLLARS)
Type of Facility or Service
Streets and roads
Water
Sewage and solid waste
Education
Recreation
Fire and police protection
Libraries
Health care
Other
Total
Study A
(Low Estimate)
$730
625
500
888
130
148
46
54
0
$3,121
Study B
(High Estimate)
$1,144
583
613
1,678
118
71
45
241
399
$4,892
Local governments in West Virginia can meet these costs through a
variety of sources of revenue (see Section 2.6.). The primary sources of
revenue to municipalities are property taxes, Federal revenue sharing, State
aid for schools, and fines and charges for services.
The State also levies a coal severance tax at a rate of $3.85 per
$100.00 of gross sales of coal. Of this, $3.50 is retained by the State as
general revenue and the remaining $0.35 is allocated to local governments.
Of the $0.35 returned to local governments, 75% ($0.26) is returned to
counties on a proportional basis relative to the percentage of State coal
production occurring in each county. The remaining 25% ($0.09) is returned
to counties and municipalities, based on their population. Thus, some
increased coal severance tax money goes to local areas on the basis of
increased coal production and induced increases in population resulting from
increased coal production. This compensates local areas somewhat for
increased costs incurred as a result of increased coal production.
Two adverse fiscal aspects of coal production on local units of
government have been noted widely:
• Most coal mining corporations (especially the larger
corporations) are headquartered, and their stockholders
reside, outside West Virginia. Therefore, corporate
profits leave the State and cannot serve as a source of
State or local revenue (Cortese and Jones 1979).
• Many mine workers live in mobile homes (see Section 2.6.)
that require local services. These mobile homes
contribute little, however, to the local property tax
base.
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The programs designed to help meet specific community impacts, as
described above, represent a partial solution to the more general problems
of providing adequate assistance to mitigate the adverse impacts of new
mining activity on community finances and services. The $3,121 to $4,892
per capita costs (1975 dollars) calculated by USGAO for all new community
facilities and services indicate that, overall, more impact mitigation may
be needed. Several options for such general mitigation techniques were
described by USOTA (1979a):
• Enact a National Severance Tax on coal to help finance
needed improvements in impacted communities
• Provide loans or subsidies for services through a public,
non-profit coalfield development bank
• Require operators to submit a community impact statement
to local and Federal officials before mining begins.
5 .6.8. Indirect Land Use Impacts
Demand for additional developed land to accommodate the population
growth induced by a new mining facility represents a significant potential
impact. Many areas of the Basin have very poor potential to accommodate
substantial additional urban development. Major constraints on additional
development include large proportions of steeply sloping land and relatively
high levels of current mining development and existing urban development.
Existing population and land use (see Section 2.6.) patterns in the
Monongahela River Basin indicate an overall land absorption coefficient of
approximately 0.16 acres/person. This land absorption coefficient provides
a reasonable estimate of additional developed land needed on a per-capita
basis to accommodate housing, streets and roads, schools, commercial areas,
and other facilities for potential induced population growth that occurs as
a result of new mining activity.
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5.7 Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations
-------
5.7. Earth Resource Impacts and Mitigations 5-145
5.7.1. Erosion 5-145
5.7.1.1. USOSM Permit Information Requirements 5-145
5.7.1.2. USOSM-Mandated Erosion Control Measures 5-146
5.7.1.3. Buffer Strips 5-147
5.7.1.4. Prompt Reclamation 5-147
5.7.1.5. USOSM Regrading and Revegetation 5-148
5.7.1.6. Drainage and Sediment Pond Design 5-152
5.7.1.7. Roadway Construction 5-154
5.7.1.8. Steep Slope Mining Standards 5-155
5.7.1.9. Coal Processing Plant Requirements 5-155
5.7.2. Steep Slopes 5-155
5.7.3. Prime and Other Farmlands 5-158
5.7.3.1. Prime Farmlands 5-158
5.7.3.2. Other Significant Farmlands 5-160
5.7.4. Unstable Slopes 5-161
5.7.5. Subsidence 5-163
5.7.6. Toxic or Acid Forming Earth Materials and Acid Mine 5-170
Drainage
5.7.6.1. Coal Overburden Information Requirements 5-170
5.7.6.2. Surface Disposal of Acid-Forming 5-176
Materials
5.7.6.3. Underground Disposal of Spoil and Coal 5-182
Processing Wastes
5.7.6.4. Coal Preparation Plant and Other Refuse 5-183
Piles
5.7.6.5. In-Situ Coal Processing 5-188
5.7.6.6. Exploration Practices 5-189
5.7.6.7. Other AMD Control Measures 5-190
Page
4
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5.7. EARTH RESOURCE IMPACTS AND MITIGATIONS
Earth resource impacts and mitigations are addressed at length in the
permanent regulatory program performance standards mandated by USOSM pursu-
ant to SMCRA. The final program performance standards are codified in Title
30 of the Code of Federal Regulations in Chapter VII under Parts 816 and 817
for surface and underground mines, respectively. These standards eventually
may be administered by WVDNR-Reclamation in accordance with SMCRA and
WVSCMRA following approval of the State program by USOSM.
This chapter summarizes the performance standards which New Source coal
operators are expected to meet in order to avoid or minimize adverse impacts
on earth resources. Special standards that affect selected types of mines
or areas are discussed following the general rules for all mines. The
general performance standards typically are identical for surface mines and
for the surface aspects of underground mine operations.
5.7.1. Erosion
Erosion (and the subsequent deposition) of disturbed soil materials is
the principal physical impact of the surface disturbance caused by coal
mining. Wind is secondary to water as a cause of erosion in West Virginia.
The most fertile and productive topsoil layers are eroded first after a
mine site is exposed by clearing and grubbing operations. After the top-
soil, the subsoil and finally the underlying weathered or shattered rock
materials are removed from the surface. The surface of the site is subject
to erosion until a dense vegetation has become reestablished following the
mining and regrading activities.
Post-mining erosion following regrading and seeding can create gullies,
which in turn speed up the rate of continuing erosion locally, and leave
only the least mobile soil or rock materials for subsequent attempts to
restore vegetation. Historically, erosion has devastated hillsides in the
Basin and throughout Appalachia. West Virginia for years has regulated
surface mining operations to reduce the effects of erosion, as discussed in
Section 4.1. of this SID. Following the enactment of SMCRA, USOSM (with the
assistance of EPA) also has developed stringent performance standards to
minimize erosion from new mines.
5.7.1.1. USOSM Permit Information Requirements
The USOSM regulations require that maps and descriptions of existing
soil types, present and potential productivity, and the results of tests on
overburden material proposed for use as topsoil be a part of every applica-
tion (30 CFR 779.21). Slopes, waterways, and previous mining activity in
the permit area must be mapped and described in detail (30 CFR 779.24).
Mine operation plans must identify proposed topsoil storage areas and water
pollution control facilities (30 CFR 780.14). The reclamation plans must
detail spoil backfilling, compacting, and regrading; replacement of topsoil
5-145
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or other surface materials; surface soil evaluation measures; methods for
revegetation (schedule, species and quantities of plants to be installed,
planting methods, mulching techniques, irrigation if appropriate); and
methods to determine revegetation success. They also must describe plans
for water control, for water treatment if required to meet applicable
standards, and the expected impact of mining on suspended solids
concentrations in receiving waters (30 CFR 780.22; 784.14). Essentially the
same requirements apply to underground mining applications (soil
information, 30 CFR 783.22; slopes, 783.24; topsoil storage areas,,
backfilling, topsoiling, revegetation, and water quality impacts, 784.11;
sedimentation ponds, 784.16). In short, the permit applications must show
in detail how the operator plans to meet the performance standards for
erosion control.
5.7.1.2. USOSM-Mandated Erosion Control Measures
The performance standards are intended to minimize the opportunities
for erosion and sedimentation, and thus keep possible downslope impacts on
lands and waters due to surface disturbance related to coal mining at the
lowest possible level (30 CFR 816.45; 817.45). The basic directives for
erosion control are the following:
• Minimize the amount of bare soil exposed at one time
• Minimize the length of time that soil is barren
• Protect soil with mulch, temporary cover, and permanent
vegetation
• Optimize conditions for the regrowth of vegetation (soil
porosity, structure, fertility, etc.)
• Minimize the development of rills and gullies
• Minimize slippage of regraded spoil material and maximize
stability of the surface
• Divert water that otherwise would flow across unprotected
slopes
• Provide non-erodible channels or pipes for collected water
with outlets capable of accepting flows
• Capture runoff from disturbed slopes and allow suspended
material to settle in basins of adequate volume and
retention time
• Retain sediment within disturbed areas using straw dikes,
check dams, mulches, vegetated strips, dugout ponds, or
5-146
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other means to reduce overland flow velocity and runoff
volume
• Enhance precipitation of sediment in basins by adding
chemical coagulants and flocculants to the collected
runoff water.
5.7.1.3. Buffer Strips
Buffer strips at least 100 feet wide adjacent to all perennial streams
and to any other streams inhabited by two or more species of macroinverte-
brates are mandated to be left undisturbed during mining (30 CFR 816.57;
817.57). The buffer strips must be marked in the field and shown on mining
plans (30 CFR 816.11; 817.11). Disturbance within the buffer strip can be
authorized by the regulatory authority, provided that the stream is restored
following mining and that water quality within 100 feet of the mining acti-
vities is not affected adversely. If a stream is diverted, then
contributions to suspended solids from the channel must be prevented, and
the natural habitat conditions and riparian vegetation must be restored
following mining (30 CFR 816.44; 817.44). Where buffer strips are
preserved, they provide a means of protection against the escape of eroded
sediment into waterways.
5.7.1.4. Prompt Reclamation
The duration of the surface disturbance governs the opportunity for
erosion. The general performance standards require prompt topsoil removal
after vegetation has been cleared, before any other mining-related activi-
ties may proceed [30 CFR 816.22(a); 817.22(a)]. The topsoil is to be reused
or stockpiled and protected, so that it does not wash from the mine site (30
CFR 816.23; 817.23). Where the exposure of the disturbed land otherwise may
result in erosion-caused air or water pollution, USOSM authorizes a
limitation on the size of the area disturbed at any one time, directs that
the topsoil be placed at a time when the topsoil can be protected and
erosion minimized, and authorizes the imposition of any other discretionary
measures which the regulatory authority may judge necessary [30 CFR
816.22(f); 817.22(f)].
Specific timing requirements for rough backfilling and grading
following the removal of the coal are found in 30 CFR 816.101(a) and
817.101(a). For contour mines, rough backfilling and grading must follow
coal removal by not more than 60 days or 1,500 linear feet along the
mountainside. Open pit mines with thin overburden are to be backfilled on a
schedule proposed by the operator and approved by the regulatory authority.
Area strip mines must be rough backfilled and graded within 180 days
following coal removal and be not more than four spoil ridges behind the
active pit. The operator is given the opportunity to justify a request for
additional time by submitting a detailed written analysis showing that
additional time is required.
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There is no prescribed time limitation on final grading and redistri-
bution of topsoil following coal removal in the general performance
standards. The operator is not eligible for the release of 60% of his
performance bond, however, until backfilling, topsoiling, regrading, and
drainage control have been completed. This provides a substantial financial
incentive to conclude these operations expeditiously. Moreover, topsoil and
other subsoil materials are allowed to be stockpiled only when it is
impractical to redistribute these materials promptly on other regraded areas
[30 CFR 816.23(a); 817.23(a)]. Lateral haulback, modified area mining, and
controlled direct placement contour methods offer greatly enhanced
opportunity for prompt reclamation in contrast to uncontrolled mining
techniques.
5.7.1.5. USOSM Regrading and Revegetation
The post-mining surface configuration of reclaimed areas is specified
in 30 CFR 816.101(b) and in Subsection 102, along with the corresponding
sections of Subchapter 817. These standards require elimination of high-
walls, spoil piles, and depressions, and the return of mined areas to their
approximate original contour. The elimination of highwalls means that
spoils are regraded to the approximate original slope. If a permanent road
is proposed to be retained on the bench (a common practice in West
Virginia), the final slope must be steeper than the original slope, if the
highwall is to be eliminated. Subsection 816.102 also specifies conditions
where cut and fill terraces may be substituted for approximate original
contour.
Section 816.102(a)(2) mandates a static safety factor of 1.3 to insure
the stability of backfilled materials. Terrace benches are to be no wider
than 20 feet unless specifically approved as necessary for stability,
erosion control, or approved permanent roads. The vertical distance between
terraces is to be specified by the regulatory authority. Terrace outslopes
are not to exceed 50%, unless stability, erosion control, and coriformance
with pre-mining slopes are assured [Subsection 102(b)]. Final grading,
preparation of overburden before topsoiling, and placement of topsoil are to
minimize subsequent erosion, instability, and slippage. Stabilizing or
regrading rills and gullies that may exacerbate erosion is required when
they exceed 9 inches in depth. Hills or gullies shallower than 9 inches
also may be required to be eliminated (Subsection 106), if the regulatory
authority determines that they are disruptive to the approved post-mining
land use,
Topsoil and subsoil must be removed and segregated from other materials
prior to drilling, blasting, or mining (30 CFR 816.21; 817.21). It is pref-
erable that the soil be relocated to areas that are ready to receive it
following mining; otherwise it must be stored and protected from erosion
until ready for replacement on the mine surface. Subsoil must be segregated
from topsoil and replaced as subsoil if the regulatory authority determines
that such measures are necessary or desirable to achieve post-mining produc-
tivity consistent with the approved post-mining land use.
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Thirty-one of the 66 soil series in the Monongahela River Basin (47%)
present limitations for use as topsoil in reclamation (Table 5-25). The
SMCRA regulatory authority is empowered to approve selected overburden
materials for use as substitutes for or supplements to topsoil, if the
operator provides evidence demonstrating that the substitute material is
more suitable for the growth of vegetation than the original topsoil. In
such cases it may not be necessary to stockpile topsoil separately.
If neither soil nor the overburden can support satisfactory plant
growth, then it may be necessary to borrow soil material from elsewhere. In
this case, reclamation of the borrow area also must be considered, and the
material remaining at the borrow site must be evaluated for its suitability
to grow vegetation.
The regraded overburden material must be treated as required by the
regulatory authority to eliminate slippage surfaces and to promote root
penetration prior to (or, upon approval, following) topsoiling
(30 CFR 816.24; 817.24). The topsoil is to be replaced in uniform, stable
layers consistent with the approved post-mining land uses, contours, and
surface drainage system. Excessive compaction is to be prevented, and
protection is to be provided from water and wind erosion before and after
the topsoil is planted. Nutrients and other amendments are to be provided
in accordance with soil tests in amounts that will assure revegetation in
accordance with the approved post-mining land use (30 CFR 816.25; 817.25).
A number of requirements are designed to maximize the success of
revegetation following mining so that long-term erosion can be minimized.
At least four feet of the best available nontoxic cover nrte-ial must be
placed on top of materials exposed, used, or produced during mining
(30 CFR 816.103; 817.103). Where necessary, the regulator/ authority may
require thicker cover, special compaction, isolation from gr mndwater
contact, or acid neutralization of the cover to minimize adverse effects on
vegetation or provide sufficient depth for plant growth (Subsection 103).
A permanent vegetation must be established capable of stabilizing the
soil surface from erosion (Subsection 111). Anchored "mlc.i \s are required
to facilitate revegetation unless the operator can demonstrate to the regu-
latory authority that alternative measures will achieve SU~CPSP (Subsection
114). Successful revegetation is defined as coverage an<< n ,' tr'ivity at
least 90% of that on a designated, undisturbed referenc>.- area v, in the
permit area with 90% statistical confidence (80% confidence on s -ublands),
and must be maintained for no less than five years in humid regions such ad
West Virginia (Subsection 116). Vegetation reestablished on previously
mined areas must be adequate to control erosion to less than that present
before the remining. Adequate erosion control, as determined by the
regulatory authority, also must be established on lands to ru.' u.-ed for
residential or industrial purposes less than two years after regrading is
complete. On areas to be used for fish and wildlife management or forestry,
the vegetation must satisfy the regulatory authority as adequate to control
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Table 5-25. Soils of the Monongahela River Basin which exhibit potential
limitations for reclamation (Cardi et al. 1979). Data is available from
only Monongalia, Preston, Tucker, and Barbour Counties.
SOIL SERIES
POTENTIAL LIMITATION
Albrights
Alluvial Land
Atkins
Barbour
Belmont
Blayo
Brinkerton
Buckhannon
Calvin
Carode
Chagrin
Clarksburg
Cookport
Durmont
Elkins
Ernest
Gilpin-Culleoka-Upshur
(Association)
Guernsey
Holly
Kanawha
Lickdale
Lindside
Lobdel
Lobdel-Holly (Association)
Meckesville
Melvin
Mixed Alluvial Land
Monongahela
Nolo
lower slope soils
flooding
flooding
flooding
lies over solution channels; steep
slopes; erosion
lower slope
slow permeability/seasonal high water
table
lower slope
stoney soil; steep slope; erosion
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
flooding
slippage; lower slope soils; steep slope;
low permeability
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
ridgetop; slow permeability; seasonal
high water table
flooding
slippage; slow permeability; lower and
steep slope soils; seasonal high water
table
slippage
ridgetop; slow permeability; seasonal
high water table
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
flooding
flooding
flooding
slippage
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
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Table 5-25. Soils of the Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
SOIL SERIES
POTENTIAL LIMITATION
Philo
Pope
Pope Variant
Purdy
Sequatchie
Strong Alluvial Land
Tyler
Upshur
Westmoreland
Wharton
Zoar
flooding
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
flooding
flooding
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
slippage; zones of low permeability
slippage; zones of low permeability
seasonal high water table; slow
permeability
slow permeability; seasonal high water
table
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erosion (70% of coverage on reference area with 90% confidence). On permit
areas smaller than 40 acres, alternative performance standards to the refer-
ence area may be approved by the regulatory authority. 70% or greater
coverage for five consecutive years with 400 woody plants per acre in mixed
plantings (600 woody plants per acre in mixed plantings on slopes steeper
than 20°).
5.7.1.6. Drainage and Sediment Pond Design
Erosion is to be controlled sufficiently so that water quality limita-
tions are met by discharges from the mined area (30 CFR 817.41; 817.41).
Changes in flow to minimize pollution are preferred to treatment methods,
but treatment is required if necessary to meet standards or insure achieve-
ment of the approved postraining land use for the area.
All surface drainage from the disturbed area, including regraded and
replanted areas, must be passed through one or more sedimentation ponds
before release from the permit area (Section 42). The sedimentation ponds
must be constructed prior to beginning any surface mining activities and
maintained until all revegetation requirements have been met and the quality
of the untreated drainage satisfies applicable water quality standards.
Exemptions from sediment pond requirements may be granted by the regulatory
authority upon a demonstration that ponds are not necessary for drainage to
meet NPDES effluent limitations or quality requirements applicable to down-
stream receiving waters. Road drainage and the flow from diversion ditches
(unless mixed with active mine drainage) are not required to be routed
through the sediment pond.
The NPDES existing source effluent limitation for total suspended
solids is 70.0 mg/1 maximum allowable and 35.0 mg/1 maximum average for 30
consecutive days. Discharges are exempt from this and other effluent limit-
ations when they result from any precipitation event at facilities designed,
constructed, and maintained to contain or treat the volume of discharge
which would result from a 10-year 24-hour precipitation event. New Source
NPDES limitations have not yet been incorporated into the 1JSOSM performance
standards.
Overland flow must be diverted from disturbed areas if required by the
regulatory authority to minimize erosion (30 CFR 816.43; 817.43). Temporary
diversions must be constructed to pass safely the peak runoff from at least
a 2-year precipitation event, and the SMCRA regulatory authority may require
that a more severe storm be used in planning the pond design. Permanent
diversions must be able to accommodate at least a 10-year storm event and
are to have gently sloping banks stabilized by vegetation. Asphalt,
concrete, or other linings are to be used only when approved by the
regulatory authority. The diversion channels are to employ the best
technology currently available to prevent erosion of additional suspended
solids from the channels themselves. This may involve rock lining and a
series of small, sediment-trapping dikes within the ditches.
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No diversion is to be located so as to increase the potential for
landslides, and none is to be constructed on an existing landslide unless
approved by the regulatory authority. Temporary diversions must be removed,
regraded, topsoiled, and revegetated when no longer needed. Any diversion
of water into underground mines first must be approved by the regulatory
authority. Stream channel diversions also must be designed and constructed
to minimize erosion (temporary diversion to accommodate 10-year, 24-hour
storm; permanent diversion to accommodate 100-year, 24-hour storm;
Subsection 44).
Sedimentation ponds are the primary means of insuring that soil
materials eroded from a mine in so far as possible are captured within the
permit area, rather than discharged downs lope or into waterways. In steep
terrain areas of the Monongahela River Basin none of the measures to
minimize erosion that were discussed previously can be expected to be
altogether successful, either alone or in combination; hence sedimentation
ponds are essential. The same steepness of terrain creates severe practical
difficulties in finding suitable, accessible locations for ponds on mine
sites where runoff can be contained and maintenance can be performed.
Sedimentation ponds must be constructed as near as possible to the
disturbed area and outside perennial stream channels, unless otherwise
approved by the SMCRA regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.46; 817.46). The
minimum sediment storage volume either must accommodate the accumulated
sediment volume from the drainage area for a 3-year period using calculation
methods approved by the regulatory authority or must provide 0.1 acre-feet
of storage per acre of disturbed land in the drainage area. The regulatory
authority is authorized to approve a minimum sediment storage volume no less
than 0.035 acre-feet per acre of disturbed area if the operator demonstrates
in the permit application that sediment removed by other control measures is
equal to the reduction in sediment pond storage volume. Sediment is to be
removed from ponds when its volume reaches 60% of the design storage volume
(or total storage volume, if larger than the required design volume and
provided that the required theoretical detention time is maintained).
The minimum theoretical detention time for runoff from a 10-year,
24-hour storm is to be 24 hours, not including drainage area runoff diverted
from the disturbed area and pond. The regulatory authority may approve a
minimum theoretical detention time of not less than 10 hours when the opera-
tor demonstrates (1) that pond design provides a 24-hour equivalent sediment
removal efficiency (as a result of pond configuration, inflow !d outflow
locations, baffles to reduce velocity and short-circuiting etc.; and the
pond effluent is shown to achieve and maintain effluent limitations, or (2)
that the particle size distribution or specific gravity of the suspended
matter is such that applicable effluent limitations are achieved and main-
tained. Any minimum theoretical detention time can be approved by the regu-
latory authority, if the operator demonstrates that the chemical treatment
process to be used (1) will achieve and maintain effluent limitations and
(2) is harmless to fish, wildlife, and related environmental values.
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Ponds must be designed by, constructed under the supervision of, and
certified by a registered professional engineer. The ponds must meet USOSM
and USMSHA criteria for design safety and must be inspected four times per
year. Following mining, when drainage water quality is approved, the ponds
must be removed and their sites regraded and revegetated, unless they meet
the applicable requirements for permanent ponds and have been approved as
part of the post-mining land use.
5.7.1.7. Roadway Construction
Roadways also must be constructed so as to minimize erosion. Roadways
of any class are not to cause contributions of suspended solids to
streamflow or to runoff outside the permit area in excess of applicable
limitations to the extent possible using the best technology currently
available (30 CFR 816.150, 160, and 170 and the corresponding subsections of
subchapter 817). Roads are to be located on ridges and on the most stable
available slopes in so far as possible. Roads must not be located in the
channel of a permanent or intermittent stream, and stream fords are
prohibited, unless specifically approved by the regulatory authority
(Subsections 151, 161, and 171). During the construction of Class I and
Class II roads topsoil must be handled in essentially the same manner as
topsoil from the rest of the mine site (Subsections 152 and 162).
Temporary and permanent erosion control measures such as construction
of berms and sediment traps must be implemented during and after road
construction. No more vegetation is to be cleared than the minimum
necessary for any roadway with its ditch and utilities, and ditch drainage
structures must be designed to minimize erosion on Class I roads (those used
for coal haulage) and Class II roads (non-coal roads used more than six
months; Subsections 153, 163, and 173). Unless approved as part of the
permanent post-mining land use, all roads are to be reclaimed and
revegetated following mining.
Maximum road grades are specified. For Class I roads, embankment
outslopes are to be no steeper than 50% (74% where embankment material is at
least 85% rock). Ditches and drains must be built to handle a 10-year
24-hour storm event, and roads must be surfaced with rock, gravel, asphalt,
or other approved materials. For Class II roads steeper grades are allowed.
Embankment rules do not apply on slopes of less than 36% for Class II roaHis,
but culverts must be spaced closer together than for Class I roads. Class
III roads (non-coal roads used less than six months) do not require drainage
ditches along the road; their culverts must be sized for a 1-year, 6-hour
storm. Topsoil must be removed from Class III roads and stockpiled only
where excavation requires replacement of material and redistribution of
topsoil for proper revegetation. Other transportation facilities, such as
railroad spurs, conveyors, or aerial tramways, also are to be constructed so
as to minimize erosion (30 CFR 816.180).
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5.7.1.8. Steep Slope Mining Standards
Special performance standards are applicable to minimize erosion on
lands with slopes in excess of 20°. Steep slope standards are discussed in
Section 5.7.2.
5.7.1.9. Coal Processing Plant Requirements
Coal processing plants must meet the erosion and sediment control
standards applicable to surface mines as described in the preceding
paragraphs (30 CFR 827). Roads serving processing plants are subject to the
same standards as roads serving mines. Reclamation of processing plant
sites is to be accomplished according to the standards applicable to surface
mines. Support facilities incidental to mining operations also must be
located and constructed so as to control erosion, and they must not
contribute suspended solids to streams in excess of applicable standards
(30 CFR 816.181).
Taken together, the USOSM performance standards represent the current
state of technology available to control erosion and minimize the resultant
sedimentation. The State of West Virginia must develop a detailed compari-
son of its regulations to demonstrate conformance with the USOSM permanent
program requirements as part of the basis for approval of the State admini-
stration of SMCRA permits. As long as applicants for New Source NPDES
permits adhere to the USOSM permanent program performance standards, erosion
can be expected to be minimized, and no special NPDES permit conditions for
erosion control are necessary. Should USOSM performance standards not be
enforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA will impose equivalent measures
pursuant to CWA and NEPA.
5.7.2. Steep Slopes
Where the prevailing pre-mining slopes are steeper than 20° (36%),
surface mine operators are required to meet special performance standards
for operations on steep slopes, and permit applications must contain
sufficient information to establish that the operations will meet the
applicable performance standards. Six special standards are mandated by
USOSM (30 CFR 826.12):
• Placement of spoil, waste materials, debris (including
clearing and grubbing debris from road construction), and
abandoned or disabled equipment on the downslope is pro-
hibited (except for the controlled placement of road
emb ankment s)
• Highwalls are to be completely covered, and approximate
original contours are to be reestablished, with a minimum
static safety design factor of 1.3
• Land above the highwall is not to be disturbed without the
approval of the regulatory authority upon a finding that
the disturbance is necessary to blend the solid highwall
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with the backfill, to control runoff, or to provide access
to the area above the highwall
• Excess spoil must be placed in approved fills
• Woody material is not to be placed in backfills unless the
regulatory authority determines that slope stability will
not deteriorate; chipped woody material may be used as
mulch, if the regulatory authority approves
• Unlined or unprotected drainage channels are not to be
constructed on backfills unless approved by the regulatory
authority as stable and not subject to erosion.
Variances from the requirement to return the site to approximate
original contour can be authorized in order to improve the control of water
on the watershed and make level land available for various uses following
reclamation.
The regulatory authority must determine, on the basis of a completed
application, that the following requirements for the variance are met (30
CFR 785.15):
• The purpose of the variance is to make the affected lands
suitable for an industrial, commercial, residential, or
public post-mining land use
• The proposed variance use represents an equal or better
economic or public use than the pre-mining use
• The proposed use meets Subsection 133 criteria for
approvable alternative land uses (viz., compatible with
applicable land use plans and policies; economically and
technically feasible; necessary public facilities to be
provided; financing available; applicable stability,
drainage, revegetation, and aesthetic design standards
met; no threats posed to public health, water flow, or
water pollution; no unreasonable delays in reclamation;
fish and wildlife measures acceptable to State and Federal
agencies; commitment to provide maintenance if intensive
agriculture is proposed and soil and water will support
crops)
• The watershed can be deemed by the regulatory authority to
be improved if (1) concentrations of total suspended
solids or other pollutants will be less following mining
than before mining, with improvement to water supply or
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habitat value; or flood hazards from peak discharges will
be reduced; (2) the total volume of flow from the permit
area will not vary so as to affect waterway habitat value
or water use values adversely; and (3) the State
environmental agency approves the plan
• The surface owner consents in writing to the variance, and
is aware that the variance cannot be granted without his
consent.
In areas with multiple-seam mining, the spoil not required to reclaim a
permit area may be placed on a pre-existing spoil bench if approved by the
regulatory authority. The spoil must be graded to the most moderate slope
consonant with elimination of the highwall (30 CFR 826.16).
Permits that incorporate variances are to be reviewed by the regulatory
authority at established intervals to evaluate progress and make certain
that the operator is complying with the terms of the variance. The regula-
tory authority must be able to impose more stringent requirements by
modifying such a permit at any time if necessary to insure compliance with
SMCRA and USOSM regulations (30 CFR 785.16).
RPA will check to see that standards equivalent to these USOSM perma-
nent program requirements are applicable to New Source mining on slopes
steeper than 20° (36%). In the event that these measures are not
enforceable by the regulatory authority under SMCRA, EPA will impose
equivalent measures under CWA and NEPA.
EPA will consider additional measures to insure long-term post-mining
slope stability on a case-by-case basis where there is any question of
stability as a result of slope steepness. First, EPA will consider applica-
tion of the USOSM steep-slope performance standards on slopes steeper than
14° (25%), rather than the less stringent USOSM threshold of 20° (36%) to
insure long-term slope stability (see section in 5.7.4.). As indicated in
Section 2.7. of this SID, much of the Basin has slopes of at least 14°.
Such slopes have been mapped at Basin scale (available from the EPA Region
III office in Philadelphia), and must be detailed in State surface mining
application drawings. Second, EPA will consider application of a more
conservative static design safety factor of 1.5, rather than the USOSM
minimum factor of 1.3, in order to preclude slope failure that could
exacerbate additional erosion, alter stream flow, pose a hazard to public
safety, or adversely affect the appearance of the area. Third, where
steep-slope mines are to be reclaimed to approximate original contour, EPA
will check to be sure, if haul or access roads are proposed to be retained
permanently on the solid bench, that steepening of the final slopes beyond
the original grade on account of the roads does not occur; that downslope
haul road embankments below the bench are proposed to be removed following
mining; and that any roads preserved near the top of the highwall have
ditches and other drainage structures adequate to prevent infiltration into
the backfill.
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5.7.3. Prime and Other Farmlands
It is not possible to mine the coal beneath agricultural land by
surface methods without severe short-term impacts on the soil resource and
agricultural production. Long-term impacts, however, can be minimized by
reconstructing the soil resource and treating it in such a manner as to
reestablish pre-mining productivity and by restoring the land to farming use
following the conclusion of mining activities. Detailed USOSM standards
apply to land classed as prime farmland. EPA also is concerned with the
protection of other significant agricultural lands when reviewing New Source
NPDES permits.
5.7.3.1. Prime Farmlands
There is relatively little prime farmland in the Monongahela River
Basin because of the prevalence of steep slopes. Soils considered to be
prime in West Virginia are reported in Section 2.7. of this SID and have
been mapped at Basin scale on maps available from the EPA Region III office
in Philadelphia. Because surface mining in West Virginia generally occurs
along hills and ridges where coal crops out, prime farmland is not expected
to be disturbed by future mining activity to a significant extent.
New mining operations on prime farmlands that have been used as crop-
land for at least five of the ten years preceding the permit application or
that otherwise are recognized by the regulatory authority as clearly
farmland are considered to be in a special mining category under the USOSM
permanent regulations (30 CFR 785.17). Special performance standards apply
to the removal of topsoil from, and the post-mining restoration of, prime
farmlands.
Each SMCRA permit application must include a soil survey of the permit
area developed in accordance with USDA procedures. Each soil must be
mapped, and a representative soil profile for each must be described.
Original moist bulk density data in accordance with USDA laboratory proce-
dures must be reported for each major horizon of each soil. (Appropriate
Soil Conservation Service maps, profile descriptions, and bulk density data
may be used where available, if their use is approved by the regulatory
authority.) Methods and equipment to be used for soil removal, storage, and
replacement must be specified. Plans for soil stabilization before its
redistribution and drawings that show the sites of the separate stockpiles
for each horizon must be submitted. Plans for seeding and cropping during
the five years following regrading until performance bond release must be
detailed. (Final graded land is not to be allowed to erode during seasons
when vegetation cannot be established due to weather conditions.) Data
indicating that the proposed reclamation will achieve post-mining crop
yields equivalent to or greater than those extant before mining are to be
provided, along with USDA-estimated yields for each mapped soil unit under a
high level of management. The regulatory authority must consult USDA-SCS
through the State Soil Conservationist concerning the adequacy of each
proposed reclamation plan and must incorporate any USDA recommendations as
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specific permit conditions to provide for more adequate soil
reconstruction.
Permits may be granted for mining prime farmland if the regulatory
authority finds, upon the basis of a complete application, that:
• The approved proposed post-mining use is to be prime
farmland
• Any USDA recommendations appear as permit conditions
• The applicant has the technological capability to restore
the prime farmland within a reasonable time to yields
equivalent to those on local unmined prime farmland under
equivalent levels of management
• The operations will comply with the prime farmland
reclamation performance standards in 30 CFR 823, which are
summarized below.
The soil horizons are to be removed separately, unless the operator has
demonstrated that combined material will create a more favorable plant
growth medium than the original prime farmland soil. Soil not utilized
immediately must be stockpiled in segregated piles and protected against
erosion by quick-growing vegetation or other means. The minimum depth of
reconstructed material is to be 48 inches or the depth of root penetration
in the natural soil, whichever is less. A soil depth greater than 48 inches
may be specified by the regulatory authority wherever necessary to restore
productive capacity. The backfill material is to be final graded and
scarified before soil placement, unless site-specific evidence demonstrates
that scarification will not enhance the yield of the reconstructed soil.
Moist bulk densities following compaction shall not exceed the original
values by more than 0.1 g/c^ over more than 10% of any layer. The
reconstructed surface material is to be protected from erosion using mulch
or other means before it is replanted, and nutrients are to be applied as
needed to establish quick plant growth. The vegetation must be capable of
stabilizing the soil surface against damage by erosion and must contribute
to the recovery of productive capacity. The land must be returned to crop
production within ten years of regrading.
The minimum criteria for determining the success of revegetation on
prime farmland provide that crop production data:
• Must be based on a minimum of three years data including
the three-year period immediately preceding bond release
• May be adjusted for weather-induced variability in annual
mean crop production, if adjustment is authorized by the
regulatory authority
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• Must be equivalent to or higher than the predetermined
target level of crop production specified in the permit,
based op unmined local prime farmland under equivalent
levels of management.
These standards require the restoration of prime farmland to its pre-
mining productive capacity and to agricultural use following mining as a
precondition for release of the operator's performance bond. They provide
for the site-specific input of expertise from USDA in each permit. There-
fore EPA anticipates that no additional New Source NPDES permit conditions
will be necessary to protect the prime farmland resources regulated by
30 CFR 823, as long as the USOSM requirements are enforceable by the regula-
tory agency. If the USOSM standards are not enforceable, EPA will impose
equivalent measures pursuant to CWA and NEPA for restoration of prime
farmland during the period of the NPDES permit.
5.7.3.2. Other Significant Farmlands
Farmlands of concern to EPA, may include lands not classified as prime
farmlands by the SMCRA regulatory authority or USDA-SCS. In order to
minimize the conversion of significant agricultural lands to non-farming
uses as a result of mining, EPA will impose, on a case-by-case basis,
special requirements for New Source NPDES permits when the following types
of sensitive farmland^ are proposed for mining:
• Unique farmland, and other farmlands of National,
Statewide, or local significance, as defined by USDA-SCS
• Farmlands within or contiguous to other environmentally
sensitive areas that protect and buffer those sensitive
areas
• Farmlands that may be used for the land treatment of
organic (sewage) wastes
• Farmlands with significant capital investments that: help
control soil erosion and non-point pollution.
For unique or other farmlands of special significance as identified by
USDA-SCS, the productivity of the land following reclamation must be
restored to yields equivalent to unmined local farmland of the same type
under equivalent levels of management. The proposed post-mining land use
will be expected to be farmland.
For farmlands that buffer sensitive areas, no mining will be allowed
prior to a thorough evaluation of the potential effects of the proposed
mining on the adjacent sensitive areas. If the effects are judged by EPA to
be significant and not avoidable or subject to mitigation, then EPA will not
issue a permit prior to formal decisionmaking in compliance with NEPA
through issuance of draft and final EIS's.
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For farmlands that may be used for the land treatment of organic
(sewage) wastes, the post-mining land use is to allow for the land treatment
of organic wastes. The applicant will be expected to demonstrate that the
postmining soil material is appropriate for such waste treatment.
Farmlands with significant capital investments that help control soil
erosion and non-point pollution must be restored to farmland use and must
have measures to control erosion and non-point pollution equivalent to or
better than those which existed prior to mining. Following reclamation such
lands are to be restored to yields equivalent to or better than unmined
local farmland of the same type under equivalent levels of management and
capital investment.
EPA also will make certain that appropriate measures are proposed by
operators to avoid adverse impacts on off-site sensitive farmlands from
upslope surface mining operations in the vicinity of the sensitive farmlands
and from underground operations that might cause subsidence that may disrupt
sensitive farmlands.
5.7.4. Unstable Slopes
Landslides and related slope failures in West Virginia, as discussed in
Section 2.7. of this SID, are most likely where the slopes are between 15%
(9°) and 35% (19°). On slopes of less than 15%, there is relatively little
mass movement; on slopes steeper than 35%, relatively little unconsolidated
material can accumulate and'become unstable as a result of mining. Specific
topographic situations where landslides are most likely to develop are
indicated in Figure 2-47 in Section 2.7. Nine maps pinpointing unstable
slopes in the Basin at the l:24,000-scale are partially available and have
been depicted on Overlay 3. Additional maps are being developed under an
ongoing program at WVGES.
Human activity can induce or increase the severity and extent of slope
failure. Drilling and blasting vibration may open existing joints, liquify
fine material along faults, or trigger rockfalls. An excavation may remove
the support from the toe or increase the loading on the crest of a potential
slide. Slope failure associated with coal mining poses a serious problem in
the Basin because of the large areas in the Basin with slopes ranging from
15% to 35%. Qualitative analyses of slope failure associated with mining
activity in the Basin show that such failures generally occur away from
populated areas; thus the damage to local property may be slight.
A few rock strata and soil series have been found to be associated
frequently with mass movement. This is particularly true of the red shales
of the Monongahela, Dunkard, and Conemaugh Groups and the following soil
series:
Brooke Ernest Vandalia
Brookside Gilpin Westmoreland
Clarksburg Guernsey Wharton
Culleoka Markland Zoar
Dormont Upshur
-------
Detailed cross-sections and topographic maps must be developed as a part of
each mining application now submitted to WVDNR and also are mandated by
USOSM (30 CFR 779.25; 783.25). Data on geology and soils are required to be
submitted to WVDNR-Reclamation as a part of current mining applications and
also are mandated by USOSM (30 CFR 779.14, 779.21, 783.14, 783.22).
The USOSM performance standards place great emphasis on slope stability
as a primary objective of the engineering for mining and reclamation activi-
ties. The performance standards relating to backfilling and grading and to
fills, water diversions, dams, and roads all bear on slope stability. An
undisturbed natural barrier is to be retained in place, beginning at the
elevation of the lowest coal seam to be mined, to prevent slides at surface
mines (30 CFR 816.99; 817.99). No surface water diversions are to be
located on existing landslides without the approval of the regulatory auth-
ority, and no diversion is to be located so as to increase the potential for
landslides (30 CFR 816.43; 817.43). Diversions are to be able to pass at
least a 10-year storm in order to protect fills, and impermeable linings may
be used to prevent seepage from diversions into fills.
Backfills must meet a professionally engineered design safety factor of
1.3 (30 CFR 816.102; 817.102). Regraded slopes are to be the most moderate
possible, and must cover the highwall. Spoil is to be retained on the solid
part of the bench, and cut and fill terraces may be allowed by the
regulatory authority. Terrace out slopes are not to exceed 50% unless they
are approved as having a static design safety factor of more than 1.3.
Spoil in excess of the quantity needed to eliminate the highwall is to
be placed in designated surface disposal areas on the most gently sloping
and naturally stable sites available. Placement is to be in a controlled
manner to insure stability (30 CFR 816.71; 817.71). Spoil disposal areas
must be constructed with a static design safety factor of 1.5 and must be
inspected and certified by a registered engineer. Where the slope of the
disposal area exceeds 36% or such lesser slope as may be designated by the
regulatory authority, keyway excavations to stable bedrock or rock toe
buttresses to insure stability must be constructed following engineering
analysis of data from on-site borings (30 CFR 780.35). Valley fills and
head-of-hollow fills must meet the general requirements for spoil disposal,
plus special requirements for dimensions, compaction, and drainage
(30 CFR 816.72, 73, and 74 and the corresponding sections of Subchapter
817).
Embankments for sedimentation ponds must meet a design safety factor of
1.5 (30 CFR 816.46; 817.46). Embankments constructed of coal processing
wastes or intended to impound processing wastes also must meet the design
safety factor criterion of 1.5 (Section 85). Embankments for Class I and
Class II roads must meet a design factor of at least 1.25 (Subsections 150
and 160).
Taken together, the USOSM performance standards should provide a
generally acceptable set of controls to regulate mining on unstable slopes.
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If the standards should be unenforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA
will impose equivalent requirements on New Source mines pursuant to CWA and
NEPA. During the review of New Source NPDES permits, EPA will check to
insure that no temporary or permanent spoil placement is proposed downslope
from the solid bench on outcrops of red shales of the Dunkard, Monongahela,
or Conemaugh Groups, or on the thirteen soil series frequently associated
with mass movement that were previously identified.
5.7.5. Subsidence
Subsidence is a surface impact of underground mining. It results when
the material overlying a mined area caves in. This material fills the void
created by the removal of the coal and results in the vertical and
horizontal displacement of the surface. As a consequence there can be
severe impacts on surface land uses and the potential influx of water into
the mine. The amount of surface movement is dependent on the geometry of
the coal deposit and topography, the method of mining, and the
characteristics of the coal seam and overlying strata.
For essentially flat-lying deposits such as most West Virginia coals,
the underground excavation width in relation to its height and the depth
from the surface to the coal seam, are important in calculating the amount
of subsidence. In general, the shallower the overburden and the wider the
mine excavation relative to its height, the greater the surface subsidence
will be. Current research that bears on subsidence prediction is discussed
in the following paragraphs.
A critical width to depth ratio must be achieved before the maximum
possible subsidence (S max) will occur in a coal seam of a given thickness
(Figure 5-5, Case a). At greater widths of excavation (where the ratio is
higher in value), the horizontal distance (and surface area) over which the
maximum subsidence will occur is greater (Figure 5-5, Case b). On the other
hand, if the mine width is less than the critical width relative to depth,
the maximum possible subsidence will not occur (Figure 5-5, Case c). For
convenience in planning and analysis, a subsidence factor can be calculated
as the subsidence (S) divided by the seam thickness or height (H). This
factor, if multiplied by 100, is the percentage of the seam thickness that
will be manifested at the surface as vertical movement.
Many empirical studies have been conducted in Europe to preset and
minimize subsidence effects. They show that, for flat-lying deposits at a
given seam thickness, some critical minimum width of an excavation relative
to its depth must be achieved before any surface effects will be
encountered. For very deep deposits the amount of surface subsidence in
proportion to seam thickness is less, because the underground subsidence is
dampened as it spreads toward the surface through intervening rock layers.
A mean subsidence curve developed from measurements at 157 coal mines
in Britain by the National Coal Board is illustrated in Figure 5-6. For an
excavation width to depth-from-surface ratio of less than 0.25, subsidence
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Horizontal displacement
Seam
•w
Minimum critical width for maximum surface subsidence
Horizontal displacement/—•v
Subsidence
-Surface
(b)
Seam
Greater than critical width of excavation
Horizontal displacement
Subsidence
-Surface
(c)
Seam
Less than critical width of excavation
Figure 5-5 MEAN SUBSIDENCE CURVES (adapted from
Kohli etal. !980).Not to scale.
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J-
I
o
UJ
o
2
ut
o
CO
m
:D
CO
UJ
o
<
u_
rr
D
CO
1.0
0.86
0. 8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.095
Narrow Excavations
and/or
Deep Seams
Wider Excavations
and/or
Shallow Seams
I
I
I
I
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
EXCAVATION WIDTH T DEPTH FROM SURFACE (W/D)
Figure 5-6 EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIP OF SURFACE SUBSIDENCE SEAM
THICKNESS RATIO TO PANEL WIDTH / DEPTH FROM SURFACE
IN GREAT BRITAIN (National Coal Board 1966)
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damage is very small; for a W/D ratio of 1.3, a surface subsidence of 90% of
the seam height is estimated to result. Two examples can illustrate how
this model is used to predict the effect of excavation width on the amount
of subsidence, based on the empirical ratios presented in Figure^-5-6.
Example 1: If a coal seam 5 feet thick (H = 5 feet) is mined at a depth of
100 feet (D = 100 feet) and the excavation width is 20 feet (W = 20 feet),
how much subsidence (s) would be expected at the surface? For this example,
W 20 S_
D = 100 = 0.2, so H = 0.095 (Figure 5-6)
S_
Then 5 = 0.095, and S = 0.48 feet or 5.8 inches.
Example 2: If a coal seam 5 feet thick at a depth of 100 feet is mined at
an excavation width of 100 feet, then the surface subsidence is:
100 IS
100 = 1, H = 0.86 (Figure 5-6)
S = 5 x 0.86 = 4.8 feet or 52 inches.
These hypothetical examples indicate how increasing an excavation width by a
factor of five could increase the expected subsidence by a factor of nine
(4.3 r 0.48 = 8.96). The same analysis shows how increasing seam depth
decreases surface subsidence effects. If the excavation width is 100 feet
and the seam depth is 500 feet for the same 5 feet thick coal seam, the
expected subsidence is the same as in Example 1: 0.48 feet. If the 5 feet
thick seam were mined using 20 feet wide excavations at a depth of 500 feet,
the subsidence would be only 0.08 feet (or 1 inch).
British National Coal Board (1966) data have been used to predict
subsidence in the United States because of the absence of sufficient
domestic information, but Breeds (in Bise 1980) found the geological
characteristics of the strata in the UK and US to be totally dissimilar. If
the British model is used for subsidence prediction, it usually will result
in a higher value of subsidence than that which actually occurs in West
Virginia. Preliminary data show that the predicted subsidence was larger
than the actual subsidence in West Virginia by 30% to 70% (Von Schonfeldt et
al. 1980). This is due to the greater proportion of limestones and
sandstones in West Virginia in comparison to the British strata, which are
primarily shales.
A few subsidence areas have been mapped by the WVGES. These are mainly
urban areas. Subsidence potential is classified as severe where mines are
at a depth of 150 feet or less, moderate where the mines are between 150
feet and 300 feet deep, and slight where the mines are deeper than 300 feet
(Verbally, Dr. Peter Lessing, WVGES, to Mr. Carl Peretti, 1980).
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Longwall, shortwall, and room and pillar mining methods are selected
for specific geological conditions. Room and pillar methods (see Section
3.2.) generally are used at shallow depths because they are the most
economical. Room and pillar methods generally require leaving some amount
of coal in place, even in mined-out panels and gob areas. Deep seams
require that a larger pillar be left to bear the increased pressure
resulting from thicker overburden. Where it is necessary to leave very
large amounts of coal in place, room and pillar mining may not be
economical. Room and pillar mining with or without secondary recovery of
pillars may result in delayed and unequal subsidence across the land surface
above the mine.
Shortwall mining requires the use of larger supports or props than
longwall mining. Because of these larger supports, shortwall methods
frequently are employed at shallower depths than longwall methods. At
shallow depths stress distributions are such that they are concentrated at
the shortwall supports. Only large supports can tolerate the increased
stress without becoming immobilized. Shortwall mining may be employed to
minimize overall subsidence damage by allowing an immediate and uniform
subsidence to occur over a large area.
Preliminary studies of longwall panels in West Virginia indicate that
the caved or fractured area extends from 35 to 50 times the seam height or
to the surface, whichever comes first (Von Schonfeldt et al. 1980).
Generally this caved area does not reach the surface, because the longwall
mining is conducted at great depths.
An ongoing study by K. K. Kohli and S. S. Peng of the Department of
Mining Engineering of West Virginia University concerning subsidence induced
by longwall mining in the Northern Coalfield of Appalachian is one of the
first in-depth studies of subsidence in the US. Preliminary data indicate
that the following findings may be applicable to most subsidence in Northern
Appalachia related to deep underground coal mines:
• The angle of draw ranges from 21° to 30° (0 in Figure
5-6). The angle of draw, extended to the surface, defines
the surface area affected by subsidence.
• The subsidence factor ranges from 0.22 to 0.7 and
increases with seam depth. This is a narrower range of
values than those presented in Figure 5-6. This is unlike
the results from shallow seam mining techniques and occurs
because the caved area extends 35 to 50 times the seam
height above the mined area. Above this height the rock
generally settles in continuous, unbroken pieces. The
thicker the overlying rock, the more weight exerted on the
gob and the greater the compaction.
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• The subsidence profile can be approximated and predicted
by a simple profile function in most cases. The following
equation was found to approximate most subsidence
profiles:
S = 1/2 S max [1 - tan h (2X r B)], where
S = the subsidence at a horizontal distance X from the
point of half-maximum subsidence
B = a constant that is one-half the critical width
S max = the maximum subsidence
tan h = the hyperbolic tangent.
• Time-dependent subsidence, that is, the residual
subsidence after the main subsidence has occurred due to
gradual compaction of the subsided ground, is less than
13% of the total subsidence
• Where mining panels occur horizontally adjacent to each
other, the interpanel effect adds 15% to 33% to the
maximum possible subsidence.
USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
surface subsidence control be incorporated into underground coal mine design
(30 CFR 817.116). Underground mining activities are to be planned and
conducted so as to prevent subsidence from causing material damage to the
surface, to the extent technologically and economically feasible, and so as
to maintain the value and reasonably foreseeable use of surface lands. This
may be accomplished on the one hand by leaving adequate coal in place, by
backfilling, or by other measures to support the surface, or alternatively
by conducting underground mining in a manner that provides for planned and
controlled subsidence. The underground mine operator must prepare and
implement a detailed subsidence control plan approved by the regulatory
authority where the information in the permit application indicates the
presence of sensitive surface resources.
Subsidence control begins during mine planning with the identification
of potentially affected surface structures, water resources, and land uses
(30 CFR 817.122 through .126). Specific surface areas beneath which mining
will occur must be identified, together with the dates of the proposed
mining activity. Measures to control surface damage must be described in
detail. This information must be provided to each resident and owner of
surface property beneath which the mining is to occur at least six months
prior to the start of mining.
The surface owner is to be protected by:
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• Approval by the regulatory authority of a mining plan
(including provisions for monitoring) that will prevent
subsidence from causing damage or diminution of the value
or reasonably foreseeable use of the surface area
• Establishment of a means to fulfill the legal
responsibility of the mine owner to restore or purchase
any damaged structure and restore damaged land to its
original condition or its reasonably foreseeable use
through purchase of insurance or any other method required
by the regulatory authority.
Mining under urbanized areas can be suspended at any time, if it is found to
cause imminent danger to the surface inhabitants.
Buffer zones must be established in certain areas to prevent
subsidence damage, unless the regulatory authority finds that the buffer
zone is not necessary to protect the surface resource from subsidence (30
CFR 817.126). These zones will have no mining activity, if the regulatory
agency determines that reduced extraction ratios or other mining methods are
insufficient to eliminate damage to the surface features. The areas that
must be considered for buffering include:
• Perennial streams
• Water impoundments, with a storage volume of 20 acre-feet
or more
• Aquifers that serve as significant sources of water to
public water systems
• Public buildings.
If it is determined by the regulatory authority that sensitive surface
uses exist in the mining area, the permit application must include a
subsidence control plan (30 CFR 784.20). The plan must include a detailed
description of:
• Mining methods and the extent to which planned subsidence
is anticipated
• Measures employed to prevent subsidence damage, such as
backfilling, leaving support pillars, leaving unmined coal
below ground, together with surface measures such as
structural reinforcement, relocation, and monitoring
• Measures to determine the extent of future subsidence
damage, including presubsidence surveys of structures and
other surface features which might be damaged and plans
for monitoring these features during mining.
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West Virginia has no current subsidence control program. The State
must draft regulations to conform to USOSM requirements before it can
administer the SMCRA program. New regulations also are required to
implement the subsidence provisions of the recent WVSCMRA [West Virginia
Code 20-6-14(b)(D] . So long as applicants for New Source NPDES permits
adhere to USOSM permanent program performance standards, subsidence can be
expected to be minimized, and no special New Source NPDES permit conditions
for subsidence control are necessary. Should the USOSM performance
standards not be enforceable by the regulatory authority, EPA will impose
equivalent measures under the CWA and NEPA.
5.7.6. Toxic or Ac^id Forming Earth Materials and Acid Mine Drainage
Toxic or acid-forming materials can be present in the unconsolidated
and consolidated material above a coal deposit, within the coal seam itself,
in the underclay, and in coal preparation waste material. These materials
have the potential to produce acid water and biologically harmful substances
when exposed to air, water, and microorganisms (see Sections 2.7., 3.2., and
5.2.).
Water quality problems as a result of AMD are widespread in the
Monongahela River Basin (see Section 2.7). The potential for toxic or
acid-forming constituents exists throughout the Basin (Arkle et al. 1979,
Caruccio 1970, Home et al. 1978, Ferm 1974).
5.7.6.1. Coal Overburden Information Requirement;;
Both surface coal mining and underground coal mining must meet special
performance standards for operations in toxic or acid-forming strata
(30 CFR 816.48, 816.103, 817.48, and 817.103). In order to determine
whether these special performance standards must be applied, the operator
must document the presence or absence of excessively toxic, acidic, or
alkaline strata as part of his permit application to the SMCRA regulatory
authority.
The USOSM performance standards (30 CFR 779.14) require test borings or
core samples that extend from the surface to the stratum immediately below
the lowest coal seam to be mined (30 CFR 779.14, 783.14). The operator also
is required to provide the following data:
• Location of subsurface water table and aquifers
• Drill logs which include the rock type and thickness of
each stratum and coal seam
• Physical properties (i.e. structure, texture, and
composition) of each stratum including analyses of
compaction and erodibility
• Chemical analyses of each stratum including the underclay
of the lowest coal seam to be mined. The analyses must
include pH, reaction to dilute hydrochloric acid, total
sulfur, and neutralization potential (acid-base accounting
by layer)
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• Strata or horizons within a stratum which contain
potential acid-forming, toxic, or alkaline materials
t Analyses of coal seams including sulfur, pyrite, and
marcasite content.
Original analyses of core samples may be waived by the regulatory authority,
if the authority provides a written statement that equivalent information is
accessible and in the proper form from other sources.
EPA is aware of the significant local fluctuation in toxic/acid and
alkaline overburden, as well as the diversity of the acid potential of coal
seams and underclays in West Virginia. EPA believes that a minimum of one
original, on-site core analysis of the overburden, coal seams, and
underclays on each mine site, supported by local correlating data, is
necessary to identify toxic spoil and meet the needs of the New Source NPDES
permit program, unless equivalent information is submitted by the applicant.
This analysis is to be made in accordance with the USOSM Draft Experimental
Permit Application Form (Chapter 4) and the EPA Manual for the Analysis of
Overburden (Smith et al. 1976, Sobek 1978). EPA expects that this
information will be developed for State and Federal mining permit
applications, and that no additional information will be required
specifically for the New Source NPDES permit program.
EPA will require that data on overburden characteristics be retrieved
either by core sampling or from highwall samples, because air drill chips
easily may be contaminated. Fresh exposures along a highwall are to be
sampled for each stratum. Each sample is to be at least 500 ml (roughly
1 pint) in volume for adequate laboratory preparation and evaluation (SMDTF
1979). Core samples are to be protected from moisture (i.e., wrapped in
plastic) and placed in a wooden or other suitable container for transport
and storage prior to analysis. EPA expects that the necessary data will be
included in the mining permit application and will not have to be compiled
specially for the NPDES permit application.
EPA will require data to be submitted from core samples or highwall
samples separated horizontally by no more than 3,300 feet in previously
unmined areas and in coal seams where potential toxic materials are
suspected. Seams identified by WVDNR-Reclamation as potentially toxic have
been mapped on the 1:24,000-scale maps and is available at EPA Region III
offices. The maximum distance between samples may be waived where
applicable local data are submitted that indicate (1) that no toxic or
acid-forming materials are present, or (2) that historically the area has
been free of acid mine drainage.
Depending on the observable rate of lateral change in the local strata,
EPA may require closer spacing of core holes or highwall samples locally
within the permit area to assure adequate data to predict impacts and enable
5-171
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compliance with applicable performance standards for soil and water quality
(Smith et al. 1976). EPA recommends that applicants utilize a maximum
horizontal spacing of 2,000 feet or less in areas of known toxic or
uncertain potential within the permit area, to preclude the need for
additional drilling after permit review is underway. Obvious changes in
rock properties, (i.e., weathered vs. unweathered zones within one stratum,)
are to be sampled, and the two or more zones should be logged separately
(SMDTF 1979).
Pre-mining laboratory analyses of overburden that identify toxic or
potentially toxic materials and allow mine planning to prevent or control
acid mine drainage will be required by EPA. It is expected that this
information will have been prepared by the operator as a part of the SMCRA
application. Acid-base accounts are the principal part of overburden
analysis. They involve two basic measurements: (l) total pyritic sulfur
concentration; and (2) neutralization potential, that is, the calcium
carbonate equivalent of bases present in the various rock layers. The
thresholds for defining overburden materials as toxic or acid-forming are
that either (1) the pH is less than 4 standard units, or (2) there is a net
potential deficiency of 5 tons calcium carbonate equivalent or more per
1,000 tons of materials (Smith et al. 1974).
EPA recognizes that alternative methods to prevent formation of acid
mine drainage include both the thorough blending of toxic or acid-forming
materials with alkaline materials and the selective placement and isolation
of the problem materials in the backfilled areas. EPA also recognizes that
improper blending of these materials can result in toxic or acid Leachate.
EPA may approve the blending of overburden materials, provided that the
operator demonstrates that blending, or a combination of blending and
segregation, will produce desirable results. The operator must demonstrate
one or more of the following: 1) that there is sufficient alkaline material
present in the overburden as a whole to produce a net acid-base account, ?)
that other local mine sites with similar overburden and mining methods are
known to have no uncontrollable acid water discharges, or 3) that the toxic
or acid-producing material is not a pyritic sandstone and that it possesses
sufficient neutralizers. Pyritic sandstone ordinarily will be expected to
be segregated.
Figures 5-7 and 5-8 provide examples of acid-base data from two
overburden columns from two coal seams in the Monongahela River Basin. The
original topsoil material in Figure 5-7 is low in total sulfur, but it lacks
neutralizers and shows a net deficiency in calcium carbonate equivalent.
The topsoil is not base-deficient enough, however, to be considered a toxic
zone. From a depth of 4 feet to 23 feet the base-rich shale and other
mudstones show a net excess of approximately 10% calcium carbonate
equivalent together with a high total sulfur content. Except for 2 feet of
overburden below the base-rich zone, the remaining overburden material above
the Bakerstown Coal also is high in total sulfur. The net deficiency of
calcium carbonate equivalent places this material in the potentially toxic
or toxic category (Smith et al. 1976).
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SANDSTONE
SHALE
MUOSTONE
LIMESTONE
COAL
ACID-BASE ACCOUNT
DEFICIENCY
% SULFUR (t)
1.0 0.1
EXCESS
20-
100 40 20 10 6 4 2 I
2 4 6 IO 20 60 tOO
CaC03 EQUIVALENT
(TONS/THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL)
Figure 5-7 AQID-BASE ACCOUNT AND ROCK TYPE OF OVER-
BURDEN ABOVE A BAKERSTOWN COAL SEAM.
(EPA 1976)
-------
SANDSTONE
SHALE
MUOSTONE
LIMESTONE
COAL
DEFICIENCY
% SULFUR («)
1.0 0.1
ACID-BASE ACCOUNT
EXCESS
IOO 40 20 10 6 4 2 I I 2 4 6 10 20 4O 100
468
PH
CaC03 EQUIVALENT
( TONS/THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL)
Figure 5-8 ACID-BASE ACCOUNT AND ROCK TYPE OF THE OVER-
BURDEN ABOVE AN UPPER FREEPORT COAL SEAM
(EPA 1976)
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In Figure 5-8 the net deficiencies of calcium carbonate equivalent
occur at several levels in the material overlying the Upper Freeport Coal.
Three of these zones are considered toxic or potentially toxic: (1) 20 to
24 feet from the surface; (2) at a depth of 51 to 52 feet; (3) the Upper
Freeport Coal zone itself, 58 to 68 feet from the surface. Only the natural
soil (the uppermost 2 inches) in the surficial 10 feet of material does not
have a net base deficiency. From 10 to 20 feet the column shows a low
Sulfur content and slightly alkaline material. Hence the weathered zone as
a whole has an insignificant net deficiency in calcium carbonate that is too
small to be recorded. A potentially toxic layer 1 foot thick at a depth of
52 feet occurs in the otherwise alkaline zone from 24 to 58 feet in depth.
These two examples of overburden analysis suggest various effective
methods for toxic material placement during mining. Rock from the 5 to
23 feet zone overlying the Bakerstown Coal (Figure 5-7) could be segregated
from the remaining overburden during mining. This alkaline material could
be used to cover the potentially toxic material and to form a substitute
topsoil. Wherever in West Virginia the Bakerstown Coal is shallow enough to
be minable by current surface methods, it is accompanied by alkaline
overburden that can be used to form a mine soil with revegetation potential
greater than that of undisturbed topsoil (Smith et al. 1974).
Alternative reclamation operations would be feasible where the Upper
Freeport Coal, as described in Figure 5-8, is mined. The weathered zone
(upper 20 feet) is usually removed and placed at the surface to form the
minesoil and cover the toxic material below. Fertilization and liming can
produce successful pasture (Smith et al. 1976).
A second option is to remove 5 feet of the potentially toxic material
immediately below the weathered zone and bury it in the backfill away from
the highwall and the top and bottom of the pit. The 25 feet to 58 feet
alkaline section of the overburden then can be blended with the uppermost
20 feet and used to create minesoil. This option is available only when the
overburden consists primarily of shales and mudstones instead of sandstone.
Blending should be thorough enough to eliminate pockets of potentially
acid-forming materials. Neutralizing agents such as lime can be added or
mixed with overburden materials. Controlled drilling and blasting can keep
the potentially toxic material in relatively large chunks, thus minimizing
the reactive surface, while at the same time fragmenting the alk --line
material to increase its reactive surfaces. If the coal seam and closely
associated materials are acid-forming, the pit should be cleaned prior to
backfilling. Positive drainage can be provided adjacent to the highwall
face and across the pit floor through non-toxic, preferably alkaline
material. If the coal pavement or underclay are potentially toxic, sealants
can be applied to create a non-reactive surface. Possible sealants include
clayey soil, weatherable shale, manufactured compounds, and lime (which can
react with iron in water to form a non-reactive surface (SMDTF 1979).
-------
Total analyses for the trace elements aluminum, arsenic, beryllium
cadmium, chromium, chlorine, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel,
selenium, silver, and zinc are suggested in the USOSM Draft Experimental
Permit Application Form to show the expected trace element content of future
soils that develop from these rocks and the potential availability of these
elements to plants. Heavy metals less readily are leached from soils or
weathered rock than calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Nevertheless, they
may be toxic to plants and hamper revegetation, especially where pH is less
than 4.0. The natural weathering process is accelerated by mining activity,
and low pH mine waters have the potential to release levels of these heavy
metals that generate significant adverse effects.
EPA may require original laboratory analyses for these metals in areas
where metals are suspected of posing an environmental problem, unless
equivalent data are available from comparable local situations and the
comparable data are submitted with the New Source NPDES permit application.
EPA expects that the data prepared for the regulatory authority pursuant to
SMCRA and WVSCMRA will be adequate to meet the needs of New Source NPDES
permit review, as long as the information requirements outlined in this
section are satisfied.
5.7.6.2.Surface Disposal of Acid-Forming Materials
After toxic, acid-forming, potentially toxic, or potentially acid-
forming materials have been identified, the mine operator who plans surface
disposal of such materials is required to meet special performance standards
and procedures during mining and reclamation operations (30 CFR 816.48,
817.48). The operator already is required by current WVDNR permit
applications to describe in the mine plan the proposed disposal or treatment
method for all toxic or acid-forming materials. USOSM performance standards
for disposal of toxic or acid-forming materials require that the operator:
• Minimize water pollution and treat the discharge if
necessary to control pollution (816.41)
• Haul or convey and place spoil in compacted horizontal
lifts, graded to allow surface and subsurface drainage to
be compatible with local conditions
• Divert runoff around the spoil disposal site [816.74(c)]
• Unless waived by the SMCRA regulatory authority, reclaim
the mine site contemporaneously with mining activities
(816.100)
• During backfill and grading operations, haul and compact
the spoil in order to prevent leaching of toxic or acid-
forming materials, minimize adverse effects on receiving
waters and groundwater, and support postmining land uses
(816.101).
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Requirements for covering coal and toxic or acid-forming materials
during backfilling and grading operations include the following measures
(30 CFR 816.103 and 817.103 and WVDNR-Reclamation Regulations 1978:
Chapter 20-6, Section 9.03):
• A minimum of 4 feet of cover over 1) all coal seams, 2)
toxic or acid—forming materials, 3) combustible materials,
4) materials deemed unsuitable by WVDNR-Reclamation for
thinner cover
• The 4 feet or more of cover material must be non-toxic,
non-acid forming, and non-combustible
• Toxic or acid-forming materials must be tested and treated
or blended with suitable materials to neutralize toxicity
if necessary
• WVDNR-Reclamation may require 1) greater than 4 feet of
non-toxic and non-acidic cover, 2) special compaction of
toxic or acidic materials, and 3) isolation of these
materials from groundwater in order to minimize the
potential effects of upward migration of salts, exposure
due to erosion, and formation of toxic or acid seeps, to
insure adequate depth for plant growth, and to meet any
special local conditions
• Placement or storage of toxic or acid materials is to be
sufficiently distant from drainage courses to prevent or
minimize any threat of water pollution
• Methods and design specifications for compacting
materials, prior to covering any toxic or acid-forming
materials, must be approved by the SMCRA regulatory
authority.
j
Figures 5-9 and 5-10 illustrate water and overburden handling measures
currently recommended in West Virginia.
Overburden thickness is variable across the Basin and locally within
individual mines. Fluctuations in overburden thickness may be due to
changes in the depositional environment, post-depositional erosion and
tectonics, topography, and elevation of the coal seam. All toxic materials
must be covered, whether the overburden is thin or thick (816.104, 105).
"Red dog" is the West Virginia coal miner's term for a solid,
non-volatile combustion product of the oxidation of coal or coal refuse.
The term commonly is applied to coal or refuse that has been burned in place
prior to mining. The material is red in color and traditionally has been
used for road surfacing in the Basin (WVDNR 1979). USOSM permanent program
regulations require that no toxic or acid-forming materials be used for road
5-177
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5-178
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DBIU. Ho-E . Fo« A.OO
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To BE
OTHE.R
CUT
Tonic
FIPST CUT
Figure 5-10 CROSS-SECTION VIEWS OF CONTOUR
SURFACE MINE SHOWN IN FIGURE 5-9
(Smith 1979).
5-179
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Figure 5-10 (concluded) CROSS-SECTION VIEWS
5-180
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surfacing (816.154, .164, and .174). Because red dog commonly is an acid-
forming material, the red dog now generally must be handled as any other
toxic overburden. EPA will require standard overburden analysis of any red
dog material proposed for use on any road surface to determine its toxic or
acid-forming potential. Unless the material is demonstrated not to be
acid-forming, its use as a road material will be denied.
USOSM performance standards mandate that the waters of the permit area
and adjacent areas be protected from the potential acid or toxic drainage
from acid or toxic forming overburden (30 CFR 816.48 and 817.48). Drainage
from these toxic or acid forming materials is to be avoided by identifying,
isolating, burying, or treating where necessary all overburden material that
the regulatory authority considers a potential threat to water quality or
vegetation. In particular:
• Toxic or acid materials are to be isolated (816.103 and
817.103)
• Spoil is to be buried or treated within 30 days after
exposure, and the regulatory authority may require a
period of less than 30 days
• Temporary storage of the toxic materials may be approved
by the regulatory authority if the operator can
demonstrate 1) that burial or treatment of the toxic
material is not feasible and 2) the material does not pose
a potential water pollution problem or other adverse
environmental effect
• The temporarily stored toxic or acid material must be
handled as soon as it becomes feasible to do so
• All temporarily stored, potentially toxic or acid-forming
material, is to be placed on top of impermeable material,
sealed, or otherwise protected from erosion and contact
with surface water.
Subsurface water usually is encountered at the highwall, in or near the
coal seam. The mine operator, by determining the dip of the strata, can
identify likely areas for subsurface water discharge. With this knowledge,
a mine operator can avoid placing toxic materials in such areas.
Alternatively, up-dip areas can be used for toxic spoil placement, thus
preventing or minimizing contact with subsurface waters. Special care in
blasting procedures on the last highwall cut also can be used to reduce
highwall fracturing and thus reduce the potential infiltration of
groundwater. Where pavement materials are found to be alkaline, shallow
fragmenting of the coal pavement can help to minimize the potential for acid
mine drainage formation. By fragmenting the pavement, subsurface water
flowing into the backfilled site can be directed into and across the
alkaline pavement.
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Where large volumes of subsurface water are encountered, the coal pave-
ment can be trenched and/or treated to provide routes for the water to exit
the fill in a planned and controlled manner. Non-toxic stone, as well as
durable pipes or culverts, can be used in the trench to provide a quick con-
veyance system. Construction of collection and conveyance drainage systems
for springs and underground seeps is also a useful subsurface water control
measure to prevent entry of groundwater into potentially toxic materials
stored in fill areas.
The potential for surface water to enter underground mines is greatest
where subsidence has taken place. Thus special attention should be given to
areas where subsidence is most likely to occur, as for example, where there
are numerous, thin strata above the coal seam (as opposed to few, massive
beds). Surface topography also may affect the potential for subsidence,
with greater probability of mine roof problems beneath ridges than beneath
hollows. The measures taken to prevent unwanted subsidence during mining
(timbering, roof bolting, trusses, etc) may be effective in protecting
workers during the relatively short-term period of active mining (seldom
more than 25 years). In the long term, however, they are not likely to pre-
vent surface subsidence in many situations, and consequently the quantity of
potential acid drainage may increase long after a mine has been abandoned.
5.7.6.3. Underground Disposal of Spoil and Coal Processing Wastes
Spoil from surface and underground mines and coal processing plant
wastes can be returned to underground mine workings, provided that such dis-
posal has been planned and approved by the SMCRA regulatory authority and by
USMSHA. The USOSM-mandated reclamation plan must protect the hydrologic
balance. Surface water and samples of groundwater quantity and quality are
to be collected, analyzed, and reported (30 CFR 817,52). The determination
of the probable hydrologic consequences during all seasons due to the pro-
posed underground disposal is to document existing and predict future levels
of the following parameters:
• Dissolved and total suspended solids
• Total iron and manganese
• pH
• any other parameters designated by the SMCRA regulatory
authority.
Pursuant to CWA and NEPA, EPA will exercise its responsibility to preserve
water quality by requiring that the operator furnish the results of analyses
of total acidity and alkalinity (as CaC03) and of heavy metals concentra-
tions in groundwater and surface water within the permit area and adjacent
streams as discussed in the previous sections. Ordinarily, the information
5-182
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developed for the regulatory authority pursuant to SMCRA will be adequate
for EPA review.
As part of plans for the proposed disposal of spoil underground, the
operator is to provide locations and dimensions of existing spoil areas,
coal and other waste piles, dams, embankments, other impoundments, and water
and air pollution control facilities within the permit area (783.25 and
784.11). Each disposal plan is to include the disposal methods and sites
for placing the underground development waste or excess spoil generated by
surface mines (816.71-.73 and 817.71-.73). Each disposal plan is to
describe the operator's geotechnical investigations, engineering design, and
proposed the construction, operation, maintenance, and removal of structures
(784.19).
No surface water is to be diverted or discharged into underground mine
workings unless the operator can demonstrate to the SMCRA regulatory
authority that the procedure will abate water pollution and will be a
controlled flow discharge meeting applicable effluent limitations (816.42).
The existing source NPDES effluent limits may be exceeded if approved by the
SMCRA regulatory authority, but such approvals are restricted to: 1) coal
processing waste, 2) fly ash from coal-fired facilities, 3) sludge from acid
drainage treatment facilities, 4) flue gas desulfurization sludges, 5) inert
materials used for stabilizing underground mines, and 6) underground
development wastes.
In order to return coal processing waste to abandoned underground
workings, the operator is to describe to the regulatory authority the
design, operation, and maintenance of the proposed processing waste disposal
facility (785.25). The coal processing waste may be returned to underground
workings according to a waste disposal program approved by the regulatory
authority and USMSHA under the requirements for the disposal of excess spoil
(30 CFR 780.35.). A description of the disposal site and design of spoil
disposal structures (816.71-.73), including a report on the geotechnical
investigation of the disposal site and adjacent areas, is required by the
various subparts of 780.35 and 816.71-.73. The requirements are detailed in
Chapter 6 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form.
5.7.6.4. Coal Preparation Plant and Other Refuse Piles
All coal preparation plants generate waste materials with the potential
to pollute nearby receiving streams (Torrey 1978, EPA 1979; see Section
3.2.). The solid wastes generated at coal preparation plants include both
coal dust and fine and coarse rock material. Preparation plants that
utilize water produce wastewater and process sludges. Various undesirable
elements are separated from the coal during the cleaning process; therefore,
greater concentrations of acid-forming or toxic elements such as sulfur
compounds are present in the coal refuse piles than in the original coal.
The exposure of coal mine or preparation plant refuse to air, runoff water,
and microbiological activity is likely to produce undesirable or toxic
water quality in nearby surface waters and groundwater. Coal storage areas
5-183
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also have a high potential to produce undesirable drainage. Excess
suspended material and acidity are a potentially severe drainage problem
from coal storage areas in the Basin (Torrey 1978).
Toxic or acid-forming materials exist in surface gob piles (that is,
disposal sites for underground mine workings, coal preparation plant wastes,
and wastes generated by coal processing). Coal waste piles have the
potential to produce various types of toxic conditions ranging from low pH
leachate to effluent with complex organic and inorganic chemicals in
concentrations damaging to the survival of organisms and to other
established water uses (Torrey 1978). Leachate may be produced continuously
or intermittently, and it frequently has resulted in long-term degradation
of the surrounding surface water and groundwater system.
Coal refuse piles, coal preparation wastes, and coal processing wastes
potentially are more toxic or acid-producing than the original overburden or
coal seam. Because preparation plant waste piles may generate water
pollution, EPA will review the pre-mining overburden, underclay, and coal
seam analyses including trace element content for each coal seam and
overburden that is to be processed at a proposed plant and an in-depth,
physical and chemical analysis of the untreated surface runoff and seepage
from each waste or refuse pile at the plant (if any). So long as data
are developed by the applicant as described in Chapter 4 of the USOSM Draft
Experimental Permit Application Form, no additional information is likely to
be needed by EPA.
Both suspended solids and acid mine drainage water pollution problems
associated with preparation plant facilities can be classified into two
general types: 1) process-generated wastewater and 2) area wastewater in
the vicinity of plant facilities, coal storage areas, and refuse disposal
areas. Process water control can entail various clarification techniques to
reduce the typically high concentrations of solids. Measures include froth
flotation, thickeners, flocculation, settling, vacuum filtration, and/or
pressure filtration. If coal fines are separated from other particulates,
such as clay, these fines either can be blended with clean coal or
transported to a refuse disposal site. Process water can be recycled.
Excess process water sometimes requires treatment to meet effluent
limitations prior to discharge (pH, iron, etc). The most common practice is
to add lime to make-up water after clarification in settling ponds, but it
also can be added prior to recycling through these ponds. More
sophisticated treatment processes, as described in Section 5.7.6.7., are
employed only when the process water is of extremely poor quality.
Water pollution control related to preparation plant ancillary areas
includes preventive and treatment practices related to refuse piles, slurry
ponds, and coal storage sites. Various measures are utilized by preparation
plant operators to control drainage from these areas. Site selection of
refuse piles, slurry ponds, and coal storage areas is an important factor
in minimizing drainage problems. These sites can be isolated from surface
and ground waters. Refuse piles and coal storage sites usually are located
upslope from slurry ponds or other settling ponds and treatment facilities.
5-184
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In this way, any drainage can be directed into the ponds for settling and/or
treatment prior to reuse or discharge. Water diversion systems can be
incorporated into site development, and, if springs or large surface runoff
quantities are expected, subdrains also can be employed.
The following techniques can be used during temporary refuse pile
construction:
• Proper compaction of refuse to reduce infiltration
• Minimizing exposed surface area during construction
• Utilizing relatively uniform-sized refuse to insure good
compaction with fines to reduce air and water permeability
• Construction of a clay liner over the pile followed by
topsoil placement and revegetation after desired depth of
refuse is reached.
Additional slurry pond control measures include:
• Avoiding toxic refuse in slurry pond retention
embankments
• Minimizing the velocity of slurry influent into the pond
and maximizing the slurry travel distances through the
pond to optimize solids settling
• Designing embankments for proper impermeability and
stability to minimize seepage
• Construction of diversion and conveyance systems below the
downstream toe of pond retention dam to collect, treat (if
necessary), and release or pump seepage back to the
retention pond
• Removing clarified water from points near top of pond
water surface
• Returning clarified water to preparation plant for
re-use.
An excellent coal storage pollution preventive measure is the use of
bins, silos, or hoppers as storage facilities instead of open piles. More
detailed descriptions of the pollution control techniques associated with
preparation plants are available in EPA (1976) and W.A. Wahler and
Associates (1978).
Permit area groundwater must be analyzed along with the surface water.
The trace element analysis generally must include those elements listed in
Section 4.17 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form, as
5-185
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previously discussed in Section 5.7.6.1. EPA may require additional trace
element analyses if appropriate, or may reduce the number of trace element
analyses listed in Section 4.17 of the Form if the operator demonstrates in
writing that certain trace elements are not present or do not pose an
ecological hazard to surrounding biota or pose a threat to human health
(Torrey 1978, EPA 1976a).
Coal processing wastes are not to be placed in valley fills (30 CFR
816.71) or head of hollow fills (816.72). They may be placed, however, in
other excess spoil fills, if the processing wastes are demonstrated not to
form acid or toxic components in leachate. Alternative coal processing
waste disposal methods include placement in coal processing waste banks
(816.81, .85; 817.81, .85), return to underground workings (816.88 and
817.88), and use for the construction of dams and embankments (816.92, .93;
817.92, .93). Non-coal waste disposal sites which have the potential to
produce toxic or acid leachate are to be operated in compliance with all
local, State, and Federal requirements. No solid waste may be left at
refuse embankments or impoundment sites, or within 8 feet of any outcrop of
coal or coal storage area (30 CFR 816.89 and 817.89).
Coal processing waste can be used to construct dams arid embankments to
impound other coal processing wastes only if the physical and chemical
analyses of the coal waste demonstrate to the regulatory authority that
1) structural stability will be satisfactory (30 CFR 816.71, .93; 817.71,
.93) and 2) such use of the waste material will not degrade the downstream
water quality (816.91, 817.91).
Coal processing waste banks, dams, and embankments must be constructed
with a minimum long-term safety factor of 1.5 [816.85(b), 817.85(b)]. A
sub-drainage system must be constructed to intercept groundwater (817.83,
816.83). The waste material must be compacted in layers 24 inches thick or
less, with 90% of maximum dry density as determined by standard highway
(AASHTO) specifications [816.85(c)]. The waste must be covered by a minimum
of 4 feet of cover that is not toxic or acid-forming [816.85(d)] in a manner
that does not impede flow from sub-drainage systems. All leachate and
surface runoff must satisfy effluent standards (816.42, 817.42). USOSM .
performance standards for erosion, sediment, and water pollution control are
to be met (816.41-2, .45-6, .52, .55; and corresponding Subsections of
Subchapter 817). All banks, dams, and embankments are to be revegetated in
the manner of other surface mined lands (816.111-.117). If 4 feet of
non-toxic material are not readily available or would require extensive
disturbance of pristine areas, then the regulatory authority may approve a
thinner cover, provided that all water quality standards are maintained.
The regulatory authority also has the option to approve 1) disposal of
wastes from outside the permit area on a mine site, and 2) modification of
disposal requirements to allow the use of dewatered fine coal waste (that
is, wastes that pass a Standard No. 28 sieve) in construction (816.85,
817.85).
5-186
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Dams or embankments for impounding waste materials are to be designed
so that 90% of the water stored during the design precipitation event is
removed within a 10-day period. In addition to meeting the criteria in the
surface mining regulations, coal processing waste banks and dams or
embankments must comply with existing design safety rules promulgated by
USMSHA (30 CFR 77.216).
All road embankments are required to be constructed using materials
which have minimal amounts of organic material, coal or coal blossom, frozen
material, wet or peat material, natural soils with organic matter, or any
other material regarded as unsuitable by the SMCRA regulatory authority.
Toxic or acid-forming materials may be used to construct road embankments
for Class I roads located on coal processing waste banks, provided that the
operator can demonstrate that no acid will be discharged from the coal
processing bank. Without exception, no acid-bearing refuse material may be
used beyond the coal processing bank. Other acid or toxic materials from
road excavations are to be disposed according to the methods previously
described (30 CFR 816.48, .81, and .103), and no acid or toxic forming
material is to be used for road surfacing for any class of roads (816.154,
.164, and .174).
EPA will require the identification of all potentially toxic or acid-
forming coal processing wastes and excess spoil materials as outlined in
this section. EPA expects that in the majority of permit applications, the
data prepared for the regulatory authority pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA
will be adequate to meet the needs of the New Source NPDES permit review, as
long as the special information requirements outlined in this section are
satisfied.
Each mining operation that plans to construct a coal processing plant
or support facility outside the permit area for a specific mine must obtain
a surface mining permit for that facility (30 CFR 785.21). Approval of the
permit for such an operation presupposes that the permit applicant has
demonstrated to the regulatory authority in writing that all applicable
USOSM requirements will be met during the construction, operation,
maintenance, modification, reclamation, and decommissioning of the coal
processing plant (30 CRF 827.12). Specifically, the following measures are
mandated:
• Signs to be placed in the field to point out coal
processing plant, coal processing waste disposal area, and
water treatment facility (30 CFR 816.1)
• All roads and other transport or associated features to be
built, maintained, and reclaimed in accordance with
Class I, II, and III road requirements (Sections
816.150-.181)
• Any drainage modification, disturbance, or realignment to
be made according to 30 CFR 816.44 specifications
5-187
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• Sediment to be controlled by structures, if required by
regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.45-46); discharge
limitations to be met (816.41-.42), together with other
applicable State or Federal law in any disturbed area
related to the coal processing plant or support facility
• All permanent impoundments to protect the hydologic
balance during and after plant operation (816.49 and .56)
• Water wells (816.53) and water supply rights (816.54) to
be protected
• Coal processing waste (816.81-.88), solid waste (816.89),
and excavated materials (816.71-73) to be disposed
according to the appropriate regulations
• Sediment and discharge control structures to be in
accordance with 816.47
• Fugitive dust emission control to be provided (816,°5)
• Areas sensitive to fish and wildlife to be protected from
adverse impacts (816.97)
• All other surface areas, including slide areas, to comply
with 316.97
• Adverse impacts anticipated by the regulatory authority on
underground mines or as a result of underground operations
to be minimized by proper techniques which include but are
not limited to those in 816.55 and 816.79
• Reclamation, revegetation, water storage, and any other
storage facility to comply with 816.56, 816.100-.106,
816.111-.117, and 816.131-.133
• All structures related to the coal processing plant to be
in accordance with Section 816
• All structures located on prime farmland to meet the
requirements outlined in Section 823.
5.7.6.5. In-Situ Coal Processing
Special permanent program performance standards are required for the
in-situ processing of coal (30 CFR 828). All operators who plan to operate
in-situ coal processing must comply with 30 CFR 828.11 and 817. Unless
approved by the regulatory authority, fluid discharges into holes or wells
are to be avoided. Operators must minimize annular injection between drill
5-188
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hole wall and casing and must prevent process fluids from entering surface
waters.
All toxic, acid-forming, or radioactive gases, solids, or liquids which
may pose a fire, health, safety, or other environmental hazard as a result
of coal mining and recovery must be treated, confined, or disposed of in
such a way as to protect the hydrologic balance, biota, and other related
environmental values. Process recovery fluids are to be controlled to
prevent horizontal flow beyond the affected area 'identified in the permit
and to prevent vertical leakage into overlying or underlying aquifers. All
groundwater quality within the permit area and adjacent areas, including
groundwater above and below the production zone, is to be returned to
approximate pre-mining levels. EPA expects that all New Source NPDES permit
applicants will meet the current USOSM performance standards for 1) in-situ
or offsite coal processing, 2) preservation of hydrologic balance, and
3) all other pertinent regulations including 4) any special requirements or
waivers approved in writing by the SMCRA regulatory authority.
5.7.6.6. Exploration Practices
Another potential source of groundwater and surface water contamination
is exploration bore holes, other drill or boreholes, wells, and other
exposed openings associated with coal mines. Holes that have been identi-
fied to be used for coal processing waste or water disposal into underground
workings or to monitor groundwater conditions are to be cased, sealed, or
otherwise managed under approval of the regulatory authority to prevent acid
or toxic drainage and to minimize adverse environmental effects. The SMCRA
regulatory authority may require temporary or permanent sealing of these
holes unless they are to be used as monitoring wells (30 CFR 816.14-.15).
All holes are to be sealed temporarily before use and protected by other
measures approved by the regulatory authority (30 CFR 816.14 and WVDNR-
Reclamation Regulations 1978: Chapter 20, Section 9.0). After use, each
hole is to be capped, sealed, backfilled, or otherwise managed under
Section 816.13. After the regulatory authority has approved the closing of
the hole or the transfer of waterwell rights (Section 816.53), the hole must
be closed permanently to prevent water access to the underground workings
and keep acid or other toxic drainage from entering ground or surface waters
(816.15). Reclamation requirements applicable to openings associated with
mining or with coal processing plants are listed under 30 CFR 780.18. The
reclamation plan is to include the description, includir^, cross-sections and
maps, of the appropriate measures to be used to seal or manage mine
openings, and to plug, case, or manage exploration holes, other bore holes,
wells, and other openings within the permit area (816.13-.15).
Exploration holes can be drilled, vegetation can be cleared and
grubbed, and roads may be constructed without regulation, if these opera-
tions are solely for the purpose of timbering, because timbering is not
regulated pursuant to the CWA. The 1980 surface water quality regulations
5-189
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proposed by WVDNR-Water Resources and the SWRB extend turbidity limitations
to silvicultural operations.
EPA will require that all New Source coal mines and coal processing
plants be responsible for reclaiming or transfering water rights for all
openings within each NPDES New Source permit area in order to assure negli-
gible degradation of water quality and quantity by uncased, unreclaimed, or
improperly managed holes or wells in the permit area, unless equivalent
measures are mandated by the SMCRA regulatory authority. EPA recognizes
that permit data requirements and design plans for the proposed disposal of
coal processing wastes to underground mine workings are to be met: prior to
issuance of each SMCRA permit. EPA will require an analysis of drainage
water from the disposal sites prior to approval of underground waste dispo-
sal. The chemical analysis of the water at minimum should include, unless
otherwise demonstrated, an analysis of the trace elements listed in
Section 4.17 of the USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form and
discussed in Section 5.7.6.1. of this assessment. Potentially toxic concen-
trations of trace contaminants may require additional trace contaminant
analysis of 1) waste piles and/or 2) alternative disposal methods.
5.7.6.7. Other AMD Control Measures
The primary reaction during AMD formation is the oxidation of reduced
pyritic material; therefore, the less time pyritic material is exposed to
air and water, the less acid will be formed. The geochemistry of acid mine
drainage formation is complex, and ongoing research is beginning to shed
light on the numerous and as yet poorly identified environmental conditions
which may affect the amount and rate of acid production in the soil over-
burden, coal refuse piles, underground mines, surface water, and groundwater
(Verbally, Dr. John J. Renton, WVGES, to Mr. John Urban, July 11, 1980;
Torrey 1979).
Even after potentially acid-forming material has been covered in
accordance with the regulations previously described, oxygen may be
transported to the pyrite by winds and by molecular diffusion from air and
water in the soil. On slopes subject to prevailing winds, the wind pressure
on the spoil surface increases as the slope increases in steepness,
resulting in a greater depth of oxygen movement into steeply sloped spoil
areas (Doyle 1976).
Molecular diffusion occurs where there is a difference in oxygen
concentration between two points, such as the spoil surface and some point
within the spoil. The rate of oxygen transfer is strongly dependent on the
phase of the fluid and is generally higher in the gaseous state. For
example, oxygen diffusion through air is approximately four orders of
magnitude (10,000 times) as rapid as through water (Doyle 1976). A thin
layer (several millimeters) of water, then, may act as an effective barrier
against exposure of pyrite to oxygen. Dry, cracked soil may be ineffective
as an oxygen barrier.
5-190
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Artificial barriers can be successful, at least during the first few
years, but their installation and maintenance costs may be prohibitive or
may restrict them to special conditions. Relatively high-cost surface
sealants such as lime, gypsum, sodium silicate, and latex have been tried,
but these usually require repeated applications and to date have shown only
marginal effectiveness.
Permanent water barriers also can be effective oxygen barriers for
underground pyritic material (Doyle 1976). Experimental methods also have
been suggested to prevent AMD:
• Fly ash disposal in underground workings on spoil (Adams
1971)
• Silicate treatment (EPA 1971)
• Various inert gas atmospheres to minimize oxidation of
pyrites (EPA 1971).
Treatment measures for AMD in some situations must be employed because
the absolute prevention of acid formation is not yet demonstrably attainable
under all field conditions. Alternative treatment measures may be employed
separately or in conjunction with one another and with the prevention tech-
niques previously described. Treatment measures vary from simple and
inexpensive to complex and costly systems, depending on site conditions and
the quality and quantity of AMD to be treated. The most complex treatment
usually is developed at underground mines, where AMD quality can pose
severe, long-term problems at fixed discharge points. Erosion and sediment
control measures including water diversion structures that prevent water
from coming into contact with acid-forming materials or transport the water
quickly through the area can reduce the total volume of water that requires
treatment. Diversions and treatment measures can be used both during and
after mining and reclamation operations.
Simple batch handling methods, such as spraying ponds with hydrated
lime slurries and hand or drip feeding of neutralizing agents into ponds or
channels sometimes are used. Prefabricated neutralizing units capable of
continuous operation require no electrical power and le.ully use soda ash
or sodium hydroxide. Whereas these first two methods i-.,ually are applied
for simple, low pH problems, more complex and ext>ens : .• r --ut -alization
systems are adopted for high acidity or excess> ve levels ',. iti. \ or other
soluble metals. Generally included in these systems are f A, ilit^o3 for flow
equalization (holding ponds), acidity neutralization, iron oxidation
(aeration), and solids removal (mechanical clarifiers or earthen settling
basins, with coagulant addition if necessary). Many variations to this
basic system exist, and various alkali reagents are used, although lime is
the predominant reagent. Where neutralization is not required, excessive
concentrations of iron and suspended solids can be reduced by aeration and
sedimentation.
5-191
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Neutralization is the most widely used method of acid mine drainage
treatment. Potential advantages of a properly maintained neutralization
system are:
• Removal of acidity and addition of alkalinity
• Acceptable pH of discharge water
• Reduction or removal of heavy metals, which are
precipitated at neutral or alkaline pH (>7.0; Figure 5-11)
• At high pH (>9), iron precipitates as ferric hydroxide
• Sulfate can be removed from highly acidic mine drainage
when enough calcium ion is added to exceed the solubility
of calcium sulfate (Doyle 1976).
Disadvantages of neutralization treatment of acid mine drainage are:
• Hardness may be increased
• Sulfate reduction may be inadequate (sulfate
concentrations usually exceed 2,000 mg/1)
• Final iron concentration rarely is less than 3 to 7 mg/1
• A waste sludge of potentially toxic and acid-forming
material must be removed and disposed
• Total dissolved solids usually increase to levels
unacceptable under New Source NPDES limitations.
The standard neutralization process involves adding an alkaline
reagent, mixing and aerating the liquid (coal preparation plants), and
removing precipitates. In order of decreasing popularity, the standard
reagents employed by mine operators are: lime, limestone, anhydrous
ammonia, soda ash, and sodium hydroxide. The water pumped from a pit or
from underground workings can be treated by connecting a lime slurry tank to
the suction end of the pump so that the pump not only draws the acid mine
drainage to the lime-filled tank, but acts as the mixing agent for the lime
and water. The discharge should pass through and be retained in a settling
pond to reduce suspended precipitates. Chemical flocculants can be added to
the pond in order to reduce water retention time within the pond yet
effectively settle fine particles. Commercial equipment is available with
automatic pH control, but these systems require additional maintenance by
operators.
Limestone is cheaper and produces a lesser volume of denser sludge than
lime. It is difficult to raise pH above 6 with limestone. Limestone is
ineffective in removing iron from water when the iron is present primarily
5-192
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11-0
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5-193
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as ferrous compounds. The dissolution of acid-forming materials takes place
on particles of pyrite, but the neutralization reaction takes place on the
particles of limestone. The resultant precipitate in time coats the
limestone and effectively seals it from further reaction with the acid
solution.
Anhydrous ammonia can be economically attractive because it allows
simplified operation and maintenance. One drawback is higher reagent cost
than lime or limestone. Ammonia-neutralized acid mine drainage may contain
levels of ammonia toxic to fish and other aquatic biota. It also may
increase nitrate levels in receiving waters and accelerate the eutrophica-
tion process. Ideally, anhydrous ammonia treatment is utilized under
specialized conditions involving small volumes of AMD where the treated
water can be applied to spoil banks as irrigation water with little or no
direct discharge to waterways.
Soda ash can be an adequate temporary treatment for small flows. Its
major disadvantage is lack of pH control. At very high flows the system may
undertreat the AMD. Soda ash cost also exceeds the cost of lime or
limestone.
Sodium hydroxide can be used in remote locations and is best suited for
small flows in conjunction with a settling pond. Sodium hydroxide is
appreciably more expensive than lime or limestone.
Lesser known and usually more expensive mitigative measures in addition
to those previously described are:
• Ion exchange (EPA 1972)
• Combination of limestone-lime neutralization of ferrous
iron acid mine drainage (EPA 1978)
• Flocculation and clarification (EPA 1971)
• Microbiological treatment (EPA 1971)
• Reverse osmosis demineralization (EPA 1972)
• Rotating disc biological treatment (EPA 1980).
Treatment costs and iron removal efficiencies vary among the several
alternative AMD treatment processes and are affected by the oxidation state
of the iron to be treated. Limestone alone is considered irifeasible for
neutralization of AMD when the concentration of ferrous iron (Fe+^) j_s
in excess of 100 mg/1. The first example in Table 5-26 illustrates the
effectiveness of limestone treatment with and without oxidation of ferrous
iron. Limestone alone was capable of reducing the total iron concentration
only from 270 to 150 mg/1 at a cost of $0.12 per 1,000 gallons. Following
injection of hydrogen peroxide (H202) to oxidize the ferrous iron, the
5-194
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total iron concentration of 270 mg/1 was reduced to 6.2 mg/1 at a total
reagent cost of only $0.05 per 1,000 gallons.
The use of coagulants can improve effluent quality at about $0.10
additional cost per thousand gallons above the cost of limestone neutrali-
zation alone. Example 2 (Table 5-26) shows that a total iron concentration
can be reduced from 230 to 0.9 mg/1 at a cost of about $0.22 per L,000
gallons by limestone neutralization combined with extended aeration, sludge
recycling, and coagulant addition.
Lime (calcium hydroxide, also known as hydrated lime) neutralization at
present is the most common treatment process for AMD. This process is
effective regardless of the oxidation state of the iron. Lime most commonly
is used for treating ferrous iron, because it is 30% more expensive than
limestone where the iron is already in the ferric state. Example 3 illus-
trates the effectiveness of lime treatment with coagulant addition for iron
removal. Iron is removed more efficiently at higher pH. An initial concen-
tration of 280 mg/1 total iron was reduced to 2.1 mg/1 and 10.0 mg/1 total
iron by lime neutralization to pH 8 and pH 7, respectively. Lime treatment
produces a sludge easier to handle than limestone neutralization. A
combination limestone-lime treatment that treats total iron concentrations
of 290 mg/1 to produce 1.4 mg/1 in the effluent can reduce reagent cost by
30% as compared with lime neutralization alone ($0.09 versus $0.12 per 1,000
gallon; Examples 4A and 4B, Table 5-26).
The data in Example 5 (lime-soda treatment) are from a full-scale plant
in Altoona, PA. The AMD treated at this plant is dilute, with total iron
concentration of only 17 mg/1. The total treatment cost (including amorti-
zation and operation) was approximately $0.40 per 1,000 gallons, not
including sludge disposal. Alumina-lime-soda treatment (Example 6) can
reduce total iron from 100 mg/1 to 0.3 mg/1, but the reagent, costs are
almost $0.90 per 1,000 gallon.
Reverse osmosis (Example 7) and ion exchange (Example 8) also can
produce consistent total iron concentrations less than 1 mg/1. The total
costs for ion exchange are similar to those for reverse osmosis and range
from $0.75 to $2.00 per 1,000 gallon (Wilmoth and Scott 1975). Sludge and
brine disposal is a significant additional cost for all of the treatment
processes discussed here.
The treatment processes illustrated in Table 5-26 that produce an
effluent meeting NPDES New Source standards are lime neutralization plus
coagulant (#3A and #4B), combination lime-limestone neutralization (#4A),
alumina-lime-soda neutralization (#6), and ion exchange (#8). The limestone
treatments, even with H202 oxidation, did not meet NPDES New Source
standards for iron or manganese (#1A and #1B). Limestone with extended
aeration, sludge recycling, and coagulant did not meet the manganese
limitation (#2), nor did lime neutralization only to pH 7 with coagulant
(#3B). The lime-soda treatment resulted in a pH slightly in excess of the
5-196
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New Source limitation, and might be authorized for use (#5). Reverse
osmosis alone did not raise the pH sufficiently to meet the NPDES New Source
minimum (#7).
One controlled mining procedure, which is growing in popularity due to
its pollution control value, is down-dip mining (Figure 5-12). Drift mines
developed to the up-dip enter a coal seam which rises from the horizontal,
whereas down-dip mines enter coal seams which descend, Up-dip mines drain
mine discharge water by gravity toward entryways, and down-dip mines drain
inward away from entrances. The up-dip mine accrues low drainage-related
operating costs during mining but potentially high environmental costs
following abandonment. Little or no pumping is necessary to clear the mine
of water, and minimum energy is needed to transport the coal out of the
mine. When such a mine is abandoned, however, the drift mouth must be
sealed to control the continuing drainage, and all unavoidable drainage from
the abandoned mine must be controlled and may have to be treated indefi-
nitely in order to meet standards and protect receiving water quality.
Although down-dip mines have higher operating costs (pumping water and coal
haulage), they allow pre-planned flooding of the mine after closure with
accompanying lower hydraulic heads, if mine seals are used. Low hydraulic
heads on mine seals are a great advantage in obtaining effective seals and
subsequent total mine flooding. In areas with no past underground mines,
this technique can be successful. Caution must be used in areas where, due
to incomplete mapping and past mining practices, inadequate barriers may be
left which cannot withstand mine pool hydraulic pressures. In many
instances, deep minable seams are steeply pitching and below drainage in
this Basin, so even up-dip mines may require water to be pumped out of mine
workings, and little, if any hydraulic head may develop on mine seals.
Mines developed on the up-dip but reached through shafts or sloped
entryways present different opportunities for mine drainage control. As the
lowest section of the mine is worked out, the mined-out area with its
unconsolidated gob is allowed to become inundated with water that previously
was pumped from the mine and treated at the surface. As development and
extraction continue on the up-dip, the mine pool is allowed to advance
upward to cover additional gob, until the level of the mine pool stabilizes
and an equilibrium is reached between the mine pool and the local hydrologic
regime.
This condition potentially inundates the acid-producing materials in
the gob and thus prevents the formation of acid mine drainage by isolating
the pyrites or other deleterious gob material from oxygen. The water level
in the mine pool may fluctuate seasonally, however, and thereby provide
opportunities for oxidation of pollutants into a water-soluble form. Mine
pools typically drain continuously through fractures or other voids and thus
potentially may contaminate surface receiving waters and aquifers located
stratigraphically below the mine.
Mine inundation or flooding is the primary purpose of installing
hydraulic mine seals. Seals form an impermeable plug in mine openings which
discharge, or are expected to discharge, mine water. In this manner when
5-197
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PRECIPITATION
A. PRE-MINING CONDITION
PRECIPITATION
B. UP-OIP MINING
PRECIPITATION
STREAM
C. DOWN-DIP MINING
Figure 5-12 HYDROGEOLOGIC CYCLE AND MINE DRAINAGE
(after Resource Extraction and Handling Division
1977)
-------
the mine is flooded, and acid mine drainage formation is retarded by
excluding air contact with pyritic material. Various hydraulic mine seals
can be employed by underground mine operators, including single and double
bulkhead, gunite, and clay seals. Detailed descriptions of specific mine
seal types, as well as other water pollution prevention and control
procedures for underground mines are reviewed by Skelly and Loy (1973) and
Michael Baker (1975).
Mine seal effectiveness varies from site to site. Problems arise from
inadequate coal barriers between adjacent mines and the coal outcrop, dis-
junctive roof and floor integrity (fractures, faults, etc.), and mine seal
leakage, particularly where the seal is anchored into the roof, ribs, and
floor of the mine. There are also numerous other local geologic, hydrolo-
gic, and mining conditions which can preclude the successful impounding of
water.
In addition to hydraulic seals, dry and air seals can be utilized. Dry
seals are designed to prevent entrance of air and water into a mine by
plugging openings with impermeable materials where little or no hydrostatic
head is expected. Air seals involve closing all openings that permit air
entry into a mine using impermeable materials. One entry is provided with
an air trap that allows water to discharge, but in theory prevents air
entry. Problems arise when air enters a mine through fractures, joints,
faults, and fissures in response to atmospheric changes and with
infiltrating water. Mine conditions may change if there is subsidence.
Discharges are expected to meet the New Source effluent limitations
described in Section 4.2.1. Attainment of the Nationwide standards in many
instances will be sufficient to protect water quality and uses from the
potential adverse impacts of AMD. In lightly buffered watersheds with
significant biota and where inadequate flow is available to dilute mine
effluent, operators may have to employ the more complex available treatment
technologies in order to meet State in-stream iron limitations and to
protect sensitive biota (see Section 5.1.).
5-199
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6.0. EPA NEW SOURCE NPDES PROGRAM NEPA REVIEW SUMMARY
EPA intends to implement the New Source NPDES permit program in the
most efficient manner possible by minimizing duplication of effort with
other agencies as long as NEPA and CWA responsibilities are met fully. To
this end EPA will maximize reliance on in-place institutional mechanisms to
achieve coordination.
In particular, EPA is arranging with WVNDR to receive a copy of each
State mining permit application at the earliest possible point in the State
review process. In this way EPA will be able to initiate NPDES and NEPA
review prior to formal receipt of a New Source NPDES permit application.
EPA hopes to be able to identify and resolve environmental issues early, so
that applications can be moved to public notice promptly following the
receipt of a formal application.
This section of the SID presents summary sheets that outline the
central NEPA concerns and EPA responses, by individual resource. Additional
data that will facilitate interagency coordination also are set forth in
this section. The summaries highlight important aspects of the mechanisms
developed in the SID and should be used in conjunction with the more
detailed information presented in other sections of this document.
6-1
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Resource: Water Resources
Data Sources:
General Data
EPA, USGS, WVDNR-Water Resources, and WVGS have water quality data.
High quality and lightly buffered streams as designated by WVDNR-
Water Resources were mapped on Overlay 1 (Sheet 2 of 2) of the
1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets. Public and private
organizations are listed in Table 6-1.
Permit-Specific Data
WVDNR-Reclamation permit applications include results of the chemical
analysis of two water samples taken for each receiving stream, one
upstream and one downstream from the proposed mine discharge point.
Data on water quality and quantity are required by USOSM
(30 CFR:779.15, .16; 816.51, .52, .54; and 783.16).
Where mine discharges are proposed to streams used for public water
supplies or to lightly buffered streams, EPA will require that, base-
line water quality survey data be submitted from once-per-week
sampling over a four week period. This monitoring must include a
low-flow period in July, August, or September and must measure the
following parameters: streamflow, temperature, specific conductance,
pH, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total iron, dis-
solved iron, total manganese, sulfate, hardness, acidity, alkalinity,
and heavy metals that exist in the toxic overburden at levels that
potentially could be toxic.
The EPA-required monitoring program for discharges into waterbodies used
for water supply (optional for mines within 1.5 miles of any active
water supply well) requires that certain parameters be tested in
addition to those required by the USOSM and State programs, although
at a reduced frequency. Overall, requirements are quite similar.
Therefore the applicant readily can prepare a sampling program which
satisfies the requirements of all three agencies.
Significance:
Water is an essential resource for humans and aquatic and terrestrial
wildlife. Removal or pollution of water supplies seriously affects
both human residents and aquatic biota.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
EPA will review the surface water and groundwater protection and
monitoring plans as proposed by the applicant to comply with
30 CFR:816.51, .52, and 817.51, .52 and WVDNR-Reclamation Regulations
20-6, 7A.02, .03, and .04. EPA will determine whether these programs
are sufficient to protect the water quality of surface and underground
water resources.
6-2
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A continuing monthly groundwater quality monitoring program as described
in Section 5.1 may be required by EPA from all operators of mines
within a 1.5-mile radius of any active water supply well, if ground-
water impacts are identified as potentially problematic.
Similarly, surface mining may be kept at least 200 feet away from any
water supply well or spring, especially those located downhill from
the mine.
AMD prevention and control measures (see SID Section 5.7.) also may be
mandated, if not already required by the SMCRA regulatory authority.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
If a high quality stream is to be affected by drainage from the mine
site, EPA will notify WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
6-3
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Table 6-1. Aquatic Resources Data Sources.
CONTACT LIST
Person/Agency
State of West Virginia
Robert Miles
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Chief
Charleston WV (304) 348-2771
Bernie Dowler
WVDNR - Wildlift Resources, Fish Management
Charleston WV 25305 (304) 348-2771
Frank Jernejcic
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Fairmont WV 26554 (304) 366-5880
Gerald E. Lewis
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Romney WV 26757 (304) 822-3551
Dan Ramsey, Don Gasper
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologists
French Creek WV 26218 (304) 924-6211
James E. Reed, Jr.
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
MacArthur WV 25873 (304) 255-5106
Michael Hoeft
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Fishery Biologist
Point Pleasant WV 25550 (304) 675-4380
David Robinson
WVDNR - Water Resources, Chief
Charleston WV (304) 348-2107
Lyle Bennett
WVDNR - Water Resources
Charleston WV (304) 348-5904
William Santonas
Department of Natural Resources, Supervisor
Game and Fish Planning & Biometrics
311-B Percival Hall
West Virginia University
Morgantown WV 26506 (304) 599-8777
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
Ohio/Little Kanawha
North Branch Potomac
Elk, Ohio/Little Kanawha
Coal/Kanawha, Guyandotte
Coal/Kanawha, Guyandotte
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
6-4
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Table 6-1. Aquatic Resources Data Sources (continued).
Person/Agency
State of West Virginia
Howard Scidmore
WVDNR - Division of Reclamation
Charleston WV (304) 348-3267
Dr. Ronald Fortney
WVDNR - HTP, Director
Charleston WV (304) 348-2761
H. G. "Woodie" Woddrum
WVDNR - Wildlife Resources, Chief of Research
Charleston WV (304) 348-2761
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
Universities
Dr. Donald Tarter
Marshall University
Department of Biology
Huntington WV 25701 (304) 696-2409
Drs. Jay Stauffer, Charles Hocutt
Appalachian Environmental Laboratory
University of Maryland
Frostburg State College Campus
Frostburg MD 21532 (301) 689-3115
All Basins
All Basins
Federal Agencies
Huntington USAGE
Federal Building, P.O. Box 2127
Huntington WV 25721 (304) 529-5536
Pittsburgh USAGE
1000 Liberty Avenue
Pittsburgh PA 15222 (412) 644-6800
Baltimore USAGE
P.O. Box 1715
Baltimore MD 21203
Bill Mason
USFWS - Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Box 44
Kearneysville WV 25430 (304) 725-2061
Coal/Kanawha, Gauley,
Elk, Ohio/Little
Kanawha
Ohio/7.itte t- awha
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
6-5
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Table 6-1. Aquatic Resources Data Sources (concluded).
Person/Agency
Federal Agencies
Interstate Commission on the Potomac Basin
1055 1st Street
Rockville MD 20850 (304) 340-2661
US Forest Service
180 Canfield Street
Morgantown WV 25606 (304) 599-7481
Appalachian Regional Commission
1666 Connecticut Drive
Washington DC 20235 (202) 673-7849
USDA - SCS
Federal Building
75 High Street
Morgantown WV (304) 599-7151
USFWS
P.O. Box 1278
Elkins WV (304) 636-6586
Basin Applicability
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins-
All Basins
Private
West Virginia Coal Association
1340 One Valley Square
Charleston WV 25301
Friends of the Little Kanawha
P.O. Box 14
Rock Cave WV 26234
All Basins
Ohio/Little Kanawha
Rick Webb
West Virginia Mountain Streams Monitors
202 Second Street
Sutton WV (304) 765-2781
Trout Unlimited West Virginia Council
Ernest Nester, Chariman
Box 235
Alloy WV (304) 337-2357
All Basins
All Basins
6-6
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Resource: Aquatic Biota in Biologically Important Areas
Data Sources:
General Data
Fish species of concern and their locations are available from
WVDNR-HTP.
Fish surveys and recreation RUN WILD fishery data are recorded by
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources on the computer program. Fish surveys and
trout streams locations not on the WVDNR-Wildlife Resources computer
can be obtained directly from either the WVDNR-Wildlife Operations
Center in Elkins, or the appropriate district Fishery Biologist.
Additional fish survey data are available from the USAGE, American
Electric Power Company, and Dr. Donald Tarter (Marshall University) in
Huntington, West Virginia. Drs. Stauffer and Hocutt of the
Appalachian Environmental Laboratory (University of Maryland) have
extensive, current Statewide stream sampling information for West
Virginia. Virginia Polytechnic Institute (Blacksburg) staff
(Drs. Cherry, Garling, Hendricks, Ross, and Ney) have a variety of
published and unpublished reports on the fish resources of West
Virginia.
Aquatic macroinvertebrate data for some of the water of West Virginia
are available from Dr. Tarter (Marshall University), the
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources computer file, and district Fishery Biolo-
gists. Trout streams, fish sampling stations, fish sampling stations
with high diversity, aquatic macroinvertebrate sampling stations, mac-
roinvertebrate sampling stations with pollution intolerant species,
and Biologically Important Areas (BIA's) are shown on Overlay 1
(Sheet 1 of 2) of the 1:24,000-scale environmental inventory map sets.
Sources are in Table 6-1.
Permit-Specific Data
EPA will inform all applicants for mines to be located within Category I
BIA's (see SID Section 2.2.) immediately upon receipt of their
application that a minimum of 20 week pre-operational baseline fish
and macroinvertebrate sampling data is required for t!ie stream(s) to
which they plan to discharge, unless a report prepared "
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources that contains equivalent data it, available
for the streams. Original data collection should include at a minimum
one upstream control station and one downstream station for each
potentially affected stream, with periodic sampling for fish and
macroinvertebrates during the 20 week period using equipment and
techniques suitable for the water body, under the supervision of an
experienced aquatic biologist (see SID Section 5.2.).
In Category II BIA's, EPA will require environmental surveys to define
the specific aquatic resources of streams to receive effluents from
mining operations. Each survey is to be designed to define species
composition, assess susceptibility to mining of the species found, and
determine appropriate mitigative measures to protect what is found.
6-7
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Each original survey in a Category II BIA is to include a review of
current literature, discussion of probable impacts, and methods to
avoid those impacts. Sampling similar to or more rigorous than that
required for Category I BIA's is appropriate.
Data on water quality in all BIA's also will be required by EPA from the
applicant prior to permit issuance. These data are to include one
four-week period that includes low-flow conditions as found in July,
August, or September. Chemical sampling is to be coordinated with the
aquatic biota sampling program, utilizing the same control station
upstream from and one station downstream from the mine discharge and
at least one station on all other water bodies proposed to receive
runoff from the mine. Prior to mining, samples are to be collected
weekly during the low-flow period and at least monthly at other times
as required by the SMCRA regulatory authority to identify seasonal
variation. Parameters to be monitored are temperature, specific
conductance, pH, total dissolved solids, total suspended solids, total
iron, dissolved iron, total manganese, sulfate, hardness, acidity,
alkalinity, and heavy metals that exist in the toxic overburden and
could be potentially toxic. Water quality data collected to accompany
any other State or Federal permit application may be submitted to EPA,
provided they include the requisite information.
Significance:
Aquatic biota are an important recreational and natural resource. They
also are valuable as indicators of stream health and water flow. The
loss of these biota could result in the long-term degradation of the
aquatic environment.
The original data collected in some instances may indicate that the
aquatic biota of an area are not diverse or sensitive, and that water
quality already is degraded. In these instances the area may be
declassified from BIA status. In other instances data may indicate
extremely sensitive, unique, or rare and endangered species which may
require stringent protection from mining impacts.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
In Category I BIA's a 1 mg/1 total iron concentration in-stream standard
will be imposed by EPA, along with a continuing program of quarterly
bio-monitoring to be conducted concurrently with mining. The
bio-monitoring program will be similar to the survey required prior to
mining and will be a condition of permit issuance. This sampling is
to be continued until active mining is completed or until it can be
determined that no detrimental effects are occurring.
A report is to be forwarded by the mine operator to EPA comparing quan-
titatively the results obtained at the control stations prior to
mining with what was found during the monitoring program.
6-8
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Prompt followup action is necessary to ensure that possible irreversible
environmental damage will not occur. As soon as an apparent downward
trend is identified in any of the appropriate indicators (e.g., bio-
mass, species diversity, species numbers, etc.), intensive sampling is
to be initiated immediately by the operator to determine whether
environmental damage actually has occurred or whether the observed
downturn was a result of a sampling anomaly or statistical error. If
significant environmental damage is verified, mining activities must
be either modified or halted if further harm is to be prevented.
Restocking may be required if significant environmental damage
occurs.
Mitigations for Category II BIA's (see SID Section 5.2.4.) will be
dependent upon the findings of the environmental survey required prior
to permit issuance. It is anticipated that, if a permit to mine is
issued, at a minimum the 20 week aquatic biota sampling program will
be required.
Water quality sampling programs will be required in all BIA's on a bi-
monthly basis measuring specified parameters in conjunction with the
biological sampling.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 (P.L. 89-72) requires EPA
to consult and coordinate with the USFWS when streams and other water
bodies are altered. Input from WVDNR-Wildlife Resources also will be
sought in sensitive areas.
6-9
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Resource: Aquatic Biota in Unclassifiable Areas
Data Sources:
General Data .
None available for use in the SID (see SID Section 5.2.3).
Consult sources listed in Table 6-1.
Permit-Specific Data
One-time, intensive fish and raacroinvertebrate sampling by professional
biologist of streams potentially affected by mining is required for
NPDES New Source permit, unless equivalent data become available (see
SID Section 5.2.3.).
Significance:
The required sampling will enable EPA to determine whether the streams
are to be treated as BIA's or as non-sensitive. Significant resources
then can be protected appropriately.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Nationwide NPDES standards will apply to non-sens'itive areas. BIA's
will receive additional protection, as detailed in SID Section 5.2.
Resource-Specific Coordination:
Applicant may contact WVDNR-Wildlife Resources and other sources of
data.
EPA will send copy of applicant's report to WVDNR-Wildlife Resources.
6-10
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Resource: Special Terrestrial Vegetation Feature, Outstanding Tree, or
Virgin Forest Stand
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR-HTP Data Bank (ongoing survey).
Labeled "SL" on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).
Data gaps are substantial, and agencies should be consulted for updated
information. Public and private organizations are listed in
Table 6-2.
Permit-Specific^ Data
Chapter 3 data from USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form,
if completed, will provide adequate information for WVDNR-HTP for
determination of significance and will serve as an excellent vehicle
for agency comment.
At minimum, the biological data outlined in the USOSM Draft Experi-
mental Permit Application Form (Chapter 3) should be secured from
applicants for New Source NPDES permits to increase the probability
that currently unknown resources are identified prior to mining.
Significance:
Species proposed for Federal classification as endangered or threatened
with extinction are included in the WVDNR-HTP data along with species
that are at the limit of their range or poorly known in West
Virginia. Some of the data are very old. Additions and deletions
are expected over time (see SID Section 2.3.). The significance of
each known feature shown on the inventory in the vicinity of a
proposed discharge can be commented upon by WVDNR-HTP. Populations
of significant plants also exist in unknown locations, so applicants'
data should be reviewed by the agencies identified below.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Seek early WVDNR-HTP review of data for permits to mine scarce eco-
systems (caves, wetlands, shale barrens, sandstone or limestone
cliffs; see SID Section 5.3.).
Avoid disturbance of special vegetation, outstanding trees, and virgin
forest stands and their hydrologic setting where possible.
Provide buffer strip at least 100 feet wide surrounding special feature
to be preserved.
Provide controlled post-mining public access to these remnants of West
Virginia's natural heritage.
6-11
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Transplant special vegetation temporarily or permanently to protected
suitable habitats.
Reestablish special vegetation following mining and reclamation.
Resource-Specific Coordination:
Primary reliance on WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, WVDNR-HTP, and USFWS for
identification of depth of study required and specific mitigative
measures on individual mine sites.
Coordination should be accomplished adequately if USOSM Draft Experi-
mental Permit Application Form is implemented; if not, EPA may
require equivalent information from applicants as part of New Source
NPDES information.
6-12
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Resource: Wetland
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR-HTP Data Bank (survey in progress).
USGS Topographic Maps (wetland symbol on 1:24,000 Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of
2) quadrangles.
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources Streambank Surveys.
Wetland areas are mapped on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).
Public and private organizations are listed in Table 6-2.
(In future: USFWS National Wetland Inventory maps)
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA Application (30 CFR 779.16, 783.13: streams, lakes, ponds,
springs; 779.19, 783.20: plant communities; 779.20, 783.21: fish
and wildlife habitats; 779.21, 783.22: soils).
USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Applications Form Questions 3.28, 3.29
(also 3.18, 3.19, and fish/wildlife questionnaire).
Significance:
Few, scattered wetlands, very scarce in West Virginia (see SID
Section 2.3.3.3).
EPA policy requires maximum protection of wetlands (44 FR 4:
1455-1457, January 5, 1979).
CWA Section 404 requires USAGE permit to place fill in wetlands.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Delete all proposed mining operations from wetland.
Insure continuation of hydrologic regime of wetland.
Provide undisturbed buffer strip (100 feet wide) around wetland (cf.
30 CFR 816.57; 817.57).
Reestablish wetland hydrology following mining.
Replant wetland vegetation following mining (cf. 30 CFR 816.44, 817.44;
816.97, 817.97).
6-13
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Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
Potential major overlap with SMCRA permanent regulatory program.
Consolidated application authorized for NPDES and Section 404 CWA
permits (40 CFR 124.4; 45 FR 98: 33487, May 19, 1980).
If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate wetland
assessment is required, if wetlands are discussed therein.
If no EIS or EA is prepared, a Floodplain/Wetlands Assessment must be
distributed for public and interagency review, with public notice to
appropriate A-95 Clearinghouses (44 FR 4: 1455-1457, January 5,
1979). Clearinghouses are listed in SID Table 4-8, Section 4.4.2.
This Assessment can be attached to the New Source NPDES permit public
notice.
Agency input expected from: USFWS, USDA-SCS, USAGE, WVDNR-Water
Resources, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, USOSM.
6-14
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Table 6-2. Terrestrial Resources Data Sources.
CONTACT LIST
Person/Agency
State of West Virginia
Robert Miles
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, Chief
Charleston WV 25305 (304) 348-2771
Peter Zurbuch, Assistant Chief, Research
James Rawson, Wildlife Planner
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
P.O. Box 67
Elkins WV 26241 (304) 636-1767
Dr. Ronald Fortney, Director
WVDNR-HTP
1800 Washington Street E
Charleston WV 25305 (304) 348-2761
William Chambers
WVDNR-Reclamation
1800 Washington Street E
Charleston WV 25305 (304) 348-3267
State Agencies
Asher Kelly, Jr., State Forester
WVDNR-Forestry
1800 Washington Street E
Charleston WV 25305 (304) 348-2788
Gary D. Strawn, District Biologist
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources
Drawer C
Romney WV 26757 (304) 822-3551
Federal Agencies
Floyd Wiels
US Forest Service
180 Canfield Street
Morgantown WV 25606 (304) 599-7481
Bill Tolin, Chris Glower
US Fish and Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 1278
Elkins WV (304) 636-6586
Basin Applicability
All Basins
All Basins
Wildlife populations,
endangered species,
mitigations
All Basins
Terrestrial resources
of special interest
in West Virginia
All Basins
All Basins
North Branch Potomac
All Basins
Forest harvest on state
and private lands
All Basins
6-15
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Table 6-2. Terrestrial Resources Data Sources (continued).
Person/Agency Basin Applicability
Federal Agencies
Norman R. Chupp, Area Manager
US Fish and Wildlife Service
Area Office
100 Chestnut Street, Room 310
Harrisburg PA 17101 (717) 782-3743
William Mason
US Fish and Wildlife Service
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Route 3, Box 44
Kearneysville WV 25430 (304) 725-2061
Dale K. Fowler
Tennessee Valley Authority
Division of.Land and Forest Resources
Norris TN 37828 (615) 494-9800
Craig Right, State Conservationist
USDA, Soil Conservation Service
Federal Building
75 High Street
Morgantown WV 25606 (304) 599-7151
Paul Nickerson, Endangered Species Specialist
US Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 5
One Gateway Center, Suite 700
Newton Corner MA 02158 (617) 965-5100, ext. 316
Tom O'Neil
US Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District
Environmental Studies
Plan Formulation Department (PD-S)
Federal Building
P.O. Box 2127
Huntington WV 25721 (304) 529-5639
US Army Corps of Engineers, Pittsburgh District
1000 Liberty Avenue
Pittsburgh PA 15222 (412) 644-6800
US Army Corps of Engineers, Baltimore District
P.O. Box 1715
Baltimore MD 21203
All Basins
Endangered species
All Basins
Reports on revegetation,
fish and wildlife,
literature
All Basins
All Basins
All Basins
Coal/Kanawha, Gauley,
Elk, Ohio/Little Kanawha
Ohio/Little Kanawha
North Branch Potomac
6-16
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Table 6-2. Terrestrial Resources Data Sources (continued).
Person/Agency
Regional Agencies
Dr. E. A. (Tony) Joering, Assistant Director
Ohio River Basin Commission
Suite 208-220
36 E. Fourth Street
Cincinnati OH 45202 (513) 684-3831
Basin Applicability
Wetlands
Universities
Dr. Gordon Kirkland
Shippensburg State College
Department of Biology
Shippensburg PA 17257 (717) 532-1407
Dr. Mary Etta Might, Dr. N. Bayard Green,
Dr. Dan Evans
Marshall University
Department of Biological Sciences
Huntington WV 25701 (304) 696-6692 (Right)
(304) 696-2376 (Green)
(304) 696-3170 (Evans)
West Virginia University
Morgantown WV
College of Arts and Sciences
Department of Biological Sciences
Dr. Jesse Clovis (304) 293-3979
• Dr. Earl L. Core
Dr. Roy B. Clarkson
Dr. Charles Baer (304) 293-4517
College of Agriculture and Forestry
Division of Forestry
Wildlife Management Section (304) 293-4797
Dr. Robert C. Whitmore
Dr. David E. Samuel
Dr. George Hall
All Basins
Mammals
All Basins
M amma 1 s-H i gh t
Amphibians and reptiles-
Green
Flora and endangered
species of plants-Evans
Flora-aquatics
Flora
Flora, endangered species
of plants
Ecosystems, wetlands
Birds
Effects of mining on
wildlife
Birds
6-17
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Table 6-2. Terrestrial Resources Data Sources (concluded).
Person/Agency Basin Applicability
Private Agencies
Dr. Juan J. Parodiz All Basins
Carnegie Museum of National History Invertebrates
Department of Invertebrates
4400 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh PA 15213 (412) 622-3268
Mr. Leslie Hubricht All Basins
4026 35th Street Snails
Meridian MS 39301
Ed Maguire, Director All Basins
The Nature Conservancy-West Virginia Field Office Information on Nature
1100 Quarrier Street, Room 215 Conservancy Holdings
Charleston WV 25301 (304) 345-4350 (also in WVDNR-HTP files)
6-18
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Resource: Special Terrestrial Wildlife Feature
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR-HTP Data Bank (ongoing survey).
Labeled "SA" on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).
RUN WILD EAST-WV computerized inventory (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources).
Data gaps are substantial, and agencies should be consulted for updated
information (see SID Section 2.3.6.). Public and private
organizations are listed in Table 6-2.
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA applications must contain wildlife information as required by the
regulatory authority (30 CFR 779.20; 783.21) and a plan to enhance or
minimize damage to wildlife (30 CFR 816.97; 817.97).
USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form (Section 3.30-3.40)
requires that wildlife advisory review be completed prior to
regulatory authority permit review. A reclamation and wildlife
enhancement plan (Questions 8.11-8.25) is to detail the applicant's
proposed measures.
Significance:
More than 50 species are considered to be of special interest by
WVDNR-HTP because they are uncommon, declining, or poorly known (see
SID Section 2.3.). These species may be encountered in locations
other than those reported by WVDNR, so applicants' data should be
reviewed by the agencies identified below.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Applicant to inform WVDNR-HTP early of planned habitat disturbance.
Capture and relocate animals to suitable protected habitat or to zoo.
Restore animals to mined site after suitable habitat is restored.
Report promptly the presence of any Federally classified endangered
species.*
Locate roads so as to minimize adverse effects.*
Fence roads and guide wildlife to underpasses.*
Exclude wildlife from ponds having toxic materials.*
*Mandated, to the extent possible using the best technology currently
available, by the USOSM permanent program performance standards
(30 CFR 816.97 and 817.97)
6-19
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Maintain, restore, enhance riparian vegetation.*
Avoid or restore stream channels.*
Avoid persistent pesticides.*
Suppress fires.*
Select and distribute post-mining vegetation because of wildlife value.*
Diversify post-mining cropland with contrasting habitat.*
Provide greenbelts in developed post-mining uses.*
(For further elaboration and examples, see SID Section 5.5.)
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
Coordination should be accomplished adequately if USOSM Draft
Experimental Permit Application Form is implemented; if not, EPA
should require equivalent information from applicants as part of New
Source NPDES permit application.
Primary reliance on WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, WVDNR-HTP, and USFWS for
identification of depth of study required and specific mitigative
measures on individual mine sites.
*Mandated, to the extent possible using the best technology currently
available, by the USOSM permanent program performance standards
(30 CFR 816.97 and 817.97).
6-20
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Resource: Air Quality
Data Sources:
General Data
WVAPCC annual reports summarize Statewide monitoring at established
stations (see SID Section 2.4.).
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA regulatory authority may require on-site measurement of
precipitation and wind.
WVAPCC requires permit for preparation plants (see SID
Section 4.1.4.13.).
Coal preparation plants with thermal dryers that would exceed EPA
thresholds for PSD review (see SID Section 4.2.3.) must perform
on-site meteorological data collection and modeling analyses.
WVDNR-Water Resources discharge permit applications for preparation
plants include air pollution control information (see SID
Section 4.1.4.12.).
Significance:
Air quality impacts from preparation plants must be reviewed by WVAPCC
in accordance with the SIP. Major stationary sources of regulated
pollutants must undergo PSD review by EPA. Fugitive dust control
measures to minimize local dust impacts are mandated by USOSM
permanent program regulations (see SID Section 5.4.1.). Hence air
impacts should be of minimal significance for NPDES permit NEPA
review.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
As long as USOSM requirements for dust control are implemented, no
special NPDES permit conditions are necessary. Otherwise, EPA will
mandate measures as outlined in SID Section 5.4.1.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
None necessary.
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Resource: Noise Levels
Data Sources:
General Data
None available (see SID Section 5.4.2.).
Permit-Specific Data
EPA will require operational noise projections where there are sensitive
receptors (campgrounds, residences, schools) within 1 mile.
Blasting noise and vibration plan data must be developed for SMCRA
permit application and for WVDNR-Reclaination.
Significance:
Blasting noise is controlled by WVDNR-Reclamation, arid permanent program
standards have been issued by USOSM.
Haul truck noise on public highways is controlled by EPA through
interstate vehicle noise limits.
Construction, surface mining, and mine facility operation noise levels
may affect sensitive receptors adversely within 1 mile.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
No EPA controls on blasting or vibration are necessary as long as
current State and Federal controls are in effect.
No controls on public highway truck noise are necessary under the NPDES
permit program.
Limitations on hours and seasons of facility operation or on facility
design or siting may be necessary following NPDES NEPA review to
protect sensitive receptors closer than 1 mile to permit areas.
Applicants will be asked to forecast noise levels at nearby sensitive
receptors as part of NPDES New Source permit information.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Based on public notice review comments, EPA may impose operational
limitations to protect nearby sensitive receptors.
6-22
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Resource: National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District
Data Sources:
General Data
National Register of Historic Places (listed sites and eligible sites)
is published in Federal Register during February with updates usually
on the second Tuesday of the month.
State Historic Preservation Officer and State Archaeologist (WV
Department of Culture and History, Charleston) maintain data files.
Shown (solid triangles) on Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2) of the 1:24,000
scale environmental inventory map sets (solid triangles).
Data gaps are significant (see SID Sections 2.5.2. and 2.5.4.).
Permit-Specific Data
The USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
known eligible or listed sites be identified in permit applications
(30 CFR 779.12; 783.12) and protected during mining (30 CFR 780.31;
784.17)
EPA will require applicants to survey mine sites and permit areas not
previously disturbed by mining to identify currently unknown sites
[pursuant to 36 CFR 800.4(a)], if requested by the SHPO. The site
inspection report by a qualified archaeologist will be forwarded to
the SHPO for the determination of National Register eligibility for
any significant resource.
Significance:
The approval of any Federal, State, or local agency that administers a
site eligible for or listed on the National Register must be given
before a SMCRA permit can be issued to any operation that would affect
the site directly or indirectly [30 CFR 761.12(f)]. General agency
obligations are outlined in the regulations of the Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation (36 CFR 800; 44 FR 21: 6068-6081, January 30,
1979).
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
Mitigative measures to preclude or offset adverse impacts on National
Register sites will be suggested most appropriately by the agencies
that administer the individual sites, the SHPO, and the Advisory
Council on Historic Preservation.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Potential overlap with action of regulatory authority pursuant to
SMCRA.
6-23
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State Historic Preservation Officer and State Archaeologist will be
given the opportunity to review and comment on each New Source permit
application.
If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate request for
Advisory Council comments is necessary, provided that impacts and
mitigations concerning the eligible or listed National Register site
are documented fully.
If no EIS or EA is prepared, formal consultation, including opportunity
for public participation, must be made with any administering agency,
the SHPO, and the Advisory Council concerning any anticipated direct
or indirect impacts on an eligible or listed National Register Site
prior to permit issuance (36 CFR 800.4). This consultation may be
part of the New Source NPDES permit public notice.
6-24
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Resource: Non-National Register Historic or Archaeologic Site or District
Data Sources:
General Data
Files of State Archaeologist (locations not provided or mapped on
Overlay 1).
Published literature (open triangles on Overlay 1, Sheet 1 of 2).
Files of State Historic Preservation Officer (locations not provided or
mapped).
Data gaps are substantial (see SID Sections 2.5.2. and 2,5.4.).
Permit-Specific Data
The USOSM permanent program regulations implementing SMCRA require that
all sites on and near the permit area that are known to State or
local archaeological and historical agencies be described in the
permit application (30 CFR 779.12; 783.12). Such sites are to be
protected when mine plans are developed and implemented (30 CFR
780.31; 784.17).
EPA will provide the SHPO with opportunity to comment on each New
Source NPDES permit application. If a site inspection report by a
qualified archaeologist on a mine site not previously disturbed by
mining is requested by the SHPO, the applicant's report will be
forwarded to the SHPO for determination of National Register
eligibility for any significant resource (see SID Sections 2.5.2.,
4.2.11. , and 5.7.2.).
Significance:
The significance of most recorded sites in State files is not known,
and such sites generally are not mapped in the EPA inventory. Hence
the SHPO's comments on each application will be considered carefully
by EPA.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
Delete resource site from permit application to avoid direct
disturbance.
Preserve undisturbed buffer area to minimize indirect impacts.
Salvage resource by site excavation and/or other appropriate
recording.
Donate artifacts to appropriate institutions.
6-25
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Financially support analyses and exhibitions.
Specific measures should be suggested by the SHPO and State.
Archaeologist for individual permits.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Potential overlap with action of regulatory authority pursuant to
SMCRA for known sites.
Findings from site inspection by qualified archaeologist should be
forwarded to the SHPO and State Archaeologist for review and
comment, and then, if appropriate, forwarded to the US Secretary of
the Interior for determination of eligibility for the National
Register.
Agencies that administer any identified resource should be notified and
given the opportunity to comment on the New Source NPDES public
notice.
6-26
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Resource: Primary and Secondary Visual Resources
Data Sources:
General Data
WNDNR-HTP and WVDNR-Parks and Recreation have lists of primary visual
resources (see Figure 2-30 and Table 2-45 in SID Section 2.5.).
Primary visual resources are mapped on Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).
Substantial data gaps exist for primary and secondary visual
resources.
Permit-Specific Data
Known National Register cultural and historic resources on and adjacent
to each permit area must be described and identified in SMCRA permit
applications (30 CFR 779.22; 783.12), together with all present and
proposed land uses on adjacent areas (30 CFR 779.22; 782.23). Maps
must show the locations of public parks, cultural resources, and
historic resources on and adjacent to the permit area (30 CFR 779.24;
783.24).
S Lgnificance:
Primary visual resources (waterfalls, unusual geological features,
scenic overlooks in State Parks and along roadways, recreational
lakes, forests, State Parks, and Public Hunting areas; see SID
Section 2.5.) are subject to short-term degradation during mining
that is visible by users of the resource. Long-term degradation may
result from unsuccessful reclamation.
EPA will assess visibility of proposed facilities near known resources
in order to curtail adverse mining impacts on primary visual
resources (see SID Section 5.7.).
Mining applicant must demonstrate to EPA that adverse impacts will not
accrue to visual resources within view of proposed facilities.
Secondary visual resources (attractive landscapes) may be considered by
EPA for protection following public notice review.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
USOSM requirements pursuant to SMCRA may be adequate to protect primary
visual resources and to demonstrate protective measures satis-
factorily to EPA.
6-27
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Additional buffer strips in strategic locations may screen unattractive
facilities from view by primary visual resource viewers/visitors.
In highly sensitive locations, EPA may require mining by underground
rather than surface methods to protect primary visual resources.
Resource-Specific Coordination:
EPA expects comments from appropriate State and Federal land management
agencies during the public notice review period.
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Resource: Macroscale Socioeconomic and Transportation Conditions
Data Sources:
General Data
Mining and non-mining unemployment data by county are compiled by
WVDES.
National consumer price indices are compiled by USBLS.
Permit-Specific Data
Total number of mine employees from NPUES Application (Short Form C).
Significance:
Major increases in mining employment may affect the ability of local
governmental units to provide socioeconomic services. If population,
employment, dwelling units, or the need for developed land for a
single mine application exceeds the cutoff values in SID
Section 5.6.2.1., or if the cumulative effects exceed these cutoff
values, EPA will request comments from the appropriate RPDC
(Figure 6-1; Table 6-3). When significant transportation issues are
identified during the public comment period, additional
transportation-related data listed in SID Section 5.6.2.2. will be
requested from the applicants and forwarded to the RPDC and other
relevant transportation agencies as listed in SID Section 5.6.2.2.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
State, Federal and local governmental programs to assist in providing
housing are listed in Section 5.6.5.3. Measures to counteract high-
way impacts by WVDH are discussed in Section 5.6.6.1.
Applicants may be required to develop socioeconomic mitigations through
NPDES permit conditions, including the measures listed in
Sections 5.6.5.1. and 5.6.5.2.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
When employment index exceeds values in SID Section 5.6.2.1., EPA will
request comments from appropriate RPDC.
RPDC, WVDH, and local agencies may comment on public notice.
6-29
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6-30
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Table 6-3. Directory of Regional Planning and Development Councils of
West Virginia (WVGOECD 1979a).
ii
in
IV
VI
VII
VIII
Council
Region One Planning
and Development Council
Region Two Planning
and Development Council
B.C.K.P. Regional
Intergovernmental Council
Region Four Planning
and Development Council
Mid-Ohio Valley
Regional Council
Region Six Planning
and Development Council
Region Seven Planning
and Development Council
Region Eight Planning
and Development Council
Executive Director
Michael B. Jacobs
East River Office Building
P. 0. 1442
Princeton, WV 24740
304/425-9508
Michael Shields
1221 Sixth Avenue
Huntingdon, WV 25701
304/529-3375 or 3358
Michael J. Russell
1426 Kanawha Boulevard East
Charleston, WV 25301
304/344-2541
Larry D. Bradford
500 B Main Street
Summersville, WV 26651
304/872-4970
Terry Tamburini
925 Market Street
Parkersburg, WV 26101
304/485-3801
Dennis Poluga (Acting)
201 Deveny Building
Fairmont, WV 26554
304/366-5693
James P. Gladkosky
Upshur County Courthouse
Buckhannon, WV 26201
304/472-6564
Lawrence E. Spears
5 Main Street
Petersburg, WV 26847
304/257-1221
IX
XI
Eastern Panhandle
Regional Planning and
Development Council
Bel-0-Mar Regional
Council and Interstate
Planning Commission
B-H-J Regional Council
and Metropolitan Planning
Commission
J.R. Hawvermale
121 West King Street
Martinsburg, WV 25401
304/263-1743
Wil liam Phipps
2177 National Road
P. 0. 2086
Wheeling, WV 26003
304/242-1800
John R. Beck
814 Adams Street
Steubenville, Ohio 43952
614/282-3685
6-31
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Resource: Adjacent Land Uses
Data Sources:
General
USGS high-altitude photography-based 1970's land use and land cover map
at 1:250, 000-scale.
USGS Topographic Maps (7.5 minute quadrangles), various dates.
Permit-Specific Data
Map of all structures within 0.5 mile and identity of surface owners
within 500 feet are in current WVDNR-Reclamation mining permit.
Identity of landowners and structures within 1,000 feet, if blast is
proposed, is in WVDNR surface mining permit applications.
NPDES applicants will be asked to identify surface owners, managers, or
individuals responsible for each sensitive land use (see
Section 5.6.2.3.) located within 2,000 feet of the boundary of the
proposed operation.
SMCRA permanent program regulations require the identification of the
following land uses next to new mines:
cemeteries within 100 feet;
public buildings (schools, churches, and community
or institutional buildings) within 300 feet;
occupied residences within 300 feet;
public roads within 300 feet.
Significance:
Many types of land use impacts are possible from mining operations.
SMCRA prohibits mining within a given distance to certain land uses as
listed in Section 5.6.2.3. The SMCRA regulatory authority may ban
mining when it is incompatible with existing land use plans, damaging
to important or fragile historic, cultural, scientific, or aesthetic
values, would result in substantial loss of water supply or food or
fiber productivity, or would affect natural hazards that could
endanger human life.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Specific mitigative measures designed for significant impacts identi-
fied during EPA permit review may be imposed on the applicant as
NPDES permit conditions if appropriate.
6-32
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Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
To assure that proposed New Source mining activity does not generate
significant adverse land use impacts, EPA will send a copy of the
NPDES public notice to each manager of a sensitive use within
2,000 feet of the permit area, unless proof of notification by the
applicant is provided to EPA that these persons already have been
notified pursuant to SMCRA and WVSCMRA.
6-33
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Resource: Floodplains
Data Sources:
General Data
USHUD, FEMA, USGS.
Areas mapped on 1:24,000-scale Overlay 2 (Sheet 2 of 2).
See SID Section 2.7.3. for list of available mapped quadrangles.
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA application must contain data on streams (30 CFR 779.16; 779.25;
783.17, 783.25) and on affected hydrologic area (30 CFR 779.24,
283.24).
Significance:
As almost the only flat sites in many areas, floodplains in West
Virginia are the prime locus for settlements, industrial activity,
and transportation networks.
Floodplains in West Virginia are subject to frequent flooding as a
result of thunderstorms.
Coal facilities and spoil or waste piles are subject to damage if
situated in floodplains, and can cause significant water pollution,
especially the "blackwater" from coal fines in waste piles.
Public safety in floodplains downstream can be endangered if mining
accidentally causes temporary damming of water, as by landslides,
with subsequent bursting of dams.
Executive Order 11988 requires EPA to minimize floodplain disturbance.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Require proposed facilities to be relocated to alternative
non-floodplain area, if available.
Require relocation of coal waste piles outside floodplain (USOSM
requires that diversions around coal waste piles be designed to
accommodate the 24-hour, 100-year flood [30 CFR 816.92; 817.92]).
Require that structures in floodplain be designed to withstand
flooding.
Resource-Specific Interagency Coordination:
Potential overlap with USOSM-administered SMCRA regulatory program
(USDI procedures to comply with Water Resource Council Guidelines are
in Part 520, Chapter 1 of the Department of the Interior Manual; 44
FR 120: 36119-36122, June 20, 1979).
6-34
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If an EIS or EA is prepared and circulated, no separate floodplain
assessment is required, if floodplains are discussed therein.
If no EIS or EA is prepared, a Floodplain/Wetlands Assessment must be
distributed for public and interagency review, with public notice to
appropriate A-95 clearinghouses (44 FR 4: 1455-1457, January 5
1979). Clearinghouses are listed in SID Table 4-8, Section 4.4.2.
This assessment can be attached to the New Source NPDES permit public
notice.
Agency input expected from: USAGE, FEMA, USGS, USFWS, USDA-SCS, and
WVDNR-Water Resources.
6-35
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Resource: State Lands
Data Sources:
General Data
WVDNR-Forestry and WVDNR-Parks and Recreation administer State Forests
and State Parks, respectively.
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources administers Public Hunting and Fishing Areas,
Public Fishing Areas, and Public Hunting Areas.
WVDNR Public Lands Corporation must approve mining on State-owned
Public Hunting and Fishing Areas and in State Forests (see
SID Section 2.6.1.5.).
Permit-Specific Data
SMCRA permit applications require identification and mapping of public
parks on and adjacent to permit areas (30 CFR 779.24; 783.24) and
plans to minimize adverse effects must be developed (30 CFR 780.31;
784.17).
Significance:
WVDNR controls the exploitation of coal resources on State-owned lands.
Mining is prohibited in State Parks and limited to underground
extraction in State Forests. State land management agencies can
suggest ways to avoid or minimize adverse effects from mining adjac-
ent to the State lands, and special conditions may be inserted into
permits by the SMCRA regulatory authority or by EPA.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
EPA will consider mandating permit conditions suggested by State land
management agencies, if adverse impacts have not been avoided or min-
imized as a result of other permit reviews.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
State land management agencies will have opportunity to comment on each
NPDES public notice.
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Resource: Federal Lands
Data Sources:
General Data
Authorized boundaries of Federal land are indicated on the USGS
Topographic Maps (7.5 minute quadrangles) and highlighted on
Overlay 1 (Sheet 1 of 2).
Permit-Specific Data
The same data must be developed for SMCRA surface mining permit
applications to USOSM for coal mining on Federally-owned lands as for
non-Federal lands, including mine plans in accordance with USOSM
performance standards (30 CFR 741.13).
Significance:
SMCRA permits cannot be issued by USOSM until consultation with USGS
regarding minerals recovery and with the surface managing agency
regarding special requirements that may be necessary to protect
non-mineral resources in the area. Both the USGS and the surface
managing agency must consent before the SMCRA permit can be issued by
USOSM. Hence special New Source NPDES conditions other than those
related to water resources and aquatic biota seldom will be
necessary.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
EPA and USOSM expect to conclude Memoranda of Understanding that spell
out the details of interagency coordination (see SID Section 4.3.1).
EPA expects to recommend water-related conditions to USOSM for New
Sources on Federal lands. USOSM is expected to perform the lead-
agency role for NEPA compliance.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
To be accomplished according to the forthcoming Memoranda of
Understanding.
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Resource: Soil Subject to Erosion
Data Sources:
General Data
Soil series most prone to erosion are listed in Section 2.7.4.
Published soil surveys when available; USDA-SCS offices when soil sur-
veys are not published.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM permanent program requires soil survey, erosion control measures,
and plans to restore and revegetate soil, supported by test results
for proposed mine soils.
Significance:
Soil erosion is a major potential adverse impact of uncontrolled
mining. New Source mines that meet USOSM performance standards are
expected to minimize soil erosion.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Erosion control measures are discussed at length in the SID
(Section 5.7.1.) and in USOSM performance standards (30 CFR 816 and
817). As long as specific measures in compliance with USOSM stan-
dards are proposed, no special NPDES permit conditions are necessary.
In the absence of USOSM controls or as a result of permit review, EPA
may impose requisite measures under CWA and NEPA.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA/WVSCMRA permit application.
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Resource: Steep Slopes
Data Sources:
General Data
Shown on SID Figure 2-45, Section 2.7.
Permit-Specific Data
Topography tied into on-ground surveys must be detailed on drawings and
cross-sections in response to the USOSM permanent program regula-
tions .
Significance:
Runoff control, erosion prevention, and surface stability are most
difficult to achieve on steep slopes.
Potential Mitigative Measures and Permit Conditions:
Special performance standards for slopes steeper than 20° (36%) are
mandated by USOSM regulations as discussed at length in SID
Section 5.7.2. Additional measures may be imposed following
case-by-case review:
• Imposition of USOSM steep-slope standards on slopes
14° (25%) and greater.
• Imposition of static design safety factor of 1.5 on
backfill to preclude slope failure that could
exacerbate erosion, alter streamflow, pose a
hazard to public safety, or adversely affect the
appearance of an area.
• Where reclamation is to approximate original
contour:
Mandate that permanently retained roads do not cause
steepening of final slopes beyond original grade
- Mandate that downs lope haul road embankments below the
bench be removed following mining
- Mandate that roads to be preserved near the top of the
highwall have ditches and other drainage structures
adequate to prevent infiltration into the backfill.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-39
-------
Resource: Prime Farmlands
Data Sources:
General Data
Soil series classified by USDA-SCS as prime farmlands are listed in SID
Table 2-82 (Section 2.7.4.).
Prime framland areas for all counties with USDA-SCS published soil
surveys have been mapped on Overlay 2 (Sheet 2 of 2).
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM permanent program requires map with labeling of all soils on
permit area including prime farmlands (Section 5.7.3.1.).
Significance:
Prime farmlands are the most productive soils available for agricul-
tural use. When they have been in agricultural use prior to mining,
they must be restored and returned to agricultural use following
mining pursuant to SMCRA.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
USOSM regulations require special handling and restoration of prime
farmland on the sites of mines and mining facilities. No further
mitigations are necessary for prime farmlands treated as required by
USOSM.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
No specific coordination required. SMCRA regulatory authority must
consult with USDA-SCS through State Conservationist, concerning
adequacy of operator's proposed farmland restoration. Applicant must
consult SCS district offices for unpublished soils mappings if the
county soil survey is not published (mapping is in process in several
Basin counties).
6-40
-------
Resource: Significant Non-Prime Farmlands
Data Sources:
General Data
Not mapped at present (see SID Section 2.7.4.).
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM requires that all soils be mapped and labeled in each permit
application. Comments on public notice may address significance of
local soil.
Significance:
EPA policy requires special consideration for more types of farmland
than the USOSM regulations address.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Apply USOSM prime farmland requirements for restoration of additional
farmlands where appropriate.
Require that operator avoid impacts or restore off-site prime farmlands
downslope from surface mine site or within subsidence area of
underground mine.
Require reconstruction of facilities that qualify for EPA concern and
farming or other applicable post-mining land use (see SID
Section 5.7.3.2.) .
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
None required.
6-41
-------
Resource: Unstable Slopes
Data Sources:
General Data
Mapped information not available. Potential problem landforms are
illustrated in Figure 5-6 (see SID Section 5.7.5.).
Problem strata: Monongahela, Dunkard, and Conemaugh red shales
Problem soil series in West Virginia: Brooke, Brookside, Clarksburg,
Culleoka, Dormont, Ernest, Guernsey, Markland, Upshur, Vandalia,
Westmoreland, Wharton, and Zoar in general (Lessing et al. 1976);
Cardi et al. (1979) provide a partial, though more specific list,
which includes Clarksburg, Ernest, and Meckesville soils along with
the Gilpin-Culleoka-Upshur soil association in a subject to slippage
category.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM requires detailed plans with maps and cross-sections to assure
post-mining slope stability.
Significance:
Unstable slopes historically have produced significant adverse impacts.
USOSM permanent program regulations are expected to eliminate most
problems.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
In general, USOSM permanent program regulations are adequate. EPA must
impose equivalent measures if USOSM requirements are not
enforceable.
Disallow permanent spoil placement below bench on outcrops of problem
strata or on problem soils (as defined above).
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-42
-------
Resource: Lands Subject to Subsidence
Data Sources:
General Data
Subsidence potential is severe where underground mines are less than
150 feet deep; moderate, 150-300 feet; and slight >300 feet (see SID
Section 5.7.5.).
Permit-Specific Data
Extent of subsidence, control measures, notification of surface owners,
and buffer areas without mining are to be addressed in SMCRA permit
application (see SID Section 5.7.5.).
Significance:
Subsidence is a potentially significant impact of underground mining.
USOSM requirements are expected to eliminate most subsidence problems
from future mining operations, at least in the short-term. Subsi-
dence may exacerbate long-term water quality problems (AMD) following
mine abandonment.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions
None necessary, provided USOSM permanent program regulations are in
effect. EPA must impose equivalent measures if USOSM requirements
are not enforceable.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-43
-------
Resource: Lands Capable of Producing Acid Mine Drainage
Data Sources:
General Data
Potentially toxic overburden is widespread in the Basin and is mapped
generally on Overlay 3.
Permit-Specific Data
USOSM permanent program requires detailed overburden, surface water,
and groundwater information (see SID Section 5.7.6.). EPA will
review these data prepared for SMCRA applications.
EPA will review original, on-site geologic data based on core or high-
wall samples separated horizontally by no more than 3,300 feet where
potentially toxic seams are present, unless appropriate available
substitute data are supplied by the applicant. Analyses are to be
made according to EPA-approved methods (see SID Section 5.7.6.).
Samples spaced no more than 2,000 feet apart are recommended and may
be required.
Where permit review indicates possible significant metals contamina-
tion, metals analyses of surface water, groundwater, overburden, or
processing wastes may be required (see SID Section 5.7.6.).
EPA will require overburden analyses of any red dog proposed for use as
road surface material.
USOSM Draft Experimental Permit Application Form Chapter 4 outlines
detailed data required for coal preparation plants and potentially
toxic processing wastes. EPA will review these data as prepared for
SMCRA applications.
Significance:
AMD is one of the major potential, long-term, adverse impacts of mining
on water resources. The detailed analyses and mitigative measures
proposed by mine operators in response to USOSM permanent program
regulations will be reviewed in detail by EPA.
Potential Mitigations and Permit Conditions:
Should USOSM performance standards for surface reclamation and under-
ground spoil disposal (see SID Sections 5.7.6.2. and 5.7.6.3.) not be
enforceable, equivalent measures will be imposed by EPA.
Should USOSM performance standards for coal processing waste disposal
(SID Section 5.7.6.4.) and in-situ coal processing (SID Section
5.7.6.5.) not be enforceable, equivalent measures will be imposed by
EPA.
6-44
-------
NPDES New Source effluent limitations may be sufficient as minimum
discharge water quality requirements for streams without significant
biota. Biologically Important Areas identified by EPA (see SID
Sections 2.2. and 5.2.) may require maximum in-stream iron
limitations of 1 mg/1 as special permit conditions that necessitate
effluent treatment beyond the Nationwide limitations or other special
mitigations to protect sensitive biota. Likewise, discharges to
trout streams may require a high degree of treatment to meet the
proposed 0.5 mg/1 State stream limitation for total iron.
Specific Resource-Related Coordination:
Obtain SMCRA permit application.
6-45
-------
Appendix A
Aquatic Biota
-------
APPENDIX A: AQUATIC BIOTA
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Figure A-1
FISH SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA RIVER
BASIN (WVDNR-Wild life Resources 1980, Stauffer and Holcutt I960)
0 10
WAPORA, IMC.
A-17
-------
Table A-2. Descriptions of stations sampled by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources (WVDNR-
Wildlife Resources 1980). Refer to Figure A-l.
Lewis
Station
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Rand- 22
olph 23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Upshur 36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Stream
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Right Fork of Stonecoal Creek
Right Fork of Stonecoal Creek
Right Fork of West Fork River
Skin Creek
Skin Creek
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
West Fork River
Stonecoal Creek
Stonecoal Creek
Stonecoal Tailwaters
Stonecoal Tailwaters
Freeman's Creek
Big Run of Gandy
Big Run of Gandy
Big Run of Gandy
Cabin Fork of First Fork of Shavers
Elkwater Fork
First Fork of Glady
First Fork of Shavers Fork
Gandy Creek
Gandy Creek
Gandy Creek
Glade Run of Shavers Fork
Glady Fork of Dry Fork
Glady Fork of Dry Fork
Hatchery Fork of Shavers Fork
Left Fork of Right Fork of Buck-
hannon
Left Fork of Right Fork of Buck-
hantion
Left Fork of Right Fork of Buck-
hannon
Lambert Run of Shavers Fork
Lambert Run of Shavers Fork
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Left Fork of Buckhannon
Little Black Fork
Little Black Fork
Little Black Fork
Middle Fork
Middle Fork of Tygart River
Middle Fork River
Middle Fork River
Mowry Run
Ralston Run
Ralston Run
Red Creek
Red Creek
Riffle Creek
Location
9.6 miles from mouth
17.6 miles from mouth
21.2 miles from mouth
23 miles from mouth
.4 mile from mouth
11.5 miles from mouth
85.5 miles from mouth
3.5 miles from mouth
7.5 miles from mouth
55.8 miles from mouth
62.5 miles from mouth
67.4 miles from mouth
68 miles from mouth
77 miles from mouth
81.1 miles from mouth
87.5 miles from mouth
4.8 miles above mouth
6 miles above mouth
6.8 miles above mouth
7.7 miles above mouth
1.8 miles above mouth
0.5 mile above mouth
1.0 mile above mouth
1.5 mile above mouth
.7 mile above mouth
4 miles above mouth
4.5 miles above mouth
.3 mile above mouth
13.6 miles from mouth
14.1 miles from mouth
14.6 miles from mouth
0.9 mile from mouth
17 miles from mouth
20 miles from mouth
.2 mile from mouth
3.25 miles from mouth
5.0 miles from mouth
5.5 miles from mouth
.2 mile from mouth
1 mile from mouth
8 miles from mouth
8 miles from mouth
8 miles from mouth
10.5 miles from mouth
12.0 miles from mouth
13.25 miles from mouth
.1 mile from mouth
.2 mile from mouth
1.5 miles from mouth
16.6 miles from mouth
18.7 miles from mouth
22.4 miles from mouth
6.7 miles from mouth
.7 mile from mouth
3 miles from mouth
5 miles from mouth
.3 mile from mouth
6 miles from mouth
3.5 miles from mouth
Stream Code
MW 31
MW 31
MW 31
MW 31
MW 38 G
MW 38 G
MW 55
MW 46
MW 46
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW
MW 38
MW 38
MW 38
MW 38
MW 36
MC 6 OT 8
MC 6 OT 8
MC 6 OT 8
MC S 50
MT 74
MC 60 K
MC S 50
MC 60 T
MC 60 T
MC 60 T
MC 54 3
MC 60 K
MC 60 K
MCS
MTB 31 F
^ITB 31 F
MTB 31 F
MCS 49
MCS 49
MTB 32
MTB 32
MTB 32
MTB 32
MTB 32
MTB 32
MCS 13
MCS 13
MCS 13
MTM
MTM
MTM
MTM
MT 74A
MT 78
MT 78
MC 600
MC 600
MT 66
Sampling
Date
9/26/73
9/24/74
8/02/66
8/19/66
7/02/68
it/12/67
11/05/64
10/11/67
10/11/67
7/11/74
10/11/68
10/09/68
5/31/70
10/15/68
8/29/71
11/05/64
5/15/7Q
7/27/68
11/05/79
11/05/79
10/23/79
8/03/60
10/18/60
10/18/60
8/26/75
6/20/68
7/08/75
8/26/75
9/00/63 ,
1963 '
1963
8/11/60
8/01/75
8/01/75
8/26/75
9/12/78
9/12/78
10/21/64
8/27/75
8/26/75
10/21/64
11/15/77
7/29/78
7/29/78
7/29/78
7/29/78
5/08/70
6/20/60
5/08/70
6/24/75
9/17/68
9/18/68
9/20/68
6/19/68
9/29/63
9/20/63
8/05/68
8/17/68
6/20/68
A-18
-------
Table A-2. Descriptions of stations sampled (continued).
Straara
Station
Rand- 60 Right Fork of Buckhannon
olph 61 Right Fork of Buckhannon
62 Shavers Fork of Cheat River
63 Shavers Fork of Cheat River
64 Shavers Fork of Cheat River
65 Shavers Fork
66 Shavers Run
67 Shavers Run
68 Shavers Run
69 South Fork of Red Creek
70 South Fork of Red Creek
71 South Fork of Red Creek
72 South Fork of Red Creek
73 Spring Br of South Fork
74 Tygart River
75 Tygart River
76 Tygart River
77 Tygart River
78 Tygart River
79 Upper Lick Pond
80 Upper Lick Pond
81 West Fork Glady
82 West Fork Glady
83 Windy Run
84 Windy Run
85 Big Run of Tygart
86 Big Run of Tygart
87 Big Run of Tygart
88 Devil Run
89 Devil Run
93 Dry Fork of Black Fork River
94 Dry Fork of Black Fork River
95 Dry Fork of Black Fork River
96 East Fork of Glady
97 East Fork of Glady
98 East Fork of Glady
99 Laurel Run
100 Beech Run
101 Phillips Camp Run
102 Morgan Camp Run
Upshur 103 Buckhannon River
104 Buckhannon River
105 Buckhannon River
106 Buckhannon River
107 Buckhannon River
109 French Creek
110 Left Fork of Buckhannon River
111 Left Fork of Buckhannon River
112 Left Fork of Buckhannon River
113 Middle Fork of Tygart River
114 Middle Fork River
116 Middle Fork River
117 Middle Fork River
118 Middle Fork River
119 Right Fork of Middle Fork River
120 Right Fork of Middle Fork River
121 Right Fork of Middle Fork River
122 Right Fork of Middle Fork River
123 Right Fork of Middle Fork River
124 Sand Run
125 Sand Run
Barbour 126 Tygart River
127 Bear Camp Run
128 Bear Camp Run
Location Stream Code
5.5 miles from mouth MTB 31
7.5 miles above mouth MTB 31
59.7 miles above mouth MCS
63.0 miles above mouth MCS
64.5 miles above mouth MCS
15.1 miles from mouth MCS
3.6 miles from mouth MT 61
4.2 miles from mouth MT 61
5.5 miles from mouth MT 61
0 mile MC 6004
.5 mile from mouth MC 6004
1.8 miles from mouth MC 6004
2. 3 miles from mouth MC 6004
.1 mile from mouth MC 6004
112.1 miles from mouth MT
113.6 miles from mouth MT
114.1 miles from mouth MT
124.7 miles from mouth MT
127.7 miles from mouth MT
.1 mile from mouth MCS 28
2 miles from mouth MCS 28
2 miles from mouth MC 60 K 16
3 miles from mouth MC 60 K 16
3.2 miles from mouth MT 79
3.5 miles from mouth MT 79
3.5 miles from mouth MT 81
3.7 miles from mouth MT 81
4.5 miles from mouth MT 81
.5 mile from mouth MTM 4
1 mile from mouth MTM 4
0.8 mile above Route 33 MC 60
1.4 miles above Route 33 MC 60
2.0 miles above Route 33 MC 60
2 miles above Route 33 MC 60 K 17
3.5 miles above Route 33 MC 60 K 17
6 miles above Route 33 MC 60 K 17
.1 mile above mouth MT 39
.5 mile above mouth MTB 32 H
.2 mile above mouth MTB 32 I 1
.1 mile above mouth MTB 32 1
20.4 miles above mouth MTB
28,5 miles from mouth MTB
29 miles from mouth MTB
36 miles from mouth MTB
36,5 miles from mouth MTB
5 miles from mouth MTB 18
.8 mile from mouth MIB ^2
1 mile from moutl MTE 1r
5.0 miles from mouth MTB 32
18.7 miles from mouth KTM
6.7 miles from mouth M-"M
1.3 miles from mouth MTB 27
1.3 miles from mouth MTB 27
1.3 miles from mouth MTB 27
2.5 miles above mouth MTM 11
3.5 miles above mouth KTM 11
5 miles above mouth MTM 1"
6.5 miles above mouth K "M 11
10.5 miles above mouth MTM 11
5 miles above mouth MTB 7
6 miles above mouth MTB 7
31.7 miles above mouth MT
.25 mile above mouth MTB 32 D
.37 mile above ,i. .,t'i MTB )2 D
Sampling
Date
10/22/64
9/20/78
8/27/75
8/27/75
8/27/75
7/26/67
7/28/58
10/11/60
6/28/58
8/17/68
8/01/60
8/01/60
8/01/60
7/25/69
8/22/64
8/22/64
8/22/64
6/20/68
11/16/63
6/26/64
7/26/64
7/09/75
7/08/75
7/18/60
9/01/62
9/03/63
9/03/63
9/03/63
2/08/74
2/08/74
7/05/77
7/05/77
7/05/77
7/08/75
7/08/75
7/08/75
11/2/77
11/15/77
11/6/79
11/6/79
9/26/74
6/13/63
10/27/64
6/13/63
10/27/64
10/29/64
7/21/78
.10/22/64
7/21/78
9/17/68
9/20/68
9/28/78
5/7/79
5/10/79
10/13/78
10/13/78
8/OV65
8/03 ( 5
8/02/65
4/16/76
4/16/76
10/28/65
10/22/79
10/22/79
A-19
-------
Descriptions of stations sampled (continued).
Stream Location
Stream Code
Sampling
Date
Rand- 129
olph
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
Taylor 147
148
Preston 149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Dry Fork of Cheat River
Laurel Fork of Dry Fork
Laurel Fork of Dry Fork
Laurel Fork of Dry Fork
Gandy Creek of Dry Fork
Laurel Fork
Laurel Fork
Elk Run of Laurel Fork
Elk Run of Laurel Fork
Elk Run of Laurel Fork
Tygart River
Wickwire Creek
Saltlick Creek
Wolf Creek
Wolf Creek of Cheat River
Wolf Creek
Wolf Creek
Roaring Creek
Rhine Creek
Laurel Run
Laurel Run
Laurel Run
Flag Run
Elsey Run
Daugherty Run
Daugherty Run
Cheat River
Cheat River
Cheat River
Buffalo Creek
Little Sandy Crrek
Big Sandy Creek
Big Sandy Creek
Big Sandy Creek
Booths Creek
.8 mile above Rt. 33 bridge
and 22.5 miles above mouth
.8 mile above Rt. 33 bridge
1.4 miles above Rt. 33 bridge
and 23 miles above mouth
1.4 miles above Rt. 33 bridge
2.0 miles above Rt. 33 bridge
and 23.6 miles above mouth
2.0 miles above Rt. 33 bridge
3.6 miles above Rt. 33 bridge
.2 mile below Job
5.2 miles above Rt. 33 bridge
1.5 miles above Job
3.1 miles below Rt. 33 bridge
near Old Mill
At mouth of Camp Five Run
.75 mile below Camp Five Run
1.5 miles above Camp Five Run
2 miles below Swallow Rocks
4 miles below Laurel Fork MC 60 N
Campground-Stone Camp Trail
2nd Wildlife Clearing below MC 60 N
Campground
.75 mile above mouth
1 mile above mouth
1.25 mile above mouth
22 miles above mouth TM
Tygart Lake tailwaters
4 miles above mouth MT 8
.7 mile above mouth at Iron MC 32
Bridge
2.0 miles above mouth MC 36
2.0 miles above mouth
1/4 mile below Amboy Rd. MC 36
6.0 miles from mouth MC 36
7.5 mile from mouth MC 18
2.5 mile above mouth MY 4
Cathedral State Park
at mouth MC 12 A
.5 mile above mouth off MC 12 A
Route 44/1
2.5 miles above mouth at
Rt. 73 bridge MC 12 A
.3 mile from mouth MC 33 A
2.5 miles above mouth on MC 20
Rt. 45/3
.5 mile above mouth below MC 19
fly ash pile
6 miles from mouth MC 19
54 miles above mouth MC
Seven Island area
35.4 miles from mouth MC
1 mile off Rt. 50 on MG 33
Rt. 72 South
4.4 miles from mouth MC 128
.1 mile from mouth MC 12
1.5
13.3 miles from mouth MC 12
5.5 miles above mouth MW 2
at Eldora
7/11/79
7/07/76
7/02/79
7/07/76
7/02/79
7/07/76
7/07/76
7/07/76
7/08/76
6/19/77
6/19/76
6/19/76
7/08/76
7/09/79
7/09/79
6/19/76
6/19/76
6/19/76
8/13/74
9/12/79
9/11/79
7/29/78
3/25/76
7/29/78
3/29/62
8/14/59
6/12/80
9/16/60
9/16/79
9/16/79
3/30/t.
6/13/80
7/7/JG
8/14/59
9/6/73
7/15/80
9/23/59
8/30/78
8/15/59
9/23/j9
9/17/77
8/15/59
10/23/75
A-20
-------
Table A-2. Descriptions of stations sampled (concluded).
County
Marion 173
174
175
176
177
178
179
130
131
Barbour 132
183
184
185
186
187
Tucker 188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
Monon- 197
gahela 198
199
200
202
203
204
205
206
Harrison 207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
Stream
Dent Run Lake
Whiteday Creek
Whiteday Creek
Whiteday Creek
Whiteday Creek
Paw Paw Creek
Paw Paw Creek
Buffalo Creek
Buffalo Creek
Mill Run
Brushy Fork
Laurel Fork
Laurel Run
Devil Run
Middle Fork River
Cheat River
Horseshow Run
Horseshow Run
Mill Run of Blackwater
Mill Run of Blackwater
Elklick Run of Black Fork
Clover Run of Cheat River
Clover Run of Cheat River
Dry Fork
Cheat Lake (Lake Lynn)
Cheat Lake (Lake Lynn)
Morgan Run
Blaney Hollow
W Va. Fork Dunkard Creek
Miracle Run
Dunkard Creek
Deekers Creek
Days Run
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Hackers Creek
Elk Creek
Elk Creek
West Fork River
Gnatty Creek
Gnatty Creek
Little Tenmile Creek
Brushy Fork
Issacs Creek
Location
6 miles from mouth
7 miles from mouth
10 miles from mouth
14 miles from mouth
5.5 miles from mouth
3.0 miles above mouth
3.2 miles from mouth
3.1 miles from mouth
Stream Code
M 16
M 16
M 16
M 16
M 22
M 22
M 23
M 23
Mt 23 F
1 mile above mouth just
above Co. Rt. 26
4.2 miles above mouth MT 23 C
1st bridge, 1.0 mile
above mouth
.3 mile upstream from mouth MT 32
.5 mile from mouth MTM 4
2.5 mile from mouth MTM
27 miles from mouth MC
9 miles from mouth MC 54
Horseshoe Rec. Center MC 54
4.1 miles above mouth
200' above Rt. 32, 2.2 miles
above mouth
on access road to golf course
and 1.0 mile above mouth
1.4 miles above mouth MC 60 C
4 miles above mouth at the MC 51
Mt. Zion Bridge
.5 mile above mouth MC 51
1/2 mile above Red Run
Cheat Backwater Cove
2 miles above mouth in MC 2
Daniell Hollow
2.5 mile above mouth on MC 2 B
Rt. 69/9
11 miles from mouth M 1 F
2 miles from mouth M 2 E
24 miles from mouth M 1
6.4 miles from mouth M 8
3 miles from mouth M 10
3.9 miles from mouth MW 31
3.6 miles from mouth MW 31
3.4 miles from mouth MW 31
Upper end - at 57, 16 miles MW 21
above mouth
Haymond Rocks - 10 miles
above mouth
35 miles above mouth
Hartland Pool
8.5 miles above mouth
bottom of Gum Mt.
5 miles above mouth at
Peeltree
3 miles from mouth
8
1.5 miles from mouth
1.5 miles from mouth
MW 21
MW
MW 21 M
MW 21 M
MW 13 B
MW 21 G
MW 29
Sampling
Date
8/7/75
10/09/70
7/19/60
10/09/70
8/08/62
6/26/63
6/17/74
10/14/59
10/14/70
8/06/79
9/04/79
8/21/75
11/7/77
2/08/74
8/20/63
9/22/59
3/29/62
9/5/79
8/31/79
8/31/79
7/13/78
7/13/78
7/13/78
9/10/77
10/23/74
10/23/74
8/07/79
8/07/79
8/26/59
8/16/62
5/17/62
8/16/62
8/26/59
9/24/74
9/24/74
9/23/74
8/5/75
8/5/75
10/17/74
8/5/75
8/5/75
5/25/6'
6/17/63
6/17/63
A-21
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-------
Table A-3. Fish species collected in the Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia,.
1976 and 1977 (concluded).
Note:
Station
Stream Location
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
Dry Fork
Dry Fork
Cheat River
Cheat River
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Tygart Valley River
Tygart Valley River
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Sh ave rs Fo rk
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Shavers Fork
Glady Fork
Gandy Creek
Gandy Creek
Laurel Fork
West Fork Glady
East Fork Glady
Horseshoe Run
Horseshoe Run
Clover Run
Teter Creek
Leading Creek
Leading Creek
Leading Creek
Craven Run
Chenoweth Creek
Birch Run
Middle Fork Run
Middle Fork Run
Mill Creek
Beaver Creek
Tygart Valley River
Mill Creek
Stewarc Creek
Tygart Valley River
Elkwater Fork
Becky Creek
Riffle Creek
Tygart Valley River
Shavers Run
Stalnaker Run
Files Creek
Tygart Valley River
Shavers Fork
A-24
-------
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•a
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-------
Table A-5. Number of macroinvertebrate taxa present and percent of individuals
in each of three sensitivity categories (data from FWPCA 1968). The
sensitivity categories were those of Mason et al. 1971, Weber 1973, and
Lewis 1974.
% of Individuals in each Sensitivity Class
Station Number of Taxa
1
2
3
5
8
10
11
15
16
17
21
23
26
35
36
37
38
41
42
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
65
66
68
70
73
77
78
79
82
83
84
85
5
11
11
7
10
12
12
5
3
5
2
4
1
19
8
4
2
16
14
5
1
2
2
12
3
10
5
6
4
3
1
2
6
4
7
6
3
8
0
1
1
2
3
Sensitive
31
53
65
23
62
78
98
14
12
6.2
100
92
0
75
5
67
0
52
53
12
0
0
66
63
22
83
13
3
4
7
0
0
74
11
4
1
1
51
0
0
0
0
1
Tolerant
46
40
35
56
38
22
8
67
18
15
0
8
100
25
36
22
75
48
9
85
100
100
33
34
78
16
74
94
96
71
100
2
26
52
85
75
54
48
0
0
0
94
13
Very
Tolerant
23
7
0
21
0
0
0
18
70
23
0
0
0
0
59
11
25
0
38
3
0
0
0
3
0
1
13
3
0
21
0
98
0
37
11
24
45
1
0
100
100
6
86
A-32
-------
Table A-5. Number of macroinvertebrate taxa present (concluded).
% of Individuals in each Sensitivity Class
Very
Station Number of Taxa Sensitive Tolerant Tolerant
91 1 0 100 0
92 0 000
93 9 27 51 21
94 4 8 92 0
95 2 6 94 0
97 2 0 1 99
98 7 33 59 8
100 2 06 94
108 2 70 93
109 4 44 92
111 3 9 91 0
113 2 0 20 80
114 3 3 8 89
116 3 0 62 38
120 8 63 30 7
A-33
-------
Table A-6. Diversity values and number of macroinvertebrate taxa found during
1970 to 1979 at 31 stations in the Monongahela River Basin (file data,
Pittsburgh District, USAGE).
Station
I
6
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Date
4/20/76
4/21/75
4/20/76
4/21/75
4/21/75
4/20/76
9/15/70
10/20/70
10/20/70
5/16/72
5/16/73
4/23/74
4/22/75
9/15/70
10/21/70
4/23/74
4/23/73
9/15/70
10/22/70
10/22/70
5/4/72
5/2/78
5/7/79
6/18/79
5/3/72
5/16/73
4/23/74
4/3/72
4/24/73
4/24/73
3/4/78
6/18/79
5/3/72
4/24/73
4/23/74
5/17/73
4/23/74
4/23/74
4/23/74
5/3/78
6/18/79
9/15/70
10/21/70
5/4/72
4/23/73
4/23/74
4 22 75
Diversity Average (Range)
0.89 (0 - 1.67)
0.46 (0 - 1.37)
0.90 (.696 - 1.047)
0.77 (0 - 1.50)
0.58 (0 - .918)
2.22 (1.84 - 2.48)
1.73 (1.56
2.19 (1.98
2.21 (1.76
1.22 (.182
2.03 (1.30
2.27 (1.79
- 1
93)
2.49)
2.55)
1.63)
2.61)
2.68)
1.50 (1.09 - 2.29)
2.16 (1.88 - 2.43)
2.70 (2.69 - 2.90)
(1.75
(2.60
2.04
2.75
1.58 (1.42
1.87 (1.65
2.80 (2.55
2.26 (1.79
3.24 (3.21
3.84 (3.67
.45)
,92)
.73)
,01)
94)
.81)
27)
,99)
0.33 (0 - 1.0)
1.41 (1.08 - 1.81)
1.42 (1.06 - 1.60)
2.45 (1.83 - 2.82)
2.98 (2.69 - 3.30)
3.02 (2.91 - 3.21)
2.17 (1.70 - 2.55)
3.05 (2.71 - 3.44)
2.06 (1.76 - 2.34)
2.09 (1.40 - 2.48)
1.75 (1.62 - 1.88)
2.50 (1.95 - 2.88)
1.96 (1.54 - 2.75)
2.41 (2.31 - 2.50)
2.52 (2.19 - 2.84)
2.84 (2.57 - 3.01)
2.61 (2.44 - 2.69)
2.14 (1.41 - 2.58)
1.67 (1.39 - 1.84)
3.07 (2.93 - 3.25)
2.01 (1.18 - 2.91)
1.38 (0 - 2.31)
2.43 (1.66 - 3.10)
2.57 (2.19 - 2.93)
Number of Taxa Average (Range)
2.3 (1-5)
1.7 (1-3)
2.3 (2-3)
1.7 (1-3)
1.7 (1-3)
7.3 (4-9)
13.7 (13-14)
15.0 (14-16)
11.4 (10-14)
9.0 (8-11)
7.3 (3-10)
9.3 (7-12)
9.3 (7-13)
19.0 (19)
13.0 (10-16)
11.0 (9-15)
8.3 (7-11)
13.5 (13-L4)
21.3 (18-25)
13.7 (12-16)
9.3 (4-16)
14.7 (13-17)
18.5 (15-22)
1.0 (1-2)
7.7 (7-9)
8.7 (6-10)
13.3 (11-16)
12.0 (9-16)
15.3 (12-19)
11.7 (6-16)
17.7 (15-21)
14.5 (13-16)
7.3 (6-9)
7.7 (5-10)
15.3 (14-16)
5.0 (3-8)
6.3 (6-7)
14.5 (14-15)
14.0 (11-17)
10.0 (8-13)
7.7 (4-10)
7.0 (5-8)
21.0 (16-24)
7.0 (4-11)
3.3 (1-6)
11.3 (5-16)
16.0 (15-16)
A-34
-------
Table A-f. Diversity values and number of macroinvertebrate taxa found during
1970 to 1979 at 31 stations in the Monongahela River Basin (continued).
Station
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Date
10/20/70
5/16/72
5/16/73
4/23/74
4/22/75
5/3/78
6/18/79
9/15/70
10/20/70
10/20/70
10/7/71
10/7/71
4/25/74
10/6/71
5/17/72
5/17/72
6/21/72
5/15/73
6/6/73
4/25/74
4/22/75
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/28/70
10/28/70
10/5/71
5/1/72
5/15/73
4/25/74
4/23/75
8/5/70
8/27/70
8/27/70
9/17/70
10/29/70
10/29/70
10/5/71
8/27/70
8/27/70
9/17/70
10/28/70
10/28/70
10/5/71
10/5/71
5/2/72
5/14/73
4/25/74
8/4/70
8/26/70
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/28/70
10/28/70
Diversity Average _(Range)_
1.28 (1.13 - 1.53)
2.03 (1.50 - 3.03)
1.39 (.95 - 1.96)
1.29 (.59 - 2.06)
1.83 (1.67 - 2.03)
1.45 (.69 - 2.15)
2.10 (1.6 - 2.36)
1.80 (1.57 - 2.02)
2.01 (1.93 - 2.09)
0.79 (.49 - 1.13)
1.98 (1.29 - 2.60)
1.63 (1.24 - 2.15)
2.97 (2.69 - 3.43)
2.84 (2.74 - 2.90)
2.59 (2.22 - 3.16)
2.20 (1.50 - 3.02)
2.58 (2.53 - 2.63)
2.48 (2.44 - 2.54)
1.74 (1.50 - 2.19)
2.67 (2.52 - 2.93)
2.63 (2.33 - 2.82)
2.47 (1.97 - 2.98)
1.88 (1.52 - 2.19)
.97 (.97)
l.U (.33 - 1.66)
1.19 (0 - 2.32)
2.62 (2.0 - 3.11)
2.91 (2.28 - 3.37)
2.95 (2.56 - 3.33)
Number of Taxa Average (Range)
3.11 (2.74 - 3,
3.20 (3.20)
2.48 (2.48)
3.13 (3.00 - 3.
2.93 (2.93)
2.89 (2.61 - 3,
(2.72 - 3.
2.84
34)
26)
16)
02)
2.34 (1.73 - 2.86)
2.12 (2.11;
2.69 (2.64 - 2.73)
2.33 (2.33)
2.73 (2.67 - 2.78)
3.14 (3.05 - 3.23)
2.06 (1.72 - 2.68)
1.16 (.98 - 1.50)
2.86 (2.75 - 3.04)
2.20 (1.90 - 2.61)
1.78 (.61 - 3.28)
3.41 (3.41)
3.05 (2.96 - 3.14)
3.67 (3.67)
3.54 (3.47 - 3.60)
3.89 (3.8)
3.54 (3.19 - 3.87)
17.7 (13-21)
7.7 (5-12)
9.3 (7-11)
5.7 (2-11)
12.3 (9-19)
10.3 (7-15)
10.7 (7-18)
13.0 (8-18)
11.0 (9-13)
5.0 (3-8)
6.6 (5-8)
5.4 (4-7)
15.7 (11-22)
10.7 (8-12)
7.5 (4-11)
7.0 (3-12)
22.5 (21-24)
11.0 (8-14)
16.0 (10-19)
11.3 (7-16)
10.7 (9-14)
10.7 (8-13)
5.0 (3-6)
8.0 (8)
4.3 (2-6)
3.3 (1-6)
(4-11)
10.7 (9-12)
14.0 (10-1.7)
12.3 (11-14)
10.0 (10)
19.0 (19)
12.0 (11-13)
18.0 (18)
20.0 (20)
16.3 (13-19)
7.7 (4-11)
9 (9)
12.5 (11-14)
18 (18)
19.5 (19-20)
14.7 (13-16)
6.0 (4-8)
2.7 (2-3)
11.7 (9-13)
10.3 (8-14)
8.7 (4-17)
17.0 (17)
12.5 (12-13)
20.0 (20.0)
25.0 (24-26)
33.0 (33)
19.3 (17-24)
A-35
-------
Table A-fi. Diversity values and number of macroinvertebrate taxa found during
1070 to 1979 at 31 stations in the Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
Station
Date
Diversity Average (Range)
Number of Taxa Average (Range)
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
5/18/72
A/25/73
6/7/73
4/25/74
10/5/71
5/2/72
4/25/73
4/25/74
8/6/70
8/26/70
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/27/70
5/10/71
5/18/72
4/25/73
6/7/73
9/11/73
10/11/73
4/25/74
8/6/70
8/26/70
9/16/70
10/27/70
10/5/71
5/2/72
5/15/73
4/25/74
5/2/72
5/15/73
5/2/72
5/15/73
10/5/71
8/5/70
8/27/70
8/27/70
9/17/70
10/29/70
1.21 (.69 - 1.73)
1.52 (.50 - 2.51)
3.43 (3.14 - 3.73)
1.65 (1.58 - 1.79)
.91 (0 - 2.73)
1.83 (.93 - 2.57)
3.18 (2.72 - 3.53)
3.51 (3.25 - 3.69)
3.39 (3.39)
3.05 (3.05)
2.60 (2.40 - 2.79)
2.87 (2.87)
3.34 (3.13 - 3.51)
2.29 (1.0 - 3.10)
.23 (0 - .91)
.64 (0 - 1.0)
1.48 (1.15 - 1.94)
.43 (.43)
1.04 (1.04)
1.0 (0 - 1.50)
2.43 (2.43)
2.24 (2.15 - 2.32)
2.32 (2.32)
1.01 (.49 - 1.32)
0.50 (0 - 1.50)
2.43 (1.85 - 2.93)
3/27 (2.88 - 3.62)
2.49 (2.29 - 2.65)
2.43 (2.36 - 2.54)
.42 (0 - 1.25)
.59 (0 - .95)
0 (0)
60 (0 - 1.79)
3.33 (3.33)
3.0 (2.86 - 3.08)
2.32 (2.32)
2.50 (2.31 - 2.59)
2.78 (2.70 - 2.84)
5.8 (3-7)
5.7 (2-10)
21.0 (14-25)
3.3 (3-4)
2.7 (1-7)
9.0 (7-10)
18.7 (15-22)
21.3 (21-22)
21.0 (21)
20 (20)
13 (6-11)
20 (20)
27.0 (22-33)
6.0 (2-9)
1.2 (1-2)
1.7 (1-2)
9.0 (8-10)
10 (10)
8.0 (8)
2.3 (1-3)
7 (7)
5.0 (5)
8.0 (8)
6.0 (3-8)
1.3 (1-3)
12.0 (8-15)
14.7 (11-17)
8.3 (7-10)
7.3 (6-9)
1.3 (1-3)
2.0 (1-3)
0.3 (1)
1.3 (1-4)
15.0 (1.5)
21.0 (18-24)
8.0 (8.0)
19.7 (18-22)
22.7 (22-24)
A-36
-------
Figure A-2
MACROINVERTEBRATES SAMPLING STATIONS IN THE MONONGAHELA
RIVER BASIN (Tarter 1976, FWPCA 1968, Pittsburgh USAGE)
• 35
• Tarter SAMPLING STATION
• FWPCA SAMPLING STATION
A USAGE ( PITTSBURGH DISTRICT)
* SAMPLING STATION
\
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WAPORA, INC.
A-37
-------
A-38
-------
Appendix B
Terrestrial Biota
-------
APPENDIX B. TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
B-l
-------
APPENDIX B. TERRESTRIAL BIOTA
1.0. ECOLOGICAL REGION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The ecological setting of the Monongahela River Basin has been
described in several ways. Two systems, Bailey (1976) and the ecological
regions system used by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, are described in this
section.
1.1. ECOREGIONS SYSTEM OF BAILEY
The ecoregions system developed by Bailey is based on both physical and
biological components, including climate, vegetation type, physiography, and
soils. Ecological associations with related characteristics within a geo-
graphic region can be grouped into an ecosystem region, or ecoregion. The
system was designed as a tool for planning and data organization and analy-
sis. It originally was developed by the USFS for use in the National
Wetlands Inventory presently being conducted by the USFWS. The USFS also
uses it for analysis under the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources
Planning Act of 1974, and in the preparation of assessments required by the
1980 Resources Planning Act (Bailey 1978, US Bureau of Land Management
1978). The system consists of a hierarchical classification scheme with
nine levels or categories:
Domain
Division
Province
Section
District
Landtype association
Landtype
Landtype phase
Site.
It has been applied to the Appalachian Region by Bailey and Cushwa
(1977) in the form of a preliminary map on which information has been shown
to the fifth level of classification (District). An adaptation of the West
Virginia section of that map for the Monongahela River Basin ard several
other major river basins is shown in Figure B-l. The key to the ^erical
designations indicated on the map is given in Table B-l.
This preliminary map is intended to be revised after review and testing
procedures. Such procedures currently are being performed to the fifth
level for birds using data collected by the USFWS Patuxent Wildlife Research
Center in Maryland (USFWS, EELUT 1979b). Similar testing will be done for
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals by the TVA in cooperation with the USFWS
(Verbally, Mr. Charles T. Cushwa, USFWS, EELUT, to Ms. Kathleen M. Brennan,
November 30, 1979).
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The remaining four levels of the hierarchy (Landtype Associations,
Landtype, Landtype Phase, and Site) will be applied to the Appalachian
Region in subsequent revisions so that the map will become useful for more
localized investigations. As can be seen in Figure B-l, the present
system cuts across drainage basins at the fourth (Section) and fifth
(District) levels, and thus must be modified, or a separate system
developed, for handling information on aquatic resources (Verbally, Mr.
Charles T. Cushwa, USFWS, EELUT, to Ms. Kathleen M. Brennan, November 30,
1979).
1.2. ECOLOGICAL REGIONS SYSTEM OF WVDNR
The WVDNR-Wildlife Resources, uses a classification system that
consists of six ecological regions as a framework for the preparation of
descriptions of wildlife habitats and occurrences (Figure B-2). For some
species, such as grouse, several ecological regions are combined for
planning and research purposes (WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1980b). The
boundaries of these regions roughly parallel the seven physiographic
provinces (mountain and valley systems) of West Virginia that were described
by Wilson et al. (1951), but differ in that the ecological region boundaries
follow county boundaries.
The descriptions of these regions prepared by Wilson primarily covers
topography, drainage patterns, geological strata, and mineral resources.
The report in which they were presented is the summary report of a wildlife
habitat mapping project, and the forest cover information and wildlife
habitat descriptions'are discussed in Sections 2.3.
2.0. VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
The two regional systems of Braun (1950) and Kuchler (1964), and the
Statewide categorization by Core (1969) are described in this section to
provide an overview of the types of forest that are present in the various
parts of the Monongahela River Basin. The boundaries of the forest types
within each system are shown in Figures B-3, B-4, and B-5; and a comparison
of these classification schemes with the ecoregion system of Bailey (1976)
is given in Table B-2.
2.1. BRAUN (1950)
Braun characterized the typical upland native vegetation of the entire
Basin as mixed mesophytic forest. The mixed mesophytic forest is a complex
association with many species of trees; no single tree species
preponderates. Typical species present in this association are:
beech sweet buckeye black cherry
tuliptree oaks cucumber tree
basswood hemlock white ash
sugar maple birch red maple
chestnut (prior to the chestnut sour gum hickories.
blight of early 1900's)
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2.2. KUCHLER (1964)
In a study of potential natural vegetation in the United States,
Kuchler (1964) identified four vegetation types within the Monongahela River
Basin (Figure B-4). The predominant type throughout the Basin was the mixed
mesophytic forest, which potentially could cover 70% of its area. This type
includes a variable mixture of sugar maple, buckeye, beech, tuliptree, White
oak, northern red oak, and basswood as important species. A northern
hardwoods type, which includes sugar maple, beech, birch, and hemlock,
potentially occupies the southeastern 20% of the Basin. Small areas of
northeastern spruce-fir forest characterized by balsam fir and red spruce,
potentially occur at higher elevations in less than 10% of the Basin. The
northwesternmost corner (less than 5%) of the Basin potentially is occupied
by the Appalachian oak forest type, which contains primarily white oak and
northern red oak along with many other species as minor components.
2.3. CORE (1966)
Core's analysis of West Virginia vegetation divided the Monongahela
River Basin into two vegetation types on the basis of physiographic
conditions (Figure B-5). The eastern two thirds of the Basin are within the
Allegheny Mountain and Upland Physiographic Section, which is characterized
by the northern hardwood forest. The most abundant tree species are sugar
maple, beech, and yellow birch. Associated species include red maple, white
ash, black cherry, sweet birch, and American elm.
The western third of the Monongahela River Basin is in the Western Hill
Physiographic Section which is characterized by a central hardwood forest.
This type in turn can be divided locally on the basis of the moisture
content of the forest soils. The dry (xeric) subdivision includes
predominantly oak forests and typically is found on the drier areas such as
ridgetops and upper slopes. The moderately moist (mesic) subdivision exists
on north-facing slopes and in coves. The species composition of the mexic
subdivision of Core (1966) is similar to that described by Braun (1950) for
the mixed mesophytic forest. The wet (hydric) subdivision exists in
floodplains, in bottomlands, and along streams. It includes willows,
sweetgum, sycamore, silver maple, and river birch. The hydric type occurs
infrequently in the Gauley River Basin because the Valley bottoms and
floodplains are limited to narrow bands along streams and rivers.
The US Forest Service (1960), in mapping the general forest cover in
the United States, identified most of the Monongahela River Basin as part of
the central hardwood forest region (Figure B-6). The eastern third of the
Basin was assigned to the northern forest region. The US Forest Service
(1968) subsequently mapped the major forest types of parts of West Virginia,
which included the Monongahela River Basin in more detail (Figure B-7).
Three forest types were recognized within the Monongahela River Basin, the
oak-poplar association covered approximately 80%, forming most of the Basin.
The eastern and southern 20% was typed as the maple-beech-birch association
with the spruce-balsam fir type occupying approximately 5% of the
mountainous section.
B-ll
-------
Figure B-6
FOREST REGIONS OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(USFS I960)
I
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WAPORA, INC.
B-12
-------
Figure B-7
MAJOR FOREST REGIONS OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(USFS 1968)
OAK-YELLOW POPLAR
BEECH - BIRCH - MAPLE
SPRUCE-FIR
0 10
WAPORA, INC.
B-13
-------
The Monongaheal River Basin was mapped by the Appalachian Regional
Commission (1977) as having four forest types (Figure B-8). The forest
types are oak-hickory, maple-beech-birch, spruce-fir and longleaf
pine-slashpine. The ARC mapping includes a large non-forested area in the
west-central portion of the Basin.
Mapping of the Monongahela River Basin was also performed by
WVDNR-Wildlife Resources in 1976 (Figure B-9). Their results show about 8%
of the Basin with an oak-hickory and an Appalachian mixed hardwood forest
type. A cherry-maple type covers about 15% of the Basin in the southeastern
corner and in small areas in the northeastern and southwestern corners of
the Basin. Also, about 5% of the Basin is covered by spruce-fir forest in
the southeastern section.
3.0. SPECIES OF VERTEBRATES KNOWN OR LIKELY TO BE PRESENT IN THE BASIN
The distribution of amphibian, reptile, and mammal species within the
Basin is presented in Tables B-3 and B-4. Species of vertebrates considered
to be endangered, threatened, or of special interest in West Virginia are
indicated with an asterisk (*). Information on the species of vertebrates
proposed to be added to the list is not available at present. A draft
report on rare and endangered animals in West Virginia has been prepared by
WVDNR-HTP and currently is being reviewed by WVDNR-Wildlife Resources. The
list of species approved by the State will not be available until the report
has been published by WVDNR-HTP.
4.0. BIRDS
The families of birds found in the Basin are given in Table B-5. The
number of species known or expected to occur in each family in the Basin
also is indicated. Specifically significant birds are listed in
Table B-6.
B-14
-------
Figure B-8
FOREST TYPES OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN (ARC 1977)
SPRUCE- FIR
LONGLEAF PINE - SLASH PINE
OAK - HICKORY
:v-,1 MAPLE - BEECH - BIRCH
J^3 NONFOREST AREA
B-15
-------
Rgure B-9
EXISTING FOREST TYPES OF THE MONONGAHELA RIVER BASIN
(WVDNR 1976)
CHERRY- MAPLE
OAK - HICKORY
SPRUCE-FIR
APPALACHIAN MIXED HARDWOODS
B-16
-------
Table B-3. Amphibians and reptiles known or expected to occur in the
Monongahela River Basin (Conant 1975 and Green 1978). Nomenclature
is that of Green (1978). Those species indicated with an asterisk (*)
are considered to be special animals of scientific interest by WV-DNR
Heritage Trust Program and are species from a preliminary proposed
State threatened and endangered list; the numbers following these
species indicate the number of entries in the Heritage Trust Program
(1978b) for the Basin.
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Amphibians
Hellbender
Mudpuppy
Jefferson salamander
Spotted salamander
Marbled salamander
Red-spotted newt
Northern dusky salamander
Mountain dusky salamander
Appalachian seal salamander
Red-backed salamander
Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
Necturus maculosus
Ambystoma j effersonianum
Ambys toma maculaturn
Ambystoma opacum
Notophthalmus viridescens
Desmognathus fuscus
Desmognathus ochrophaeus
Desmognathus monticola
Plethodon cinereus
Ravine salamander
*Cheat Mountain salamander
Slimy salamander
Wehrle's salamander
Four-toed salamander
Northern spring salamander
Northern red salamander
*Green salamander
Northern two-lined salamander
Long-tailed salamander
*Cave salamander
American toad
Fowler's toad
^Northern cricket frog
Northern spring peeper
Gray treefrog
Mountain chorus frog
Bullfrog
Green frog
Eastern wood frog
Northern leopard frog
Pickerel frog
Plethodon richmondi
Plethodon netting! -9
Plethodon glutinosus
Plethodon wehrlei
Hemidactylium scutaturn
Gyrinophilus porphyriticus
Pseudotriton ruber
Aneides aeneus -10
Eurycea bislineata
Eurycea longicauda
Eurycea lucifuga
Bufo americanus
Bufo woodhousei fowleri
Acris crepitans
Hyla crucifer
Hyla versicolor
Pseudacris brachyphona
Rana catesbeiana
Rana clamitans melano ta
Rana sylvatica
Rana pipiens
Rana palustris
B-17
-------
Table B-3. Amphibians and reptiles known or expected to occur in the
Monongahela River Basin (concluded).
COMMON NAME
Reptiles
Common snapping turtle
Stinkpot
Eastern box turtle
*Wood turtle
*Map turtle
Eastern painted turtle
Midland painted turtle
Eastern spiny softshell
Northern fence lizard
Five-lined skink
Queen snake
Northern water snake
Northern brown snake
Northern red-bellied snake
*Eastern ribbon snake
Eastern garter snake
Eastern earth snake
*Mountain earth snake
Eastern hognose snake
Northern ringneck snake
Eastern worm snake
Northern black racer
Eastern smooth green snake
Black rat snake
Black kingsnake
Eastern milk snake
Northern copperhead
Timber rattlesnake
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Chelydra serpentina
Sternotherus odoratus
Terrapene Carolina
Clemmys insculpta
Graptemys geographica
-2
Chrysemys picta
Chrysemys picta marginata
Trionyx spiniferus
Sceloporus undulatus
hyacinthinus
Eumeces fasciatus
Natrix septemvittata
Natrix sipedon
Storeria dekayi
Storeria occipitomaculata
Thamnophis sauritus -2
Thamnophis sirtalis
Virginia valeriae
Virginia valeriae pulchra -4
Heterodon platyrhinos
Diadophis punctiitus edwardsi
Carphophis amoenus
Coluber constrictor
Opheodrys vernalis
Elaphe obsoleta
Lamporpel tis getulus niger
Lampropeltis traingulus
Agkistrodon contortrix
mokasen
Crotalus horridus
B-18
-------
Table B-A. Mammals known or likely to occur in the Monongahela River Basin,
West Virginia. Those species indicated with an asterisk (*) are considered
to be animals of scientific interest by the WV Heritage Trust Program and
species from a preliminary proposed state threatened and endangered list;
the number following the species indicates the number of entries on the
Heritage Trust Program printout for that species in the Basin (Burt and
Grossenheider 1976; WVDNR 1973, WVDNR-Wildlife Resources 1977). Species
marked with a cross (+) are of negligible scientific interest for the con-
sideration of possible new source coal mining activity in the Monongahela
River Basin, West Virginia.
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Opossum
Masked shrew
Smoky shrew
*Longtail shrew
*Northern water shrew
Least shrew
Shorttail shrew
*Starnose mole
Hairytail mole
*+Little brown bat
*+Keen Myotis
*Indiana myotis (endangered Federal)
*+Small-footed myotis
Siver-haired bat
*+Eastern pipistrel
Big brown bat
Red bat
Hoary bat
Evening bat
*Western big-eared bat
*Black bear
Raccoon
*Fisher
*Least weasel
Longtail weasel
Mink
*River otter
*Spotted skunk
Striped skunk
Red fox
Didelphis marsupialis
Sorex cinereus
Sorex fumeus
Sorex dispar
Sorex palustris
Gyptotis parva
Blarina brevicauda
Condylura cristata
Parascalops breweri
Myotis lucifugus"-3^
_ Q
Myotis keeni J
Myotis sodalis ~1
Myotis subulatus ~->
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Pipistrellus subflavus ~
Eptesicus fuscus
Lasiurus borealis
Lasiurus cinereus
Nycticeius humeralis
Plecotus townsendT "^
Ursus americanus
Procyon lotor
Martes pennant!
Mustela rixosa
Mustela frenata
Mustela vision
Lutra canadensis
-4
-2
-1
Spilogale putorius
Mephitis mephitis
Vulpes fulva
B-19
-------
Table B-i4. Mammals known or likely to occur in the Monongahela River Basin
(concluded).
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Gray Fox
Bobcat
Woodchuck
Eastern chipmunk
Southern flying squirrel
*Northern flying squirrel
Red squirrel
Gray squirrel
*+Eastern fox squirrel
Beaver
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Lynx rufus
Marmota monax
Tamias striatus
Glaucomys volans
Glaucomys sabrinus -3
Tatniasciurus hudsonicus
Sciurus carolinensis
Sciurus niger -4
Castor canadensis
Eastern harvest mouse
Deer mouse
White-footed mouse
Eastern woodrat
*Southern bog lemming
Boreal red-backed vole
Meadow vole
*Yellownose vole
Pine vole
Muskrat
Reithrodontomy.s humulis
Peromyscus maniculatus
Peromyscus leucopus
Neotoma floridana
Synaptomys cooperi -7
Clethrionomys gapperi
Microtus pennsylvanicus
Microtus chrotorrhinus -11
Pitymys pinetorum
Ondatra zibethica
*Porcupine
*Meadow jumping mouse
Woodland jumping mouse
Norway rat
Black rat
Erethizon dorsatum -2
Zapus hudsonius -2
Napaeozapus insignis
Rattus norvegicus
Rattus rattus
House mouse
Snowshoe hare
Eastern cottontail
*New England cottontail
Whitetail deer
Mus musculus
Lepus americanus
Sylvilagus floridanus
Sylvilagu.s trail ' f ionalis
Odocoileus virgin.anus
-3
B-20
-------
Table B-5. Bird families represented by one or more members in the
Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia. The number of species known or
expected to occur in each family is indicated in parentheses (Hall 1971,
WVDNR-HTP 1978a).
Gaviidae - Loons (2)
Podicipedidae - Grebes (3)
Phalacrocoracidae - Cormorants (1)
Ardeidae - Herons and Egrets (10)
Anatidae - Ducks, Geese, and Swans (29)
Cathartidae - Vultures (2)
Accipitridae - Hawks and Eagles (10)
Pandionidae - Osprey (1)
Falconidae - Falcons (3)
Tetraonidae - Ruffed Grouse (1)
Phasianidae - Bobwhite and Ring-necked pheasant (2)
Meleagridae - Turkey (1)
Gruidae - Sandhill crane (1)
Rallidae - Rails and Gallinules (7)
Charadriidae - Plovers (5)
Scolopacidae - Sandpipers and related birds (17)
Phalaropodidae - Phalaropes (2)
Laridae - Gulls and Terns (8)
Columbidae - Doves (2)
Cuculidae - Cuckoos (2)
Tytonidae - Barn owl (1)
Strigidae - Owls (7)
Caprimulgidae - Whippoorwill and nighthawk (2)
Apodidae - Chimney swift (l)
Trochilidae - Ruby-throated hummingbird (1)
Alcedinidae - Belted kingfisher (1)
Picidae - Woodpeckers and related birds (9)
Tyrannidae - Flycatchers and related birds (11)
Alaudidae - Horned lark (1)
B-21
-------
Table B-5. Bird families represented by one or more members in the
Monongahela River Basin, West Virginia (concluded).
Hirundinidae - Swallows (6)
Corvidae - Crows and related birds (4)
Paridae - Chickadees and Titmouse (3)
Sittidae - Nuthatches (2)
Certhiidae - Brown creeper (1)
Troglodytidae - Wrens (6)
Mimidae - Mockingbird, Catbird, and Thrasher (3)
Turdidae - Thrushes and related birds (7)
Sylviidae - Kinglets (3)
Motacillidae - Water pipit (1)
Bombycillidae - Waxwings (2)
Laniidae - Shrikes (2)
Sturnidae - Starling (1)
Vireonidae - Vireos (6)
Parulidae - Warblers and related birds (39)
Ploceidae - House sparrow (l)
Icteridae - Blackbrids, grackles, orioles, and other related
birds (10)
Thraupidae - Tanagers (2)
Frir.gillidae - Grosbeaks, sparrows, and related birds (35)
TOTAL SPECIES = 277
B-22
-------
Table B-6. Birds considered to be special animals of scientific interest in
West Virginia by the WVDNR-HTP (1978c).
Black vulture
oshawk
Golden eagle
Marsh hawk
Southern bald eagle (endangered-Federal)
Osprey
Pigeon hawk (Merlin)
Peregrine falcon (endangered-Federal)
King rail
Virginia rail
Yellow rail
Upland sandpiper
Common snipe
Short-billed marsh wren
Kirtland's warbler (endangered-Federal)
Button's warbler
Swainson warbler
Backman's sparrow
Lark sparrow
Hens low's sparrow
Dickcissel
B-23
-------
Appendix C
Reclamation Techniques
-------
APPENDIX C. RECLAMATION TECHNIQUES
C-l
-------
APPENDIX C. RECLAMATION TECHNIQUES
1.0. DESCRIPTION OF MULTIPURPOSE PONDS AND CATTAIL SWAMPS
The mitigation of impacts from surface mining may include the develop-
ment of multipurpose ponds and cattail swamps during the reclamation of a
mine site. Multipurpose ponds and cattail swamps provide a habitat for a
variety of wildlife. These structural mitigations are illustrated in Figure
C-l. The design of the multipurpose pond includes aquatic vegetation in
which birds such as redwinged blackbirds and yellow-throats can nest; an
"island" formed of rocks to provide a resting area for ducks, gulls, terns,
and other migratory birds; a rope or cable suspended over the pond that
serves as a perching site; and terraced sides with shallow water that
attract shorebirds and wading birds. Although the primary sources of food
are aquatic invertebrates and plant material, fish can be stocked in the
pond for both recreational fishing and as a food source for terns, king-
fishers, herons, egrets, and other birds. The steep side option shown in
Figure C-l prevents the growth of emergent vegetation on that side. This
provides a breeding and feeding area for panfish and also allows fishermen
access to the edge of the pond and facilitates casting.
The cattail swamp shown in Figure C-l can have an optional rock island
with a T-shaped perch to provide a resting area. Cattails will invade the
swamp by means of airborne seeds, but the process can be accelerated by
scattering several dozen plants around the water edge after construction.
The swamp will have a relatively brief life span of approximately 15 to 20
years, but will provide valuable habitat for a number of species during that
period and a rich soil after it is filled as a consequence of natural
processes.
Waterfowl nesting rafts can be constructed to provide some of the
habitat needs of wildlife (Figure C-l). The waterfowl nesting raft normally
is anchored to the bottom of a sediment pond by two weights but is able to
rise and fall with changes in the water level because of the difference in
weight of the two anchors. A mesh roof covered with straw also can provide
shelter. Based on the present cost of construction of such rafts ($10.00),
it is estimated that the annual cost of production per duckling could be
less than $0.50 after a five-year period, and approximately $0.05 in future
years (Brenner and Mondak 1979).
Special approval must be granted by the SMCRA regulatory authority
before sediment ponds can be preserved following mining. If such approval
is not granted, the ponds must be returned to approximate original contour.
Sediment ponds can provide habitat after the completion of mining if they
are maintained properly by the surface owner.
C-2
-------
A. Multipurpose pond
steep slope option
orl8
5Om
cable
B. Swamp
as wide as possible
C. Waterfowl nesting raft
FLOOD POOL
NORMAL POOL
Water Level
Pulley
Pulley
Bottom
Pulley/
Wafer Level
Q Pulley
Weight
Bottom
Figure C-l EXAMPLES OF STRUCTURAL MITIGATIONS FOR
TERRESTRIAL BIOTA (A and B from Allaire I979a;
C from Brenner and Mondak 1979)
C-3
-------
2.0. REVEGETATION TECHNIQUES
2.1. ESTABLISHMENT OF VEGETATION
2.1.1. Seedbed Preparation
Ideally, the mine site should be prepared for revegetation so that
adverse physical conditions are ameliorated. However, Krause (1971) has
suggested that it is less expensive to plant species that can tolerate
adverse conditions than to correct these conditions before planting.
Adverse physical conditions can be corrected by grading and by the use
of soil amendments. Grading should optimize the slope, moisture retention,
friability, and stability of the spoil, while simultaneously burying toxic
materials and replacing topsoil (Bogner and Perry 1977, Bown 1975, Curtis
1973, Glover et al. 1978, Miles et al. 1973, Riley 1973). Some investiga-
tors have suggested that topsoiling sometimes is unnecessary because the
spoil is adequately fertile (Mathtech 1976). Others have stated that the
underlying strata may be more fertile than the A horizon, therefore these
lower strata should be stockpiled and redistributed (Bogner and Perry 1977,
Krause 1973, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Some researchers have suggested that
compaction of spoil through final grading is an adverse impact that
outweighs the benefits of grading. They advocate either no final grading or
some type of ripping activity to maintain or add relief to the spoil surface
(Chapman 1967, Glover et al. 1978, Potter et al. 1951, Riley 1963, 1973,
Vimmerstedt et al. 1974). Haigh (1976) noted that recent research on
regrading of spoil banks in northeastern Oklahoma has indicated that
sediment yields in river systems may have been increased substantially
because of the removal of internal drainage obstructions provided by furrows
between the ridges of unreclaimed land.
2.1.2. Soil Amendments
Much research has been done on soil amendments, although documentation
of the practical use of many of these amendments in the mining industry is
limited. Mineral or organic treatments to enhance fertility, friability,
stability, reaction, and moisture retention include N-P-K fertilizers,
sewage sludge and effluent, lime, animal manure, earthworms, fly ash, and
recycled organic matter from the original vegetation (Babcock 1973, Bengsten
et al. 1973a, 1973b, Bennett et al. 1976, Berg and Vogel 1973, r'ipp et al.
1975, Haufler et al. 1978, Hinesly et al. 1972, McCormick and Bo.den 1973,
Master and Zellmer 1979, Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Sopper and Kardus 1972,
Sutton 1970, Vimmerstedt and Finney 1973, Vogel and Berg 1973,
WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
2.1.3. Species of Plants Utilized
The species combinations, planting rates, and placement of trees,
shrubs, grasses, and forbs depend on the restrictions imposed by physical
factors and land use plans. The first goal of revegetation is to stabilize
C-4
-------
the spoil rapidly and reduce erosion. The second goal of revegetation is to
provide a stand of vegetation that is compatible with the long-term land use
plans for the site and the surrounding area (Wahlquist 1976).
The species of plants selected to stabilize the spoil must be
compatible with physical conditions, must have the ability to germinate and
spread rapidly and to develop an adequate root system, and must be capable
of enriching the soil with humus and micronutrients. Although the regula-
tions prescribe a mulch, they allow for the seeding of a crop of annual
grasses. At the end of the growing season, this nurse crop should leave an
accumulation of organic litter that will support a subsequent seeding of
perennial species (Jones et al. 1975). Some of the species of grasses,
forbs, shrubs, and trees that have been used for revegetation are listed in
Tables 5-13, 5-14, and 5-15. The varieties of these species that may be
used are indicated in Rafaill and Vogel (1978). More detailed information
on some of the species listed also is available in Chironis (1978).
The use of multiflora rose for revegetation is prohibited in West
Virginia by the WV Department of Agriculture, which has listed the species
as a noxious weed because of its prolific nature and the resulting destruc-
tion of pastureland (Verbally, Mr. Dixie Shreve, SCS, to Ms. Kathleen M.
Brennan, WAPORA, Inc., May 14, 1980). The use of autumn olive also has been
prohibited in 22 counties in West Virginia under the West Virginia Noxious
Weed Act (WV Code, Article 19, Section 12D) because of its similar habit of
spreading and resistance to control measures. WVDNR- Reclamation no longer
allows monoculture (sole-species) plantings of black locust as an internal
policy; nor are plantings composed only of conifers allowed unless the
surrounding area is covered entirely with conifers or the post-mining use of
the land will be the production of Christmas trees.
Soil amendments, mulch, and seed can be applied by conventional farm
equipment on shallow slopes (less than 20%) or by airplane, helicopter,
hydrospray, or hand application on steep slopes. A common approach is to
hydrospray a slurry of mulch, seed, binder, and fertilizer (Grim and Hill
1974, Rafaill and Vogel 1978).
Nearly all present revegetation efforts involve seeding of a herbaceous
ground cover that typically is composed of a grass-legume mixture. A
limited number of woody species also can be seeded directly with the herba-
ceous species. These include black locust, Japanese bushclover (bicolor
lespedeza), Virginia pine, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, false indigo
(indigo bush), and green ash (Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Zarger et al. 1973).
When seeding woody species, it is important to avoid a dense, competitive
herbaceous nurse crop that will grow taller than and retard the woody seed-
lings (WVDNR-Reclamation 1978, Vogel and Berg 1973). Stratification,
soaking, scarification (making cuts in the seed), or innoculation with fungi
(mycorrhizae) also can aid the germination and growth of various woody
species (Bengsten et al. 1973, Zarger et al. 1973).
C-5
-------
The expense and labor intensity of hand-planting woody seedlings has
discouraged some revegetation with trees and shrubs (Smith 1973, WVDNR-
Reclamation 1978). Mechanical tree planters can be operated only on slopes
under 20% that are not overly stony (Rafaill and Vogel 1978). Krause (1971)
described a technique in which planting guns with hollow plastic bullets are
used. Each bullet contains a tree seedling.
2.2. USES OF RECLAIMED AREAS
Post-mining land uses include commercial reforestation, pasture,
cropland, development, and wildlife habitat. A reclamation plan can include
a combination of the above uses.
2.2.1. Reforestation
Reforestation should emphasize stocking of species that are commer-
cially valuable for pulpwood or sawtimber. These include oak, pine, spruce,
maple, birch, poplar, sycamore, and ash (Bennett et al. 1976). Black locust
has limited commercial value (for fence posts or high-energy fuel-wood;
Carpenter and Eigel 1979) but is susceptible to rot at an early age. Black
locust is used to stabilize highly erodible slopes, and also may promote the
growth of other species of trees as a nurse planting (Ashby and Baker 1968,
Medivick 1973).
2.2.2. Pasture
Pasture or forage crops can be established most efficiently with a
herbaceous cover of grasses and/or legumes that provide nutritious forage
and also fix nitrogen in the soil. Pasture and hayland uses should not be
considered for slopes steeper than 25% (Miles et al. 1973). Livestock
should be restricted from grazing on a revegetated area until the plantings
are well established (Rafaill and Vogel 1978).
2.2.3. S pe c i a11 y Crops
Reclaimed coal mines may be used for conventional or specialty crops,
depending on soil conditions and relief (Jones and Bennett 1979). In
exceptional situations, cash grain crops may be row-planted or broadcast on
fertile soils that are level (Bogner and Perry 1977). Specialty crops such
as orchards, vegetables, blueberries, and blackberries also can be grown
successfully (Blizzard and Shaffer 1974, Jones et al. 1979). Beekeeping for
honey production also has been suggested as a use for revegetated mine spoil
(Angel and Christensen 1979).
2.2.4. Development
Reclaimed land to be used for development may be revegetated with any
herbaceous cover that stabilizes the soil and does not interfere with
subsequent development. Turf grasses and landscape plantings may be
appropriate.
C-6
-------
2.2.5. Wildlife Habitat
Most private woodland owners in West Virginia stated that they valued
wildlife highly in a survey conducted by Christensen and Grafton (1966).
Wildlife habitat can be a sole land use objective or can be combined with
other land uses. Reforestation, pasture, cropland, and development all can
be compatible with wildlife habitat objectives (Allaire 1979, Rafaill and
Vogel 1978, Riley 1963). One of the major factors that should control the
development of wildlife habitat is the identification of the particular
species of wildlife desired, as was indicated by members of the Wildlife
Committee of the Thirteenth Annual Interagency Evaluation (WVDNR-Reclamation
1978).
2.3. HABITAT VALUES FOR WILDLIFE
Most nongame species benefit by maximization of habitat diversity and
edge (Samuel and Whitmore 1979). This especially would include the
provision of structural diversity—vertical stratification and a varied
horizontal mosaic with open water, songposts, and snags (Allaire 1979).
Maximization of habitat diversity can be accomplished by the interspersion
of belts or clumps of shrubs and trees within open agricultural or developed
areas, or by leaving herbaceous and shrub openings in forested areas. Most
areas of the Monongahela River Basin are forested. The openings created by
mining activities can be important complements to the forest (Dudderar
1973). Several revegetation designs that have the attributes described
above are presented in Figures C-2, C-3, and C-4. These suggested planting
plans were developed specifically to provide habitat for cottontail rabbits,
bobwhite quail, and ruffed grouse, respectively.
2.3.1. Natural Succession
Some investigators have suggested that natural succession provides some
of the best and most diverse wildlife habitat, and that cultivated plantings
cannot duplicate the benefits of this natural revegetation process (Haigh
1976, Smith 1973, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth Annual Interagency Evalua-
tion, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). It also has been suggested that abandoned
mines with appreciable successional vegetation not be regraded and revege-
tated. Because of the time required for appreciable natural revegetation,
and the requirements for spoil stabilization, it would not be feasible to
rely solely on natural succession for revegetation of newly-mined areas.
Because of the benefits associated with natural revegetation, however, it
would be advantageous to initially revegetate newly-mined areas so that
secondary reclamation could occur from the natural establishment of native
shrubs and trees. This can be done by planting the grass-legume cover less
densely than usual, so that woody plants can invade the area. Secondary
reclamation efforts include the planting of woody plants three or four years
after the herbaceous plantings (Brenner 1973, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth
Annual Interagency Evaluation, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978).
C-7
-------
»?'••• v-.',$sgssp
:A r ;<1""v 'Ail^f&Undisturbed
r#::A -, -.V ftsg&a
i
.tf > , • -,- •':./J »lW»ifo
/f'W^M^^^'^
U ^WS^RiSSj^pF**?
Outs lope
A
f
Y
Hardwoods- birches, red maple etc.
Conifers- pines or'spruce
Hawthorn, crabapple, dogwoods
Sumacs
Bush honeysuckle, bicoior
lespedeza
Bristly locust
Native honeysuckles
Clovers, alfalfa, deertongue,
orchardgrass, switchgrass
Crownvetch or S. lespedeza & fescuej
Figure C-2 SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF COTTONTAIL
RABBIT HABITAT ON SURFACE-MINED AREAS (Rafaill and Vogel
1978) A = Contour strip mine; B = Mountaintop removal mine
c-f
-------
Bench
£# Highwall
or
upper
mining
*"'&"''> \*W&i
S 0 -
^X «,1''-" v$§!&
• A •-.',<£ *^|&
&\ -• ".,- ^^f^J
>^? , ••- (S ' '' t{\y^ ^T'r'^r
y/ ••:
*?-"«•' ^!fe
!/'•<$'.'
i$- :i •
i/o '• * " £*Mj&
»"-•. •• !l^
«. • %.%
v-
Outs lope-
<•'!
.Undisturbed forest
Outslope
„
T
'?'.-
KEY
Hardwoods - ash, oaks, birch etc.
Conifers - pine or spruce
Lespedeza bicolor
Bristly locust, privet,
viburnum
Crabapple, hawthorn, dogwood
Korean or Kobe lespedeza & orchard
grass
Crownvetch or flatpea & grasses
Sericea lespedeza &. fescue _
Figure C-3 SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF BOBWHITE
QUAIL HABITAT ON SURFACE-MINED AREAS (Rafaill and
Vogel 1978) A = Contour strip mine; B= Mountaintop removal mine
C-9
-------
Undisturbed forest
A A A A A ""•- "
!:?
A & i A A '- "' -
AAAA/i ... .. :
J' •• "' *' -
• -••
Hardwoods- oaks, birch, tu'lip poplar
]f Black locust
Pine
Crabapple, hawthorn, dogwoods
Bris-cly locust
, bush honeysuckle
-.-j Clovers, birdsfoot trefoil, grasses
Figure C-4SAMPLE PLANTING PLAN FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF RUFFED
GROUSE HABITAT ON MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL SITE (Rafaill
and Vogel 1978)
c-io
-------
2.3.2. Requirements of Desirable Wildlife
Certain desirable species of wildlife, especially game animals, can be
emphasized in the revegetation plan by providing for their needs. Species
commonly recognized as worthy of special attention are listed in Table 5-12,
along with their habitat requirements and the feasibility for inclusion of
their needs in reclamation plans. The feasibility of managing the reclaimed
mine habitat for certain species becomes apparent when examining the
requirements of several species for food, water, cover, mating grounds,
brooding areas, home range, compatibility with other desired species, and
compatibility with adjacent land uses (Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Samuel and
Whitmore 1979, USFWS 1978). For example, the dependence of woodcock on
earthworms as food prevents this species from using recently vegetated mine
spoil; the needs of wild turkeys for expansive mature oak forest with small
openings, for permanent open water, and for invertebrate food sources and
escape cover for poults (young) limits their use of some mine sites; and the
planting of conifers and grasses in narrow, alternating strips creates a
situation in which ruffed grouse are susceptible to predators (Anderson and
Samuel 1980, Samuel and Whitmore 1979, Wildlife Committee, Thirteenth Annual
Interagency Evaluation, WVDNR-Reclamation 1978). Conversely, small mine
sites that provide openings in extensive forests can be managed to benefit
wild turkeys; intermingled clumps of shrubs and trees with open land can be
used to attract ruffed grouse; and the maintenance of early successional
stages and wildlife food plantings can be used to support cottontail
rabbits, bobwhite quail, and mourning doves (Rafaill and Vogel 1978, Samuel
and Whitmore 1979).
2.3.3. Maintenance Practices
If a desired habitat type is achieved by reclamation, it may be
necessary to develop a maintenance program to preserve the desirable attri-
butes. Open-land birds, such as bobwhite, quail, and mourning doves, avoid
areas with heavy litter accumulations. Therefore, controlled burning of
grassland areas and discing along edges is necessary to maintain a suitable
habitat for these species. The small woodland openings used by wild turkeys
can be expected to be invaded rapidly by trees unless selective herbicides,
controlled burning, or cutting are used to remove this growth (Rafaill and
Vogel 1978, Samuel and Whitmore 1979).
C-ll
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Appendix D
Air Quality Impact Review
-------
APPENDIX D. AIR QUALITY IMPACT REVIEW
D-l
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Appendix D. Air Quality Impact Review of New Source Mining Operations
Emissions of air pollutants result from all phases of surface coal
mining and coal preparation operations. These emissions have the capability
of affecting the air quality downwind from the mine site. The principal
impacts on air quality generally occur from increases in (TSP) and fugitive
dust concentrations. Increases in the downwind concentrations of other
criteria pollutants can occur as well.
Not all new source coal mining operations need in-depth review for air
quality impacts. Sources that necessitate a review because they are
considered major stationary sources are those that have coal-related
emissions of more than 100 tons per year after application of control
technology and enforceable permit restrictions. PSD regulations also apply
to any stationary source designated as a major emitting facility which has
the potential to emit 250 tons per year or more of any pollutant regulated
under the Clean Air Act following application of control technology and to
sources that locate in specific geographic areas (Section 4.2.3.).
Generally, large mining operations with more than 30 mobile and stationary
sources, mining operations with an on-site power or steam boiler, and coal
preparation facilities with thermal dryers may fall into these categories
and can be analyzed to determine whether further study is warranted.
To assess the potential impacts of air emissions adequately, the
following information on each air pollution source must be obtained:
• Source of emissions
• Quantities of emissions
• Physical and chemical composition of emissions.
The following sections describe sources and methodologies that enable a
reviewer to assess in general terms the potential air pollution impact from
a major new facility.
Fugitive Dust and TSP Sources and Emissions
Fugitive dusts are emitted from open-area sources (non-point sources)
which do not include emissions from single stacks (point sources;. These
emissions are called "fugitive" because their exact source is often-
difficult to pinpoint.
Fugitive dust includes respirable particles and other particles less
than 30 microns (u) in diameter which may remain suspended indefinitely.
Emission factor equations have been developed for particles of this size,
because they are most effectively captured by standard high-volume
filtration samplers [assuming a particle density of 2.0-2.5 g/cm^
(EPA 1976c)].
D-2
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Particles larger than 30 ji eventually settle out. Those larger than
100 u in diameter settle within 7-10 m of their emission source (EPA 1976c).
The larger particles do not have so great an impact on air quality as the
smaller suspended particles, because they 36ttie out near their source, and
they are not respirable.
In addition to size, the chemical composition of the dust particles
combined with prevailing wind speeds, determines how fugitive dust emissions
will affect air quality (Cowherd et al. 1979). Wind speeds must be great
enough to carry the dust emissions away from their source. Other factors
affecting fugitive dust emissions include source activity, moisture and silt
content of the disturbed surface material, wind direction, humidity,
temperature, and time of day.
Coal Mining and Processing Sources
Different coal mining processes produce TSP and fugitive dust emissions
of varying sizes. Processes which emit particles in the respirable range
differ from those producing larger particles. Major sources contributing to
TSP and fugitive dust emissions are (PEDCO, Inc. 1976):
• Overburden removal
• Shovel/truck loading
• Haul roads
• Reclamation
• Blasting
• Truck dumping
• Crushing
• Transfer and conveying
• Storage
• Waste disposal.
Processes producing TSP and fugitive dust emissions that fall primarily
within the respirable dust range and the relative amounts they contribute
are:
Coal transport unloading 40%
Blasting 30%
Drilling 12%
Coal augering 10%
92%
The remaining 8% is attributable to wind erosion.
D-3
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Fugitive dust emission should be examined for each process individually
but can be expressed as a single emission factor for the entire mine when
performing in-depth analyses. There are no general statements regarding
fugitive dust emissions which can be applied to all mines, and emissions for
the different processes will vary from mine to mine (Verbally, Bob McClure,
Skelly & Loy, to Terri Ozaki, January 30, 1980).
Determining Fugitive Dust Emissions
Emission factors have been developed for certain coal mining and
preparation processes (Tables 5-16 to 5-18). Table D-l presents a sample
work sheet that can be used to determine the source emissions. To utilize
the work sheet, the reviewer must determine the quantity of coal, topsoil,
vmt (vehicle miles traveled), acres, or hours for one year's worth of
operation for the specific categories. These quantities must be obtained
from the applicant. Next the reviewer can multiply those quantities by the
emission factors. The result of this analysis will be the .total amount of
TSP and fugitive dust generated by the proposed facility. The results
should be used when running the Box Model and then to determine the status
of the proposed facility.
Criteria Pollutant Sources and Emissions
There are several other sources associated with coal mining and coal
preparation which emit air pollutants other than TSP. These sources are
generally small, but sometimes numerous, and should be taken into
consideration in an assessment of potential air impacts associated with a
New Source. These sources include:
• Power boilers
• Incinerators and dryers
• Space heaters
• Highway vehicles
• Off highway, mobile sources
• Off highway, stationary sources
• Open burning (if continuous)
Emission rates for all of these sources can be found in the EPA AP-42
Manual. Current supplements of this manual should be used to determine
emission rates for the most accurate results.
Determining Ground-Level Air Pollution Concentrations
Proposed New Source emissions can be related to the applicable
standards. For New Sources, the maximum predicted ground-level air
pollution concentration cannot exceed the NAAQS's at the plant boundary (or
D-4
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D-5
-------
within the boundary wherever the public has access). The plant location and
proposed thermal dryer and power or steam boiler emissions first can be
compared to the thresholds presented in Section 4.2.3. to determine whether
or not a Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) analysis is
warranted.
Before comparing the total proposed plant emissions to the NAAQS's,
these emissions must be converted into ground-level concentrations. This
can be done by the use of a "Box Model" for area sources (that is, sources
that do not have a large smoke stack). Ground-level concentrations are
estimated separately from point sources (that is, stationary stacks), as
discussed following the calculations for area sources.
The "Box Model" is an area source, non-buoyant plume, steady state
model, used to calculate ground-level concentrations at the site boundary.
The equation for the Box Model is:
X
(long term)
0.5
UL(A)
(106 pg/g)
where:
X is the long term increase in concentration in ug/m3
Q is the total emission rate in g/sec
U is the average wind speed (m/sec)
L is the average mixing height in meters
A is the site area in square meters.
All of the information needed for the model inputs are furnished in this
report or are available in the standard EPA reference document AP-2. Inputs
for both U and L are given in Section 2.4.2. The value for A is obtainable
from the NPDES permit application. Q must be generated by the reviewer
utilizing source data presented by the applicant in the WVAPCC permit
application (Section 4.1.4.13.). Q values for fugitive dust can be
calculated using the equations presented in Section 5.4.1.1. Q values for
the criteria pollutants must be obtained from AP-42 in the following
manner:
1. Determine the number and type for a1! emitting sources
(trucks, cars, cranes, generators, etc.) that will be
associated with the proposed facility. This information
can be obtained from the applicant.
2. Ascertain emission rates for all identified sources from
AP-42. The end product of this task should be a table as
presented in Table 5-16.
3. Determine the usage of each source during a one year
period. The reviewer must determine how many hours,
D-6
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emission rates generally in g/hour (heavy equipment) and
g/mile (light-duty vehicles). Other courses, such as
coal burning, are reported in pounds of pollutant per ton
of coal burned.
As an example, a piece of heavy-duty equipment may be
used 7 days per week, 8 hours per day for 52 weeks per
year. The emission rate will be applied for
7 x 8 x 52 = 2,912 hours/year.
4. The total emissions in tons/year for each source must be
determined. This is done by multiplying the usage of the
sources (from Step 3), times the emission rate of the
source (from Step 2), times the number of sources for
each soiree category (from step 1), times the appropriate
cc-uversion factor. The results of this step should be a
table as presented in Table 5-16.
5. Determine ground-level concentrations for air pollutants
using the "Box Model" equation. The equation as
presented previously gives results as a yearly average
(long-term) for each pollutant. Each pollutant must be
run separately.
The equation calculates annual averages. Because of the steady state
assumption in the equation, the Box Model results are conservative.
Therefore, short-term averages must be determined. To generate 24-, 8-, 3-,
and 1-hour averages, further calculations must be made. These equations are
presented below:
• 24-hour average
X(24 hr)
o 8-hour average
X( 8 hr)
• 3-hour average
X( 3 hr)
• 1-hour average
X( 1 hr)
X
(long-term)
L(long-term)
8760
24
8760
X
(long-term)
X
(long-term)
8760
8760
[exp 0.5]
[exp 0.5]
[exp 0.5]
[exp 0.5]
D-7
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(40) (10)6(p)
3600
o
The results of this task will provide the reviewer with predicted
short-term pollutant concentrations that can be compared directly to the
short-term NAAQS's. If the calculated ground-level concentrations when
added to monitored ambient concentrations (obtained from Section 2.4.3. or
from the applicant) exceed the appropriate NAAQS's, a more detailed analysis
should be undertaken by the Air Programs Branch.
To determine approximate ground-level concentrations from point, sources
(power and steam boilers and thermal dryers) the reviewer can use the
nomograph presented in Figure D-l. This nomograph is based upon the
Bosanquet and Pearson equation for determining the maximum concentration
that will occur directly downwind from a facility. This equation can be
stated as:
c
max
at a distance X = H
max —
2p
where:
Cmax = maximum ground level concentration, rag/m-*
Q = emission rate of pollutant, kg/hr
u = mean wind speed, m/sec
n = Pi
e - 2.71
H = effective stack height, meters
p = diffusion coefficient, dimensionless
q = diffusion coefficient, dimensionless, and
Xmax = distance from stack to maximum ground level concentrations,
meters.
All the information needed to use this nomograph can be obtained from
either the applicant or from this report. A value for Q can be obtained
from the applicant. A value for u can be obtained from Section 2.4.2. The
height of the stack should be used for the H value (assuming that the Xmax
will occur no more than 500 meters from the plant under most COIL 'tions).
The stack height can be obtained from the WV'TCC permit applicatit Values
for both p and q are as follows:
Turbulence p _JL_ p/q
Low 0.02 0.04 0.50
Average 0.05 0.08 0.63
Generally, low turbulence values should be used in steep valleys; average
turbulence values are appropriate for most other conditions.
D-8
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10—i
H U
I50Q-J 10-1 E 007
X max 0 C max
o
z
UJ
o
Figure D-1 NOMOGRAPH FOR DETERMINING GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS
FROM POINT SOURCES (Bosanquet and Pearson 1979)
D-9
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The following example represents a typical analysis.
If pollutant emission rate is 500 Kg/hr., effective
stack height 45 m, and mean wind speed 5 m/sec, what is the
maximum average ground level concentration for low air
turbulence and what is the maximum distance from stack to
point of maximum ground level concentration?
Solution: By checking the diffusion coefficients given
above, note that the turbulence factor for low air turbulence
= p/q 0.5 and p = 0.02. (1) Line 5 m/sec on u scale with
500 Kg/hr on Q scale, extend line to Pivot No. 1.
(Figure D-l). (2) From this point connect with 0.5 on p/q
scale and mark where line crosses Pivot No. 2 (3) Connect
point round on Pivot No. 2 with 45 m on H scale and read
maximum average ground level concentrations as
1.48 mg/cu m3 where line crosses Cmax scale. Convert the
mg/cu m3 to ug/m3. To find distance from stack to
maximum ground level concentrations: (4) connect 0.02 on
p scale with 45 m on H scale and read 1,125 meters where line
crosses Xmax scale.
This process can be repeated for the five major criteria pollutants
(S02, NOX, TSP, HC, and CO). If the results of this analysis, when
added to the ambient concentrations found in Section 2.4.3.2. or supplied by
the applicant from original monitoring, come close to or exceed the NAAQS's,
a more detailed analysis by the Air Programs Branch is warranted.
Determination of Status
The results of these analysis should be used to determine the status of
the proposed facility (whether or not the source is a major source). To
determine the status of the proposed facility the total emissions (in tons
per year) determined previously (Step 4) should be added together arid com-
pared to the appropriate standards. If the results exceed the standards, an
in depth analysis by the Air Programs Branch is warranted.
D-10
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Appendix E
Acknowledgments and Authorship
-------
APPENDIX E. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND AUTHORSHIP
E-l
-------
E. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND AUTHORSHIP
This SID was prepared by EPA Region III with the assistance of WAPORA,
Inc. Numerous agencies, institutions, organizations, and individuals
contributed to the development of the SID, and the assistance of each is
gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to the many employees of
the State of West Virginia, and particularly to the staff of WVDNR, for many
courtesies extended during the collection of data presented here.
Principal authorship responsibility for specific sections of the SID is
outlined below. EPA input was provided chiefly by Steven A. Torok, Joseph
Piotrowski, and Evelyn Schulz (Environmental Impact Branch) and by Paul
Montney and Richard Zambito (Permits Enforcement Branch).
Special thanks to the following WAPORA staff who were primarily
responsible for this SID:
Susan Beal
Wendy Cohn
Nancy Daoud
Diana Gent
Jerry Gold
Wesley Horner
Steve Kullen
David Lechel
Carol Mandell
Earl Peattie
Holly Righter
Jim Schmid
Gregory Seegert
Malcolm Sender
Judy Wrend
E-2
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GLOSSARY
Abatement - The method of reducing the degree or intensity of pollution,
also the use of such a method.
Abrader or Abrading Stone - A sandstone artifact, either grooved or
ungrooved, used to sharpen or polish tools or ornaments in either their
manufacture or during their use.
Acidity - The capacity of water to donate protons. The symbol pH refers to
the degrees of acidity or alkalinity. pH of 1 is the strongest acid,
pH of 14 is the strongest alkali, pH of 7 is neutral.
Acid Forming Materials - Earth materials that contain sulfide mineral or
other materials which may create acid drainage.
Acid Mine Drainage - Water with a pH less than 6.0 discharged from active or
abandoned mines and areas affected by surface mining operations.
Acid Producing Overburden - Material that may cause spoil which upon
chemical analysis shows a pH of 4.0 or less. Seams commonly associated
with such material may include, but not be limited to Waynesburg,
Washington, Freeport, Sewickley, Redstone, Pittsburgh, Kittanning, Elk
Lick, Peerless, No. 2 GAS, Upper Eagle, No. 5 Block, and Stockton
Lewiston.
Active Surface Mining Operation - An operation where land is being disturbed
or mineral is being removed and where grade release has not been
approved.
Adena - An important culture existing from 1000 B.C. to A.D. 1, known
mainly through burial mounds. It centered in Ohio and West Virginia.
Air Blast - The pressure level, as measured in air, resulting from blasting
operations.
Adze (Adz) - A ground stone tool, usually made of igneous rock, plano-
convex in cross-section, and mounted like a hoe. It was used for wood
working.
Air Mass - A widespread body of air with properties that were estab 'shed
while the air was situated over a particular region of the earth's
surface. The air mass undergoes specific modifications while in
transit away from the region.
Air Monitoring - Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of
pollutants or radioactive contamination present in the environment.
Air Pollution - The presence of contaminants in the air in concentrations
that prevent normal dispersion of the air and interfere directly or
indirectly with man's health, safety, or comfort or with the full use
and enjoyment of his property.
RL-1
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Air Pollution Episode - The occurrence of abnormally high concentrations of
air pollutants usually due to low winds and temperature inversion,
usually accompanied by an increase in illness and death.
Air Quality Control Region - An area designated by the Federal government
where two or more communities in the same or different states share a
common air pollution problem.
Air Quality Criteria - The levels of pollution and lengths of exposure to it
which adversely effect health and welfare.
Air Quality Standards - The prescribed level of pollutants in the air that
cannot be exceeded legally during a specified time in a specified
geographical area.
Alkaline - Having marked basic properties with a pH of more than 7.
Ambient Air - Any unconfined portion of the atmosphere.
Amorphous pyrite- A non-crystalline pyrite that is responsible for the bulk
of acid mine drainage produced.
Anthracite - A high grade metamorphic coal having a semimetallic luster,
high content of fixed carbon, high density, and burning with a short
blue flame and little smoke or odor. Also known as hard coal; Kilkenny
coal; stone coal.
Anti-Degradation Clause - A provision in air quality and water quality laws
that prohibits deterioration of air or water quality in areas where
pollution levels are presently below those allowed.
Approximate Original Contour - A surface configuration achieved by
backfilling and grading of the mined area so that the reclaimed area,
including any terracing or access roads, closely resembles the general
surface configuration of the land prior to mining and blends into and
complements the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain.
Aquifer - A zone stratum or group of strata that can store and transmit
water in sufficient quantities for a specific use.
Archaic - A time period in eastern United States prehistory cove ;ng
approximately 7000 B.C. to 1000 B.C.., when most aborigines wt.
collectors and small-game hunters.
Archaeology - The study of man's past by means of excavation. Generally,
archaeologists deal with prehistoric cultures, i.e., before written
records. Archaeology also confirms historical records.
GL-2
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Area Mining - One of the two basic types of surface mining where coal is
mined over a broad area in gently rolling or level land.
Area Source - Any small individual fuel combustion source which contributes
to air pollution, including any trancporataion sources. This is a
general definition; area source is legally and precisely defined in
Federal regulations.
A-Scale Sound Level - The measurement of sound approximating the auditory
sensitivity of the human ear. The A-scale sound level is used to
measure the relative noisiness of common sounds.
Artifact - Any object which has been made or modified by man into a tool or
ornament.
Ash - The non-combustible residue of burned coal which occurs in raw coal as
clay, pyrite, and other mineralic matter.
Atlatl - From the Aztec word for "spearthrower;" a device to increase
distance and force in throwing a spear. In eastern United States,
during the Archaic period, the atlatl consisted of a wooden shaft with
an antler hook for inserting the butt end of a spear on one end, a
weight or "bannerstone" in the middle of the shaft, and an antler or
wooden handle.
Auger Mining - Mining of coal from an exposed vertical coal face by means of
a power driven boring machine which employs an auger to cut and remove
the coal.
Awl - Any pointed tool, usually of bone or antler, used for punching holes
in hides and textiles for sewing purposes. Awls, rather than needles,
are far more common in West Virginia cultures.
Backfill - To place material back into an excavation and return the area to
a predetermined slope.
Background level - With respect to air pollution, amounts of pollutants
present in the ambient air due to natural sources.
Bannerstone - See Atlatl.
Base Load - The minimum load of a utility, electric or gas, over a given
period of time.
Bastion - A projection outward from a stockade line or wall, to enable
defenders of a fort to cross-fire on attacking forces.
Beamer (Draw Knife) - A bone tool usually made from the deer metapodal bone,
with one side of the bone shaft having a concave worn surface. This
was a hide working tool used to remove hair and make hides more
pliable. It is characteristic of Late Prehistoric cultures.
GL-3
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Beds - Layers of sedimentary rock.
"Beehive" Ovens - Old-style, dome-shaped coke ovens shaped like beehives.
Benches - Discrete beds of coal within a coal seam separated by rock or
bone.
Best Available Control Technology - A technology or technique that
represents the most effective pollution control that has been
demonstrated, used to establish emission or effluent control
requirements for a polluting industry.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed
in five days by the biological processes breaking down organic matter
in water. Large amounts of organic waste use up large amounts of
dissolved oxygen; thus, the greater the degree of pollution, the
greater the BOD.
Biota - The flora and fauna of a region.
Birdstone - A problematical artifact type in the stylized form of a bird,
usually made of banded slate. These are very rare in West Virginia,
and appear to be Adena in this area. They also could have been atlatl
weights.
Bituminous Coal - The coal ranked below anthracite. It generally has a high
heat content and is soft enough to be ground for easy combustion. It
accounts for nearly all coal mined in this country.
Blocky - The structure of coal having the normal cleat development which, in
combination with the horizontal bedding, causes the coal to break
naturally into large or small rectangular blocks.
Bone Coal - Very dirty coal in which the mineralic content is too high to be
commercially valuable. It is dull rather than bright and heavier and
harder than good coal. It is not related to skeletal bone.
Box Cut - A technique of contour mining where an initial cut is made and
then successive adjacent cuts are made, placing the spoil of each in
the preceding cut, which replaces the soil and makes reclarntion
easier.
Buffer Zone - An undisturbed border along or around an intermittent or
perennial stream.
GL-4
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By-Products (Residuals) - Secondary products which are commercial value and
are obtained from the processing of a raw material. They may be the
residues of the gas production process, such as coke, tar, and ammonia,
or they may be the result of further processing of such residues, such
as ammonium sulfate.
Cache - A deposit of artifacts or materials for future use. Most commonly a
group of large blades of flint, probably blanks for future working into
final form.
Cairn - A pile of rock or boulders usually erected over a burial, although
some are piled up only as a memorial. In West Virginia these appear to
be Middle to Late Woodland in time.
Calamites - Small to very large rushes or trees of the first Coal Age.
Calcareous - Resembling calate or calcium carbonate; associated with lime.
Calcium Carbonate (CaC03) - A compound, often derived from calate used to
make lime.
Cannel Coal - Coal composed predominantly of millions of spores along with
plant cuticles, resins, waxes and other chemically resistent
substances. It is an aberration of "candle coal." It is dull rather
than bright, burns cleanly with a hot flame and is a good house fuel.
Carbon Dioxide (CC-2) - A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a
normal part of the ambient air. C02 is a product of fossil fuel
combustion, and some researchers have theorized that excess C02
raises atmospheric temperatures.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) - A colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas that is a
normal by-product of incomplete fossil fuel combustion. CO, one of the
major air pollutants, can be harmful in small amounts if breathed over
a certain period of time.
Carboniferous - Coal-bearing.
Carboniferous Period - European period of geological time corresponding to
the American Pennsylvanian and Mississippian Periods combir^d. This
period is named for its numerous coal seams.
Carbonization - The coke-making process whereby coal is burned in the
absence of oxygen so that incomplete combustion results. The volatile
matter is burned up and driven off as gases, tars, and oils, leaving
the fixed carbon compounds and ash as coke.
Celt - Another chopping tool, usually of igneous rock, biconvex in cross-
section. This chopping tool replaces the axe in Adena times and
thereafter is the only chopping tool.
GL-5
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Chert - A general term covering hydrated siliceous oxides with conchoidal
fracture. Flint is a fine-grained subtype, as are chalcedony (waxy
feel); jasper (high iron content gives it a red to yellow color);
agate, and others. Chert is the material usually chipped by the
prehistoric occupants of West Virginia into projectile points and other
tools.
Chipped Stone - Stone artifacts found are of two general types, chipped or
ground. Stone is chipped by three principal methods: (1) percussion,
where a hammerstone is used to rough out the artifact form; (2)
indirect percussion, where a hammerstone is used in conjunction with an
antler "drift", placed to remove a flake from the opposite side, used
to further shape the artifact; (3) pressure flaking, used to remove
fine flakes from the artifacts by applying a bone or antler "flaker" by
hand precbure to a point opposite where a flake is to be removed. This
allows fine secondary chipping.
Cleat - A set of fractures or joints that cut across a coal seam, generally
vertically or nearly so, in two directions nearly at right angles.
Coal Ages - Episodes in the geologic past that lasted for millions of years,
during which the commercial coal deposits of the world accumulated
under very special conditions. The two great coal ages occurred during
the Pennsylvanian Period beginning about 325 million years ago and
during the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods beginning about 135 million
years ago.
Coal Balls - Rounded stony parcels of a few inches to several feet across
which occur in coal seams. They are composed primarily of the
carbonate minerals calcite and magnesite.
Coal Conversion - The developing technology of processing coal on a large
scale to produce clean synthetic gaseous, liquid, and solid fuels and
by-products.
Coal Measures - A group of coal seams.
Coal Refuse - Any waste coal, rock shale, slurry, culm, gob, boney, slate,
clay, and related materials associated with or near a coal seam which
are either brought above ground or removed from a mine in the mining
process, or which are separated from coal during the cleaning or
preparation operations.
Coal Series - The sequence of stages in the coal forming process through
which coal proceeds as rank increases due to increasing changes. The
series is peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite, and graphite.
Coke - A high carbon material consisting of the fused ash and fixed carbon
compounds produced by the incomplete combustion of bituminous coal in
the absence of oxygen. Coke is primarily used in the steelmaking
process as a reducing agent.
GL-6
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Coke Oven - Combustion chambers in which coal is burned in the absence of
air to make coke.
Completion of Mining - An operation where no mineral has been removed or
overburden removed for a period of two consecutive months, unless the
operator, within 30 days of receipt of the Director's notification
declaring completion, submits sufficient evidence that the operation is
in fact, not completed.
Compressions - Plant fossils in the form of thin carbon films compressed in
the rocks, often preserving intricate details.
Conchoidal Fracture - Surface fractures in minerals or rocks which are cured
and smoothed, exhibiting more or less concentric ridges. Large pieces
of glass or flint exhibit this type of fracture.
Conductance (Conductivity) - A common way to express general mineral content
of water. It is literally the specific electrical conductance (or
electrical conductivity); a measure of the capacity of water to conduct
an electrical current under standard test conditions. Conductivity
increases as concentrations of dissolved and ionized constituents
increase. It is actually measured as resistance (in millionths of an
ohm) but reported as micromhos (the reciprocal of millionths of an
ohm).
Continuous Miners - Modern coal mining machines which use a wide variety of
cutting-head configurations to mine coal rapidly and continuously
without using explosives.
Contour Mining - One of two basic types of surface mining in which coal is
mined around a hillslope following the outcrop or crop line. The name
is taken from contour plowing which is a technique for farming sloping
lands.
Controlled Placement - The method of surface mining by which the site is
prepared and the overburden removed, manipulated and replaced by
mechanical means in such a manner as to achieve and maintain
stabilization in accordance with the approved pre-plan.
Cord-Marked - A surface treatment of pottery of eastern United t> "tes (and
much of the Northern Hemisphere). The result of impressing .. damp
pottery vessel with a cord-wrapped paddle before firing.
Cretaceous Period - The last period of the Mesozoic Era which began 135
million years ago. It marked the beginning of the second Coal Age
which persisted on into the ensuing Tertiary Period.
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Criteria Pollutants - Six pollutants identified prior to the passage of the
Clean Air Act Amendments which now have established Ambient Air Quality
Standards.
Crop Coal - The coal at the outcrop or along the crop line.
Crop Line - An imaginary line that marks the intersection of a coal seam
with the surface.
Crosscuts - Short entries that connect the large parallel entries, thus
isolating small blocks of coal.
Cross-Section - A graphic representation of a hypothetical vertical "cut"
through some portion of the Earth's crust which shows the relationships
of the rocks.
Culture - As this term is used by archaeologists and anthropologists it
refers to a specific way of life, socially handed down, of a particular
society of people, or to the entire social inheritance of mankind as a
whole (human culture). For the archaeologist, a culture is a recurrent
assemblage of artifacts and other traits which is seen on several
different archaeological sites, e.g., Fort Ancient Culture. Usually no
ethnic or tribal association can be made with a culture since most are
prehistoric; and then, there may not be a one-to-one association with
tribes. For instance it is definitely known that to some extent the
Delaware and Five Nation Iroquois shared a common culture and physical
type, but they are different tribes, speaking different languages.
"Cut" - In surface mining, a "cut" is: (1) a linear excavation removing the
overburden along the length of the property to be mined; (2) a
restricted, generally rectangular excavation as used in the box-cut
method.
Cut Fill - Overburden or other material removed from an elevated portion of
a road or bench deposited in a depression in order to maintain a
desired grade.
Decibel - The unit of measurement of the intensity of sound.
Declining - Any species of animal which, although still occurring in
numbers adequate for survival, has been greatly depleted and Continues
to decline. A management program, including protection or habitat
manipulation, is needed to stop or reverse decline.
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"Damps" - A collective term for the various noxious, poisonous, flammable,
explosive, and asphyxiant gases which occur naturally or as the result
of fires and explosions in underground mines.
Deep Mining - Underground raining; the mining of coal rock, or minerals from
underground, as opposed to surface mining.
Depletion - The withdrawal of water from surface or ground water reservoirs
at a rate greater than the rate of replenishment.
Design Storm - Predicted rainfall of given intensity, frequency, and
duration.
Developed - Development of a coal mine involves the establishment of a
network ^f entries which eventually isolates panels of coal. Once
panels have been established development is complete.
Devonian Period - The fourth period of the Paleozoic Era which began about
400 million years ago. It marked the flourishing of the fishes and the
appearance of the first forests.
Director and/or His Authorized Agent - The Director of the Department of
Natural Resources, Deputy Directors, the Chief of the Division of
Reclamation, the Assistant Chiefs of the Division of Reclamation, and
all duly authorized surface mining reclamation supervisors or
inspectors and inspectors-in-training.
Discharge - The rate of flow of a spring, stream, canal, sewer, or conduit.
Discoidal - A puck-like stone artifact found on Late Prehistoric sites,
usually with concave sides, and sometimes having a central perforation.
It was probably used in the game of Chunky, played with sticks, where
the object was to hit the discoidal (or chunky stone) into the opposite
team's goal.
Disturbed Areas - Those lands which have been affected by surface mining
operations.
Diversion Ditch - A designed channel constructed for the purpose of
collecting and transmitting surface runoff.
Downs lope - The land surface between the projected outcrop of the . .'est
coal seam being mined and the valley floor.
Drag Lines - Large earth-moving machines with a single movable boom in the
front. They differ from power shovels in that the "bucket" is
supported and controlled by large chains rather than a rigid boom.
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Drainage Basin - The land area from which water drains into a river, stream,
or other watercourse or waterbody.
Drift Mine - One of the three types of underground mines. Entries are
driven horizontally directly into the coal seam from the outcrop.
Drill - Usually a chipped flint tool for making perforations. These were
probably mounted for use. Bases are varied with straight based drills
(no expansion), expanded base drills and T-shaped bases. A perforator
is usually a much smaller tool, and may have been used without further
mounting.
Drill Bench - A bench constructed for the purpose of settling up and
operating drilling equipment. Also consists of roads and other
disturbed areas incidental to construction.
Driving - The process of tunneling through or mining coal to produce
entries, rooms, and crosscuts.
Dry Seals - One of two types of mine seals in which drainage is completely
blocked off, as opposed to wet seals.
Dustfall Jar - An open mouthed container used to collect large particles
that fall out of the air. The particles are measured and analyzed.
Earthwork - A wall of earth erected in geometrical forms especially by
Woodland Indians. The Adena Culture built circular earthworks, usually
with an interior "moat" or depression. Hopewellian earthworks were
more elaborate, with circles, squares, and octagons. Earthworks
usually are found in conjunction with mounds. The purpose of these was
usually ceremonial, although a few examples may be defensive.
Ecosystem - The interaction of living things with each other and their
habitat, forming an integrated unit or system in nature, sufficient
unto itself with a balanced assortment of life forms.
Effluent - Any water flowing out of an enclosure or source to a surface
water or groundwater flow network.
Electrostatic Precipitator - Apparatus affixed to the giant smoke stacks of
coal-fired power plants which takes advantage of the natura1 static
electric charge on fly ash particles to remove the fly ash from the
stack gas and to collect it.
Emission Factor - The average amount of a pollutant emitted from each type
of polluting source in relation to a specific amount of material
processed.
Emission Inventory - A list of air pollutants emitted into a community's
atmosphere, in amounts (usually tons) per day, by type of source. The
emission inventory is basic to the establishment of emission
standards.
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Emission Standard - The maximum amount of a pollutant legally permitted to
be discharged from a single source, either mobile or stationary.
Endangered - Any species, subspecies or sub-population of animal which is
threatened with extinction resulting from very low or declining
numbers, alteration and/or reduction of habitat, detrimental
environmental changes, or any combination of the above. Continued
survival in this state is unlikely without implementation of special
measures.
Enhanced Oil Recovery - A variety of techniques for extracting additional
quantities of oil from a well.
Entries - Tunnels in an underground coal mine, generally laid out in some
regular ^Ltern, which are constructed (driven) during the course of
mining. They serve as haulageways, manways, and air courses for
ventilation.
Ephemeral Stream - A stream which flows less than one month per year in
direct response to precipitation.
Erodability Factor - The "k" factor in soil loss equations. The amount of
soil which erodes from a standard experimental plot of bare soil under
standard conditions of slope, rainfall, etc. It varies with the
physical characteristics of the soil.
Estuaries - Areas where the fresh water meets salt water. For example,
bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons. Estuaries are
delicate ecosystems; they serve as nurseries, spawning, and feeding
grounds for a large group of marine life and provide shelter and food
for birds and wildlife.
Eutrophication - Overfertilization of a water body due to increases in
mineral and organic nutrients, producing an abundance of plant life
which uses up oxygen, sometimes creating an environment hostile to
higher forms of marine animal life.
Extirpated - The condition existing when any species of animal has
disappeared, as a part or full time resident, from the State. (This is
different from the word "extinct," which means the total l^ss of the
species in the world).
Face - The wall across an entry, crosscut, room, or an entire panel (in the
case of longwall mining), which is the scene of active raining.
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Fecal Coliform Bacteria - A group of organisms common to the intestinal
tracts of man and other mammals. The presence of fecal coliform
bacteria in water is an indicator of pollution and of potentially
dangerous bacterial contamination.
Final Working - Mining on the retreat; recovery of the last coal in a deep
mine or panel by pulling pillars.
Fireclay - See Underclay.
Fixed Carbon - The stable carbon compounds in a given coal which remain,
with ash, upon combustion in the absence of oxygen and after volatile
matter has been driven off (see Carbonization).
Flake Knife - A knife consisting of a primary flake either unmodified or
with secondary chipping. Well-made, parallel-sided prismatic flake
knives are characteristic of Hopewellian Culture in the Ohio Valley.
Flaking Tools - Usually made of bone or antler, and used for removing fine
chips from artifacts by hand, by applying pressure opposite the point
where a flake should be removed.
Flint - A fine-grained siliceous rock, used by archaeologists as a
subcategory of "chert." However, it should be pointed out that
geologists sometimes use the term to designate only the dark-colored
siliceous rocks.
Floodplain - The land area bordering a river which is subject to flooding,
typically once every 100 years.
Floodway - The riverbed and immediately adjacent lands needed to convey high
velocity flood discharges.
Floodway Fringe - Lands immediately adjacent to floodways which are subject
to flooding, but which are not needed for high velocity flood discharge
and are flooded less frequently and for shorter durations than
floodways.
Floor - The rock (usually underclay) immediately beneath a coal seam which
is revealed in the course of deep or surface mining. It is also called
"bottom."
Flora - A collective term for the plant life of a given environment in a
given interval of time.
Flue-Gas Desulfurization - The use of a stack scrubber to reduce emissions
of sulfur oxides.
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Fluidized Bed - This results when gas is blown upward through finely crushed
particles. The gas separates the particles so that the mixture behaves
like a turbulent liquid. This process is being developed for coal
burning for greater efficiency and environmental control.
Fluted Projectile Point - A spear point type characteristic of the
Paleo-Indian period. It is distinguished by the presence of long
channel flakes or grooves (flutes) removed from each face of the point.
These are usually very well chipped, with the base and lower sides
ground off to minimize cutting of the attaching cords.
Fly Ash - Small fused particles of coal ash produced during combustion in
coal-fired plants. Fly ash would be expelled with the stack gas out
the smoke stacks if it were not gathered by electrostatic
precipitators. It has become a valuable raw material for fired brick,
light-weight aggregate, and other uses.
Folsum Point - A specialized subtype of fluted point, named after a site in
New Mexico. These are shorter, broader, and have "flutes" extending
almost the entire length of the point.
"Fool's Gold" - See Pyrite.
Formation - The basic rock unit. Groups are composed of formations which,
in turn, may contain members.
Fort Ancient - A Culture in the Middle Ohio Valley, taken from the name of a
large site in Ohio. The Culture existed from A.D. 1000 to 1675;
however, by an error in its naming, the type site is more
representative of earlier Hopewell Culture.
Fossil Fuels - Coal, oil, and natural gas; so-called because they are
derived from the remains of ancient plant and animal life.
Geothermal - Pertaining to heat within the earth.
Genus - A taxonomic category that includes groups of closely related
species; the principle subdivision of a family.
"Gob" - The collective name generally applied to waste material, -uch as
"slate," parting material, rock, and seme coal, which is pr. ~ed in
the course of coal mining and preparation: (1) the material 'ti a
coal-mine refuse pile; (2) the same materials underground in a mine;
(3) the collapsed overburden behind a longwall operation or where
pillars have been pulled in an underground mine.
"Gob Piles" - See Coal Refuse.
Gorget (gor'-jet) - An ornament having two or more perforations. These are
most frequently made of stone (commonly banded slate), but some are
bone and shell. Concave-sided and expended-center types are typical in
Adena; rectangular and pentagonal types are more frequent in Hopewell.
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Graphite - A very soft gray to black mineral composed of pure carbon. It is
combined with clay to make the "lead" in pencils due to its softness
and "slipperiness." It is also used as a dry lubricant and is the
completely metamorphosed end-member of the coal series.
Graver - A small flint tool having an extremely sharp point formed by
chipping and used for engraving. They were characteristic of
Paleo-Indian cultures.
Greenhouse Effect - The potential rise in global atmospheric temperatures
due to an increasing concentration of C02 in the atmosphere. C02
absorbs some of the heat radiation.
Gross Energy Demand - The total amount of energy consumed by direct burning
and indirect burning utilities to generate electricity. Net energy
demand includes direct burning of fuels and the energy content of
consumed electricity.
Ground Stone Tools - The other method of working stones besides chipping is
by pecking, grinding, and polishing. A rough form is pecked out with a
hammerstone, then, by use of sandstone abraders or sand and water, the
artifact is brought to final form by a slow-grinding and polishing
process.
Groundwater - The supply of fresh water under the earth's surface in an
aquifer.
Hammerstone - A relatively unmodified pebble showing pecking marks from use
as a hammer or percussion tool. Pitted hammerstones have one or more
shallow pits on one or more sides, probably to ease holding the stone
while using it.
Heading - An entry (see Entries).
Headwaters - The place where a river originates.
Hematite - A form of iron ore often found in sandstones of West Virginia.
An amorphous form of this was much used by Indians for artifacts and as
a source of red pigment (ocher), since it is generally a blood-red
color. Adena people made celts, cones, and hemispheres of hematite.
Highwall - The man-made cliff produced in the course of surface mining which
remains after mining in some instances.
Hinge Line - An imaginary line separating the Northern and Southern
Coalfields which marks a relatively coal-poor strip between the two.
Southeast of this line the coal measures thicken relatively rapidly;
toward the northwest they thin very gradually.
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Hoes - Tools made of shell or chipped stone for either cultivating crops or
root-grubbing purposes. Shell hoes are made by making a large
perforation through a freshwater clam shell; chipped stone hoes are
notched, and usually thin in cross-section, and will show signs of
earth polish on the bit end. Such hoes, made of flint, are found in
central and southern West Virginia.
Hopewell - An important culture in eastern United States which centered in
Illinois and Ohio, but influenced almost all of the Indian cultures of
the East. It is known best by the elaborate richly endowed burial
mounds and earthworks. The culture began by 500 B.C. in Illinois, but
did not reach its peak until about A.D. 1 in Ohio. Its influences were
still being felt by A.D. 900.
Horsetails - See Scouring Rushes.
Hydrologic Balance - The relationship between the quality and quantity of
inflow storage and outflow in a hydrologic unit such as a drainage
basin, aquifer, soil-zone, lake, or reservoir. It encompasses the
quality and quantity relationships between precipitation, runoff,
evaporation, and the change in ground and surface water storage.
Ice Ages - Those intervals of the geologic past during which continental ice
sheets covered large areas of the Earth's surface.
In-Migration - The movement of people into a city or region.
In-Situ Processing - In-place processing of fuel by combustion without
mining. Applies to oil, shale, and coal.
Incising - The forming of a linear impression on pottery (while clay is
still damp; if done after firing it is referred to as "engraving"),
shell, bone, and stone. Incised pottery is most characteristic of Late
Prehistoric Cultures, though some is found earlier.
Inspection - A visual review of prospecting, surface, or other mining
operations to ensure compliance with any applicable law, rules, and
regulations under jurisdiction of the Director.
Intermittent Stream - A stream or portion of a stream that flows
continuously for at least one month r the calendar year as o ""suit of
groundwater discharge or surface runoff.
Interstreatn Use - Use of water which does not require withdrawal or
diversion from its natural watercourse. For example, the use of water
for navigation, waste disposal, recreation, and support of fish and
wildlife.
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Lanceolate Projectile Point - "Lance-formed" point type, having no stem or
notch, with the maximum width about the middle of the point. These are
an early Archaic Point type, and may be descended from the fluted
point.
Leachate - A liquid that has percolated through soil, rock, or waste and has
extracted, dissolved, or suspended materials.
Lepidodendron - The largest trees, with Sigillaria, of the first Coal Age;
giant cone-bearing plants of a primitive group, the lycopods (not true
conifers); these trees reached as much as 100 feet in height and
several feet through their bases; they bore spirally-arranged, grass-
like leaves on diamond-shaped leaf cushions which have led to the name
"scale tree"; related to modern-day crows foot and club moss.
Lightly Buffered Stream - Any stream or its tributaries that contains less
than 15 ppm methyl orange alkalinity (to pH 4.5) and has a conductivity
of less than 50 micro M40.
Lignite - Brown coal which is the lowest-rank coal in the coal series. Only
peat, which is not coal, is lower in rank.
Limited - Any species of animal occurring in limited numbers due to a
restricted or specialized habitat or at the perimeter of its historic
range.
Lithified - Sediment which is consolidated into rock by compaction and
cementation.
Loading - The progressive burial of sediment or rock, naturally, by
sediment, which results in compaction. The pressures, and attendant
heat thus produced, under very deep burial become so great that the
effects fall into the realm of metamorphism.
Log Tomb - A log crypt found in some burial mounds. A burial was surrounded
by logs, sometimes a single tier, sometimes several, and roofed over
with either logs or bark. This is most characteristic of the Adena
Culture in West Virginia. In excavations, these usually appear as
outline casts of the logs, because usually the logs themselves have
rotted away, and only an imprint of the bottom of the log remains.
Longwall - A type of underground coal mining in which the equipment is set
up along the end of a panel so that the mining machinery "shears" coal
continuously from the very long face with each pass as it is drawn back
and forth.
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Low-Sulfur Field - See Southern Coalfield.
Luster - The appearance of a mineral or rock in reflected light. Luster
ranges from dull, to vitreous (glassy), to brilliant. Some minerals
such as pyrite have a metallic luster.
Main Entries, "Mains" - The primary set of multiple entries in a coal mine
which are driven first. Subordinate entries are driven also from
these.
Marcasite - See Pyrite.
Mast - Nuts, berries, and seeds accumulating on the forest floor, often
serving as food for animals.
Metallurgical-Grade - Bituminous coal of high purity (especially low sulfur
and low phosphorus) which readily produces a strong coke upon
carbonization.
Metamorphism - The process whereby rocks are progressively and variously
altered, both chemically and physically, due to natural heat,
pressure, and chemical solutions in the Earth's crust.
Methane - Natural gas or "swamp gas" having the formula CH4.
Mica - A naturally occurring mineral which is found as books of transparent
leaves or plates; often called isinglass. Used for ornamental purposes
by the Indians who cut various designs in mica. Most was probably
secured from North Carolina.
Minable Reserve - The total tonnage of minable coal estimated from the best
data available. Minable includes coal down to a thickness of 28 inches
with sufficient purity to be considered commercially valuable now or
when the more valuable beds have been depleted.
Mine Props - Wooden posts that are used to support the roof in underground
mines.
Mine-Refuse Piles - See Coal Refuse.
Mine Seals - Concrete barriers constructed at the mouth of abandoned drift
mines which prevent the formation of acid mine drainage by preventing
access of air to the pyritic materials.
Mineral Face - The exposed vertical cross-section of the natural coal seam
or mineral deposit.
Mining on the Retreat - See Final Working.
Mississippian - The fifth period (system) of the Paleozoic Era which began
355 million years ago. It essentially corresponds to the Early
Carboniferous Period of Europe.
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Mississippian Pattern - This is opposed to the "Woodland Pattern," and is
characterized by intensive farming, settled village life, and a number
of specific artifact traits, temple mounds, and priest cults. It was
born about A.D. 900 in the middle of the Mississippi Valley, hence the
name, and spread over much of eastern United States by historic time.
Mixing Height - The vertical distance through which air pollutant emissions
can be mixed and diluted.
Modified Box Cut - See Box Cut.
Monongahela Culture - One of many mixtures of the Mississippian and Woodland
Patterns. Found in western Pennsylvania and northern West Virginia
between A.D. 1000 and A.D. 1675.
Mountaintop Removal - Surface mining operations that remove entire coal
seams running through the upper fraction of a mountain, ridge, or hill
be removing all of the overburden and creating a level plateau or
gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining and where equal or
more intensive land use is proposed.
Multiple Entries - Several (4 to 8) parallel entries, which are driven
during development to serve as the main haulageways, access routes, and
air courses for the mine.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards - According to the Clean Air Act of
1970, the air quality level which must be met to protect the public
health (primary standards) and welfare (secondary standards).
Natural Drainway - Any water course or channel which may carry water to the
tributaries and rivers of the watershed.
New Source Performance Standards - Standards set for new facilities to
ensure that ambient standards are met and to limit the amount of a
pollutant a stationary source may emit over a given time. Clean Water
Act NSPS also are referred to as New Source Effluent Limitation.
Nitric Oxide (NO) - A gas formed mostly from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen
when combustion takes place under high temperature, as in internal
combustion engines. NO is not itself a pollutant; however, in the
ambient air it converts to nitrogen dioxide, a major contributor to
photochemical smog.
Nitrogen Dioxide (N02) - A compound produced by the oxidation of nitric
oxide in the atmosphere which is a major contributor to photochemical
smog.
Niche - A specific habitat delimited by a restricted range of ecological
conditions.
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NOX - Nitrogen oxide, either nitrogen dioxide or nitrogen oxide, also
referred to as nitric oxides.
No Discharge Policy - The policy which prohibits discharge of any harmful
substance into a water body. Strictly applied, the policy would forbid
discharges which are within the capacity of a water body to assimilate
and render harmless.
Noncrystalline Pyrite - See Amorphous Pyrite.
Nonpoint Source - The diffuse discharge of waste into a water body which
cannot be located as to specific source, as with sediment, certain
agricultural chemicals, and mine drainage.
Northern Coalfield - The coalfield of northern West Virginia which lies
northwest of the hinge line. It contains 19 minable coal seams the
most important of which is the great Pittsburgh coal. These northern
coals are higher in sulfur and ash and lower in heating value than
their southern counterparts.
Oil Shale - A finely grained sedimentary rock that contains an organic
material, kerogen, which can be extracted and converted to the
equivalent of petroleum.
Operation - The permit area indicated on the approved map submitted by the
operator, or an area where land is being disturbed or mineral is being
removed.
Organic Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs in complex organic compounds in coal.
It is, with pyritic sulfur, the prime source of sulfur in coal.
"Orphaned" - Abandoned, unreclaimed strip-mined land.
Outer Spoil or Outer Slope - The disturbed area extending from the outer
point of the bench to the extreme lower limit of the disturbed land.
Overburden - The rock and soil (collective) overlying a coal seam.
Overburden Wheels - Huge earth-moving machines used for area mining where
the overburden is unconsolidated. At the end of one boom is a large
revolving wheel with several "buckets" which continually scoop up the
overburden, placing it on a continuous conveyor belt which carries it
to a second boom for distribution it to the spoil bank.
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Paddle and Anvil Method - A pottery making technique used over much of the
New World. A stone or "anvil" is held inside the pot being built up, a
coil of clay added to the vessel wall, and then a paddle applied on the
outside to flatten and fuse the coil to the preceding coil. Invariably
the paddle is roughened in some manner, by either wrapping it (with
cords, fabric, roots, thongs) or carving it (grooves, cross grooves, or
complicated designs). The result is that most pottery of eastern
United States has a surface texture of some nature, save when they go
over the finished pot and smooth the outside surface. The only other
method of pottery making of any import in West Virginia is modeling,
which is rare. The potter's wheel was never used any place in the New
World.
Paleo-Indian - The first major culture in the New World, known mainly
through "fluted points." It dates back at least 10,000 years.
Palisade - See Stockade.
Panel Entries - Multiple entries driven between the "sub-mains," isolating
huge panels of coal.
Panels - Huge blocks of coal isolated by the "sub-mains" and panel entries
as a coal mine is developed. It is from these 2,000 x 600-foot panels
that the most coal is recovered.
Particulates - Fine solid or liquid particles in the air or in an emission.
This can include dust, smoke, fumes, mist, spray, and fog.
Partings - Beds of rock or bone, sometimes called "binders," within a coal
seam that separate the various benches of coal.
Peak Runoff - The maximum flow at a specified location resulting from a
design storm.
Peat - A deposit of incompletely decomposed plant remains which accumulated
under cover of stagnant water.
Peat Moss - Peat in a dried form used for mulch by gardeners.
Pendant - An ornament with one perforation, probably suspended from the
neck. Usually made of stone, but some shell and bone example are
known. These are most common in the Late Prehistoric, but occur in
other earlier cultues.
Pennsylvanian - The sixth period (system) of the Paleozoic Era which began
325 million years ago. It is also the first Coal Age and corresponds
to the Late Carboniferous Period of Europe.
Perennial Stream - A stream or portion of a stream that flows continuously;
also known as a permanent stream.
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Period - A fundamental unit of geologic time, generally having a duration of
tens of millions of years, and characterized by certain major events in
Earth history. Eras are composed of periods of geologic time which, in
turn, are composed of epochs.
Permian Period - The last period of the Paleozoic Era which began 270
million years ago. It marked the end of the first Coal Age and the
demise of many ancient plant and animal groups.
Pestle - A stone grinding tool for pulverizing corn, seeds, nuts, or roots.
Most in West Virginia are cylindrical in shape, although rare bell-
shaped ones having a flared base may occur.
Petrified - Literally "made into rock;" plant or animal parts naturally
preserved (fossilized) in shape, volume, and minute cellular detail by
mineralization (chemical implacement of or replacement by mineral
matter).
Petrochemical Feedstocks - Petroleum used as an industrial raw material to
manufacture goods such as chemicals, rather than as an energy source.
pH - A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material, liquid, or solid.
pH is represented on a scale of 0 to 14 with 7 representing a neutral
state, 0 representing the most acid, and 14 the most alkaline.
Pick and Shovel - Primitive (unmechanized) mining practices which utilized
muscle power and animals.
Pillaring - The process of pulling pillars during the final working.
Pillars - Large rectangular columns of coal which are left between rooms
during mining to support the roof and are pulled or removed during the
final working.
Plant Fossils - The remains or traces of Coal Age plants preserved in the
rock. These are most commonly thin carbon films (compressions) of
fossil leaves found in the "slate" roof rock. Some are exquisitely
preserved; trunks, twigs, and seeds are also preserved, often in
sandstone.
Platform Pipe - A pipe form having a bowl sitting upon a flat or t *rved
broad base which extends beyond the bowl in both directions. rtiis form
is characteristic of the Hopewellian Cultures of the Ohio Valley, and
infrequently is found with well-wrought animal effigies carved around
the bowl.
Pleistocene - That epoch of the Quarternary Period which corresponds to the
Ice Age, excluding the Recent Epoch of geologic time, or that time
subsequent to the Ice Age.
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Point Source - In air pollution, a stationary source of a large individual
emission, generally of an industrial nature. Also, a specific site
from which wastewater is discharged into a water body and which can be
located as to source, as with effluent, treated or otherwise, from a
municipal sewage system, outflow from an industrial plant, or runoff
from an animal feedlot.
Portals - Surface facilities for access to the main shafts of large,
well-established underground mines.
Post-Mold (hole) - The spot left in the ground where a post has once been
set, and then rotted away. The organic content discolors the soil in
the post-mold area, and this can be discerned by careful, examination,
thus providing house outlines, stockade lines, etc.
Pottery Sherd (Potsherd) - Any fragment of a pottery vessel; shard is more
commonly used in European archaeology. Through the analysis of pottery
sherds, archaeologists can learn much about prehistoric ceramic
cultures by means of the different styles of temper, form, and
decoration.
Power Shovels - Small to enormous earth-moving machines with two movable
booms, one with a "bucket" at its end. They may weigh thousands of
tons and be capable of moving hundreds of tons of overburden at a
single giant "bite."
Pre-Inspection - A preliminary survey and a field review by the Director or
his authorized agent of a pre-plan, and the proposed area to be
disturbed.
Pre-Plan - The total application submitted to the Director including the
application form, mining and reclamation plan, drainage plan, blasting
plan, planting plan, maps, drawings, data, cross sections, bonds and
other information as required.
Preparation Plants - Plants that crush, size, clean, and blend raw coal to
produce a product of desired purity, depending upon the market
specification. These plants also dispose of the "gob" and load the
coal for transportation.
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) - Pollution standards that
have been set to protect air quality in regions that are already
cleaner than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Prime Farmlands - Land defined by USDA-SCS based on soil quality, growing
season, and moisture supply needed to produce sustained high crop
yields using modern farm methods.
GL-22
-------
Primitive Areas - Scenic and Wild areas in the National Forests that were
set aside and preserved from timber cutting, mineral operations, etc.
from 1930-39 by Act of Congress. These areas can be added to the
National Wilderness Preservation System established in 1964.
Producer Gas Water Gas (Blue Gas) - Low Btu gases produced by the reaction
of steam with coal or coke which are used as supplemental fuels by
industry and in the coal by-product industry.
Projectile Point - Any tip end of a missile which is buried. Most
frequently these are made of a rock such as flint, but some bone and
antler points are known, and even bamboo slivers have been used.
Archaeologists frequently refrain from calling a point either an arrow
or spear point, since it is difficult to determine type. Larger forms
are probably spear heads and smaller ones arrowheads, but this is not
always a reliable criterion. The bow and arrow probably was introduced
into West Virginia in Middle or Early Woodland times; prior to that
time, the spear and spear thrower were the principal weapons.
Prospecting - The use of excavating equipment in an area not covered by a
surface mining permit for the purpose of removing the overburden to
determine the location, quantity, or quality of a natural coal deposit
or to make feasibility studies, or for any other purpose.
Pulling - Gradual and systematic mining of the pillars during final working
which recovers the last minable coal and allows the roof to collapse
into the mined-out area.
Punching Machines - Now outdated mining machinery which used a mechanically
operated pick to undercut coal so it could be "shot down."
Pyrite - Strictly, a brassy-appearing, iron-sulfide mineral, sometimes
called "fool's gold." In coal terminology it also includes the
iron-sulfide mineral, marcasite, which is greenish-gray in color. Both
minerals have the composition FeS2.
Pyritic Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs in the iron-sulfide minerals, pyrite and
marcasite, in coal. It occurs with organic sulfur, the prime source of
sulfur in coal.
Quaternary - The last and current period of geologic time which began about
a million years ago. It is essentially a synonym for the Ice Age,
which marked the appearance of man.
Rank - An expression of the degree of metamorphism of coal. For West
Virginia coal, rank is essentially an expression of relative proportion
of fixed carbon. Rank increases during metamorphism as volatile matter
naturally is driven off in the coal-forming process. Hence, higher
rank reflects greater metamorphism.
GL-23
-------
Recharge Capacity - The ability of the soils and the underlying meterials to
allow precipitation to infiltrate and reach saturation zone.
Reclamation - The procedure of restoring surface-mined land more or less to
the original contour and establishing some sort of vegetative cover on
the recontoured land.
Recoverable Reserve - The best estimate of the total tonnage of the minable
reserve that will ultimately be recovered, generally in the range of
60% of the minable reserve. The remaining approximately 40% goes
unrecovered because of limitations in mining technology, geologic
conditions, subsidence, drilling of oil and gas wells, and other
factors.
"Red Dog" - The red to pinkish material (clinker) that results from the
burning of coal-mine refuse piles.
Reducing Agent - The reverse of an oxidizing agent. Coke serves to
chemically reduce iron ore (various oxides of iron), liberating the
metallic iron from oxygen in the ironmaking process.
Reference Area - Land units of varying size for the purpose of measuring
groundcover, productivity, and species diversity.
Reserves - Resources of known location, quantity, and quality which are
economically recoverable using available technology.
Resin Bolt - A relatively recent improvement of the conventional roof bolt.
Instead of relying upon physical anchoring of the bolt, synthetic resin
is injected into the bolt hole, and upon hardening it anchors the bolt
securely and bonds the roof rock, thus strengthening it.
Rib - The wall of a room, entry, or crosscut.
Rock Dusting - The practice of "dusting" finely ground limestone powder onto
the exposed coal (primarily the rib) in underground coal mines to allay
the danger of explosion. The rock dust adheres to the coal, and in the
case of some "shock" stirring up coal dust in the mine, a like amount
of rock dust also is stirred up, thus rendering the dust-air mixture
nonexplosive.
Rock Unit - Geologic units which, because of their unique rock type,
mineralogy, or fossil content are traceable or mappable over some
distance, and are readily distinguishable from units above or below.
Roof - Also called "top." It is the rock immediately above a coal seam
which is revealed in the course of deep mining and, hence, forms the
ceiling of rooms, entries, or crosscuts.
GL-24
-------
Roof Bolting - The technique of supporting the roof in an underground mine
by drilling holes into the roof and then inserting long steel bolts up
to several feet in length.
Room and Pillar - The traditional method of deep mining for coal in the US
in which rooms are mined from the coal, leaving pillars to support the
roof. The pillars are removed in the final working.
Rooms - In the room and pillar method of mining, these are the large,
parallel, rectangular areas, separated by pillars, from which coal in
the panels has been mined.
Runoff - Streamflow unaffected by artificial diversions, storage, or other
works of man in or on the stream channels, or in the drainage basin or
watershed.
Scraper - Any tool used for scraping purposes. These were usually made of
chipped flint. All cultures have use for scraping tools, but some
specialized types are restricted to certain cultures, with the end
scraper characteristic of Paleo-Indian, Armstrong, and Fort Ancient
Cultures.
Seam - A bed of coal or other valuable mineral of any thickness.
Secondary Burial - Burial of human remains after the flesh has decayed.
This may be a bundle burial, where most of the bones are gathered up
and deposited in a pit or mound; scattered bone fragments in mound
fill; or an urn burial, where the bones are placed in a pottery
vessel. Historically, on the Plains and among the Huron, this was
practiced by first exposing the body in a tree, then gathering up the
clean bones and depositing them in an ossuary. Among the Choctaw, a
special bone picking caste existed who cleaned the bones of the dead.
Sediment - Unconsolidated natural earth materials deposited chemically or
physically by water, wind, ice, or organisms.
Sediment Control Structure - A barrier, dam, ditch, excavation, or other
structure placed in a suitable location to form a silt or sediment
basin.
Sedimentary Rock - A rock formed by the gradual accumulation of sediment,
usually in successive layers or beds, over a long period of time.
Seed Ferns - Small to very large fernlike plants, some of which were trees
of the first Coal Age that bore naked seeds. Also called gymnosperms.
Scouring Rushes (Horsetails) - Small modern rushes of the genus Equisetum,
which are descendants of the once mighty sphernopsid group of the first
Coal Age.
GL-25
-------
Shaft Mine - One of the three types of underground mines constructed
vertically down to the coal seam, where the coal is deeply buried.
Shaman - A religious-medical practitioner found in many cultures and best
seen in and named from Siberian tribal groups. In the eastern United
States the shaman was one of the leading figures of any society until
the rise of the Mississippian Pattern. Their power usually was derived
from visions which bestowed upon them special gifts, but sometimes they
could inherit their power. Probably most burial mounds were erected
originally as monuments to a shaman.
"Shoot Down" - The use of explosives to fragment and dislodge coal from a
face that has been undercut.
Shot Holes - Holes drilled in rock or coal, in either deep or surface
mines, for the purpose of "loading" and "blasting" with explosives.
Sigillaria - The largest trees, with Lepidodendron, of the first Coal Age.
These differed from Lepidodendron basically in the configuration and
arrangement of the leaf cushions in more or less vertical rows.
Siltation - The deposit of sediment to surface waters due to erosion, as a
result of the activities of man.
Siltation Ponds - Ponds that are constructed to intercept silt-laden runoff
to prevent siltation of natural surface waters.
Site-Specific - Phenomena which occur under certain conditions at a
particular site but which would not necessarily occur at another site.
Sizable Quantity of Water - Accumulation of storm or any other water in
excess of 5,000 cubic feet not provided for in the pre-plan.
"Slate" - A misnomer for the gray to black siltstone or sTiale (sedimentary
rock) of the Coal Measures. The term mostly applies to the roof rock
of a coal seam, also called "draw slate" or "draw rock." It only
resembles the true slate used for roofing, which is a metamorphic
rock.
"Slate Dumps" - See Coal Refuse.
Slope Mine - One of the three types of underground mines. An incl red shaft
is constructed down to the coal seam, when the coal is of moderate
depth.
Slurry Pipeline - A pipeline that conveys a mixture of liquids and solids.
The primary application proposed is to move coal lon^ distances (over
300 miles) in a water mixture.
GL-26
-------
Soapstone - A soft and carvable rock composed largely of talc plus
impurities. It was used by Late Archaic peoples to make stqne vessels,
and by others for pipes and ornaments. It is found in various spots in
the Piedmont of eastern United States. Steatite is a special variety
of soapstone.
Solution Mining - The extraction of soluble minerals from subsurface strata
by injection of fluids, and the controlled removal of mineral-laden
solutions.
Southern Coalfield - The coalfield of southern West Virginia which lies
southeast of the hinge line. It is also called the Low-Sulfur
Coalfield. It contains 43 minable coal seams. Southern coals are
metallurgical-grade coals, low in sulfur and ash and high in heating
value.
Spoil Pile Spoil Bank - The accumulations of excavated overburden in an
active or "orphaned" strip mine.
Spores - Tiny, single-celled reproductive bodies, similar to pollen grains,
by means of which most coal swamp plants of the first Coal Age
reproduced.
Stable Air - An air mass that remains in the same position rather than
moving in its normal horizontal and vertical directions. Stable air
does not dispense pollutants and can lead to air pollution.
Stack - A smokestack.
Stack Gas - The mixture of gases expelled by the giant smokestacks of our
power plants.
Stack Scrubber - An air pollution control device that usually uses a liquid
spray to remove pollutants such as sulfur dioxide or particulates from
a gas stream by absorption or chemical reaction. They are also used to
reduce the temperatures of emissions.
Stationary Source - A pollution emitter that is fixed rather than moving.
Steam Coal - Coal suitable for combustion in boilers. It is generally soft
enough for easy grounding and less expensive than metallurgical coal or
anthracite.
Steatite - See Soapstone.
GL-27
-------
Stockade - A high fence or palisade surrounding a fort or village.
Stockades were constructed by placing vertical poles in the ground
either side by side or some distance apart, and then filling the spaces
with brush, wickerwork, or "wattle and daub." Most Late Prehistoric
sites are stockaded villages, indicating much warfare.
Stormwater - Any water flowing over or through the surface of the ground
caused by precipitation; generally surface runoff.
Strip Bench or "Bench" - The floor of an active contour mine; also the
man-made terrace left after reclamation of some contour-mining jobs.
Strip Mining - Almost exclusively refers to the surface mining of coal. Two
basic methods are area mining and contour mining.
Strip Pit - The excavation between the high-wall and spoil bank of an active
or "orphaned" strip mine.
Stripping Ratio - The amount of overburden removed for every ton of ore
obtained.
Subbituminous - The lowest rank category of bituminous coal which is just
above lignite in rank.
"Sub-Mains" - Multiple entries driven, generally at right angles, from the
"mains."
Subsidence - The gradual or abrupt collapse of the overburden over a coal
mine (active or abandoned) which affects the surface.
Sulfate Sulfur - Sulfur that occurs as calcium sulfate (CaSO^) in coal and
is a minor source of sulfur.
Sulfur - Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms: pyritic and organic sulfur
which are by far the dominant sulfur forms, and sulfate sulfur, which
is relatively unimportant.
"Sulfur Balls" - Small to sometimes very large spheroi-i-1, elliptical, or
irregular masses, or beds, of pyrite in coal.
Sulfur Dioxide - A poisonous gas having the composition S02. It .is
produced as an air pollutant when coal containing sulfur is burned.
Surface Effect of Underground Mining Operation - Surface mining operations
where lands are disturbed including but not limited to roads, drainage
systems, mine entry excavation, above ground work areas such as
tipples, coal processing facilities, and other operating facilities;
also, waste work and spoil disposal areas and mine waste; impoundments
or embankments which are incident to mine openings or reopenings.
GL-28
-------
Surface Mining - The mining of coal, rock, or minerals from surface
excavations.
Sustained Yield - In the case of groundwater aquifers, the quantity of water
which can be withdrawn annually without, over a period of years,
depleting the available supply.
Swamp Forests - The vast swamps of the Coal Ages that were flooded forests
rather than marshes or boggy areas.
"Swamp Gas" - See Methane.
Swing Fuel - A fuel that plays a key role during the transition from
exhaustible to inexhaustible fuels. Coal is viewed by many as the
. swing fuel during the transition.
System - The rocks (collective) laid down and preserved during a period of
geologic time.
Tempering - A grog or binder used in pottery clay to minimize cracking as
the result of expansion when the pot is fired. Various crushed
materials are used for temper. In West Virginia, crushed granitic
rock, limestone, flint, other rock, clay particles, and shell are
found. Elsewhere, hair, bone, and grass also have been used.
Temple Mound - A mound of earth in the eastern United States erected to
serve as the base for a temple of the house of an important person in
the society. These were frequently added to, and were built up by
layers, with a new building erected with each new addition. The idea
probably stems from the stone pyramids of Middle America, as these also
were used as the bases for temples.
Tertiary Period - The first of two Cenozoic Periods that began 66 million
years ago. It included the latter part of the second Coal Age and saw
the establishment of essentially all modern plant and animal groups.
Threatened Species - Any species or subspecies of wildlife which is not in
immediate jeopardy of extinction, but is vulnerable because it exists
in such small numbers or is so extremely restricted throughout all or a
significant portion of its range that it may become endangered.
Timbering - Setting of mine props to support the roof over entries and
elsewhere in the mine. Now they are largely replaced by roof bolting.
Ton Mile - Movement of 1 ton of material for a distance of 1 mile.
Toxic Forming Materials - Earth materials or wastes. When acted upon by
air, water weathering; or microbiological processes, they are likely to
produce chemical or physical conditions in soils, air, or water that
are detrimental to the environment.
GL-29
-------
Toxic Mine Drainage - Water that is discharged from active, abandoned, and
other areas affected by surface mining operations which contains a
substance which, through chemical action or physical effects,, is likely
to kill, injure, or impair biota commonly present in the area that
might be exposed to it.
Transportation Sector - Includes five subsectors: 1) automobiles;
2) service trucks; 3) truck/bus/rail freight; 4) air transport; and
5) ship/barge/pipeline.
Tree Ferns - Huge ferns common in the first Coal Age with trunks perhaps 10
to 20 feet high bearing huge fronds (leaves) as long or longer than the
trunks.
Tubular Pipe - An artifact type characteristic of Adena, usually made of
Ohio pipestone (fire clay) and consisting of a straight tube, bored out
except for a "blocked end" which has only a small perforation. These
may or may not be tobacco pipes, because they also might be tools in
the Shaman's kit.
Underclay Fireclay - The bed of clay that underlies most coal seams which
served as the soil for the earliest plants of each coal swamp. It is
called fireclay because the material is sometimes pure enough to be
"fired" to make brick, tile, or other ceramic products,.
Undercut - The technique of undercutting a coal seam at its base so that it
can be "cut" down by hand or "shot down" using explosives.
Unit Train - A system for delivering coal in which a string of cars with
distinctive markings and loaded to capacity is operated without service
frills or stops along the way for cars to be cut in and out.
Valley or Head-of-HoHow Fills - A controlled earth and rock fill across or
through the head of a valley or hollow to form a stable, permanent
storage space for excess surface mine overburden.
Ventilated - A mine is continually flushed with fresh air to carry away
poisonous, flammable, or explosive gases and coal dust, and to supply
fresh air for breathing. This is accomplished by means of powerful
fans which draw mine air out of the mines and draw fresh air into and
through the entire mine.
Volatile Matter - The compounds in a given coal that can be driven off by
combustion in the absence of oxygen (see Carbonization). These come
off as tars, oils, and gases.
Volatiles - Gases such as methane, hydrogen, and ammonia given off in the
coal-forming process as the mass is progressively altered chemically
and physically. It is also a collective term for the gases, tars, and
oils given off in the coke-making or carbonization process.
GL-30
-------
WAPORA - WAPORA, Inc., the environmental consulting firm hired by EPA Region
III to assist in the preparation of the SID and EA/FONSI.
Water Gas - See Producer Gas.
Watershed - A geographic area which drains into a particular water body (see
Drainage Basin).
Water Table - The upper level of an underground water body.
Wattle and Daub - A type of house construction found over much of the world
in warmer climates. Vertical poles were inserted into the ground, mats
hung over these poles, and then mud daubbed over the mats and allowed
to dry in the sun. Usually a thatched roof is used with this house
type. In eastern United States, wattle and daub houses became popular
in the southeastern States in Late Prehistoric times; they made an
appearance in West Virginia in the Fort Ancient Culture. Archaeologic-
al evidence for such houses usually is in the form of post-mold
patterns, fire-hardened mud daub, with mat impressions, and rare finds
of burnt thatch.
Western Coal - Can refer to all coal reserves west of the Mississippi. By
US Bureau of Mines definition it includes only those coalfields west of
a straight line dissecting Minnesota and running to the western tip of
Texas. Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota have the largest reserves.
Wet Seals - One of two types of mine seals in which a drainpipe permits
restricted flow of water from a sealed mine.
Woodland Pattern - A generalized cultural pattern applied to those cultures
occupying the Woodlands of eastern United States and being semi-
sedentary, and semi- or non-agricultural. This is opposed to the
Mississippian Pattern which is agricultural and sedentary. All of the
Cultures in West Virginia, save Fort Ancient, Monongahela, and Paleo-
Indian can be considered Woodland Cultues.
"Yellow Boy" - The red, yellow, or orange coating on stream beds where acid
mine drainage flows or has flowed. It consists primarily of iron
oxides and hydroxides.
GL-31
-------
METRIC CONVERSIONS
Sym
mm
m
cm
in
yd
mi
g
kg
t
oz
Ib
sh tn
ml
1
oz
qt
N
Ib
kPa
psi
METRIC CONVERSION TABLE
When you know: You can find:
millimeters
meters
kilometers
inches
yards
miles3
grams
kilograms
tons"
ounces
pounds
short tonsc
mill iliters
liters (1 dm3
ounces"
quarts
newton
pound
kilopascal
pound/in
Length
inches
yards
miles
millimeters
meters
kilometers
Mass
ounces
pounds
short tons0
grams
kilograms
tons°
Liquid Measure
ounces
quarts
milliliters
liters
Force
pound
newton
Pressure or Stress
pound/in
kilopascal
If you
Sym multiply by:
i
in
yd
mi
iran
m
km
oz
Ib
sh tn
g
kg
t
oz
qt
ml
1
Ib
N
psi
kPa
0.039 370
1.093 6
0.621 39
25.400
0.914 40
1.609 3
0.035 273
2.204 6
1.102 3
28.350
0.453 59
0.907 18
0.033 813
1.056 7
29.574
0.946 35
0.224 81
4.448 2
0.145 04
6.894 8
a'JS Statute b!000 kg C2000 Ib dUS
METRIC PREFIXES
Fac-
tor
1012
9
10
106
3
10
*\
102
101
ID'1
10~Z
ID'3
f.
10 6
io-9
-12
10 ^
10
10~18
Prefix
tera
gi'ga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
Syra
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
n
P
f
a
Examples :
1 km = IO3 m
= 1000 m
1 mn\ = 10 m
= 0 001 m
Temperature
Celsius - "C °C = 5/9 (T-32)
kelvin - K K = °C + 273.15
Fahrenheit - °F °F = 9/5 (°C) + 32
Water Body Water
freezes temp boils
°C -40 -20 0 20 37 60 80 100
' 1
1 1 'I
°F -40 0 32 80 98.6 180 212
GL-32
-------
MASTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aaronson, T. 1970. Problems underfoot: Environmental effects of
underground mining and of mineral processing. Environment 12
(November); 16-29.
Ackenheil & Associates Geo Systems, Inc. 1973. Evaluation of pollution
abatement techniques applicable to Lost Creek and Brown's Creek
watershed, West Virginia. ARC, Washington DC, 7lp.
Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and E. Eisentrout. 1971. Reclamation of acidic
coal-mine spoil with fly ash. Report of Investigations 7504. USBM,
Washington DC, 29p.
Adams, Lowell W. and Aelred D. Geis. 1978. Effects of highways on wildlife
populations and habitats. Phase 1: Selection and evaluation of
procedures NTIS PB-293 796. For USDOT, FHA. USFWS, Patuxent
Wildlife Research Center, Laurel MD, 17Ip.
Adams, L.M., J.P. Capp, and D.W. Gillmore. 1972. Coal mine spoil and
refuse bank reclamation with powerplant fly ash. Compost
Science 13(6):20-26.
Addair, John. 1974. The fishes of the Kanawha River system in West
Virginia and some factors which influence their distribution. Ph.D.
dissertation, Ohio State University, Columbus OH, 224p.
Adkins, Howard G., Steve Ewing, and Chester E. Zimolzak, eds. 1977. West
Virginia and Appalachia: Selected readings. Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co.,
Dubuque IA, 199p.
Adkins, James R., N. Islam, and M. S. Baloch. 1976. Comprehensive survey
of the New River Basin. Vol. I: Inventory. WVDNR-Water Resources,
Charleston WV, 207p.
Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. 1977. State
limitations on local taxes and expenditures. Doc. No. A-64.
Washington DC, 63p.
Aguar, Charles E. 1971. Mining and reclamation as related to State,
regional and national land use plans, goals and requirements.
Rehabilitating drastically disturbed surface mined lands symposium
proceedings. Georgia Surface Mined Land Use Board, Macon GA, 11-14.
Aharrah, Ernest C. 1971. Growth of pinus resinosa (red pine) on strip-mine
spoils in relation to mineral analysis of soil and foilage. Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Pittsburgh. University Microfilms
International, Ann Arbor MI, lOOp.
BB-1
-------
Aharrah, Ernest C., and R. T. Hartman 1973. survival and growth of red
pine on coal spoil and undisturbed soil in western Pennsylvania. In:
Ecology and Reclamation of Devastated Land. Gordon and Breach Science
Publishers, New York NY, 1:429-444.
Ahmad, M. U. 1970. A hydrological approach to control acid mine pollution
for Lake Hope. Ground Water 8(4):19-24.
Ahmad, Moid (editor). 1971. Acid mine drainage workshop. Proceedings of a
workshop, 2-6 August 1971. Ohio University, Athens OH, 167p.
Ahmad, Moid U. 1974. Coal mining and its effect on water quality. In
R.A. Deju, ed. Extraction of minerals and energy: Today's dilemmas.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor MI, 49-56.
Ahnell, Gerald. 1977. The effect of Pittsburgh coal mining on ground-water
levels in Monongalia County, West Virginia. Masters thesis, West
Virginia University, Morgantown WV.
Ahnell, Gerald and Henry W. Rauch. 1978. The effect of underground coal
mining on water wells in Monongalia County, West Virginia. Abstract.
Ground Water 16 (5):358.
Akamatsu, Muriel C. L., ed. 1977. Research needs related to acid mine
water. Proceedings of workshop, 10-12 November 1976. West Virginia
University, Water Research Institute, Morgantown WV, 118p.
Akers, David J. 1978. Leaching rates of coal associated metals. Tech.
Report 157. West Virginia University, Coal Research Bureau,
Morgantown WV, 5p.
Akers, Davis J. , Jr., Jerry L. Coalgate, and Richard B. Muter. 1974. Gob
pile stabilization and reclamation. Report No. 96. West Virginia
University, Coal Research Bureau, Morgantown WV, 21p.
Akers, David J., Barry G. McMillan, and Joseph W. Leonard. 1978. Coal
minerals bibliography. NTIS FE-2692-5. West Virginia University, Coal
Research Bureau, Morgantown WV, 222p.
Akintola, Jacob 0. 1973. Analysis of rural landuse in the Monongahela
River Basin. West Virginia University, Masters thesis, Morgantown WV,
186p.
Akintola, Jacob, Dale Colyer, and Wayne Weber. 1975. Rural land use in the
Monongahela River Basin. Bulletin 641. West Virginia University,
Agricultural Experimental Station, Morgantown WV, 39p.
Albers, William E. 1978. ARC seminars preview coal problems.
Appalachia 12(1): 9-18.
BB-2
-------
Albrecht, Jean and Diane Smith. 1976. Reclamation and revegetation of
strip mined land: A selected bibliography of publications in the
University of Minnesota Forestry Library. NTIS PB-268 478. University
of Minnesota, St. .Paul MM, 21p.
Alderman, John K., and William M. Smith. 1977a. Acid mine drainage: The
problem and the solution. Coal Mining and Processing 14(18): 66-68,
87-88.
Alderman, John K., and William M. Smith. 1977b. A political history of
acid mine drainage in West Virginia. Report No. 139. West Virginia
University, Coal Research Bureau, Morgantown WV, lOp.
Aleem, M. I. H. 1974. Metabolic capabilities of sulfur oxidizing bacteria
and their role in water pollution. Kentucky Water Resources Institute,
Lexington, Kentucky, 137p. Prepared for the Office of Water Research
and Technology, Washington DC.
Allaire, Pierre N. 1978. Reclaimed surface mines: New potential for some
North American birds. American Birds 32(1):3-5.
Allaire, Pierre N. 1979a. The avifauna of reclaimed surface mined lands:
Its composition and role in land use planning. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Louisville, Louisville KY, 223p.
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West Virginia water quality network, compilation of data 1969.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1976b.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1976c.
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Draft basin water quality management plan for the Little Kanawha River
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1976e.
Draft basin water quality management plan for the Monongahela River
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1976f.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1977c.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources. 1979b. Fourteenth annual
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West Virginia Dept of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1975.
Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1976.
Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1977.
Annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in West
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1978a.
Thirteenth annual interagency evaluation of surface mine reclamation in
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VII
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Reclamation. 1979.
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Fourteenth annual interagency evaluation tour of surface mine
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Comprehensive survey of the Coal River Basin, Vol. 1: Inventory.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1978b.
Comprehensive survey of the Bluestone River Basin, Vol. 1: Inventory.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Water Resources. 1980.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources. t
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West Virginia Dept of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resourves.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources. 1975.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources. 1977.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
1978b. West Virginia stream map.
West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources. 1979.
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1980a. Unpublished data on harvest of game species in West Virginia
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Div. of Wildlife Resources.
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West Virginia Dept. of Natural Resources, Heritage Trust Program. 1980.
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West Virginia Geological Survey. Undated. Geologic map of West Virginia.
2 sheets, scale 1:250,000.
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1978.
Summary of state land use policy. Draft. Charleston WV, 51p.
West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1979a.
Directory of regional planning and development councils. Charleston
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1979b.
The status of planning in West Virginia counties and municipalities.
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development 1979c.
West Virginia state development plan. Charleston WV, 269p.
West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1979d.
Directory of state resources. Charleston WV, variously paged.
West Virginia Governor's Office of Economic & Community Development. 1980.
1980 statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Inventory
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Federal-State Relations, Outdoor
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West Virginia Governor's Office of Federal-State Relations. 1974. Catalog
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West Virginia Health Systems Agency. 1979. The health systems plan and
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West Virginia Historic Commission. 1967. West Virginia highway markers,
historic, prehistoric, scenic, geological. Revised Edition.
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West Virginia Legislature. 1877, as amended to 1967. Boom companies. In:
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West Virginia Legislature. 1972, as amended to 1978. Coal Refuse Disposal
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West Virginia Mountain Stream Monitors. 1980. Public meeting: coal
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West Virginia Office of Health Planning & Evaluation Health Statistics
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West Virginia Railroad Maintenance Authority. 1978. State rail plan.
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