903R81002
A Land Use
Decision Methodology
for Mine Lands
in Appalachia
Final Report
ARC Contract No. 80-14CO-7105-79-MNTER-0711
Submitted to—
THE APPALACHIAN REGIONAL COMMISSION
1666 Connecticut flvenue, N.UU.
Washington, D.C 20009
and
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, Region III
6th and UUalnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106
U S Environmental Protection Agency
III Inictmation Resource
12107
Center (3
8*1 C-!,vv' ' * -'
Submitted bu—
ENGINEERS-CONSULTANTS
2601 North Front Street
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110
Moy 1981
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
| EXECUTI VE SUMMARY [[[ 1
_ INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ........................................... 15
' INTRODUCTION ............................................... 17
• AN OVERVIEW OF ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPING
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MINED LANDS 19
LAND USE DECISION METHODOLOGY 27
BACKGROUND 30
ESTABLISHING A MINED LANDS CONTEXT 35
A FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE DECISION MAKING 62
ILLUSTRATIVE SITE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES 78
INSTI TUT IONAL ANALYS IS 93
ABANDONED MINED LANDS 96
ACTIVE MINE REGULATION 126
SUMMARY 147
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS 149
LAND USE PLANNING AGENC IES 152
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 153
MINE OPERATORS 154
ABANDONED MINED LAND RECLAMATION 155
EXAMPLE - AN LDD BASED RECLAMATION/LAND USE
PLANNING PROGRAM 155
THE SETTLERS CABIN CASE STUDY 161
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.)
SETTLERS CABIN RECLAMATION/ABATEMENT 174
SETTLERS CABIN PROJECT MANAGEMENT STUDY 176
PROJECT SUMMARY 200
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE LAND USE DECISION METHODOLOGY 209
APPLYING THE LUDM TO SETTLERS CABIN 213
APPEND ICES
APPENDIX A - CURRENT MINING METHODS AND RECLAMATION
PRACTI CES A-1
APPENDIX B - LAND USE AND SITE DEVELOPMENT BACKGROUND
INFORMATION B-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
No. Page
1 UNRECLAIMED STEEP SLOPE CONTOUR MINE 40
2 UNRECLAIMED MODIFIED AREA MINE 41
3 REFUSE PILE ON STEEP SLOPE 43
4 TERRACE METHOD BACKF ILL ING 53
5 LAND USE DEC IS ION METHODOLOGY 64
6 LAND USE DEC IS ION MATRIX 73
7 TYPICAL SITE - APPALACHIAN PLATEAUS PROVINCE 79
8 TYPICAL SITE - APPALACHIAN PLATEAUS PROVINCE 81
9 REGIONAL RECLAMATION/DEVELOPMENT PLAN 83
10 RECLAMATION PLAN SKETCH 85
11 SCHEMATIC CONTOUR RECLAMATION FOR HOUSING 88
12 SITE PLAN SKETCH - HOUSING 88
13 SCHEMATIC CONTOUR RECLAMATI ON FOR TRUCK FARM I NG 89
14 SITE PLAN SKETCH - TRUCK FARMING 89
15 SCHEMATIC MOUNTAINTOP RECLAMATION FOR FORESTRY/GAME LANDS.. 90
16 SITE PLAN SKETCH - FORESTRY 90
17 SCHEMATIC MOUNTAINTOP RECLAMATION FOR TOURISM/
RECREATI ON 91
18 SITE PLAN SKETCH -RECREATION 91
19 AML PROGRAM AND MILESTONE CHRONOLOGY 97
20 TYPICAL "205" PROJECT FUNDING SCHEME 99
21 ORGANIZATION OF TVA SPONSORED ORPHAN LAND PROGRAM -
TENNESSEE EXAMPLE 102
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LIST OF FIGURES (Cont'd.)
No. Page
22 OSM ABANDONED MINED LAND RECLAMATION PROGRAM ORGANIZATION
AND FUNCTIONS 105
23 TYPICAL AML ACTIVITIES FLOWCHART 111
24 OSM MINING REGULATION ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS 132
25 RECOMMENDED MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE 160
26 PROJECT AREA LOCATION MAP 166
27 EXISTING AND PROPOSED PARK FACILITIES 170
28 MINED LAND INVENTORY MAP 173
29 PROPOSED RECLAMATION 177
30 SETTLERS CAB IN PROJECT MILESTONE CHRONOLOGY 181
31 PENNSYLVANIA DER ABANDONED MINE RECLAMATION
IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK 195
32 SITE CONDITIONS 219
33 PROJECT EVALUATION MATRIX AND LAND USE WEIGHTING 221
34 LAND USE 223
A-1 TYPICAL SURFACE MINE IN ROLLING TERRAIN A-3
A-2 MODIFIED BLOCK-CUT CONTOUR MINING A-5
A-3 CROSS-R IDGE BACKSTACKING MOUNTAINTOP M IN ING A-7
A-4 HIGHWALL REDUCTION IN STEEP SLOPE CONTOUR MINING A-9
A-5 FINAL GRADING IN MOUNTA INTOP REMOVAL A-11
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LIST OF TABLES
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No. Page
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1 ESTIMATED COSTS 176
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the Land Use Decision Methodology is to provide
a methodology for implementing an economic development program for "mine
lands" areas In Appalachia. In this context, the term "mine lands" will
include both those areas which have been mined in the past, and those
areas which are minable in the future. Thus, the methodology presented
here is to be linked with abandoned mine lands (AMD reclamation and
active mine reclamation.
The key elements of this methodology are: 1) the institutional
arrangements to conduct an economic development program In mine lands
regions; and 2) a land use decision tool to determine reclamation/devel-
opment projects for particular sites. It Is not the goal of this meth-
odology for it to be used in comprehensive land use planning. It is to
formulate a methodology for the land use development of prioritized sites
with the framework of mine lands reclamation.
THE FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE DECISION-MAKING
The framework is structured as a six-stage process. The elements
included in this framework dictate development of a planning data base,
since different levels of regional, local, and site information explicitly
feed into the process at every level. It should be pointed out, however,
that this framework is not a technically complex procedure requiring new
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research or generation of expensive new data. It is intended only to
provide decision makers and planners a tool for decision-making based
on readily obtainable or existing data.
Basis for Development of the Framework
This framework for land use decision-making was developed with
explicit consideration of the following three points:
1. The framework should be suitable for addressing two
important types of land use decisions specifically for
mined lands.
. What are the optimum land uses for particular mine
sites?
What are the optional mine sites in a particular
area or region for subsequently developing par-
ticular land use?
2. The framework should address decision-making for the
major land use decision types - preservation, protec-
tion, development, reclamation and management.
3. The framework should address the five general groups
of site suitability criteria discussed later in this
report as being integral to effective land use deci-
sion-making.
Site environmental characteristics
Infrastructure characteristics
Environmental hazards
Development impacts
Institutional concerns
With these factors explicitly considered, the framework, as pre-
sented in the following figure, was developed for mined land/land use de-
cision-making. Following are descriptions of the major components of this
framework.
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Land use decision methodology.
Feedback and Reiteration
V
GENERAL
SITE
SCREENING
v
DETAILED
SITE
ANALYSIS
— *•
1
RECLAMATION
DEVELOPMENT
REQUIREMENTS
/mft
(ANAL
INSTITUTIONAL
CONSTRAINTS
^IMPLEMENTATION^
Identified Development Needs
The first component in this process is an assessment of the de-
velopment needs for the planning area. It Is assumed that the ongoing
planning process of organizations utilizing this framework will define the
development needs for their planning area. Specific programs funded by
HUD, FmHA, EDA, ARC and other agencies have narrowed development needs to
be addressed during a particular planning period. For example, housing
needs may be the highest priority in the steep slope Appalachian region of
Kentucky. Therefore, this land use decision framework may be directed
toward analysis of housing development on mine lands.
Identification of Principle Constraints
This second element actually involves a general analysis to
identify environmental constraints which pertain to development of land.
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These Include factors such as floodplains, steep slope areas, and land-
scape features or characteristics that are regionally significant because
of recognized resource conservation or hazard avoidance considerations.
Existing Inventory and planning data and mapping wiI I I generally
permit ready identification of these concerns. For example, regional
floodplaln maps would suffice for identifying floodplain boundaries. In
addition to floodplains and steep slopes, other such areas may include
regionally significant wetland areas, scenic areas, already built up land,
and areas with such obvious poor accessibility that immediate development
potential is limited.
General Site Screening
Those areas not in conflict with principle development con-
straints are to be further narrowed in this stage of analysis. This ele-
ment of the framework involves the first actual look at mined land sites.
The focus will be on planned, active, reclaimed, and abandoned sites.
Data for active or proposed mining may be obtained from the
state of mining regulatory agency. As part of permit review, planning
agencies are able to review surface mine permit applications for compli-
ance with land use plans. Once mining or a mine plan has been identified,
described, and located, it may be examined in the context of a potential
reclamation/development project.
With the recent advent of a national program for the reclamation
of abandoned mine lands, intensive mapping efforts will be undertaken in
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the early 1980's to identify AML sites for reclamation funding. All major
AML features including any underground mine workings should be located
during this inventory. Site priorities in the state AML reclamation pro-
gram will also be noted. This priority determination will be made by the
AML designated agency once the inventories have been completed. High pri-
ority sites, based on the states' selection criteria may be identified
since they are to be prime candidates for AML reclamation funding.
Institutional Constraints
This element of the framework is directed toward institutional
constraints and/or incentives to land use development. Institutional con-
straints and/or incentives are defined as public sector plans, programs,
or policies which affect land use decisions. There are numerous plans,
policies, and programs at federal, state, and local levels of government
which will affect decisions regarding development of mine sites.
Development of abandoned mines to a productive land use will re-
quire less institutional interaction than will be required to develop ac-
tive or future mines. Since abandoned mines already exist, they are not
necessarily in conflict with future development or comprehensive plans.
If there are conflicts, they are probably to be remedied by site develop-
ment if, In fact, the plan calls for expansion of certain land uses Into
the mined region. An example might be industrial park siting in an aban-
doned mine area. However, since future mining is not conceptualized yet
for a given site, that site may play an alternative or conflicting role in
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a regional comprehensive plan, zoning code, scenic or natural area desig-
nation, or a site which has been declared "unsuitable for mining" under
Section 522 of PL 95-87. These examples represent local, state, and fed-
eral institutional constraints to active or future mine development. Data
sources to be reviewed for this level of analysis include:
. Comprehensive Plans
Zoning Ordinances
. "522" Petitioned Areas (Lands Unsuitable for Mining)
Wild and Scenic Rivers Designations
. Other Natural Areas Designations
Detailed Site Analysis
Once specific candidate sites have been identified, detailed in-
formation regarding site conditions must be evaluated. Depending on past
(or present) mining techniques and other factors, conditions of a site may
limit certain development considerations. Problems caused by the myriad
potential site conditions may deter any type of development, whereas cer-
tain conditions may not affect the considerations. Unpolluted water in an
abandoned mine, for example, may prove to be an incentive to recreation
development, while it may also be a deterrent to residential development.
Following is a listing of parameters which are recognized as the
major environmental problems associated with mined lands. The list re-
flects nearly the total range of frequently encountered environmental
hazards.
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- unsealed mine openings
- polluted mine drainage
- subsidence hazard
- blowout hazard
- highwalI
impounded water
- spoil configurations
- toxic spoil on surface
- vegetation
- overburden (% sandstone)
- refuse piles (condition)
- refuse piles (acreage)
- structures
These parameters must be identified during a detailed mine site environ-
mental problems analysis. The specific organization of and methods for
performing this analysis are described later in the report.
RecIamat i on/DeveIopment Requ i rements
Complementing site analysis is the development of reclamation/
development requirements. These requirements should include a generic
reclamation design (e.g., contour reclamation with all spoil to head-of-
hollow fill). This reclamation scheme must be analyzed with respect to
the designation for the final land use to assure that the reclamation
and development were compatible. This analysis should be done by a civil
engineer and would involve only a cursory study of the proposed plan.
jmpact Analysis
An Impact analysis of a proposed reclamation/development plan
involves a two-stage approach. Initially, a sensitivity analysis evalu-
ation should be conducted. Site plans should be varied to note if the
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final evaluation score can be improved. Once a proposed reclamation op-
tion has been refined through a sensitivity analysis, an environmental
impact assessment must be conducted. This assessment would include a de-
scription of how each characteristic of site evaluation matrix was evalu-
ated. This description would provide all the necessary background materi-
als: description of study area; description of existing environment; and
description of proposed action. A standard analysis of primary and sec-
ondary impacts can then occur focusing on the relationship between the
local short-term use of the site and the maintenance and enhancement of
the long-term productivity and amenity of the region.
ImpIementat i on
Implementation of the land use decision technique is the deci-
sion-making element of the recommended management framework presented in
a later section of this report. Its use by a public agency is thus struc-
tured within a project formulation, analysis, and grant funding system.
The Land Use Decision Matrix
A matrix has been developed as the primary data analysis device
for the land use decision framework. The framework is composed of a se-
ries of analyses and decision elements which range from "Identified De-
velopment Needs" to "Impact Analysis" and "Implementation." Critical
regional and site analysis considerations are Included in the "General
Site Screening, Institutional Constraints" and "Detailed Site Analysis"
portions of the framework. These elements are addressed In the Land Use
Decision Matrix.
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It must be pointed out here that a matrix is but one option for
implementing a mined land planning framework. Other workable options in-
clude total mapping/overlay techniques, statistical methods (i.e., regres-
sion analysis), and combined cartographic/tabular data analysis methods.
A matrix approach was selected because the matrix format best presents the
opportunity to concisely display and analyze a number of related site and
regional characteristics or parameters.
It should be noted that the matrix is focused chiefly on aban-
doned mined land site parameters. This is because properly reclaimed
sites present fewer development obstacles. In addition, the LUDM is in-
tended to be a flexible planning tool. Different situations or applica-
tion contexts will certainly warrant modification to the parameters which
are included in the matrix. For example, if application to only active
rather than abandoned sites is to be stressed, then a number of the aban-
doned mine site parameters may be omitted (i.e., abandoned structures) and
additional more appropriate parameters substituted to reflect the condi-
tions which are more likely to be encountered on active mine sites. Such
act!ve/reel aimed site parameters would include soil permeability, slopes,
soil shrlnk-swell potentials, depth to groundwater, etc. - traditional
site land use analysis parameters. In summary, the LUDM is intended to
function as a flexible framework rather than a collection of etched-in-
stone site parameters which will not fit every site/planning situation.
Each of these parameters are defined (assigned) value within the
matrix. Parameters have been structured in a straightforward, unambiguous
manner to allow operational ease in application.
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It should be noted that the relative weightings are constructed
to evaluate how each factor Imposes negative considerations on each poten-
tial or proposed land use. Involved in these negative considerations are
engineering construction costs, hazards associated with use, infrastruc-
ture I costs, and aesthetic disamenities. Positive considerations are
largely political in nature because this is a public program to supple-
ment (or modify) private sector development. These considerations must be
taken into account at the "identified development needs" stage discussed
earlier.
Criteria are given scores of 0-2 depending on the magnitude of
the problem or opportunity. This score is multiplied by the relative
weighting factor for a final score. Once all parameters affecting site
development have been scored and weighted, a final summation score can be
determined. This system can be used to evaluate one site's potential for
development relative to another site.
Weighting factors have been assigned to each type of land use de-
velopment. The weighting factor represents the magnitude of the mine land
problem for one type of land use versus another type of land use. For ex-
ample, the impact of having unsealed deep mine openings would be greater
on housing development than on returning land to forest or agriculture.
Site analysis may require some technical expertise for Implement-
ing the matrix. Coordinating with the state reclamation authorities could
generally provide the level of expertise necessary to provide Input to the
matrix regarding mine site factors which are not common knowledge to other
professional planners.
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INTRODUCTION
AND OVERVIEW
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INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTI ON
The purpose of this study is to provide a methodology for imple-
menting an economic development program for "mine lands" areas in Appa-
lachia. For this report, the term "mine lands" will include both those
areas which have been mined in the past, and those areas which are mlnable
in the future. Thus, the methodology presented here is to be linked with
abandoned mine lands (AMD reclamation and active mine reclamation.
The key elements of this methodology are: 1) the institutional
arrangements to conduct an economic development program in mine lands re-
gions; and 2) a land use decision tool to determine reclamation/develop-
ment projects for particular sites. It is not the goal of this study to
generate a methodology to be used for comprehensive land use planning.
Rather it is to formulate a methodology for systematically examining the
development potential of land which has been mined and reclaimed; land
which is actively being mined; abandoned unreclaimed sites; and areas
proposed for future mining or where future mining is likely.
The scope of this study is further circumscribed by several
criteria:
The methodology must be a simple, highly practical sys-
tem (noncomputerized) which can be utilized by local
public agencies without requiring an extensive primary
data collection effort.
The methodology should be "tailored" toward mountainous
areas where topographical constraints intensify con-
flicts among land uses due to the scarcity of develop-
able land.
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The methodology must utilize an institutional framework
which can operate in an efficient and timely fashion in
pursuit of predetermined economic development objec-
tives.
By satisfying each of these criterion, a methodology will be developed
which can be utilized immediately within Appalachia to support land use
decision making in the region.
The remainder of this report is organized in the following
manner:
Land Use Decision Methodology - The logical development
of a methodology for assessing the land use potential
of past, current, and proposed mine sites; example or
typical reelamation/land development projects are
included.
Institutional Analysis - Descriptions of the public
programs affecting mining, land use, and economic
development in Appalachia.
. Management Recommendations - A plan of action for im-
plementing land planning and development program for
mine lands regions in Appalachia. Recommendations in-
clude appropriate institutional/management structures
for applying the Land Use Decision Methodology.
The Settlers Cabin Project Case Study - A review of a
previous reclamation project undertaken by a cooper-
ating team of federal, state, and local agencies; this
also serves as a case study for a demonstration of the
Land Use Decision Methodology.
Appendix - Discussions of mining techniques, land use
decision theory, and annotated bibliographies of: 1)
reclaiming mined lands to specific land use; 2) public
programs affecting mining/land use/economic development
in Appalachia; and 3) the public forces affecting the
Settlers Cabin Case Study.
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It is anticipated that this information will be useful to the Appalachian
Regional Commission (ARC), ARC's Local Development Districts, and County
governments throughout Appalachia to link private and public sector land
use planning with abandoned and active mine reclamation. Appalachia's
pursuit of these two objectives - land development and mine lands recla-
mation - can be pursued in a more expeditious manner through this linkage.
AN OVERVIEW OF ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPING
MINED LANDS
The process of converting mine lands to more intensive land uses
can and does occur throughout the mine lands regions of Appalachia. How-
ever, the extent to which this occurs is limited by several factors:
1. Such development requires cooperation among a diverse
set of individuals - landowners, mining/reclamation
contractors, financial institutions, land developers,
state regulatory bodies and, local governments - over a
number of years. Coordination efforts result in "in-
formation and transaction costs" which are often pro-
hibitively high.
2. Normal reclamation planning does not take into con-
sideration certain types of social benefits that can
occur among land uses viewed from a regional perspec-
tive (e.g., provision of public recreation can enhance
residential land values in an area).
3. Inadequate reclamation associated with past mining con-
tributes to severe environmental degradation, which
limits land use development opportunities on the site
and adjacent properties.
4. The presence of coal resources on a site can conflict
with land use development in a reciprocal fashion. To
develop a site prior to resource recovery may Isolate
reserves, while mining and reclamation which occur
prior to materialization of development demand pres-
sures may preclude the development of a socially opti-
mal land use pattern.
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Programs for economic development can be developed to provide
procedural mechanisms and organizational frameworks for overcoming these
obstacles to land use development. Each of these obstacles, and potential
public sector responses to them, are discussed below.
High Information and Transaction Costs
Increasing organizational and procedural complexity in any devel-
opment project generates increased information and transaction costs.
These costs involve deriving a consensus of action among all parties,
closing all contractual agreements, and maintaining the specified rela-
tionships over the life of the development project. Such actions require
data gathering and information exchange to assure profitability for all
private parties, and compliance with all public regulatory agencies. Spe-
cifically, this information would be gathered:
1. To assure the fwo major private parties - the mining/
reclamation contractor and the land developer - of each
other's mutual capacity and project feasibility.
2. To obtain regulatory approval from the myriad of gov-
ernment agencies involved in a development project
(joint pub Iic/private development).
3. To provide regulatory organizations such as local
zoning boards with adequate background and project
specific data on which informed decision making is to
be based.
These efforts can generally be termed "entrepreneurial requirements,"
since inputs to land development projects are being mobilized.
Private sector involvement in these entrepreneurial efforts Is
restricted by the long time frame of the overall project; significant re-
turns on the investment would not accrue until the land use development
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portion of the project was completed, but more organizational costs will
H be imposed prior to the mining and/or reclamation. Thus, the relative
_ profitability of such an entrepreneurial effort will be small, although
™ significant social benefits may be generated in the long run.
I Public sector responses to this type of private market failure
could include incentives for private companies to take on the entrepre-
I neurial role, or simply the designation of .a government agency as the
— entrepreneur. Complexities involved in determining the appropriate in-
• centive and initiating the mechanisms for public accountabiIiIty largely
preclude the use of private contractors. Public policy would be more
efficiently expedited by a public agency providing the leadership role in
these types of development projects.
Unrecognized Social Benefits
A pattern of land uses for a given region involves a complex set
of economic interrelationships by which the use of a particular site af-
fects, and is affected by, the use of surrounding sites. Comprehensive
land use planning and zoning should attempt to exploit these relationships
by spatially grouping various land uses which are mutually beneficial.
Incompatible uses are similarly excluded or isolated from each other.
In theory, land use development in a region that follows a com-
prehensive plan will produce a socially optimal land use pattern. How-
ever, in many mine land regions, comprehensive plans do not exist; and
even when they do exist, reclamation need not result in the highest and
best final land use. Reclamation normally proceeds only to the minimum
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extent required by law, and does not take into consideration benefits that
may accrue to surrounding land uses. These "externalities," by defini-
tion, are external to the private decision-makers cost-benefit analysis.
To internalize these benefits into future development decisions
would require a public agency to identify specific sites within a mine
lands region where economic pressures and natural resource characteristics
lead to optimal development sites. Post-reclamation land uses must be
designated, and the physical mechanisms to achieve these uses must be de-
fined. Thus, a planning tool is required to be utilized by a public
agency which will choose these optimal sites through a process incorporat-
ing economic development pressures and assessing environmental impacts.
Existence of Abandoned or Poorly
Reclaimed Mine Lands
Abandoned mine lands (AMD complicate the process of land conver-
sion in mine lands areas by providing strong disincentives to site devel-
opment. Not only do unreclaimed areas increase site development costs
(earthwork and revegetation), but adverse environmental impacts also re-
strict the development potential of adjacent sites. For example, second
home development or outdoor recreation site development would not usually
take place on land adjacent AML sites due to many reasons including aes-
thetic disharmony, environmental problems, and hazard potential.
When viewed from a temporal perspective, mining constitutes a
transitional land use. A site experiencing no development pressure would
normally be reclaimed to its pre-mining land use. However, a site exper-
iencing development demand might be expected to be reclaimed to a more
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intensive or higher land use. Abandoned mine lands are the outcome when
this transitional process is arrested. Not only has potential development
demand remained unexploited, but in most cases, the site has been left in
a state where due to on-site and off-site environmental degradation, de-
velopment potential of the entire area is reduced.
When seen in this historical perspective, abandoned mine lands
constitute a temporal (and spatial) external iIty; the historical actions
of a mining operator have imposed costs on existing and future development
opportunities. The existence of this externality provides a rationale for
public action to correct this problem in those cases where the costs of
remedial action are less than the social benefits to be accrued by AML
reclamation. Typically, the widespread existence of AML impacts in a par-
ticular region restricts the benefits to be achieved by a private sector
developer; however, public action can provide the comprehensive approach
to AML problems to achieve the necessary level of benefits to justify
reelamation.
Presence of Additional Mineable Resources
The presence of a mineable resource on a given site complicates
the analysis of that site's development potential within the context of
public policy. If intensive land use development were to occur above a
mineral deposit, the mining of this resource at a later date could have
severe impacts: 1) the deposit may have been economically extracted had
the site remained undeveloped - relocation of any improvements and surface
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extraction could prove prohibitively costly; or 2) impact of underground
extraction to the development could prove to be severe. Under these con-
ditions, land use development may preempt extraction of the reserves (or
"isolate" those reserves).
In similar fashion, mining can preempt particular land uses. For
example, when a mining operator reclaims a surface-mined site to approxi-
mate original contour (AOC) as required under current Federal surface min-
ing regulations, consideration of the highest and best land use for that
particular site will not occur. It may be the case that by not regrading
the site to a more gentle slope, its development potential will remain un-
exploited. A more obvious example of this interaction is the utilization
of underground room and pillar techniques to extract a coal seam. Where
regulations allow pillars to be "robbed," long-term subsidence can result.
Under these conditions, any type of residential, commercial, or industrial
development cannot be undertaken.
As shown above, the presence of a mineral resource implies the
potential for mining. In addition, mining and land use development often
interact in mutually adverse ways - one activity occurs without considera-
tion of the future application of the other. Thus, a long-term develop-
ment plan for a mine lands region must consider the timing of mineral ex-
traction and land use development to assure that these activities occur in
a manner beneficial to both. Given the long time involved in this type of
planning, only a public program that identifies and executes mining/devel-
opment projects can assure the success of a comprehensive plan in a mine
lands area.
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Summary
The preceding discussions detail complexities in reclaiming mined
lands to designated post-mining land uses. Each factor constitutes an ob-
stacle to the development of an optimal land use pattern in a mine lands
region. The need for public sector actions to resolve these "market fail-
ures" is indicated.
A specific strategy to initiate an economic development program
in a mine lands region may include the following actions:
1. Designation of a public sector "entrepreneur" to co-
ordinate the various public and private entities in-
volved in a mine lands development project.
2. Program planning mechanisms must be established for the
designated agency to identify appropriate development
sites in the mine lands region; specifically, a
planning tool is required to select these sites.
3. Specific institutional arrangements must be established
to attack abandoned mine lands problems in mine lands
regions. A comprehensive, programmatic approach is re-
quired, involving both those agencies involved directly
in AML reclamation and agencies concerned with economic
development.
4. Specific institutional arrangements must be established
to link economic development projects with ongoing min-
ing operations to ensure that both activities occur in
a mutually acceptable manner. Here again, the need for
a comprehensive, programmatic approach is Indicated,
involving private mining concerns, private land devel-
opers, public regulatory and development agencies, and
the public sector "entrepreneur."
These actions will result in a public program designed to achieve
economic development objectives in mine lands areas.
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LAND USE DECISION
METHODOLOGY
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LAND USE DECISION METHODOLOGY
This section summarizes the issues associated with the develop-
ment of a methodology for determining appropriate land uses for mined
lands In Appalachla. In this context, mined lands are defined as pre-
viously mined and currently active, as well as unmined land which has
high potential for future mining. This section also presents specific
procedures for utilization of the methodology.
In general, land use decisions are a response to one or both of
the following questions:
1. What is the optimum land use for a particular site or
parcel?
2. Which sites are optimal for particular land uses in a
given region of concern?
In site and regional planning these questions may be asked separ-
ately or simultaneously. Asking them separately, land managers, develop-
ers and owners are generally most interested in determining appropriate
land uses for specific parcels or are searching for sites suitable for de-
velopment of particular land uses. Likewise, asking the questions simul-
taneously, public planning, management, and development organizations are
often concerned with locating and identifying land protection and develop-
ment potentials comprehensively on a regional basis. This type of plan-
ning is often undertaken to: take stock of a region's resources and de-
velopable land; establish a data base for making development decisions
with regional implications; and provide a defensible base for public in-
volvement In growth guidance (zoning, comprehensive planning) or actual
land development.
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The discussion which follows is divided into three general sec-
tions. First, an overview discussion of site development Issues and plan-
ning methods is presented. The next section summarizes development issues
that are specific to abandoned and active mine sites. Building on these
sections, the final section presents a land use decision methodology, a
decision matrix, and illustrative site development strategies for typical
reclamation situations.
BACKGROUND
The development and application of systematic or formalized pro-
cedures for land use decision-making are a fairly recent phenomenon. This
is evidenced in the large percentage of Appalachia's historic metropolitan
development that has occurred in areas where access and environmental
amenities are poor; in areas with hostile microclimate (north slopes) and
hazard situations (floodplains); and on land that is physically unsuited
for intensive development. This growth has also historically degraded
and/or destroyed numerous valuable regional landscape resources.
Regardless of the technical sophistication, accuracy or complex-
ity of a given land use decision methodology, an actual land use decision
involves one or more general types of decisions, each of which address
different, though sometimes overlapping requirements. These decisions re-
late to land preservation, protection, development, reclamation, and man-
agement :
. Preservation - attempts to maintain a piece of land in
its existing state. Indirect benefits to society gen-
erally accrue merely from the act of preservation.
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. Protection - involves the use of the land within rigid-
ly defined limits. Such limits are generally developed
to protect the attributes of a particular area (i.e.,
prime farmlands, aquifer recharge, etc.)
. Development - involves decisions that result in the
erection of structures, and/or a concentration of human
activities and infrastructure facilities.
. RecIamatI on - is focused on undoing the damage caused
by previous development (mining) or management (clear-
cutting) decisions.
. Management - is actually the strategy(ies) for managing
and implementing any or all of the above land use deci-
sion options.
All land use decisions may be placed into one of these categor-
ies. Land use decision-making may also be viewed as the process of appro-
priately matching a region's available land resource to these land use
strategies. Within this definition the key phrase is "appropriately
matching." Three general land use/site development principles, if adhered
to, will insure this "appropriate matching" of land use and land. These
principles are:
1. Development should be discouraged In areas of sig-
nificant resource value. Many local, regional and
national resource scarcities may be avoided by iden-
tifying the location of these biological, physical,
and energy resources within a region and acting to
prevent their obliteration.
2. Development should be discouraged In areas of natural
and man-made hazards. The losses that often result
from such development are felt by those immediately
Impacted and often by society in general.
3- Development should be encouraged in areas best suited
for It. The costs of site development are greatly de-
pendent on a myriad of physical, contextual, and loca-
tlonal site parameters.
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A number of points pertinent to these principles may be raised.
First, these principles may be mutually contradictory. For example, the
land most suitable for development may also be in a hazardous floodplain
overlying a major source of potable groundwater. Therefore, trade-offs
between conflicting goals are often required. Secondly, implementation of
these goals depends on the availability and use of techniques for econom-
ically and accurately assessing the presence, extent, significance, and
location of the landscape characteristics that determine resource value,
hazard criticality, and development suitability.
Techniques for Land Use Decision-Making
Techniques for land use decision-making fall into one of three
classes: 1) techniques for determining appropriate land use(s) for a
given site; 2) site selection models given Identified land uses; 3) and
comprehensive land use allocation techniques.
As the focus of this effort is development of a land use deci-
sion methodology for mined lands, (specific site(s) and/or specific land
use(s)), Class 1 and Class 2 land use decision methodologies are most per-
tinent to the objectives of this project and, therefore, were reviewed in
detail. However, comprehensive land use techniques (Class 3) were also
examined for parameters or elements relevant to developing a procedure
specifically for mined lands.
A number of techniques were identified that fall Into each of
these classes. Examples Include the numerous general land planning pro-
cesses such as those popularized by Ian McHarg (Class 3) that are being
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used by numerous community and regional planning agencies. An example of
an Identified Class 1 procedure is an SCS approach to determining site
suitability for twelve classes of outdoor recreation. And a typical Class
2 procedure is that of a New England State's Cooperative Extension Service
for selecting optimal sites for campground development. The individual
procedures/methodologies that were reviewed are too numerous to include in
this report. However, their salient characteristics are summarized below.
Land Use Decision Methodology Characteristics
There is a tremendous range in complexity and organization of the
land use decision methodologies that are currently being utilized in site
and regional planning. Some are totally cartographic while others are
statistical. Some include matrices and weighting schemes, some are manual
and others computerized.
A review of these procedures revealed close similarities between
them in terms of the environmental/1 and use characteristics that are con-
sidered. Five general groups of land use decision characteristics were
identified:
1) Site characteristics that determine physical develop-
ment capabilities. Examples include:
. depth to bedrock
depth to water tab Ie
. soil shrink-swell potential
. soil stoniness
. sol I permeabiI ity
slope
. aspect
I and cover
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2) Site and regional infrastructure characteristics
road system
. distance to sewer services
water resources
. distance to schools
distance to employment
3) Critical environmental hazards
floodplains
. slopes
earthquakes
polIutIon
4) Development impacts
. key landscape resources
. socioeconomics
5) Institutional concerns
zoning ordinances
land ownership
. comprehensive plans
. subdivision ordinances
These characteristics were then examined for potential utility in
the land use framework which is being developed. It appeared that many of
these identified land use characteristics could be appropriately incorpo-
rated while others would not be relevant to a mined site specific applica-
tion. Characteristics in groups 2, 3, 4, and 5 were judged to be equally
applicable to mined and unmined sites and, therefore, could be utilized in
the proposed framework. However, the characteristics in group 1 (site
characteristics) do not address the site conditions which are encountered
on active or abandoned mine sites. Therefore, it was decided that a set
of site characteristics which appear to be determinants of land use poten-
tials on mined sites would have to be identified and incorporated into the
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proposed decision-making framework together with pertinent characteristics
from groups 2, 3, 4, and 5.
In this context, the next background discussion is presented to
establish a frame of reference for the selection of pertinent abandoned
and active mine site parameters for inclusion in the land use decision
framework. Following this discussion, the proposed framework is outlined.
Then within this framework, a set of implementation procedures are de-
I Ineated.
ESTABLISHING A MINED LANDS CONTEXT
As stated previously, the framework or procedures which are to be
developed should be equally applicable to abandoned and active/reclaimed
mine sites. In this context, abandoned mined lands are defined as unre-
claimed, improperly reclaimed, or partially reclaimed lands for which
there is no additional mine operator reclamation responsibility. Such
lands were generally mined prior to today's environmental control laws and
regulations. Active/reclaimed lands are defined as recently reclaimed,
currently active, or proposed mines which have been or will be reclaimed
to a stable productive condition. Following is an overview of abandoned
and active mine reclamation focusing chiefly on the conditions typically
encountered on those sites.
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An Introduction to Abandoned Mined Lands
This discussion presents an overview of abandoned mined land re-
lated problems; procedures for problem abatement; and implications for
land use planning on these lands. This information is presented to pro-
vide a general data base for the selection of abandoned mined land site
characteristics which are important site land use feasibility determi-
nants, and as such should be included in the land use decision method-
ology.
Coal mining today incorporates control technologies capable of
minimizing operational impacts on land, water, and air. As this technol-
ogy was absent until recently, past mining has created a backlog of dam-
aging and potentially damaging conditions resulting in environmental and
health and safety problems such as acid mine drainage, subsidence, burn-
ing and unstable refuse banks, abandoned surface and underground mine
Instability, and abandonedfhazardous mine shafts (USBM 1979).
Over the years a number of federal, regional, and state agencies
have initiated programs focused toward repairing these environmental scars
and health and safety hazards from the past. For example, a number of
mined land Inventory and mine sealing projects were completed during the
1930's as Works Progress Administration/State cooperative projects. In
addition, the U.S. Bureau of Mines has been involved in reclamation activ-
ities such as subsidence and mine fire control since the 1950's. EPA and
the Corps of Engineers have completed a number of comprehensive basin wide
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mine drainage Inventories and planning studies, and the Appalachian Re-
gional Commission and Tennessee Valley Authority have also conducted AML
reclamation programs.
In the recent past, several states have also attempted to deal
with these problems, or at least to begin the process. Pennsylvania,
through Operation Scarlift, has studied a number of watersheds ravaged by
mining; but their approach to these studies and to subsequent follow-up
actions has been piecemeal. Ohio, on the other hand, has completed an
abandoned mined lands and mine drainage Inventory which set logical prior-
ities for subsequent abatement and reclamation activities. Follow-up work
has been slow, however. Limited activities have also be conducted by
other states, but for the most part, the problems caused by abandoned
mines in Appalachia continue.
On August 3, 1977, Congress enacted Public Law 95-87, Title IV of
which provides for cooperative Federal-State programs to reclaim the aban-
doned scars of past mining activities. The Office of Surface Mining, Soil
Conservation Service, and State Reclamation Programs will form the nucleus
of the reclamation piannIng/implementation management system under the
law.
Specifics of this management system are described later in the
Institutional Analysis discussion. Following Is a discussion of environ-
mental problems and hazards often associated with abandoned mines. In-
cluded are general descriptions of applicable reclamation/restoration
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techniques. Also included are a general overview of abandoned mined land
use potentials and a summary of implications for land use planning and
development.
Associated Environmental Hazards
There are four general classes of abandoned mined land related
problems:
Unreclaimed surface mines - including ungraded high-
walls, spoil piles, impounded water, exposed toxic
spoil, and eroding slopes.
. Abandoned underground mines - with numerous unsealed
portals and air shafts and subsidence-prone areas.
Unreclaimed coal refuse - exposed toxic materials, un-
stable Impoundments, burning material and associated
hazardous structures.
Mine Drainage - mining related point sources seriously
polluting streams, rivers, and lakes.
Following are brief discussions of specific problems and hazards
associated with these general problem types.
Unreclaimed Surface Mines
The most visible environmental disturbances from past coal mining
are associated with ungraded and/or unvegetated surface mined areas (Fig-
ures 1 and 2). UnconsolIdated and unvegetated spoils erode and contribute
to sedimentation of neighboring streams. Open pits are visual eyesores
which reduce the aesthetic quality of the surrounding landscape. Exposed
highwalls, open auger holes, and unstable, slipping outslopes may pose
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
significant health and safety hazards. Wildlife and land use potentials
are lessened and land values on mined sites and adjacent lands are severe-
Iy Impacted.
The environmental problems/hazards generally associated with un-
reclaimed strip mines that present the most critical development deter-
rents, and the means of dealing with those problems are noted below:
. Ungraded, unstable hlghwalls - health and safety haz-
ards as well as aesthetic disamenlttes. HIghwalI re-
duction/elimination by blasting and/or dozer grading Is
the primary reclamation method being utilized.
. Ungraded spoil - irregular steeply sloping erosion-
prone spoil banks must be regraded, stabilized and re-
vegetated to create land suitable for use.
Impounded water - areas must be drained and regraded or
stabilized to control runoff and minimize the potential
for future slope failures.
. Toxic spoil - must be removed and/or isolated as it is
both a source material for acid mine drainage formation
and a significant deterrent to plant growth.
Unstable overburden - overburden constituents (i.e.,
shale, sandstone, etc.) determine the erodib11 ity/sta-
bility of unreclaimed slopes, benches, and haul roads.
Burial of extremely unstable materials Is desirable If
volumes are small, if not a number of specialized sta-
bilization materials are available, plus establishment
of vegetation.
Once required earthwork has been completed, many areas may require mechan-
ical and/or chemical treatment prior to revegetation. Revegetatlon then
involves planting suitable trees, shrubs, groundcovers, or grasses to
achieve a stable vegetative cover.
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Figure 1. Unreclaimed steep slope contour mine.
Shown in this figure is an ungraded steep slope contour mine.
This Illustration, typical of past contour surface mining techniques in
Appalachia, depicts the remnants of the "shoot and shove" methodology.
Overburden was blasted and pushed over the low wall, inconsiderate of
associated environmental problems such as extensive sedimentation of
streams this illustration depicts a two-seam mine. HIghwalls are left and
pioneer vegetative species are beginning to proliferate.
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Figure 2. Unreclaimed modified area mine.
This figure depicts a typical abandoned modified area mine. Such
mines have received essentially no reclamation at all. This illustration
displays several rows of ungraded spoil banks, no vegetation and a totally
exposed hfghwalI. The multiple spoil banks result from the ability of the
miner, in most shallow slope areas, to make a number of strip "cuts" or
passes along the hlghwalI before the strip ratio becomes uneconomical Iy
high. The picture also shows a water impoundment, which is common In many
unreclaimed surface mines. The pool often fills the final cut and very
often is acidic.
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Abandoned Underground Mines
Historically, abandoned underground mines have been the source of
the most serious abandoned mined land related environmental and health and
safety problems. The most prevalent of these problems are surface subsi-
dence and the existence of unsealed mine openings.
Subsidence, which is caused when natural or artificial supports
employed in underground mining fall, is a health and safety hazard to
nearly all developed land uses. Industrial, commercial, institutional,
and residential uses are generally incompatible with subsiding or subsi-
dence-prone areas unless special planning and/or structural design mea-
sures are implemented. Backfilling of subsidence-prone areas prior to
subsidence is the most effective means of achieving land surface sta-
bilIty.
Open mine portals and shafts, of which there are many thousands
throughout Appalachla, are safety hazards and are frequently sources of
acid mine drainage. Reclamation Involves the closure of entries and other
openings using any number of materials - concrete, timber, earth, rocks,
bricks, and grout. Improper sealing Is also a major problem where the
sealed mines inundate with water imposing unexpected pressure on the seals
with subsequent failures and seal blowouts.
Abandoned Refuse Disposal Sites
Nearly all abandoned waste banks and impoundments are potential
health and safety hazards. Slides and Impoundment failures have a history
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of causing significant downstream damage. These problems are particularly
visible In the steep slopes of central Appalachla, where so many of the
old sites were developed on steep mountain hillsides (Figure 3) and are
now slipping and Infringing upon adjacent stream channels.
Figure 3. Refuse pile on steep slope.
REFUSE
ORIGINAL GROUND LINE
Scale: 1 In. = 3OO ft.
Reclamation of such areas generally Involves leveling or reducing
the slopes, grading and compacting of the waste material to blend with the
surrounding landscape. Unless topsoiled, vegetation is extremely diffi-
cult to estabI ish - the dark refuse is often toxic and heats up tremen-
dously in the full sun. A commonly used alternative to in-place reclama-
tion of smaller refuse sites Is complete removal of unstable material and
redeposition on a more stable site such as an abandoned strip pit or an
abandoned underground mine. In addition, when the refuse material Is
burning, quenching may be required for extinguishment prior to reclama-
tion.
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Unused tipples and cleaning plants are often associated with
abandoned refuse sites. Such structures may be hazards because of struc-
tural instability, easy access (improper closure), or simply because of
proximity to populated areas. As such they are important when considering
institutional, residential or recreational uses for adjacent sites.
Acid Mine Drainage
Acid drainage from abandoned underground and surface mines
strongly impacts numerous streams and rivers throughout Appalachia.
Treatment requirements greatly increase user costs for industrial, munic-
ipal and residential water users. Recreation potentials are also lessened
by the presence of acid drainage.
Mine sealing, drainage diversion, and treatment are the primary
control and abatement measures that are utilized.
Land Uses for Abandoned Mine Sites
Prior to enactment of today's comprehensive reclamation laws and
regulations, land use on mined land was determined chiefly by the mine
operators and/or landowners with little or no planning involved. In the
case of abandoned mined lands with no or limited reclamation, operators
implemented few land uses beyond simple tree planting. Most sites were
abandoned with no intended final land uses. However, federal and state
reclamation programs are now reclaiming these unreclaimed disturbed areas
to a variety of land uses.
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Specific examples may be found of abandoned mines reclaimed to
recreation uses such as swimming, boating, fishing, picnicing, camping,
and off-road vehicle usage, as well as more developed uses such as housing
and industrial park developments. Following is a partial list of land use
options and the reclamation methods which would be required to properly
implement those land uses.
Land Use
Crop Iands
Pasture!and
Range I and
Wildl ife Areas
Ponds
Housing
Stream Restoration
Reclamation
Grading to nearly level topography,
segregation and burial of large
rocks, spreading finer material and
organic matter on surface, providing
adequate drainage control, soil con-
ditioning and planting.
Grading for proper drainage and slope
not exceeding 15 percent to permit
safe use of equipment to harvest for-
age crops, soil spreading and condi-
tioning, and planting.
Strike-off grading, impoundment
formations, planting.
Some grading, erosion controls,
drainage controls, water hole and
wetlands development, access road
building, and game food planting.
Some grading, erosion and sediment
controIs.
Intensive grading, compacting ma-
terial, soil spreading and condi-
tioning, erosion and sediment con-
trols and some planting.
Stream bank grading, erosion and
sediment control measures, spawning
area development, and rip-rapping.
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land Use/Development Implications
Abandoned mined lands present much of the Appalachian Region with
a potentially developable land resource. Factors such as site location,
land values, costs of required reclamation and the availability of unmined
developable land regionally and locally determine the extent to which
these lands will be utilized for development.
Site Location
Many abandoned mined areas are in close proximity to Appalachian
population centers (i.e., Norton, Va.; Hazard, Ky.), major highways, and
navigable waterways. Therefore, many of the infrastructure elements and
development demands necessary for utilization of such sites are present
throughout Appalachia. However, many other sites will likely never be
considered for development as they are not easily accessible or are far
removed from population centers with few or no viable transportation
routes.
Land Values
The high availability and low per acre cost of abandoned mined
lands is often the most attractive consideration In assessing the utility
of such lands for various development options. Much of this land is
available at costs far below the costs for adjacent unmined areas. For
example, a previous study (Skelly and Loy 1975) found abandoned mined
lands in central Pennsylvania were valued at less than $100/acre and land
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suitable for residential development $2,500/acre and up. The same study
showed unmined steep slope areas in central Appalachia to have low land
values ($100-$500/acre) but flat developable lands In proximity to devel-
opments often cost $10,000 to $20,000/acre. Relatively flat unreclaimed
areas were essentially worthless because of location and/or high site
development costs.
Reclamation Costs
Prior to site development, nearly all abandoned mined lands re-
quire some degree of reclamation. The nature and extent of the problems
that are present will determine the reclamation/abatement methods and
costs that will be required. Johnson and Miller (1979) and Skelly and Loy
(1978) present the following generalized reclamation cost ranges for
typical abandoned mined lands.
Abandoned surface mines range - $1,600 to $14,000/acre
median - $7,700/acre
Subsidence control median - $30,000/acre
Mine opening sealing range - $5,000 to $45,000/seal
median - $20,000/seal
Refuse sites range - $5,000* to $500,000/acre**
*regradJng and revegetatlon
**removal, transport and stabll-
Ization
Mine drainage median - $.04/cu. ft. of water
treated
It must be noted that problems such as mine drainage and subsi-
dence are not generally restricted to readily definable sites and may be
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encountered on properly reclaimed sites or sites with no surface mining.
Such sites may be severely Impacted or rendered unsuitable for development
because upstream off-site mined areas may be causing stream sedimentation
and flooding, slides, and polluted surface water flows or because adjacent
mined areas render the unaffected site inaccessible. Therefore, a proper
accounting of abandoned mined land problems should include adjacent off-
site problems as well as the more definable on-site problems.
Land Aval lab 11 ity
The availability of unmined or reclaimed land for development is
also a significant determinant of the eventual utility of abandoned mine
sites. The high investments that are often required for abandoned mine
reclamation and site development are difficult to offset given the pres-
ence of developable land. However, abatement of environmental problems
and health and safety hazards not provision of new developable land is
usually the driving force behind in the planned reclamation.
Many abandoned mine sites will be utilized for various intensive
land uses In the future. Location, land value and availability, and the
availability of other developable land are all primary determinants of
site suitab11Ity/potential utility. However, reclamation represents the
single greatest cost that Is incurred In preparing abandoned mine sites
for development. This reclamation will generally be accomplished through
one of the various federal and state reclamation programs or following new
active mining on abandoned sites for additional resource recovery. Spe-
cific elements of these reclamation programs as they relate to land use
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decision-making on mined lands are addressed In the section of the report
entitled "Institutional Framework."
In summary, this discussion has presented a brief overview of
abandoned mined land associated environmental problems. A number of these
problems are obviously key land use feasibility determinants on sites In
which they occur. The specific characteristics which are to be Incorpo-
rated into the land use decision methodology are included later in this
section of the report.
Current Reclamation Requirements
By legislative mandate, reclamation is now incorporated into the
mining operation. Timing, operational specifications, and design criteria
for regrading, revegetation, special reclamation problems (i.e., water
control structures) and land use selection are the cornerstone of PL
95-87, the federal regulations, and state regulations that are currently
being enacted to comply with that law. Following are the provisions in
these regulations that appear to most strongly impact land use selection
and development plans for mined land sites. Specific Implications of
these provisions are then addressed in the section following this dis-
cussion.
Requirements for backfilling and regrading stipulate the timing
and methodology to be used In eliminating all spoil piles, hlghwalls, and
depressions concurrently with mine progression. These rules mandate that
rough backfilling and grading following coal removal must be accomplished
within 60 days or 1500 linear feet of the advancing face for contour strip
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mines, and 180 days or within four spoil ridges of the active mine pit for
area mining operations.
Regulations state that the backfilled materials are to be placed
and graded In a controlled manner, In order that all disturbed areas shall
be returned to their approximate original contour. These tasks are to be
accomplI shed In such a manner as to protect the hydro I ogle conditions on
or off the site area, ensure stability and support the proposed post-
mining use. The post-mining backfilled areas are not required to be of
uniform slope.
Mine operators are also required to cover all remaining exposed
coal seams and acid-forming toxic-form ing, combustible, or any other ma-
terials as identified by the authority, with a minimum of four feet of
cover. The materials used as cover are to be of a non-toxic and noncom-
bustible form. In order to prevent water pollution and sustained combus-
tion, and to minimize adverse effects on plant growth and land uses,
treatment of materials before covering may be required by the regulatory
authority. Where deemed necessary, a thicker layer of cover, special
compaction or isolation from groundwater contact may be required. These
actions prevent upward migration of salts, exposure by erosion, and for-
mation of acid or toxic seeps; and they provide an adequate soil depth for
plant growth. The storage or burial of acid or toxIc-formIng materials
near a drainage course is prohibited because of possible water pollution.
Reclaimed slopes cannot exceed approximate pre-mlnlng slopes or
any approved lesser slopes. The slope need not be uniform, but it should
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approximate pre-minlng topography. Approximate original contour is de-
fined or calculated by measuring the slope inclination of areas to be
mined for a zone extending 100 feet above the highwall, and 100 feet below
the coal outcrop. If the area to be mined was previously disturbed, the
100 foot measurement should extend from the toe of the disturbance on the
downslope to 100 feet above the disturbed area on the highwall side. The
average slope may be calculated as a slope Inclination as follows:
Average slope ($) = VeMJ^aldlfference OQ wnere
3 K Horizontal distance
vertical difference and horizontal distance are for points 100
feet above and below the area to be mined or existing disturbed
area.
Slope measurements may also account for natural variations in
slope. Exact measurements are not required. In addition, topographic
maps (at least 5 foot contour interval, 1" - 100' scale) may be utilized
to realistically estimate slope values. More general maps do not provide
sufficient detail to estimate slope and may compound problems, since
slopes are often much steeper than suggested by maps.
Special regrading conditions may apply in the following situ-
ations.
Surface mining activities are reaffecting previously
mined areas that have not been restored In compliance
with new standards;
. Thick overburden contour and modified area mining
situations;
Steep slope contour mines; and
. Mountaintop removal mining.
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Stipulations for previously affected mine areas require the re-
tention of all overburden and spoil on the solid portion of the new or ex-
isting benches. Thus, this provision could aid the operator, since the
existing bench may be utilized as excess spoil storage, saving the time,
labor, and expense of developing a new storage area. The operator can
benefit from reaffecting a previously abandoned mine, for he will ulti-
mately improve the disturbed area, and therefore establish better rela-
tions with both the authority and the public. Backfilling and grading for
the reaffected areas should be accomplished to the most moderate slope
possible while eliminating the hlghwall. The angle of repose, or such
lesser slope as may be required to achieve a static safety factor of 1.3,
should not be exceeded.
The operator who decides to reaffect a previous strip mine may
also be permitted to construct a terraced final grade line. In this case,
the authority permits cut-and-fill terraces to be constructed in order to
conserve soil moisture, ensure stability and control erosion. The ter-
races must be compatible with post-mining land use and an appropriate sub-
stitute for construction of lesser grade slopes. Maximum terrace widths
are set at 20 feet, while the vertical distance between terraces will be
specified by the regulatory authority to provide for optimum long-term
stability and erosion control. Greater bench widths as necessary for sta-
bility, erosion control, or roads included as part of the post-mining
plan, must be approved by the regulatory authority. The terrace outslopes
are limited to 1v:2h, although greater slopes may be constructed with
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authority approval, provided a minimum static safety factor of 1,3 can be
obtained.
Figure 4 illustrates final cut-and-fill terrace construction
requirements.
Figure 4. Terrace method backfilling.
: Original Ground
No Scale
Backfill
Surface
Downslope
Spoilage From
Previous Mining
COAL
SEAM
Wt = Width of Terrace (Max. 2O')
h = Vertical Distance Between
Terraces
Wp = Width of Pit
H - Height of Highwall
The use of culverts or underground rock drains on the terrace is
only permitted with the approval of the regulatory authority. However,
small depressions, if approved by the regulatory authority, may be con-
structed to minimize erosion, conserve soil moisture or promote vegeta-
tion. These depressions must not restrict normal access and shalI not be
used as substitutes for lower grades on the reclaimed lands. Also, the
final grading and preparation of overburden before and during the place-
ment of topsofl shall be accomplished in such a manner as to minimize
erosion and provide stability.
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Very detailed standards for revegetation are included in the
final federal regulations. The intent of these standards Is to ensure
that mine reclamation results in a "diverse, effective and permanent"
vegetative cover of native or introduced plant species that supports the
approved post-mining land use. Major provisions under revegetation stan-
dards require that:
. revegetation must be in compliance with a plan approved
by the regulatory authority;
all disturbed land must be seeded with or planted to
achieve a vegetative cover the same as the season
variety native to the area;
the vegetative cover must stabilize the disturbed land
to prevent erosion;
introduced species may be used only when approved by
the regulatory authority;
seeding and planting must be done during the first
normal period for favorable planting conditions after
final preparation;
. mulch or an approved temporary cover of small grains or
grasses is required to control erosion and promote
germination; and
livestock grazing on revegetated land must at least
Include the last two years of the liability period.
Minimum criteria for determining the success of revegetation of
mine sites, which is a primary requisite for bond release, are included in
the regulations. The regulations specify that ground cover and produc-
tivity at least be equal to that of an undisturbed reference area. Equal
productivity is defined as 90 percent of the ground cover or productivity
of the reference area.
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A pre-mlnlng inventory of trees, shrubs and half shrubs must be
conducted for the reference areas according to methods approved by the
regulatory authority. At a minimum, this inventory must include:
site qual ity
. stand size
. site and species relationships
forest land utilization considerations
The results of this study will form the basis for determining the
success of revegetation at the time of bond release.
For mines in Appalachia (more than 26 inches of annual precipita-
tion) equal cover and productivity must be maintained each year for a per-
iod of five (5) consecutive years after the last year of revegetation.
Variances to the equal productivity criteria can be granted by the regu-
latory authority under three conditions:
ground cover on previously mined areas must not be less
than that which can be supported by the best available
topsoil and overburden;
revegetation on areas to be developed for industrial or
residential use within 2 years must provide ground
cover sufficient only to control erosion; and
revegetation success In cropland is based on yield.
SmalI operations with permit areas less than 40 acres and annual
precipitation more than 26 Inches are granted a variance from meeting the
equal cover and productivity criteria. Under these variances, vegetation
reference areas are not required. However, areas planted in herbaceous
species must sustain a vegetative ground cover of 70 percent for five (5)
consecutive years. If the area Is planted with a mixture of woody and
herbaceous species, It must sustain a vegetative ground cover of 70 per-
cent and 400 woody plants per acre after five (5) years.
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Mining, Reclamation and Land Use Planning
In addition to requirements for environmental control and assured
long-term mine site stability, the new regulations present a number of new
land use planning requirements. Land use plans must now be developed with
the following considerations:
The proposed land use is compatible with adjacent land
uses and applicable local, state and federal land use
pians.
. The land use Is feasible as determined by regional land
use trends and markets.
. Commitment is obtained for construction of required
public facilities and utility Infrastructure.
. Plans, supporting plan documentation, and If required
supporting letters of commitment are submitted.
Plans are developed under supervision of a professional
engIneer.
The proposed use presents no probable health, safety or
pollution potential.
. No unreasonable delays in reclamation will result.
Measures for minimizing effects on important environ-
mental values (i.e., endangered species) are developed.
. Required management must be compatible with other ap-
plicable federal, state and local laws and regulations.
In addition, soil conditions and water availability
must be suitable for the proposed land use and manage-
ment practices.
Reclamation land use plan compatibility Is a critical considera-
tion in plan development and regulatory agency review and approval. Com-
patiblility must take Into account on-slte conditions such as soil produc-
tivity, soil mechanics, topography, vegetation, and surface and subsurface
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hydrology. Plan documentation must also include the site's past produc-
tivity and potentials after reclamation. Productivity must be estimated
based on site yield histories (most importantly for agriculture or yield
estimates) histories for adjacent sites with similar conditions. If a
mine site was previously mined, and the information Is available, the site
reclamation plan documentation must discuss the impacts of this past min-
ing, extent of resource recovery, and land uses preceding past mining ac-
tivity.
Where subdivision or zoning ordinances and/or comprehensive plans
exist, plan compatibility Is determined by conformance to those documents.
In addition, compatibility Is also a function of the extent of potential
functional conflicts between proposed land uses and the surrounding exist-
ing land uses.
Two additional Important requirements mandate documentation of
private or public site developer/entrepeneur commitments to implementing
proposed land use plans. First, available resources must be outlined to
document the financial feasibility of the proposed project. Secondly,
required commitments of public resources must also be documented in full.
Currently, the most frequently implemented post-mining land uses
in Appalachla are pasture/hayland and agriculture. In addition, forestry
and fish and wildlife habitat development are also significant. However,
there are numerous examples of intensive land uses being developed on sur-
face mined lands. For example, following is a partial list of land use
developments that have occurred on mined lands In West Virginia.
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LAND USE
LOCATION
COMMERCIAL LAND USES
1. Airport
2. Airport
3. Sanitary LandfiI I
4. Airport
5. Deep Mining Complex
6. Deep Mining Complex
7. Coal Preparation Plant
8. SawmiI I
9. Sawmill
10. CanneI ton Farms
11. Apple Orchard
LAND USE
II. HOUSING
1. Residential Developments
2. Residential Developments
(With private airfield)
3. Residential Developments
4. Residential Development
(Rush Creek)
5. Mobile Home Park
6. Mob Ile Home Park
III. PUBLIC FACILITIES
1. County Airport & Complex
2. Consolidated High School &
Vocational/Athletic Complex
3. Consol[dated High School
WiI Iiamson
Logan
Logan
Hazard
Bui I Creek
Upshur County
Kayford
Walkersvtlle
Preston County
Ward
Buffalo
LOCATION
Beckley
Corrine
Peach Creek
Rush Creek
Buckhannon
Os age
Logan
Welch
Coal City
Implications for Land Use Decision-Making
The mining and reclamation methods that are currently mandated
and practiced through Appalachia are critical determinants of the eventual
developabi1 ity of mined land sites. Mining method determines the size,
duration and spatial progression of the operation. It also strongly In-
fluences reclaimed acreages, the mine's location In the landscape (i.e.,
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side hill vs. mountalntop), and the configuration of the final reclaimed
site. For example, mountaintop removal operations result in large flat to
gently rolling tracts of reclaimed land. Excess spoil is deposited in
stable fills. Often hundreds of acres of land are mined and reclaimed
during the life of these operations.
Likewise, small contour operations result in bands of reclaimed
land that progress around hillsides and mountain slopes on contour. The
majority of the overburden is returned to the mined area approximating the
pre-mining topography of the site. Terraced slopes are often graded for
environmental control and provision of flat land for continued existence
of haul road that may be required for maintenance of the operation. Such
sites are often very narrow (80'-100f) interconnecting for many miles.
Following is a brief summary outline of mining and reclamation
considerations in assessing the eventual development potentials of these
sites.
1. Regrad ing
A. In steep slope regions - reclaimed mountaintop
removal sites present the greatest opportunities
for recreational, agricultural and intensive land
use development. In particular, cross-ridge mined
sites provide considerable design flexibility, as
large amounts of developable space can be supplied
by spoil disposal in valley fills. Regional aes-
thetics can also be heightened by creatively back-
stacking spoil on the excavated bench. In addi-
tion, on many sites, such operations may be de-
signed to alleviate a recurring AML reclamation
problem by reclaiming abandoned contour stripping
as part of the operation in a fashion suitable for
desired long-term land use development.
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B. Steep slope contour mines offer few real develop-
ment opportunities beyond forestry, pasture and
wildlife management. On bench backfilling re-
quirements are such that very little gently slop-
ing land results when these sites are reclaimed to
the letter of the law. Reaffectlng abandoned con-
tour cuts is the primary exception as such opera-
tions are generally reclaimed to partial or ter-
raced backfill configurations, increasing the
amounts of available flat land.
C. In gently rolling to hilly landscapes nearly all
properly reclaimed surface mines are developable.
Where smalI contour mines (5 to 20 acre mines are
common) are involved, these areas may be readily
linked to adjacent unmined areas creating larger
developable parcels. Modified area operations
which are prevalent in such conditions generally
involve large acreages and therefore may present
significant development opportunities. However,
such regions generally possess other non-mined
developable land.
D. With the stringent environmental control mandates
of PL 95-87, many of the environmental and health
and safety problems associated with surface mining
are no longer of critical concern. For example,
the potential for encountering unsafe hlghwalls,
unplanned impounded water, toxic spoil on the sur-
face, and ungraded spoil on reclaimed mine sites
Is now virtually nonexistent. However, if a site
was also deep mined in the past then unsealed mine
openings, mine drainage, subsidence-prone areas,
and mine seals with potential for leakage or blow-
out may be present. In addition, unsafe/environ-
mentally unsound conditions may be present above
or upstream from properly reclaimed sites. There-
fore, the reclamation of adjacent areas, as well
as the deep mining history of a given site may be
as critical as the site's reclamation in determin-
ing the development potential of a reclaimed mine
site.
2. Revegetatlon
The success of revegetatlon efforts Is determined
by conformance to cover and productivity stan-
dards. Mined areas proposed for development such
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as developed land uses, cropland, fish and wild-
life management, and forest land may be eligible
for exemptions to vegetation productivity require-
ments. However, the establishment of ground
covers suitable for soil stabilization and erosion
control is required. As such, vegetative mixes
that are appropriate for the selected land use may
be pi anted.
3. Special Reclamation Requirements
Pertinent requirements include standards for con-
struction of permanent roads and environmental
control facilities such as stream diversions and
Impoundments. Permanent roads must be surfaced
and plowed, stepped and keyed on steep slopes.
Roads must not significantly contribute to site
erosion and sedimentation during and after recla-
mation.
Water features must comply with a number of de-
sign, construction and maintenance regulatory pro-
visions. Water quality and flow, safety and pub-
Iic access must be addressed on development of
mine reclamation plans.
Areas within a site that may be particularly prone
to rilling and gullying must be managed and reme-
dial work done as required until these areas are
a I so stab Ie.
4. Land Use Planning
All proposed land uses must be at least as inten-
sive as the pre-mining land use. Land use selec-
tion criteria Include compatib11 ity, feasibility,
economics, planning considerations and potential
impacts. These have been traditional concerns In
land planning and development, but are relatively
new to mining and reclamation planning.
Feasibility must be documented with evidence of
private and/or public sector commitments for im-
plementation of the proposed plan.
In summary, many reclaimed mine sites in Appalachia present op-
portunities for development. Current mining, reclamation and environ-
mental control standards ensure the availability of stable, manageable.
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environmentally viable reclaimed mine sites. In particular, mountaintop
removal sites in steep slope regions offer significant development oppor-
tun ities.
Procedurally, consideration of mine sites as potential sites for
development requires a continuing awareness of mining and reclamation ac-
tivities in the region or area of interest. The majority of regional and
local public bodies may accomplish this by monitoring and reviewing mining
and reclamation permit applications as they are submitted for approval.
In this way site reclamation and development options may be examined and
potentially affected as such opportunities arise. (Specific methods for
this will be discussed later.)
Likewise, regulatory compliance is the principle prerequisite for
mining companies, landowners, and developers who plan any type of devel-
opment or site utilization strategy involving a mined land site or sites.
A FRAMEWORK FOR LAND USE DECISION MAKING
A framework for a selection and evaluation of potential land uses
for abandoned, reclaimed and potential mine sites is presented in this
discussion. The framework is structured as a six stage process. The
vehicle for technical implementation of the framework Is a matrix which
addresses the major factors (discussed in previous sections) which deter-
mine the developabiI ity of mined sites for specific land uses. Figure 5
displays this framework, and its various parts are described in the fol-
lowing discussions. The supporting matrix will also be presented and de-
scribed later in this section.
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The elements included In this framework dictate development of a
planning data base, since different levels of regional, local, and site
information explicitly feed into the process at every level. It should be
pointed out, however, that this framework is not a technically complex
procedure requiring new research or generation of expensive new data. It
is intended only to provide decision makers and planners a tool for de-
cision-making based on readily obtainable or existing data.
Basis for Development of the Framework
This framework for land use decision-making was developed with
explicit consideration of the following three points:
1. The framework should be suitable for addressing two
important types of land use decisions specifically for
mined lands.
. What are the optimum land uses for particular mine
sites?
What are the optimal mine sites in a particular
area or region for subsequently developing a par-
ticular land use?
2. The framework should address decision-making for the
major land use decision types - preservation, pro-
tection, development, reclamation and management.
3. The framework should address the five general groups
of site suitability criteria discussed earlier in this
section as being integral to effective land use deci-
slon-maki ng.
Site environmental characteristics
Infrastructure characteristics
Environmental hazards
. Development Impacts
Institutional concerns
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In addition, a number of other factors guided the development of
this decision framework. For example, the methodology was explicitly de-
veloped as a simple practical system usable by local planning/economic
development agencies and organizations. Secondly, it is tailored toward
mountainous areas typical of Appalachia where topography Is a primary de-
velopment constraint. Thirdly, the framework Includes an environmental
assessment component to enable any proposed project to be evaluated within
a framework of Impact assessment.
With these factors explicitly considered, the framework, as
presented in Figure 5, was developed for mined I and/land use decision-
making. Following are descriptions of the major components of this frame-
work.
Figure 5. Land use decision methodology.
Feedback and Reiteration
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Identified Development Needs
The first component In this process Is an assessment of the de-
velopment needs for the planning area. It Is assumed that the ongoing
planning process of organizations utilizing this framework will define the
development needs for their planning area. Specific programs funded by
HUD, FmHA, EDA, ARC and other agencies have narrowed development needs to
be addressed during a particular planning period. For example, housing
needs may be the highest priority in the steep slope Appalachian region of
Kentucky. Therefore, this land use decision framework may be directed
toward analysis of housing development on mine lands.
Data base needs for this initial level of analysis are Economic
Development Plans, Local Land Use Plans, Comprehensive Plans and other in-
formation which explicitly denote the development goals of the planning
area.
Identification of Principle Constraints
This second element actually Involves a general analysis to
identify environmental constraints which pertain to development of land.
These include factors such as floodplalns, steep slope areas, and land-
scape features or characteristics that are regionally significant because
of recognized resource conservation or hazard avoidance considerations.
Existing inventory and planning data and mapping will generally
permit ready Identification of these concerns. For example, regional
floodplaln maps would suffice for Identifying floodplaln boundaries. In
addition to floodplalns and steep slopes, other such areas may Include
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regionally significant wetland areas, scenic areas, already built up land,
and areas with such obvious poor accessibility that Immediate development
potential is Iimited.
General Site Screening
Those areas not In conflict with principle development con-
straints are to be further narrowed in this stage of analysis. This ele-
ment of the framework involves the first actual look at mined land sites.
The focus will be on planned, active, reclaimed, and abandoned sites.
Data for active or proposed mining may be obtained from the state
mining regulatory agency. As part of permit review, planning agencies are
able to review surface mine permit applications for compliance with land
use plans. Once mining or a mine plan has been Identified, described, and
located, it may be examined in the context of a potential reclamation/
development project.
A difficult but essential analysis is determining the potential
minability of currently unmlned sites or the remlning potential of part-
ially mined sites. State geologic surveys and mining regulatory agencies
may be of assistance in determining the physical suitability of sites for
future underground and surface mining. However, much of the data which is
utilized to actually make such determinations is proprietary data which is
guarded by the mining companies. Therefore, often only general assess-
ments of minability may be completed.
This determination is important to minimize potential conflicts
between future coal recovery and site development planning. In general it
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should be assumed that future plans will be developed for mining reserves
for all areas which are currently mlnable, marginally mlnable or mlnable
in the future given likely new extraction technologies or improved econom-
ics, such a cautious approach would minimize future land development/coal
extraction confllets.
With the recent advent of a national program for the reclamation
of abandoned mine lands, intensive mapping efforts will be undertaken in
the early 1980's to identify AMI sites for reclamation funding. All major
AMI features including any underground mine workings should be located
during this inventory. Site priorities in the state AML reclamation pro-
gram will also be noted. This priority determination will be made by the
AML designated agency once the inventories have been completed. High
priority sites, based on the states' selection criteria may be Identified
since they are to be prime candidates for AML reclamation funding.
The State AML Reclamation Agencies are also trying to identify
sites which may be suitable for additional mining rather than reclama-
tion. This analysis is an essential element In their project priorl-
tization and selection procedures.
Institutional Constraints
This element of the framework is directed toward Institutional
constraints and/or Incentives to land use development. Institutional con-
straints and/or incentives are defined as public sector plans, programs,
or policies which affect land use decisions. There are numerous plans.
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policies, and programs at federal, state, and local levels of government
which will affect decisions regarding development of mine sites.
Development of abandoned mines to a productive land use will re-
quire less institutional Interaction than will be required to develop ac-
tive or future mines. Since abandoned mines already exist, they are not
necessarily in conflict with future development or comprehensive plans.
If there are conflicts, they are probably to be remedied by site develop-
ment if, in fact, the plan calls for expansion of certain land uses into
the mined region. An example might be Industrial park siting In an aban-
doned mine area. However, since future mining Is not conceptualized yet
for a given site, that site may play an alternative or conflicting role in
a regional comprehensive plan, zoning code, scenic or natural area desig-
nation or a site which has been declared "unsuitable for mining" under
Section 522 of PL 95-87. These examples represent local, state, and fed-
eral institutional constraints to active or future mine development. Data
sources to be reviewed for this level of analysis Include:
Comprehensive Plans
Zoning Ordinances
. "522" Petitioned Areas (Lands Unsuitable for Mining)
. Wild and Scenic Rivers Designations
Other Natural Areas Designations
Review of these documents and designations will not always pre-
clude mining and development, but may provide an Incentive for development
of a mine site to a state which puts it in harmony with planned uses or
designations of adjacent or other local sites. For example, an abandoned
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or active contour mine on a slope which overlooks a scenic valley, may be
reclaimed to enhance the tourist potential of a scenic overlook and recre-
ation area. Mining may also provide the excavation activity for indus-
trial site development or to another extreme - a sanitary landfill or
toxic waste disposal site (given the requisite other environmental condi-
tions) .
Detailed Site Analysis
Once specific candidate sites have been identified, detailed in-
formation regarding site conditions must be evaluated. Depending on past
(or present) mining techniques and other factors, conditions of a site may
limit certain development considerations. Problems caused by the myriad
potential site conditions may deter any type of development, whereas cer-
tain conditions may not affect the considerations. Unpolluted water in an
abandoned mine, for example, may prove to be an incentive to recreation
development, while it may also be a deterrent to residential development.
Following is a listing of parameters which are recognized as the
major environmental problems associated with mined lands. The list re-
flects nearly the total range of frequently encountered environmental
hazards. Most of these parameters were also discussed in detail in pre-
vious active mining and abandoned mine descriptive discussions.
- unsealed mine openings
- polluted mine drainage
- subsidence hazard
- blowout hazard
highwalI
impounded water
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- spoil configuration
- toxic spoil on surface
- vegetation
- overburden (% sandstone)
- refuse piles (condition)
- refuse piles (acreage)
- structures
These parameters must be identified during a detailed mine site
environmental problems analysis. The specific organization of and methods
for performing this analysis are also described in the Appendix.
RecIamatIon/DeveIopment Requ i rements
Complementing site analysis is the development of reclamation/
development requirements. These requirements should include a generic
reclamation design (e.g., contour reclamation with all spoil to head-of-
hollow fill). This reclamation scheme must be analyzed with respect to
the designation for the final land use to assure that the reclamation and
development were compatible. This analysis should be done by a civil
engineer and would involve only a cursory study of the proposed plan.
Impact Analysis
An impact analysis of a proposed reclamation/development plan in-
volves a two-stage approach. Initially, a sensitivity analysis evaluation
should be conducted. Site plans should be varied to note if the final
evaluation score can be improved. Once a proposed reclamation option has
been refined through a sensitivity analysis, an environmental impact as-
sessment must be conducted. This assessment would include a description
of how each characteristic of site evaluation matrix was evaluated. This
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description would provide all the necessary background materials: de-
scription of study area, description of existing environment, and descrip-
tion of proposed action. A standard analysis of primary and secondary
impacts can then occur focusing on the relationship between the local
short-term use of the site and the maintenance and enhancement of the
long-term productivity and amenity of the region. Gonformance with Coun-
cil of Environmental Quality guidelines would be required. These assess-
ments must be done on a site specific basis and should be prepared by a
disinterested "third party" agency or contractor.
Environmental assessment procedures are well documented in a
number of sources:
Golden, Ouellette, Sarri, and Cheremisinoff, Environ-
mental Impact Data Book, 1979.
Jain, Urban, and Stacey, Environmental Impact Analysis,
1977.
Heer and Hagerty, Environmental Assessments and State-
ments, 1977.
Reference to these documents will assure that all relevant issues are ad-
dressed. Specific application of the Environmental Statements submitted
by OSM for Title IV and Title V programs will also provide generic assess-
ments for the relevant issues.
Implementation
Implementation of the land use decision technique is the deci-
sion-making element of the recommended management framework presented In a
later section of this report. Its use by a publ ic agency is thus struc-
tured within a project formulation, analysis and grant funding system.
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Institutional frameworks in which the LUDM would likely be useful are
presented in a later section of this report.
The Land Use Decision Matrix
As introduced, the LUDM is intended to serve as a framework not
as a hard and fast procedure. The framework could be utilized using any
of many specific analysis tools such as overlay maps, flowcharts, PERT,
and matrix displays. This section describes a matrix which has been de-
veloped for analysis; the chief analysis components in the LUDM. These
components include a: general site screening, identifying possible
project institutional constraints, and a detailed site analysis. This
matrix is illustrated in Figure 6.
Selection of Matrix Parameters
The matrix which has been developed utilizes regional and site
analysis parameters which are both meaningful and reasonably evaluated for
completing the required analyses. Selection of these parameters was based
on the following criteria.
First, the state-of-the-art review was utilized to identify im-
portant site land use suitability determinants. These parameters must
address detailed site characteristics, possible institutional constraints,
the regional Infrastructure, hazards, and potential environmental impacts.
Secondly, abandoned mined lands literature was used to Identify
the surface mine, deep mine, coal refuse, and mine drainage characteris-
tics which are potential determinants of site developab11Ity.
- 72 -
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- 73 -
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Thirdly, current mining and reclamation methods were reviewed to
identify pertinent site characteristics which are also key indicators of
development feasibility.
Based on these three criteria, the following site parameters were
selected for inclusion in the matrix.
. Site Screening
- site acreage
- most narrow site width
- flooding hazard
- slope hazard
adjacent to active surface mine
adjacent to active underground mine
- proximity to incorporated area
adjacent to highway
- adjacent to railroad
- adjacent to pub I ic water/sewer
access to river
- access to recreation water
Institutional Constraints
- comprehensive plan
- zonIng
- "522" designation/status
Environmental/Health and Safety Problems
unsealed mine openings
- polluted mine drainage
subsidence hazard
- blowout hazard
- highwall
impounded water
- spoil configuration
toxic spoil on surface
- vegetation
- overburden (% sandstone)
- refuse piles (condition)
- refuse piles (acreage)
- structures
- 74 -
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It should be noted that the above list and the matrix as pre-
sented in Figure 6 are focused chiefly on abandoned mined land site
parameters. This is because properly reclaimed sites present fewer de-
velopment obstacles. In addition, the LUDM is intended to be a flexible
planning tool. Different situations or application contexts will cer-
tainly warrant modification to the parameters which are included in the
matrix. For example, if application to only active rather than abandoned
sites is to be stressed, then a number of the abandoned mine site param-
eters may be omitted (i.e., abandoned structures) and additional more ap-
propriate parameters substituted to reflect the conditions which are more
likely to be encountered on active mine sites. Such active/reclaimed site
parameters would include soil permeability, slopes, soil shrInk-swell po-
tentials, depth to groundwater, etc. - traditional site land use analysis
parameters. In summary, the LUDM is intended to function as a flexible
framework rather than a collection of etched-in-stone site parameters
which will not fit every site/planning situation.
Each of these parameters are defined (assigned) value within the
matrix. Parameters have been structured in a straightforward, unambiguous
manner to allow operational ease in application.
Criteria are given scores of 0-2 depending on the magnitude of
the problem or opportunity. This score is multiplied by the relative
weighting factor for a final score. Once all parameters affecting site
development have been scored and weighted, a final summation score can be
determined. This system can be used to evaluate one site's potential for
development relative to another site.
- 75 -
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It should be noted that the relative weightings are constructed
to evaluate how each factor Imposes negative considerations on each poten-
tial or proposed land use. Involved in these negative considerations are
engineering construction costs, hazards associated with use, infrastruc-
ture! costs, and aesthetic disamenities. Positive considerations are
largely political in nature because this is a pub Iic program to supplement
(or modify) private sector development. These considerations must be
taken into account at the "identified development needs" stage discussed
earlier.
Weighting factors have been assigned to each type of land use de-
velopment. The weighting factor represents the magnitude of the mine land
problem for one type of land use versus another type of land use. For ex-
ample the impact of having unsealed deep mine openings would be greater
on housing development than on returning land to forest or agriculture.
Likewise a factor such as slope is certainly more crucial to identifying
sites suitable for intensive agriculture than for pasture lands (as con-
ventional farm equipment is limited to slopes of less than 18$). As cur-
rently structured, the system does not address potential differences in
the importance these factors may assume in a particular region or locale
(I.e., the relative scarcity of availability of less than 18/K slopes in a
particular region). Likewise as it is presently structured the matrix
does not explicitly address differences in the demand for alternative or
competing land uses.
- 76 -
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Rather than specifically address such site specific conditions it
is felt that such parameters, weightings and evaluation perspectives may
be incorporated into the framework of the LUDM as the LUDM presents a
framework for conducting mine reclamation site analyses on any number of
very specific or general premises. For example, the availability or ab-
sence of less than 18$ slopes may be noted and addressed during the "Prin-
ciple Contraints" analysis rather than during the detailed site analysis.
in this context the parameters which are to be addressed in any portion of
the LUDM may be modified, deleted or added to-to fulfill the analysis re-
quirements of each planning situation. It must be reiterated that the key
to the LUDM is its value as a framework for analysis rather than being a
set of quantitative analysis parameters. In this way the necessary flex-
ibility which is required for regional planning.
However, any site analysis requires some technical expertise for
implementation. Coordinating with the state reclamation authorities may
generally provide the level of expertise necessary to provide input to the
LUDM regarding the mine site factors which are not common knowledge to
many professional planners.
Complementing the site analysis is the development of reclama-
tion/development requirements. These requirements should include a
generic reclamation design (e.g., contour reclamation with all spoil to
head-of-hollow fill).
- 77 -
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Summary
As presented, the framework and the matrix were developed to;
Structure principle site planning and development con-
siderations for mined land sites.
Include appropriate techniques and analysis parameters
from the state of the art for land use planning and
decision making, active surface mine reclamation, and
abandoned mined land reclamation.
Incorporate easy to utiI ize procedures for mine site
land use selection for structuring the requisite infor-
mation to conduct mine site land use analyses.
Focus on the major concerns associated with developing
mine sites rather than development of a highly sophis-
ticated analysis technique.
ILLUSTRATIVE SITE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
This section includes a number of typical site reclamation/devel-
opment situations for mined sites in Appalachla. These examples are in-
cluded to present a few illustrations of the types of development/reclama-
tion situations that may be addressed with the LUDM and the matrix.
The amounts and types of developable land varies considerably
throughout Appalachia. For example, in certain parts of central Appala-
chia, there is no developable land outside the floodplain. In other
areas, scarcity of sites is limited to only a few types of land uses such
as industrial sites. For the analysis that follows, the mountainous,
steep-slope region of central Appalachia is discussed (see artist's sketch
and corresponding topographic plan In Figures 7 and 8).
Within Appalachia land use development is constrained by two
factors: 1) flood hazard; and 2) slope and related landslide hazard. For
- 78 -
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- 79 -
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these reasons, development is restricted to portions of narrow valleys in
which incompatible land uses must locate adjacent to one another. Par-
ticular examples include heavy industry/residential and mining/residen-
tial. The widespread existence of surface mining (past, present, and
future) in the province affords the greatest opportunity to reshape the
land and provide suitable sites for all types of land uses in the area.
Underground mining affords little opportunity for land use development and
actually constrains land use development by causing subsidence hazards and
creating waste disposal areas.
Two surface mining methods predominate in the Appalachian Pla-
teaus province: contour mining and mountaintop removal (see previous de-
tailed descriptions). Historically, contour mining resulted In extensive
health, safety, and environmental problems (I.e., abandoned mine lands).
Current environmental regulations for contour mines require spoil be re-
placed and graded to approximate original contour (AX) with excess spoil
placed in controlled fills. A variance from this AOC requirement is al-
lowed in steep-slope situations where a commitment to a developed final
land use is made. An excavated bench and highwalI can thus be left by
dIsposIng all spoiI in a controI Ied fill.
Mountaintop removal mining also represents a special case where a
developed final land use Is specified. Spoil can be placed in a variety
of ways; various amounts can be allocated to backstack and fill areas to
meet the requirements of a predetermined final land use.
- 80 -
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-------
The three cases discussed above - abandoned contour mines, active
contour mines, and active mountalntop removal - identify the best oppor-
tunities to reclamation/development sites in this province. Because the
mineral deposit (coal) Is found In multiple seams, which lie nearly hori-
zontal, opportunities for reclamation/development projects abound when the
reserves can be mined by surface techniques. For example, consider the
reclamation plan shown In Figures 9 and 10. Only a few of the feasible
sites In this locality are specified for reclamation, yet major amounts of
developable land are created.
Choice of appropriate final land use is critical to the success
of the reclamation. Because one the purposes of the mine site development
reclamation is to bring development out of the stream valleys, a disper-
sion of land uses and development will be occurring. Thus, it is Impor-
tant that only those land uses, which are amenable to being located in
more remote locations (hollows and mountaintops), be chosen for this type
of reclamation. In particular, those functions which draw from a large
population (or work force) should remain in the stream valleys - indus-
trial, commercial, and pub Iic/institutional. Land uses which can be
dispersed include residential, agriculture, forestry, and recreation/tour-
ism. In the recommended reclamation/development concepts that follow
these uses which do not require central locations are specified as the
appropriate final land uses In these schemes.
Two types of final land uses are specified for contour reclama-
tion; larger sites can be utilized for agriculture while smaller can be
Figure 9. Regional reclamation/
82 development plan.
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- 83 -
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Figure 10. Reclamation
plan sketch.
-------
- 85 -
-------
designed for housing. Reclamation can be applied to both active and aban-
doned contour mines. Spoil from abandoned spoil piles (or newly excavated
spoil in the case of active mines) must be stablized or excavated and
placed in head-of-hollow fills. Housing or farm buildings can be con-
structed on solid bench with the fill to be utilized as common open space
or agricultural land. Artist's sketches and corresponding schematic plan
views are provided in Figures 11 through 14.
Mountaintop removal mining can be used to reclaim abandoned con-
tour mines or simply mine virgin sites. Because large amounts of develop-
able space is provided by this mining method, such large scale land uses
such as forestry and tourist recreation are appropriate to reclamation in
these cases. Utilization of this scheme would require the construction of
valley fills for initial cut disposal. Mining can then proceed in cross-
' ridge fashion from the saddle of one ridge to another saddle. Spoil can
be placed in the backstack and regraded to minimize deviations from the
original contour of the land. At the conclusion of mining an excavated
bench remains which can be utilized as a site for buildings and related
faciI ities.
Artist's sketches and schematic plan views of concepts for: 1)
mountaintop removal/forestry (and game lands) and 2) mountaintop removal/
tourism (recreation) are shown In Figures 15 through 18. Note that sub-
stantial amounts of spoil are allocated to the backstack area rather than
head-of-hollow fills. Major impacts to the aesthetics of the area are
thus avoided.
- 86 -
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Implementation of these types of reclamation/development projects
can be best accomplished In the surface coal mining areas of the,Appala-
chian Plateaus. Economic development needs are current as is the oppor-
tunity to reshape the land. Operational success of this particular scheme
would require: 1) inventory of all abandoned coal mines in the area; 2)
review of all active coal mine permits; 3) application of the land use
decision technique to test the hypothesis that the site should be devel-
oped for a designated final land use; and 4) proceed with those recrea-
tional/development projects which were evaluated as optimal.
- 87 -
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Figure 11. Schematic contour reclamation for housing (I).
'•^flS:
- LEGEND
IIIMI Highwall
^^ Forest
Approximate Scale
1" = 200'
Figure 12. Site plan sketch - housing.
- 88 -
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Figure 13. Schematic contour reclamation for truck farming (II).
— LEGEND —
Highwall
Road (20')
Trees
Rock
Drain
[•^•.'^5J Forest
'&T^J&W$ffiV^r^'»er£rf&t&=:=
• ;CC?$"'&M$!%*$«f"'^'^'^ ^^^=L
^if^^^m?mg^
%&&&?*&w'$$^^
: •^
O •• &.t fff i'rS '•^ ^1
Approximate Scale
1" -- 300'
Figure 14- Site plan sketch - truck farming.
'-W$fS, ""'-.; 4' f, ,
¥*'.. ,snfcf*" ** *ll"r ^i^***^ '-"
,
1 V>". - 1 '
- 89 -
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Figure 15. Schematic mountaintop reclamation
for forestry/game lands (III).
3S§B
^•.••-v.-v^v..*
COMMERCIAL
FOREST LAND
-- TOO' --- ^ X
— LEGEND —
Relative Backstack Elevation
(to Excavated Bench)
Contour Interval 50 Feet
Approximate Scale
1" = 1000'
Figure 16. Site plan sketch - forestry.
*"»<«^. - *
- 90 -
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Figure 17. Schematic mountaintop reclamation
for tourism/recreation (IV).
EXCAVATED
•f^, BENCH -V*
•-^•••Oft >T.-*Y •*'"_
^•K-vp-v^'W^SSrSS^SSKSTS
-^"Kfe^^^JS^i^S^
— LEGEND —
^•r" Access Road 5
1 Scenic Overlook 6
2 Pool Complex
3 Camp Grounds tf-fc
4 Visitor Center/
Lodging
Contour Interval 50 Feet
Theatre
Parking
Trail
-fcyfej Forest
150 Relative Backstack Elevation
(to Excavated Bench)
Approximate Scale
1" = 1000'
Figure 18. Site plan sketch - recreation.
*-«
-•%'
t
- 91 -
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INSTITUTIONAL
ANALYSIS
-------
INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS
This section is structured to present an overview of the various
agency organizations, activities, interactions, and plans which form the
mining/reclamation and pollution abatement institutional/decision-making
system in Appalachia. Discussions are organized around the two major
components of this system - abandoned coal mined land reclamation and
active coal mine regulation.
Agency summaries provide a description of an institutional con-
text for development and use of the Land Use Decision Methodology. Plan-
ning contexts, regulatory contexts, and agency activities may be examined
within this institutional overview. In addition, the agency descriptions
provide an information base for the detailed agency descriptions and in-
teractions that form the Settlers Cabin Project Case Study.
Within the major system components, discussions summarize:
The agencies at the nucleus of each component, as based
on regulatory mandates, funding levels and programs,
technical capabilities and interactions with other
agencies.
Agencies with secondary involvements because of man-
dated planning, coordination, and regulatory responsi-
b iI it ies .
Agency programs, involvements and interactions that are
innovative or atypical .
- 95 -
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New agency programs or commitments that will be essen-
tial parts of the system in the future, as well as
existing programs that are being deemphasized or re-
directed .
ABANDONED MINED LANDS
This section provides an overview of the agencies and organiza-
tions that have been involved in various aspects of abandoned mined land
reclamation. Discussions are focused on pertinent federal, regional,
state, and local agencies and organizations. Included are agencies with
mandates for reclamation planning, engineering, funding, construction, and
monitoring. Following is a chart which briefly summarizes the historic
involvements of these agencies. Descriptions of major programs, as well
as their current and future status and activities are now presented.
Federal Agencies
This discussion focuses on the Office of Surface Mining and the
state reclamation agencies as the nucleus of the current AMI reclamation
system. However, a number of past reclamation programs and current acti-
vities of other involved agencies are discussed first as the current AMI
planning/management system is a composite of these earlier involvements.
The U.S. Bureau of Mines
The Bureau's first mandated Involvement in abandoned mined land
reclamation was the result of the Mine Fire Act of 1954. This Act gave
- 96 -
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Figure 19. AML program and milestone chronology.
YEAR
EVENT
1928
1933
1954
1955
1962
1965
1968
1968
197O
1971
1972
1972
1972
1975
1976
1977
198O-1981
FIRST REPORTED MINE SEALING PROGRAM.
FEDERAL MINE SEALING PROGRAM INITIATED IN
7 STATES-SPONSORED BY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC
HEALTH, WORKS PROGRESS ADMINISTRATION.
U.S.B.M. - MINE FIRE ACT (MINE FIRE CONTROL).
U.S.B.M. - ANTHRACITE ACT (WATER CONTROL).
ANTHRACITE ACT AMENDMENTS (FILLING AND SEALING).
ARC "205" MINE AREA RESTORATION PROGRAM.
PENNSYLVANIA OPERATION SCARLIFT.
TENNESSEE SURFACE MINE RECLAMATION FUND.
MARYLAND MINE DRAINAGE CONTROL PROGRAM.
WEST VIRGINIA ORPHAN LAND PROGRAM.
KENTUCKY ORPHAN LAND PROGRAM.
OHIO LAND REBORN.
VIRGINIA ORPHAN LAND RECLAMATION PROGRAM.
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY RECLAMATION PROGRAM.
ALABAMA AML PROGRAM.
OFFICE OF SURFACE MINING NATIONWIDE AML
PROGRAM-FEDERAL, STATE, AND RAMP (SCS) COMPONENTS.
SUBMISSION OF STATE PLANS FOR AML PRIMACY.
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the Bureau of Mines primary national responsibility for control of under-
ground mine fires. Subsequently, the Anthracite Act of 1955 and amend-
ments of 1962 charged the Bureau with conducting required water control,
mine void filling, and sealing projects in Pennsylvania's Anthracite Re-
gion. In both cases, 50/50 (USBM/State) project funding was utilized.
Both programs are still technically active, although very few projects are
currently being funded or constructed.
In 1965, the Bureau became involved in comprehensive reclamation/
pollution abatement functioning as the technical support and administering
agency for the ARC "205" Mine Area Restoration Program. This program pro-
vided for 75/25 (ARC/State) shared project funding for surface mine recla-
mation on public lands, pollution abatement, mine fire and subsidence
control, and deep mine sealing.
Initially, the states could apply for the funds as needed. ARC
would review the project request and pass required funds to the Bureau
which then administered and provided technical review and support services
as required. The states, as the primary implementation agencies, would
then merely invoice the Bureau as project costs were incurred. In the
case of mine fire control, the Bureau is always the implementing agency,
and therefore invoices the states for its one-quarter project funding
share.
Under Section 205 of the Appalachian Regional Development Act, a
wide array of work can be approved by ARC on private property so long as
the mine problem stemmed from an abandoned deep mine. Only if strip mined
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Figure 20. Typical "205" project funding scheme.
APPALACHIAN
REGIONAL
COMMISSION
"205"
FUNDS
ARC passes all funds
through to U.S.B.M.
U.S.D.I.
BUREAU
OF MINES
i
i
PROJECT
INVOICE
Requestor invoices
U.S.B.M. for expenses
Incurred against ARC
funds.
PENNSYLVANIA
DER-BUREAU OF
OPERATIONS
land is owned by a nonprofit, private organization, etc., or is publicly
owned, can the ARC make grants for surface mine reclamation. Only a frac-
tion of the thousands of acres of stripped unreclaimed lands in Appalachia
qualify as noted above. Thus, the Bureau's efforts to date have involved
mainly deep mine reclamation work - extinguishing mine fires, mine subsi-
dence control, refuse pile covering, etc. For example, under the program,
39 mine fire, 20 subsidence, 16 surface mine reclamation, and 8 pollution
control projects have been completed. Much of this work was completed in
Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania, over the years, has operated the most aggres-
sive and welI-financed state program in Appalachia. As such, the state
has been active in providing the one-quarter funding share. For example,
the Bureau has been involved in 45 million dollars worth of reclamation in
- 99 -
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the anthracite region - 20 million from "205" and 25 million from the USBM
anthracite "demonstration" 50/50 cost sharing projects.
Currently, USBM "205" program activities are focused chiefly on
continued management and completion of existing projects. New project ac-
tivity is minimal, as ARC reassesses program goals and funding commitments
in light of the OSM and state reclamation programs. In addition, current
ARC mandated procedures for project selection and funding application dic-
tate the incorporation of these projects into the Local Development Dis-
trict Areawide Plans. AML reclamation has proven to be a low priority to
the majority of the LDDs through Appalachia.
The Bureau is also currently providing technical support to the
OSM Federal Reclamation Program Interagency Agreements which have been de-
veloped for a number of mine fire and subsidence control projects.
Although coordinated in Washington, the majority of reclamation
work is completed or managed by the Pittsburgh Research Center (bituminous
projects) and the Wilkes-Barre Field Office (anthracite).
The Environmental Protection Agency
A number of EPA Offices have been involved in various aspects of
AML reclamation/abatement planning and technology development. This in-
volvement began with the Wheeling Field Office of Region III conducting a
number of basinwide acid mine drainage inventories. The first of these
was initiated In the Monongahela Basin in the mid-60's by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration - EPA's predecessor. These studies
- TOO -
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were phased out in the early 1970's. During the mid-1970's, the Water
Planning Division focused R&D activity on AMI reclamation/abatement as
part of early efforts focused on defining roles for the then infant 303(e)
and 208 Programs in mined land reclamation and pollution control. In
addition, EPA, through its Extraction Technology Branch at the Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, has sponsored a number of
AML reclamation/abatement demonstration projects.
Recently, EPA has made a couple of policy decisions that will
significantly shape their future involvements in AML reclamation/technol-
ogy development. EPA mandated that state and regional "208" agencies
should deemphasize mining/pollution abatement as they move from general
regionwide planning to more detailed area and project planning. This de-
emphasis reflects a lessened EPA's commitment to mining pollution control
abatement as the OSM and state reclamation programs also begin to address
these problems.
The Tennessee Valley Authority
The TVA initiated an extensive four-state (Alabama, Kentucky,
Virginia, Tennessee) orphan surface mine reclamation program in 1975. The
program was a cooperative TVA/state effort with the states responsible for
administration and actual project implementation. The TVA provided tech-
nical advice and assistance in the development and Implementation of proj-
ects. Actual reclamation projects were generally selected and constructed
through the local Soil Conservation Districts. With the exception of Vir-
ginia, which operated a centralized program, work crews are hired by the
- 101 -
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Figure 21. Organization of TV A sponsored orphan
land program - Tennessee example.
TENNESSEE
VALLEY
AUTHORITY
•
— ^
TENNESSEE
DEPARTMENT OF
CONSERVATION
Division Orphan
Land Reclamation
— ^
SOIL
CONSERVATION
DISTRICTS
— *•
LOCAL
POPULATION
I Reclamation Plan I
Approval
Soil Conservation District from the local unemployed. Surface mine ero-
sion control, haul road reclamation, and tree planting have been the focus
of reclamation activities to date. The program will officially wind down
in 1981, although Virginia is leaving the program sometime in 1980 to
operate their OSM/State Program.
Appalachian Regional Commission
Under the previously described "205" Mine Area Restoration Pro-
gram ARC has funded 97 reclamation projects, with an investment of over
$55 million. ARC has also sponsored a number of special reclamation
studies - regionwide assessments, technology development, etc. Many of
these studies were cosponsored with other federal and state agencies.
- 102 -
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The Subsidence Control Series, the Monongahela River Basin Study Series,
and Acid Mine Drainage in Appalachia were the most significant of these
projects.
ARC is also currently instrumental in an emerging multi-agency
program that is focusing on provision of new housing sites for central
Appalachia. This program is a joint ARC, Tennessee Valley Authority,
Farmers Home Administration project entitled, "Housing on Surface Mined
Land for Central Appalachia." The three agencies are combining their re-
sources for development of housing sites on active and abandoned coal mine
lands. Counties will be prioritized for further site selection based on
county status as an FmHA target county, TVA priority county, state prior-
ity county, and 601 county. Initial development will include AML sites,
but the majority of subsequent development will be on reclaimed active
mine sites.
The U.S. Army - Corps of Engineers
The Corps has completed a number of regional/basinwide mine
drainage and abatement studies throughout Appalachia. In general, the
Corps has focused on mining/pollution abatement while conducting three
types of projects.
Authorized mine drainage studies. Such a study was
completed In the Potomac River Basin and another Is
currently underway in the Clarion River Basin. The
Clarion Basin Study is projected to be the last major
mine drainage study as the Corps Is deferring such
Inventory/planning efforts to OSM and the states.
- 103 -
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Comprehensive river basin studies. These studies are
initiated in support of Corps comprehensive river basin
planning. The Nashville District recently completed a
comprehensive study for the New River Basin in Ten-
nessee.
Flood plan management studies have focused on the im-
pacts of mining on flooding in Appalachia. Management
and abatement measures are developed which specifically
consider AMI reclamation. A detailed study on Tug Fork
in. Kentucky and Virginia is currently underway.
The Office of Surface Mining
With the passage of PL 95-87, OSM became the central figure in
abandoned mined land reclamation. Utilizing a per ton fee levied on ac-
tive coal mine production, OSM is engaged in a number of reclamation re-
lated activities. In addition, a portion of this fee (up to 20$) is
utilized by the Soil Conservation Service for conducting the Rural Aban-
doned Mined Lands Program (RAMP).
The following figure provides a general outline of the organiza-
tion and various activities of the OSM/AML Program. Following also is a
brief summary of the OSM Title IV agency structure and activities.
State and Indian Tribe Reclamation Programs
The general focus of activities is review and approval of state
and Indian tribe reclamation plans, review of yearly grant submissions,
and review of plan amendments. To achieve state primacy (the right to
conduct a state program with a portion of the fee collected by OSM), state
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Figure 22. OSM abandoned mined land reclamation
program organization and functions.
FEDERAL
RECLAMATION
PROGRAMS
SPECIAL
PROJECTS
SUPPLEMENTS
TO STATE
PROJECTS
PROJECTS
ON FEDERAL
LAND
EMERGENCY
PROJECTS
RECLAMATION
PLANNING
AND
STANDARDS
SPECIAL
DEMONSTRATION
PROJECTS
NATIONAL
AML
INVENTORY
TECHNICAL
PLANNING
SUPPORT
STATE AND
INDIAN TRIBE
RECLAMATION
PROGRAMS
GRANT
APPLICATION
REVIEW
PROCESS
RECLAMATION
PLAN
AMENDMENT
REVIEW
PROCESS
RECLAMATION
PLAN
REVIEW
PROCESS
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and Indian tribes are required to prepare "Reclamation Plans" which con-
tain descriptions of the state agency operating systems, as well as state
overview data bases. These plans have been submitted to OSM for review.
Upon submission, state and Indian tribe programs have primary responsibil-
ity for plan review. In addition, the Office is reviewing first year
project request submissions prior to final approval of the state plans.
Both the plans and project grant submissions are being prepared under OSM/
state cooperative agreements. Upon plan approval, the states will submit
annual project grant submissions and plan amendments as required. In ad-
dition, this Office will offer technical assistance to the states upon re-
quests for plan preparation, project review problems, etc.
Following OSM's Regional/Washington organization, the majority of
review activities are conducted in the regional offices while policy for-
mulation and major program review activities are completed in Washington.
Federal Reclamation Programs
The Federal Reclamation Program carries out reclamation on coal
mined lands not included in state or Indian reclamation plans; high prior-
ity emergency projects; special projects such as interstate and demonstra-
tion projects; and on state reclamation projects providing funding sub-
sidies.
As the state programs will be geared to primarily address proj-
ects identified in their state reclamation planning process, the Federal
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Program will focus most heavily on emergency projects. Using the "Secre-
tary's Fund" portion of the reclamation fee, these projects will be under-
taken as quick response type projects. Many of these projects are and
will continue to be done as cooperative projects with the states. The
U.S. Bureau of Mines is also being used to provide technical support for
mine fire and subsidence control projects. The Program conducts reclama-
tion on federal lands (USDA Forest Service; USDI Bureau of Land Manage-
ment, Bureau of Reclamation; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; etc.). Spe-
cial case projects such as interstate projects may also be carried out by
this office. As well, supplements may be given to the states for timely
completion of large high priority projects. Although the programs for a
number of western states will likely move into non-coal mine reclamation
as the reclamation of coal lands is completed, the federal program will
continue to be focused on reclamation of coal mined lands. The federal
program is also going to conduct a number of "demonstration" or special
reclamation projects. Projects will be undertaken in each of the five re-
gions for demonstrating innovative reclamation techniques (i.e., develop-
ment of housing sites, water harvesting, etc.). The Program is also coor-
dinating their activities with those of a number of other federal agencies
(i.e., HUD, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, EPA) facilita-
ting joint multiagency project planning and review. In addition, OSM
plans to extend cooperation to state and local agencies for which assis-
tance may be provided for homesite and industrial land development on
abandoned mined lands.
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Reclamation Planning and Standards
This office is responsible for developing and maintaining the na-
tional AMI Inventory.. In addition, its primary charge is related to pro-
viding planning and engineering reclamation technical support to OSM.
Interagency projects, special projects, and planning studies are also in
the charge of Reclamation Planning and Standards, and they will assume a
role in most reclamation demonstration projects. The division will also
soon be exploring ways to link the OSM and state programs to other pro-
grams such as EPA's 208 Program and various HUD housing development pro-
grams. In addition, projects that may be part of OSM/AMI Research Program
will often be comanaged by Planning and Standards Technical Services.
The State Reclamation Programs
All of the Appalachian states with the exception of Georgia and
Mississippi had abandoned mined land reclamation programs prior to OSM's
Title IV Program. Some were ambitious, while others were limited to
little more than demonstration projects. Funding sources for these pro-
grams included:
Bond Issues (Pennsylvania)
Excise Taxes (Ohio)
General Review Allocations (Maryland, Kentucky)
Acreage Fees (West Virginia)
. TVA Cooperative Funding (Virginia, Kentucky, Alabama,
Tennessee)
The scope of reclamation projects actually undertaken ranges from
extensive mine sealing, earth moving, and subsidence control projects
(Pennsylvania) to minimal revegetation and sediment control (Tennessee).
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A couple of states also plan to maintain these existing reclamation pro-
grams concurrently with approved Title IV reclamation programs. Most are
restructuring their existing programs as the vehicles to conduct their
Title IV programs.
Although there has been a great deal of divergence in the struc-
ture and operation of state programs until now, achieving Title IV primacy
is resulting in the state programs becoming increasingly similar as Title
IV primacy mandates specific organizational and functional requirements,
adherence to specific policies, and initiation of certain activities. For
most states, changes will be most significantly felt in the following two
areas:
Developing detailed policies for land acquisition and
disposal, rights of entry, and reclamation on private
I and.
Developing new policies for project ranking and selec-
tion, interagency coordination, and public participa-
tion.
A number of agencies previously operated with poorly defined
policies for land acquisition, management, and disposal. In addition, it
was often previous state policy to not acquire land, use right of entry
powers, and conduct surface reclamation on privately held lands. Land ac-
quisition and long-term management will likely continue to be only under-
taken to abate emergencies or if long-term public ownership is desirable
or required (i.e., for construction of treatment plants or conversion to
public parklands). In fact, a number of states are required to rely on
agencies other than the reclamation agency for land acquisition and man-
agement. Because of past problems with windfall profits, liens, and land
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appraisal, many states have not undertaken surface reclamation of private-
ly held land. However, a legal backing and policies for private land rec-
lamation and right of entry are now required.
Secondly, the state's procedures for project ranking and selec-
tion must match with OSM's priority criteria for potential projects. In
addition, explicit coordination with the SCS Rural Abandoned Mine Program
and public participation in the state program are now also required.
Because of these similarities in program organization and manage-
ment, there will also be significant operational similarities between
state programs. The following "Typical AML Activities Flow Chart" divides
major state agency activities into tasks that are referenced here as
cycles. Following is a brief description of the major cycles.
Inventory
To define eligible sites for reclamation, the states are under-
taking assessments or inventories of mined lands. Required data under
884.13(f) is collected during this cycle. This cycle requires the period-
ic update of the AML inventory. Information will come from field surveys,
inspectors or any information obtained from outside sources. Information
regarding land ownership will often be compiled. Information compiled
during inventory efforts provides input to other cycles; e.g., during the
formulation of projects for the next grant submission, information regard-
ing project prior itization will come from the Inventory. In addition,
continuous field inspections assistance will be undertaken for the Discre-
tionary Cycle and Reclamation Activities Cycle on an "as needed" basis.
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State Reclamation Plan
As noted in 30 CFR 872.4(c)(1), the states are responsible for
preparation and submission of the State Reclamation Plan. This cycle also
requires the periodic update of the State Reclamation Plan. Any informa-
tion on new aspects of AML reclamation which will significantly change the
AMI program should be submitted to OSM at a later date to allow new as-
pects of the program to be undertaken. Public participation in plan de-
velopment is part of this cycle.
Grant Submission
As mandated, grant submission activities will undertake the fol-
lowing tasks. During this cycle, the formulation of reclamation projects
to be undertaken as noted in 874.13 under the next year's grant will be
made. All grant submissions will follow the OSM regulations for "State
Reclamation Grants." Of course, the projects selected will follow goals
and objectives, project selecting, and ranking procedures as stated in the
State Reclamation Plan. Data regarding projects will come from the AML
Inventory and criteria noted earlier. Cost estimates will be undertaken
during this cycle by staff reclamation specialists. Coordination with
other agencies will be initiated at this point. Once the projects are
formulated and evaluated, the annual Grant Submission to OSM will be made.
Projects will be continually evaluated. A public participation program in
this cycle must also be undertaken.
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Reclamation Activities
After funds have been received for the annual grant, procedures
for actual reclamation will begin. Efforts in this cycle, it is important
to note, are continuous. After the program has begun and throughout the
life of the AMI program, continuous monitoring and coordination of recla-
mation activities will be required. There are three general efforts in
this cycle: resolution of real estate questions, including acquisition,
management, and disposal of land; reclamation on private land; and, where
required, contracting independent appraisers.
Design engineering, including contracting, administering and
monitoring, are integral parts of reclamation.
Actual reclamation construction is the prime activity of the
entire program and requires contracting, administering, and monitoring.
Public information is part of this cycle, although not required
by the regulations. News releases regarding actual project work will make
the AML program more visible to the public.
Secretary's (Discretionary/Emergency) Fund
As specified in 30 CFR 872.11, "Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund,"
twenty percent (20?) of the nationally collected reclamation fees will be
allocated at the discretion of the Secretary of the Interior. Section
872.11(a)(5)(v) allows the Secretary to allocate funds to the states over
and above those funds allocated in or under the Reclamation Activities
Cycle. It is anticipated that the states will receive a continuous flow
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of these funds which will be applied to both emergency projects and proj-
ects which are funded through Section 872.11(5). These projects will
require separate and often "accelerated" planning, administering and moni-
toring from the regular reclamation activities program.
Regardless of specific organizational titles or structures, these
activities/cycles will form the nucleus of state reclamation programs once
Title IV primacy is achieved. Therefore,, specifics of each state's recla-
mation program are not discussed. Instead, noteworthy aspects of the
state programs that impact or relate to land use decision-making on mined
lands are discussed in a later section of this report.
Secondary Agency Involvements
The Soil Conservation Service
The major SCS involvement is associated with the Rural Abandoned
Mine Reclamation Program (RAMP). Using up to 20% of the allocation from
each state Reclamation Fund, the SCS reclamation program is coordinated at
the state level, but is designed to be a regional/local project implemen-
tation program. Following are the important elements of the RAMP Program.
The programs are to be guided at the state level by SCS
and a Reclamation Committee which may be composed of
personnel from other state agencies, regional agencies,
and I ay c itizens .
Potential projects are solicited through a public par-
ticipation (project sign-up) program which is conducted
by SCS local conservationists and the Soil Conservation
Di str icts.
SCS/private landowner cost sharing projects are
encouraged but not required.
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Projects are prioritized according to OSM priority
cI asses.
Reclamation for agricultural land reclamation is also
desired but not required.
In addition to RAMP, two other SCS programs have also somewhat
addressed AMI reclamation to varying degrees. Although not directly SCS
sponsored, Soil Conservation Districts have often been involved in pre-
paring erosion and sediment control plans, exploring funding avenues, and
reviewing other agency plans for abandoned mine lands projects. The Con-
servation Districts have often utilized local SCS district conservationist
technical expertise in these planning and review activities.
In addition, the SCS has been operating the Resource Conservation
and Development Program which focuses on regional (multicounty) land and
water resource, land use, sediment and flood control, and water quality
management planning and project development. Roughly 30$ of Appalachia is
now covered by Resource Conservation and Development Districts. SCS pro-
vides technical planning and support and funding, as well as fund avail-
ability information for project implementation. In addition, the Farmers
Home Administration makes specific project construction loan funds avail-
able in designated Resource Conservation and Development Districts.
Other State and Regional Agencies
A number of state, regional, and local agencies and organizations
have been involved in project activities which have complemented, as well
as impacted the activities of the core AMI reclamation/abatement planning
agencies. Three types of state agencies are included in this list:
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1) Agencies that also collect, maintain, and analyze
mining/pollution related data.
2) Agencies that are utilized (mandatory or voluntary)
for plan and project review and evaluation.
3) Agencies which have regulations and/or issue permits
which affect the initiation and AML reclamation
projects.
The most important data gathering and analysis agencies have been
the state and, in some cases, regional, water resource, and pollution con-
trol agencies involved in the 201, 208, and 303(e) components of the state
water pollution control programs. A number of states have compiled very
detailed river basin mining/mine drainage reports and data bases in sup-
port of various planning activities. Recently, EPA has guided the state
programs toward heavier emphasis on non-point source control planning and,
as such, AML reclamation planning has received wide attention. However,
the specific commitment to mining/pollution abatement appears to be less-
ening. When designated by state agencies, regional agencies may also
conduct "208" planning activities (i.e., Southwestern Pennsylvania,
Charleston-Four County, and Southwestern Virginia are three examples of
designated regional "208" agencies in Appalachia).
A number of agencies are often involved in the review of reclama-
tion plans, engineering drawings, and specifications. For example, state
programs have historically coordinated with the state wildlife management,
Heritage Conservation and Recreation, stormwater management, water and air
pollution, and active mining regulation agencies. In addition, the state
designated A-95 and project pertinent regional and local agencies provide
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review for any projects completed with federal funds. Their involvement
in project review, once the state programs assume primacy, is mandatory.
There are also a number of permits which must be obtained prior
to initiation of site construction activities. Following is a partial
listing of agencies and permits that may be involved.
. 404 (from the FWPCA of 1972) - Any project potentially
impacting a navigable waterway must be reviewed by the
Corps of Engineers and/or EPA for 404 permitting.
Stream Encroachment Permits - For smaller streams, a
number of states require potential construction con-
tractors or sponsors to obtain encroachment permits.
Quite often a number of state agencies, as well as the
local Soil Conservation Districts, review projects
prior to permitting.
. Highway Occupancy Permits - State, county, and local
highway and road departments often require industrial
and construction concerns to obtain highway use
permits.
. Erosion and Sediment Control Permits - Are required in
most states for construction or excavation activities.
Erosion and sediment control plans must generally be
prepared and submitted prior to receiving a permit.
In addition, counties, cities, towns, and other municipalities
often require construction and/or excavation permits prior to initiation
of construction. Generally, a nominal fee and minimum project review are
required for obtaining local permits. However, municipalities may have
zoning or special use ordinances which may impact plans for special uses
for abandoned mine sites, such as limits on siting land fills, recreation
facilities, and new housing developments. Such cases can only be studied
and planned for on a project by project basis.
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Although examples are relatively rare, a number of counties and
municipalities have engaged in abandoned mine reclamation planning. For
example, Westmoreland and Fayette Counties in Pennsylvania have conducted
detailed AML inventories. The Westmoreland County inventory specifically
focused on identifying access and land use potentials for abandoned mine
sites. In addition, Richland Township, again in western Pennsylvania,
conducted a mined land inventory to determine feasible land uses and po-
tentials for remining. Counties and municipalities are now recognizing
the need to explicitly consider AML sites in their planning activities.
And finally, local conservation and watershed protection organ-
izations have played major AML reclamation roles in a number of states.
They have been involved in activities ranging from inventorying and water
quality sampling to treatment plant operation and project funding. Such
local organizations have also provided a great deal of logistical support
to the state agencies for project implementation.
Abandoned Mine Lands and Land Use Planning
The Office of Surface Mining, the state AML agencies, and the
Soil Conservation Service now have primary mandates for conducting the
nation's AML reclamation programs. These agencies are responsible for
project planning, data collection and analysis, monitoring, funding, con-
struction, and post-construction evaluation in mined land reclamation.
The historic commitments of EPA, the Bureau of Mines, the Corps of Engi-
neers, and ARC are now also being examined and redefined in light of this
emerging OSM lead agency institutional infrastructure.
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Within this infrastructure, the majority of reclamation projects
will be completed by the state agencies as they may access the largest
percentage of the available reclamation funds. However, OSM is and will
remain the key decision maker in the system, as it retains a plan, plan
update, and annual grant application review and approval link to the state
reclamation programs. In addition, OSM has promulgated regulations and
guidelines for reclamation plan preparation, project funding, and project
selection to which the states must comply.
OSM has mandated explicit consideration of land use in OSM feder-
al, state, and SCS reclamation planning programs. For example, the state
reclamation plans must detail the methods that the states' programs will
follow in documenting:
The relationship of proposed projects to existing and
proposed adjacent and regional land use patterns;
The significance land use opportunities or plans assume
in project selection; and
The role regional and local planning bodies will play
in the state's public participation programs
Nearly all of the Appalachian states' AMI agencies plan to in-
volve regional planning organizations in their public participation pro-
grams. This involvement will provide a vehicle for regional and local
planning bodies to input into the state reclamation planning processes.
In general, this is being done so the states may utilize existing regional
land use planning/plan review capabilities In their program and project
pIanni ng .
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Although consideration of land use must be explicit in AMI recla-
mation planning, reclamation for particular land use goals or improvement
is actually discouraged by OSM mandated project prioritization criteria.
The OSM priority system assigns highest priority to abatement of eminent
danger, health and safety hazard and environmental problems. Land use
potential is a low priority and lower priority problems may not be ad-
dressed until higher priority projects are considered. For example, in
the OSM scheme, there are seven priority levels. In level three, which is
environmental degradation focused, funds may be used for reclamation for
wildlife, recreational or agricultural land reclamation, while priorities
one and two make no mention of land use. In addition, under priority
five, funds may be used in the actual construction of public facilities.
In addition, few if any Appalachian states will progress beyond priority
three projects during the life of the AML program (1977-1992) due to the
large number of high priority problems which must be addressed.
Within this framework, there are a number of options available to
OSM and the states for placing particular emphasis on projects which may
satisfy specific land use needs or planning objectives. Although the
Federal Program is focused on emergency and special projects, a number of
demonstration projects will also be undertaken. Included in these demon-
strations are planned projects such as housing site development, as well
as other regionally appropriate land use/site planning projects (i.e., ag-
ricultural land restoration in the midwest). Such demonstrations may be
used for implementing various desired site development strategies. OSM is
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also signing cooperative agreements with other federal agencies (i.e.,
HUD, EPA) that which potentially may also become involved in these proj-
ects.
Secondly, within priority classes, state programs may develop ad-
ditional criteria which may be based on considerations such as land use
potential and development demand. These criteria may then be utilized for
project selection. In addition, in their annual grant submission requests
the states may include special demonstration projects (i.e., reclamation
for housing site development).
The Soil Conservation Service (RAMP) project prioritization
schemes must also adhere to the OSM priority classes. However, RAMP
projects have a stated bias toward agricultural land uses.
In summary, although AML programs must now consider land use in
their project planning, these agencies will not be explicitly involved in
land use planning for abandoned mined lands. Instead, their activities
specific to land use planning will be centered in:
The OSM federal program participation in demonstration
reclamation projects with other land planning/develop-
ment organizations;
The state reclamation agenciesy as participants in
special/demonstration projects to provide reclamation
funds in support of site planning and development ac-
tivities of other federal, state, regional or local
organizations; and
The state reclamation agencies developing specific
project selection/evaluation criteria which address
land use priorities.
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The discussion now shifts to presenting a brief overview of the
roles that local and regional land use planning organizations are assuming
in abandoned mined land reclamation.
Planning Agencies/Organizations and AML Reclamation
To varying extents, a number of regional and local land planning
and development organizations have been involved in abandoned mined land
reclamation planning. These involvements have ranged from LDD's function-
Ing as funding applicants for "205" projects and the local Soil Conserva-
tion Districts that were Instrumental in implementing TVA's four state
orphan lands program to regional planning agencies in all of the states
which are constantly looking at land use options for mined lands as part
of their "701" land use planning efforts. In addition, a growing number
of private and public nonprofit organizations (i.e., Coalfield Housing)
are planning and formulating projects which entail utilization of mined
lands as sites for new intensive land use development.
Throughout Appalachia, Regional Planning and Development Dis-
tricts also function as ARC LDD's. These districts are also an implemen-
tation mechanism for a number of EDA and FmHA loan and grant development
programs. In addition, In most states HUD planning activities are cen-
tered in these regional agencies. County comprehensive plans are also
often prepared by the technical staff of these multicounty bodies.
The activities of these districts are focused in five general
areas:
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Regional land use planning
Economic development
Material resource planning
Growth polIcy
Local planning assistance
In addition, the districts often serve as grantsmen for local
governments in their dealings with state and federal agencies.
The LDD's have assumed limited roles in AML site/land use plan-
ning. As stated earlier, they are the initiating organization for ARC
"205" project funding requests. However, the majority of this activity
has been confined to Pennsylvania as most other states did not fully util-
ize this ARC cost sharing program. However, the LDD's in most of the Ap-
palachian states are now explicitly involved in the state reclamation
agency public participation programs. These agencies are also generally
A-95 review agencies, and therefore, are notified of all such regionally
significant projects which are planned.
Soil Conservation Districts are generally county (multicounty in
West Virginia) organizations which utilize state and local funds for
environmental control, resource planning, and conservation projects. Con-
servation Districts are guided by committees of appointed citizens. They
may have technical staffs or rely on SCS district conservationists for
technical support. Throughout Appalachia, the Districts have had an his-
toric involvement in mined land reclamation. In Kentucky, Alabama, and
Tennessee, they are the primary Implementing vehicles for the TVA Orphan
Lands Program. In addition, they have been involved In AML programs in
West Virginia and Maryland. They have also often utilized various USDA
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project monies for AMI cost sharing projects with individual landowners.
Specific to AMI reclamation or site development, the districts may also be
involved in erosion and sediment control permit and engineering plan re-
view or preparation. Currently, the SCS RAMP Program is being implemented
locally through the districts. Therefore, an AML reclamation/ planning
capability is being developed by many of these organizations.
Resource Conservation and Development Districts are multi-county
voluntary organizations formed for undertaking conservation, development,
and resource utilization projects. The districts are sponsored by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Local governments or commissions form
steering committees to conduct initial planning and file application for
formal designation. Upon designation a wide range of planning and devel-
opment activities may be undertaken. Eligible projects have included
road, school, and health clinic construction; historic preservation; and
job training programs. A number of surface reclamation projects have also
been undertaken and completed. In addition, coordinated funding approach-
es may be readily developed involving a number of federal and regional
agencies. For example, Farmers Home has loan programs specifically for RC
& D Districts. Coordination with other agencies such as the Extension
Service, Soil Conservation Service, Farmers Home, Rural Electrification,
and other state and regional planning and development organizations is
common. In particular, RC & D and LDD cooperation has become important in
many areas of Appalachia.
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Regional planning and zoning bodies also influence the mined area
land uses through their HUD-701 land use planning and/or zoning activi-
ties. A number of counties throughout Appalachia have adopted compre-
hensive/land use plans. Such plans address mined areas together with un-
mined areas. In addition, for FmHA "601" program participation a number
of counties and regional agencies have prepared or are preparing "Growth
Management Plans" emphasizing areas that are projected to be severely im-
pacted by future mining. Counties or local governments with zoning also
exert explicit control over possible land use options for reclaimed aban-
doned mines.
A final group of organizations which are concerned with land use
options for mined lands are Appalachia's nonprofit housing and industrial
development corporations. Such organizations have usually been formed in
response to identified local site development needs. Therefore, their ac-
tivities are often project specific - working with developers, landowners,
and regional and state agencies. Up until now, examples of their use of
abandoned mined lands as development sites have been few, but this is
likely to change due to the recognized unavailability of land throughout
Appalachia for traditional private sector development.
This section has presented the agencies and institutional func-
tioning which is central to mined land reclamation. The next part of this
"Institutional Analysis" discussion focuses on institutions and agencies
associated with active mining and reclamation. The "Institutional Anal-
ysis" is then utilized as a base on which to develop an appropriate
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agency/institutional implementation framework for the Land Use Decision
Methodology which is discussed in the section entitled "Management Recom-
mendations ."
ACTIVE MINE REGULATION
Prior to development of the first mining regulations, reclamation
began in the Midwest in the 1920's as voluntary programs undertaken by
coal companies for developing minimal cost-quick growing vegetative cover
on ungraded spoil. Soon afterward, reforestation was demonstrated suc-
cessfully in West Virginia and pasture and row crop reclamation in Indiana
and Illinois. These demonstrations of reclamation feasibility coupled
with increased strip mining activity and associated environmental degrada-
tion led to enactment of the first surface mining laws - in West Virginia
in 1939, Indiana in 1941, Illinois in 1943, Pennsylvania in 1945, Ohio in
1947, and Kentucky in 1954.
The majority of these laws intially only addressed coal mining.
The general focus was on revegetation and sometimes spoil slope reduction
and recontouring for developing land cover types and configurations that
were environmentally sound and of economic value. The 1950's and 1960's
were a time in which many of these laws were revised to Include explicit
surface water and soil and erosion control.
States also began to expand the coverage of these laws as well as
pass new laws and regulations to include minerals other than coal. The
land use aspects of reclamation were given greater emphasis. Detailed
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mining performance standards addressing all major mine site activities
(before, during, and after mining) also became prevalent. Regulatory
changes addressed control of mining as a temporary land use with detailed
planning required for development of permanent post-mining land uses. The
1970's saw the increasing regulatory involvements of EPA and state wild-
life, water pollution control, highway, historic preservation and park
agencies because of new permit application reporting requirements and
application review procedures.
The 1977 Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
brought comprehensive federal environmental standards to the coal indus-
try. Already governed by state agencies, EPA, and to an extent MSHA, the
industry was now required to comply with rules covering virtually every
aspect of coal mining. These standards are far more comprehensive, and
therefore complex, than standards included in previous state programs.
With the exception of EPA clean air and water quality, no such nationwide
regulatory programs address control of mining minerals other than coal.
Overview of the OSM/State Regulatory Program
Public Law 95-87, the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclama-
tion Act of 1977, was signed into law on August 3, 1977. Regulations for
implementing the Act were prepared by the Interior Department's Office of
Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM). Primary responsibility
for implementing and enforcing the federal rules is given to the states
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upon OSM approval of a state program. For states failing to have an ap-
proved program, a federal program will be implemented. An important fea-
ture in the federal program is the "state window policy" which allows
states to request variance from the federal requirements so long as
minimum provisions are met.
Interim performance regulations came into effect in early 1978,
setting strict requirements for environmental protection during mining.
These interim regulations will remain in effect until a permanent program
has been implemented either by a state or the federal government.
The impact of these regulations will be strongly felt by the
state regulatory agencies as their responsibilities expand because of in-
creased permit application review requirements, complex performance stan-
dards requiring intensive inspection and enforcement efforts, and opera-
tion of the "522" Lands Unsuitable for Mining Programs. In addition,
performance standard compliance and development of required documentation
for permits will significantly magnify the regulatory compliance efforts
of coal operators throughout Appalachia. Major provisions relate to:
permit and bonding requirements; major operational/environmental control
provisions; and new provisions for land use planning and environmental
assessments.
Perm i ts and Bond i ng
Federal permit data requirements exceed most current state permit
application regulations. This is particularly true of the detailed envi-
ronmental, operation and reclamation information and plans now required.
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Monitoring of surface and groundwater quality and flows, core boring anal-
yses, geotechnical analyses, and fish and wildlife surveys are several of
the new studies that operators will be required to complete for permit
approval.
Since the final regulations were published on March 13, 1979, the
availability of bonding for coal mines has become a major concern, partic-
ularly for small operators. The problem stems primarily from the provi-
sion in the Act that will allow an adjustment of the bond amount during
the life of the mine and the long (5 to 10 year) lifetime of bonds. Major
sureties consider the bonding regulations unworkable and have stated that
they intend to stop issuing bonds to surface mine operators. The status
of the bonding issue remains undetermined at this time, as states and min-
ing associations are attempting to find alternatives to traditional surety
bonds.
Performance Standards
In addition to permitting, significant changes will be felt in
mine planning, engineering, equipment utilization, inspection procedures,
and reclamation. On mine sites, major operational changes will be in the
followi ng areas:
TopsoiI handling procedures
Road construction
Surface water control
Blasting
Fill construction
Return to approximate original contour
Revegetation
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Auger ing
Subsidence control
. Woody material disposal
Downslope spoil disposal
The performance standards cumulatively provide a comprehensive set of
environmental standards, design standards, and operating procedures for
minimizing the potential adverse effects of surface coal mining.
Land Use Planning and
Environmental Assessments
Detailed planning is now required for determining potential land
uses for reclaimed coal mines. For example, plans must be developed
according to the following criteria:
. Proposed land uses must be compatible with adjacent
land uses and pertinent land use plans (involvement of
local planning agencies in plan review is implied).
Land uses must be documented as economically feasible.
Commitment is required for planned public facility and
utility infrastructure construction.
Plans will not cause unreasonable reclamation delays.
Land uses must exert minimal impacts on important
environmental values.
Required land use management must be compatible with
applicable federal, state, and local laws and regula-
tions.
Significant procedural revisions are also required because of 522
Program petition review and documentation requirements. Petitioning and
petition review will be focused on determinations of reelaimabiI ity, po-
tential environmental impacts and hazards, and assessments of land use
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feasibility and plan compatibility. Beyond potentially critical time de-
lays, "522" exerts no specific additional burdens on coal operators (i.e.,
in terms of reporting, and burdens of proof). Rather, the state regula-
tory agencies are faced with petition documentation and review activities
which will likely require significant manpower and resource commitments.
State regulatory agencies will also be undertaking assessments of
cumulative watershed mining impacts. Such assessments will require com-
posite data gathering and maintenance of active mining, "522," and poten-
tial ly AML data on a watershed basis. In the past, state programs have
not been required to undertake such assessments. Because of these new
analyses and reporting requirements, a number of state regulatory agencies
now have plans for developing computerized data management and analysis
systems for maintaining and updating required data bases, as well as per-
forming many of the required analyses.
OSM Organization
Inspection and Enforcement
OSM is developing inspection programs for a number of different
regulatory contexts - states with approved programs, states without ap-
proved programs, and federal lands. States without an approved state
regulatory program (Georgia is projected) as well as federal lands will
require implementation of full inspection programs as OSM assumes primary
regulatory responsibility. However, for states with approved programs,
OSM activities will focus on inspection for support and monitoring of
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Figure 24. OSM mining regulation
organization and functions.
INSPECTION
AND
ENFORCEMENT
ENFORCEMENT
RESPONSE
TO CITIZEN
COMPLAINTS
ASSESSMENT
• Points
• Fines
• Penalties
STATE AND
FEDERAL
PROGRAMS
SMALL
OPERATOR
ASSISTANCE
PROGRAM
OPERATE
PROGRAMS
IN STATES
WITHOUT
APPROVED
TITLE V
PROGRAMS
FEDERAL
PROGRAMS
OPERATE
PROGRAMS ON
FEDERAL
LANDS
STATE
PROGRAM
EVALUATION
SMALL
OPERATOR
DATA COLLECTION
AND TECHNICAL
SUPPORT
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state programs, as well as functioning as a respondent to citizen com-
plaints. Enforcement activities will include enforcement of all pertinent
standards, and when required, assessments and collection of civil penal-
ties. OSM is currently in the early stages of inspection and enforcement
program design, and as such, few operational or organizational details are
avaiI able.
State and Federal Programs
The activities of State Programs are currently focused on review
of the state plans which have been submitted. In addition, limited tech-
nical support is being provided for plan preparation and revisions which
may be required. Once the states assume program primacy, activities will
shift to state program monitoring and evaluation. Monitoring will be
linked to inspection and enforcement for the majority of data gathering.
Specific procedures and indicators will be developed for periodic evalua-
tions of state program performance.
The Division of Federal Programs is responsible for managing the
regulatory programs for states not obtaining primacy and for mine reclama-
tion/regulation on federal lands. This also includes ancillary programs
such as "522."
Small Operator Assistance is responsible for formulation of pro-
cedures and provision of technical asssistance to small operators for aid
in determining the hydrologic impacts of mining and reclamation. It also
certifies laboratories for participation in the program.
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In addition to the above, Technical Services and Research may
assume a number of vital roles in the overall OSM/state regulatory man-
agement system because of its responsibilities for:
Formulating policies and procedures and providing guid-
ance to field activities. These include environmental
reports, standards for permits, mining plans, and per-
formance standards.
Identifying research needs and providing for technology
transfer.
Design of federal and cooperative state programs for
training necessary reclamation and related specialists.
State Program Status
Of the nine Appalachian coal mining states, there is a wide vari-
ation in regulatory program development. In those states with programs
completed or near ing completion, there is variation in programmatic meth-
odologies regarding land use planning and development. The land use im-
plications of the regulatory programs will have impacts on the coal opera-
tor in permit preparation, reclamation planning, and if potential resource
land is declared unsuitable for mining. The following discussions briefly
discuss the key land use provisions of each Appalachian state's program
and variations or highlights in those programs. Georgia has been omitted
since a federal program is expected to regulate surface mining in the
state.
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AIabama
Alabama was one of the last states to have approved legislation
to obtain primacy of the state's surface mining regulatory program. The
Alabama Surface Mining Commission has submitted proposed law and regula-
tions to OSM, but does not have legislative authority as of this date.
The legislature is presently debating passage of an Alabama law to comply
with federal requirements and give the Surface Mining Commission the au-
thority to promulgate regulations. Another bill presently being debated
will create a new agency which will administer surface mining in Alabama.
As noted above, proposed regulations are drafted and are presently being
reviewed by OSM. Therefore, when the legislature passes the state law,
the regulations will be close behind.
The proposed regulations are similar to the federal regulations;
however, there is no legislative backing. Discussion of programmatic land
use planning issues in the Alabama regulatory program is premature.
Kentucky
Kentucky Department for Natural Resources and Environmental Pro-
tection drafted regulations for the surface mining regulatory program par-
allel to the federal regulations. DNREP is presently incorporating OSM
comments into a revised draft of their regulations. As in several other
states, if a coal operator has applied for a post-mining land use change,
it must be advertised in the local newspaper along with the notification
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of intent to mine. The public comment period regarding the intent to con-
duct surface mining is thirty days, whereas the public comment period re-
garding the change in land use is forty-five days. It is the operator's
obligation during permit preparation to research local or regional land
use plans for that area to assure that mining poses no conflict with
present or future plans.
The Lands Unsuitable for Mining Program in Kentucky is a very
comprehensive program and is unlike that found in any other state. DNREP
has staffed a separate group within the Bureau of Surface Mining to estab-
lish a computerized data base and an inventory system which will "permit
proper evaluation of the capacity of different land areas of Kentucky to
support and permit reclamation of surface coal mining operations." The
data base in Kentucky consists of 28 environmental parameters, including
land use plan evaluation criteria. If a site is petitioned for unsuit-
ability, DNREP personnel will contact key planners in the Area Development
Districts of eastern Kentucky for information regarding development plans.
County level planning is minimal in the eastern coalfield.
Mary I and
The Maryland Bureau of Mines has developed most requisite regula-
tions concerning the Title V program, meeting required deadlines for pro-
gram submission to OSM.
The Bureau drafted regulations parallel to the federal regula-
tions. Land use changes to be conducted by surface mine operators are to
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be advertised for four consecutive weeks in local newspapers followed by a
thirty day period prior to permit approval. The public may comment at any
time during this period. The Maryland Land Reclamation Committee (LRC)
also serves the purpose of public participation and citizen review of all
surface mining permit applications. Consisting of thirteen members repre-
senting the Maryland Bureau of Mines, Maryland Department of Water Re-
sources, Maryland Geologic Survey, Soil Conservation Districts, and Mary-
land coal operators, the Committee meets once a month to review applica-
tions, reclamation plans and other pertinent issues regarding mining in
western Maryland.
Mechanisms for conducting the "Lands Unsuitable Program" in Mary-
land are undefined at this time; however, it is anticipated that other
agencies (e.g., member agencies of the LRC) will be involved in the peti-
tion evaluation and designation processes. Local and state planning
offices will also be involved in the land use review under the Section 522
Program.
Ohio
The Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Reclama-
tion, has submitted its regulatory program to OSM, complete with state
regulations. The state regulations regarding post-mining land uses and
compliance with local or regional land use plans are intact. Ohio relies
on the coal operator to state, in the permit application, whether or not
there are land use plans for the permit area. It Is up to the operator to
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research local or regional land use plans and determine if the post-mining
land use of the mine site is in compliance with those plans.
Ohio regulations vary from OSM regarding the post-mining land use
category of "forest land." Rather than assume the "forestry" definition
or the "undeveloped land" definition as defined by OSM, Ohio has defined
the category as a separate developed land use. This follows the Ohio DNR
goal of promoting forest land in Ohio. Ohio landowners, through other
programs, receive a tax incentive if they dedicate their land to "forest."
Therefore, in order to promote this concept and be consistent with other
Ohio natural resource goals, the Division of Reclamation is allowing coal
operators the same benefit as allowed other landowners, that is to develop
land to forest.
Pennsylvania
Currently, Pennsylvania is operating and enforcing one of the
most comprehensive surface mine regulation programs in the country. The
system centers around review of plans and issuance of two separate permits
- a mine drainage permit which is generally obtained for relatively large
acreages, and stripping permits which generally cover a much smaller area.
Detailed environmental data is required for the mine drainage permit, but
bonding is associated with the stripping permit as state regulators and
coal operators feel the incremental bonding of smaller acreages is best
for the operator and the enforcement agency.
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For Title V primacy, the state program is being reorganized so
permit application and permit review activities are focused in five re-
gional offices. However, many of the other state agencies which provide
specific permit application review support will continue to do so from
Harrisburg. In addition, the assessments of mining's cumulative impacts
in various watersheds which will be an important part of the Pennsylvania
program will continue to be focused in Harrisburg. In addition, the state
"522" program which is being developed by the Bureau of Environmental Mas-
ter Planning will be centrally operated from Harrisburg. Final reorgani-
zation of policy changes are still not complete so more specific informa-
tion is not yet available.
Tennessee
The Tennessee Department of Conservation, Division of Surface
Mining has completed its "primacy package" for submission to OSM. The
state is following the OSM regulations and is not deviating from those
regulations in the state plan.
Land use change applications by coal operators must follow the
OSM regulations which require the operator to show surface owner accep-
tance with the post-mining land use. There are no formal hearings regard-
ing land use changes in Tennessee; however, a public comment period of
forty-five days is required under the regulations. All land use changes
are reviewed by the Tennessee State Planning Office. All petitions for
declaring lands unsuitable for mining under Section 522 of PL 95-87 will
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also be reviewed by the Tennessee State Planning Office for determination
if a coal operation is compatible with existing land use plans. This
mechanism has not been defined yet in Tennessee since the program is, of
yet, untested.
Virginia
In spite of the continuing litigation in the Commonwealth of Vir-
ginia, testing the constitutionabiI ity of several provisions of the OSM
regulations, the Virginia Division of Mined Land Reclamation has submitted
its regulatory program to OSM. The Title V regulations drafted by Virgin-
ia to obtain primacy essentially parallel the federal regulations. The
submitted program also presents alternatives to those performance stan-
dards which Virginia DMLR feels would adequately reflect conditions in the
steep slope mining region of southwestern Virginia.
The lawsuit begun by the Virginia Surface Mining and Reclamation
Association and later enjoined by the Commonwealth of Virginia is testing
the constitutionabiI ity of several key provisions in the law including
provisions requiring return to approximate original contour, steep slope
mining, and Section 522 - Designating Lands Unsuitable for Mining. The
U.S. District Court in western Virginia has declared certain provisions of
the law as unconstitutional as they apply to Virginia. The U.S. Depart-
ment of Justice has appealed the decision to the U.S. Supreme Court. The
Supreme Court has issued a temporary stay on the District Court's decision
until the appeal is heard in the fall of 1980 or spring of 1981. Virginia
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DMLR, since they are following the federal regulations, is requiring the
coal operator to assure compliance with local or regional land use plans.
However, permit applications will be reviewed by the Planning District
Commissions (A-95) to assure compatibility of land uses. There will also
be a forty-five day public comment period regarding changes in land uses
proposed by the coal operators. This is similar to most other Appalachian
states.
DMLR will be consulting with up to thirty other agencies to eval-
uate petitions to declare lands unsuitable. The Planning District Commis-
sions are among the agencies which will be cooperating in the 522 process
regarding land use issues.
West Virginia
The Division of Reclamation in the West Virginia Department of
Natural Resources has drafted regulations to obtain primacy over the sur-
face mining regulatory program in the state.
Coal operators must, at present, investigate regional land use
plans and obtain a signed letter from the Regional Planning Council that
surface mining/reclamation does not conflict with present or future land
use plans. This procedure will remain in the permanent program. If a
land use change is planned following mining, the forty-five day public
comment period is used in West Virginia as in most other states. A public
hearing is required if requested by any citizen or group.
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West Virginia is not drafting state regulations parallel to the
federal regulations. State regulations will vary regarding some of the
following parameters:
. Wildlife
Hydrology
Performance standards
Permit requirements
Prospecting
Since the regulations are not published at this time, no informa-
tion regarding these variances is available. The 522 "Lands Unsuitable"
program is not developed in West Virginia at this time. WVDNR expects to
have the state regulations drafted and submitted to OSM by June 15, 1980.
Environmental Protection Agency
EPA's activities in mine reclamation/regulation have been focused
on development and enforcement of air pollution standards, water pollution
control, completion of environmental assessments, and sponsorship of rec-
lamation technology development and transfer research.
Air Pol Iution
Mining must comply with pertinent parts of the Clean Air Act. A
particularly critical area of compliance involved a recent EPA decision to
consider mining as a point source for enforcement of strict fugitive dust
control regulations. A decision was postponed pending further research,
as industry compliance would be extremely difficult. Under new "State Im-
plementation Plans," the states are assuming responsibility for adminis-
tration of the Act.
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Water Pol Iution
In addition to mining permits, NPDES permits are the only permits
required of all coal mining operations. In addition, mine water effluent
limitations are enforced. These limitations are also enforced as part of
the OSM/state regulatory programs. NPDES permit programs are, in most
cases, managed by state water pollution control agencies. In addition,
remaining federal NPDES program states (i.e., West Virginia) are planning
to assume program primacy in the future. EPA is currently cooperating
with OSM in the development of a single permit for NPDES/Reclamation
Perm itting.
Environmental Assessments
For NPDES regional impact analysis, EPA has undertaken mining en-
vironmental assessments in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia. The stud-
ies were undertaken in support of EPA-NPDES permitting in those states.
Research and Development
During the 1970's, EPA conducted an intensive mining/pollution
control R&D Program at the Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory in
Cincinnati. A number of extraction technology and mining pollution con-
trol projects were completed.
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Tennessee Valley Authority
TVA has a long history of regulating coal surface mining in the
Tennessee Valley. TVA is the world's largest coal consumer and public
utility with most of its coal purchased in Alabama, Tennessee, and Ken-
tucky. Standards for surface mine reclamation for mines from which TVA
bought coal were formulated and enforced with threats of contract defaults
and contract denials. Surface mining within the view of public highways
was disallowed. Much of TVA's regulatory activity has ceased with the
coming of OSM. Nevertheless, through contracts TVA maintains the right to
require special operational and reclamation standards and procedures.
Secondary Involvements
The Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Mines,
Corps of Engineers, and Mine Safety and Health Administration to varying
degrees have been involved in surface mine reclamation/regulation and re-
search. The Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management have been in-
volved by virtue of managing lands currently being mined or available for
mining. In addition, BLM has assumed responsibility for coal leasing on
alI federal lands.
The Bureau of Mines has conducted an intensive coal mining re-
search and development program over the years. Much of this research re-
sponsibility has been transferred to the Department of Energy. However,
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the Bureau has maintained control over the environmental control and tech-
nology aspects of mining research. The Mine Safety and Health Adminis-
tration has been involved as the regulatory agency responsible for mine
health and safety regulatory standards and inspection and enforcement.
The Corps of Engineers' primary involvement is through the "404" permit-
ting process.
Similar to abandoned mined lands, secondary state agency involve-
ments chiefly involve additional permitting and/or surface mine permit ap-
plication review. Again, the most commonly required permits are highway
occupancy, erosion control, stream encroachment, and excavation/building
permits. Site specific conditions must generally be examined to assess
the applicability of such permits to given mining situations. However,
states with NPDES primacy will have a designated water pollution control
agency responsible for permit application review and permitting. All
mines require NPDES permits. Once OSM and EPA determine the format of the
proposed common mining/NPDES permits, the state mining regulatory and
water pollution control agencies will likely follow with common permits.
Quite a large number of agencies may become involved in the state
permit application review process. The following generic state agencies
are generally involved either In permit review or at a minimum are noti-
fied of permit applications which may be reviewed upon request.
Water Quality Management
Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation
. State Parks
Forestry
Geologic Survey
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. Fish and Wildlife
Highway
Historic Preservation
In addition, soil conservation, stormwater management, and dam
control agencies are often involved in permit review. Review periods are
often specified by the mining regulatory agency with meeting of deadline
burdens placed on the reviewing agencies (thirty to sixty day review per-
iods appear to be common). Many of these agencies are also likely to be-
come involved in the state "522" programs - in both petition review and
petition submission roles. At the very least, data transfers to the regu-
latory authority will often be required for petition review.
Land Use Planning and Surface Mining
Roles for regional and local planning conservation, and regu-
latory agencies in surface mine regulation, are limited. In most states,
county and local agencies are preempted from developing and enforcing sur-
face mining regulations by the state strip mining laws. However, regional
and local governments often possess several important legal tools which
provide them with certain controls over strip mining.
Valid zoning ordinances may be designed to limit the
potential locations for surface mining operations, cer-
tain off-site effects, and the long range land uses
proposed for sites once reclamation is underway.
Control of traffic on local roads and in cooperation
with state highway departments, highways under val id
road ordinances.
. Limited control over the adverse effects of blasting
and other surface mining activities by their power to
prevent or abate public nuisance.
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Regional and local land use planning agencies and zoning author-
ities will often be requested to provide both operators and regulatory
agencies with historic and adjacent land use data, pertinent zoning regu-
lations and comprehensive plans for developing and/or evaluating land use
plans for mine sites. In addition, a number of such agencies will likely
take very active roles in the state 522 programs.
Over the years, the Conservation Districts have been the local
agencies most heavily involved in surface mining. District technical
staffs often prepare reclamation plans for landowners and operators that
actively participate in their programs. In addition, the Districts are
generally notified of new permit applications in their areas. Permit
review may also be required by the state mining agencies.
SUMMARY
This section has presented a brief overview of the agencies, or-
ganizations, programs, and activities which are currently part of the in-
stitutional framework which regulates, restores, plans, engineers, re-
searches, and funds active and/or abandoned mined land reclamation. The
discussion is presented to introduce an institutional context for mined
area land use decision making. A number of later sections of the report
will build upon the material which has been presented.
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MANAGEMENT
RECOMMENDA TIONS
-------
MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
This section presents a number of general recommendations con-
cerning effective utilization of the Land Use Decision Methodology (LUDM)
in mined area land use decision making. Possible project and planning
frameworks for the LUDM are highlighted. The discussion is organized
around the following topics:
. Users of and uses for the LUDM;
Possible institutional frameworks for implementing the
LUDM; and
A detailed scenario for initiating and conducting an
LDD based reelamation/1 and use decision making program.
The LUDM is best viewed as a framework for structuring planning
which supports land use decision making for mined lands. Involved organ-
izations or parties may range from mine operators responsible for restor-
ing currently active mined lands to regional planning agencies which may
be evaluating development opportunities for mined as well as unmined
areas. The application requirements, technical expertise, available data
and intended use of the LUDM will vary with each potential user. There-
fore, in actual use, the LUDM may require modification or adjustment to
specific planning and project contexts.
The previously presented "Institutional Analysis" discussed a
number of potential LUDM user groups. Included are:
Regional and local agencies which are engaged in land
use planning for mining regions;
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Economic development organizations which formulate,
plan, and implement site development projects;
Mine operators that must implement mine site reclama-
tion plans; and
Abandoned mine reclamation agencies which are planning
and funding reclamation projects.
LAND USE PLANNING AGENCIES
In mined areas a number of regional and local land use planning
functions may be supported by the LUDM. The LUDM is suitable for support-
ing project efforts such as determining site suitabilities and estimating
demands for developable land in particular regions. HUD "701" planning,
facility siting, infrastructure planning, and to a lesser degree zoning
are activities which require the support of explicit land use analysis
capabilities or techniques such as the LUDM.
As the state abandoned mine reclamation agencies complete their
inventories, planning agencies will be able to readily access site data
for abandoned mine sites. In addition, local agencies often review active
mining permits as part of state permit review procedures. Therefore, in
most situations, these planning agencies will be able to easily access
pertinent mining data interfacing this information with their lend use,
environmental, and socioeconomic data. In most cases, few if any formal
institutional links will be required to complete this data transfer.
In addition, the LUDM presents planning agencies with a tool for
participating in state abandoned mined land reclamation programming and
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planning. Consideration of local land use concerns is mandated by new
reclamation laws and regulations and the LUDM would be a suitable vehicle
for structuring regional and local land use planning inputs.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
In addition to the agencies engaged in planning, there is also a
network of economic development organizations throughout Appalachia which
are addressing development problems such as housing and industrial site
shortages. For example, there are over twenty public housing agencies
serving many of the counties in steep slope central Appalachia. The
majority of projects which are planned and implemented by these organiza-
tions (i.e., low income housing) are financed through various federal and
state grant, loan, and loan guarantee programs. Such funding generally
requires, before final funding approval, that the suitability of the land
for the intended development is thoroughly documented. It is, therefore,
anticipated that the LUDM could provide a quick easily implemented method
for determining development/site suitabilities for such projects.
The LUDM is also particularly suited for use by local economic
development organizations as:
There are no explicit data base development require-
ments which mandate costly collection of new site or
regional data.
The LUDM may be suitably implemented by persons without
rigorous mining, land use, or engineering training or
exper ience.
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In applying for development funds, it is important to document
that procedures such as the LUDM were utilized in plan and project form-
ulation. It is generally not enough that local development corporation
members have a working knowledge of an area or region from living there
all their lives. Such people often quite accurately know the character-
istics of a site or sites which influence development suitability without
using overlay maps or matrices. Although this type of knowledge is usual-
ly locally recognized, it generally does not go very far in convincing
government or private funding sources that the most suitable possible site
has indeed been selected for the proposed development.
These organizations will generally not have ready access to the
mining or environmental data which is required to complete LUDM site and
site context regional analyses. Again, most of this data will be avail-
able from other sources or from site inspections. However, formal liai-
sons between these development organizations and other regional and state
agencies for data collection will generally not be warranted as such data
needs will generally be one-time and project or site specific.
MINE OPERATORS
Mine operators may appropriately use the LUDM to test site suit-
abilities for various land uses. Land use suitability may be documented
based on site and regional infrastructure and environmental characteris-
tics and such documentation would be valuable for permit preparation,
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hearings for regulatory variances and for "522" petition response docu-
mentation. The operators will have ready access to required site data in
their environmental baseline surveys and engineering plans. Additional
regional land use and environmental data would be readily accessible from
appropriate local or regional planning bodies.
ABANDONED MINED LAND RECLAMATION
The project selection and ranking criteria to be utilized by a
number of state AML reclamation programs will explicitly consider site
land use potentials. Such potentials may be readily examined and docu-
mented utilizing the LUDM. Sites with high land use potentials may be
isolated and then planned for accordingly. Again, the AML agency will
have to interface with appropriate state or regional agencies for obtain-
ing the requisite environmental and socioeconomic data. The state program
public participation components could prove to be ideal vehicles for
assuring this reclamation agency/planning agency interface.
EXAMPLE - AN LDD BASED RECLAMATION/LAND USE PLANNING PROGRAM
This final discussion presents a hypothetical management/insti-
tutional framework in which LDD's may assume key mined area land use
decision roles. In addition, this section also illustrates a larger site
planning/development context in which the LUDM may be effectively util-
ized. As presented, LDD's are but one of many local, regional, or state
organizations which may appropriately include land use decision making for
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mined areas within the scope of their land planning/development activi-
ties. LDD's are a logical mined land reclamation planning participant as
throughout Appalachia they are generally "A-95" multi-county agencies.
Linkage of the "A-95" agency as an LDD with Appalachian Regional Commis-
sion (ARC) can provide important regional-state-federal liaison mechan-
isms. These liaison mechanisms should include cooperative agreements with
other federal agencies and ARC technical expertise in applying design
techniques, in addition to direct funding. This funding would provide the
initial step in a reclamation/development program by providing funds for
start-up costs and the personnel to carry out the program.
Cooperative agreements established through ARC leadership can
provide the basic means to identify and select reclamation/development
projects. Key agencies for which agreements could be obtained include:
U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Surface Mining -
Title V (PL 95-87) permit review and Title IV (PL
95-87) grant application review
State agencies responsible for approval of surface
mining permits
State agencies responsible for abandoned mine lands
reclamation
Those agreements would pursue two objectives. First, they will allow the
designated agency expanded review opportunity to study potential project
sites before reclamation approval occurs; during this period the desig-
nated agency could then test the feasibility and desirability of various
final land uses using the LUDM as well as other suitable planning tools.
Second, cooperative agreements could specify that the designated agency
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may propose certain modifications to initial proposals to incorporate eco-
nomic development objectives into the final design. The ultimate purpose
of these generic cooperative agreements is to identify, evaluate and
choose those reclamation operations for a given study area most suitable
for economic development projects. Specific project selection procedures
will come under the aegis of the LDD's Areawide Action Plan. Under this
system, "packaged" reclamation/development projects will compete against
other public needs for the available funds. By utilizing the land use
decision technique presented in this report, projects can be prioritized
to indicate those which will be of most benefit to the local area.
The next step in packaging a reclamation/development project is
to provide funding for site acquisition. To minimize public expenditure,
only surface rights should be purchased. A small "land banking" program,
financed as a revolving fund and executed by the LDD, could be established
to assure control over development activities. In the case of abandoned
mine land sites, OSM or state AMI programs (PL 95-87) could be tapped for
funding sources. In the case of active mining operations, Farmers Home
Administration (FmHA) "601" energy impact funding could be utilized. To
facilitate this site acquisition process, cooperative agreements with OSM,
state AML agencies, and the FmHA could specify detailed procedures for ap-
proval and allocation of funds to the LDD's.
With site acquisition accomplished, reclamation must be financed.
Approved AML reclamation will be financed by OSM (in states not fully par-
ticipating in Title IV, PL 95-87), the state AML agency (approved Title IV
- 157 -
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programs), or ARC (use of "Section 205" funds for open pit and quarry rec-
lamation) .
Active mine reclamation costs are normally incurred by the mine
operator. In the case of reclamation/development projects, extra reclama-
tion may be required (e.g., compaction of fill for use as building site).
The ARC could fund this extra reclamation under its "Section 205" program.
LDD's must establish contractual arrangements with the mine operator,
specifying the extra reclamation required (to include landscaping) and the
associated costs. ARC could provide technical assistance in evaluating
plans and specifications, determining the appropriate costs, and writing
the contract.
With reclamation completed, site deveIopment can occur. A myriad
of FmHA programs are available to assist in infrastructure I development -
transportation, utilities, water, and sanitation - in alI types of recla-
mation/development projects. Where required, the ARC can supplement these
funds with certain specific functional programs currently available:
Section 200(c) - enterprise development
Section 201 - highway and access roads
Section 207 - housing
Section 212 - sewage treatment facilities
Section 214 - matching funds
These FmHA and ARC programs will allow the LDD to take a reclaimed site,
either from an active or abandoned mine, and develop the desired land use.
Contracts with private developers (and in some cases financial institu-
tions) will be required here as in the case of the reclamation. Both
types of contracts must be closely monitored to assure that the reclama-
tion and development efforts produce the planned results.
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-------
Coordination throughout this entire process would be maintained
by the LDD. Grant funding activities with other public agencies, as
established through cooperative agreements, will be a continuous task.
Land acquisition, management, and disposal (i.e., land banking) will like-
wise occur. Reclamation and development contracts with private firms must
be established, monitored, and brought to fruition. Sites will eventually
be returned to the private sector with land disposition under the land
banking program.
Figure 25 presents a flowchart for an LDD centered management
structure. A seven-step procedure is indicated involving both land plan-
ning and land banking. The necessary cooperative agreements and related
funding programs are indicated at each stage in this process. This flow-
chart may be modified to depict institutional arrangements/ management
frameworks involving other equally suitable agencies and organizations.
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Figure 25. Recommended management structure.
ARC FUNDING
LDD
RECLAMATION/DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM
LAND PLANNING
1. DETERMINE POTENTIAL
SITES
I
AREAWIDE ACTION
PLAN USE OF LAND
USE DECISION
TECHNIQUE
-•J 2. EVALUATE SITES
-*J 3. SELECT SITES
ARC SECTION 205
FUNDING
I
ARC
FUNCTIONAL
PROGRAMS
LAND BANKING
4. ACQUIRE SITES
5. RECLAIM SITES
(Private Contractors)
I
6. DEVELOP SITES
(Private Contractors)
I
7. DISPOSE SITES
ARC
COOPERATIVE
AGREEMENTS
OSM TITLE IV
OSM TITLE V
STATE REGULATORY
PROGRAMS
STATE AML PROGRAMS
OSM TITLE IV
FMHA "601" PROGRAM
FMHA
FUNCTIONAL
PROGRAMS
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THE SETTLERS CABIN
CASE STUDY
-------
THE SETTLERS CABIN CASE STUDY
INTRODUCTION
Settlers Cabin is a park of over one thousand acres which is lo-
cated approximately ten miles west of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The park
is an integral part of the Allegheny County Park System and has been un-
dergoing incremental facility expansion and new development since the mid-
1960's. Within its boundaries, there are a number of unreclaimed strip
mines, deep mined areas and mine openings, and abandoned oil and gas
we I Is.
In 1975 the Appalachian Regional Commission and Environmental
Protection Agency sponsored a study which detailed the nature and extent
of environmental damage due to past mining within the park. A compre-
hensive reclamation and mine drainage abatement plan was also devised.
The plan included a staged implementation program for strip mine backfil-
ling, deep mine sealing and treatment facility construction. However, im-
mediately planned reclamation activities only included reclamation of two
strip mine pits totaling approxlmatey eight acres and stabilization of
associated subsidence areas which total another seventeen acres. As of
April 1980, construction had not yet begun.
In addition to provision of planning and construction funds for
park reclamation, the reclamation/abatement project was devised as a study
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-------
in interagency cooperation. It was a specific intent of project initia-
tors within the Environmental Protection Agency and the Appalachian Re-
gional Commission to involve a number of state, regional, and local agen-
cies in all aspects of project planning. Therefore, the objectives of the
Settlers Cabin Park Project were actually twofold:
Conduct a study in and evaluation of agency cooperation
and performance.
. Provision of actual environmental improvements to the
park site.
Within this framework, the project case study was formulated to
provide:
. A study of agency project participation for a number of
the agencies described in the Institutional/Management
Study.
. A test site and context for a test application of the
Land Use Decision Technique (Matrix).
In support the Management Study and the Land Use Decision Method-
ology, the following information is included in this section. First, is a
detailed description of the site and its regional context in the Pitts-
burgh metropolitan area. This description Includes a history of mining,
identified mining-related environmental problems, descriptions of existing
and proposed park facilities, and proposed reclamation and pollution
abatement measures.
Second, is a description of the project's institutional setting,
which includes: a chronology of important project events; a description
of agency involvements and interactions; and a general evaluation of
agency performance relative to project delays, and problems encountered
during the project.
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Third, a test application of the Land Use Matrix and associated
procedures is provided. The matrix is utilized to examine the past land
use decisions which have resulted in development of the site as a major
regional park. In addition, hypothetical land use options are examined by
modifying project assumptions regarding the current site ownership and de-
velopment pattern. This approach permits testing of a number of alterna-
tive land use scenarios based on the site's physical attributes and in-
stitutional /locationaI parameters as addressed by the Land Use Matrix.
DESCRIPTION OF SETTLERS CABIN PARK
Regional Overview
Located near Pittsburgh, Settlers Cabin is named for a colonial
era log cabin which has been restored at the park. Well within the Pitts-
burgh metropolitan area, over a million people live in close proximity to
the park. Currently, the park offers a wide range of recreational oppor-
tunities - picnic and playground facilities, a pool, trails, a wildlife
refuge and fishing. In addition, a Pittsburgh ethnic history study cen-
ter, a tennis complex, and additional historic theme facilities are pro-
posed for future development. With continued growth within the greater
Pittsburgh area (Figure 26), especially new housing .within the highway/
development corridor between the city and Greater Pittsburgh Airport, the
role of Settlers Cabin as a major regional recreational resource is cer-
tainly to be significant.
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Figure 26. Project area location map.
GREATER
PITTSBURGH
AIRPORT
SETTLERS
CABIN
PROJECT AR
CHARTIERS
CREEK
DRAINAGE BASIN
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Physiographically, the site lies in the Chartiers Creek Drainage
Basin within the larger Allegheny Plateau. The region is maturely dis-
sected with principal streams having eroded broad valleys to fairly uni-
form moderate slopes. Tributaries have further divided upland areas into
numerous narrow ridges and steeper narrow valleys. These narrow valleys
generally have slopes ranging from 25$ to 40% while the larger rounded
valley divides are more gentle with slopes generally in the 5$ to 20$
range. Within the basin, relief varies from a low elevation of 710 feet
where Chartiers Creek meets the Ohio River to 1520 feet at the headwaters
of the creek in Washington County.
The geology of the region consists of gently dipping sedimentary
sandstone, shale, limestone, and coal. Outcropping beds belong to the
Conemaugh, Monongahela, Washington and Greene formations. The outcrop of
the Monongahela formation is more extensive than the outcrops of any of
the other formations in the region. The Pittsburgh coal seam is the low-
est member of the formation. In this area, coal mining activity has fo-
cused most heavily on the Pittsburgh coal, which varies between five and
six feet in thickness. Throughout the Chartiers Creek Basin mining ac-
tivity has been extensive, with drift mining, slope and shaft mining, and
contour strip mining all widely employed.
Two general soil associations predominate throughout the region.
The Westmoreland-Guernsey-Clarksburg Association soils are derived from
limestones, sandstones, and shales. Slopes are generally moderate, but
may range from gentle to steep. Much of the soil In the steeper terrain
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in the region is in the Westmoreland-Guernsey Association, which has simi-
lar parent materials - shale, sandstone, and limestone. Soil interpreta-
tions rate the potential erodibility of these soils as high, primarily due
to topographic relief and steep slopes. Soils on flatter slopes through
the area are assigned medium erosion potential ratings.
Strip and deep mining have severely altered the hydrology of the
Chartiers Creek Drainage Basin. In addition, a number of streams are se-
verely polluted with acid mine water. Many of the major sources of mine
drainage are in areas where strip mining break into the abandoned deep
mines. Such breaks result in large amounts of surface water being di-
rected into underground workings where it contacts acid-forming iron sul-
fide minerals and is discharged through old mine openings at lower eleva-
tions. In addition, in abandoned strip mines acid-forming materials have
been left exposed over larger acreages. Oxidation produces sulfate miner-
als. Runoff dissolves these minerals, carrying the resultant acid mater-
ials into adjacent streams.
Jhe Settlers Cabin Site
Within the park boundaries, there is roughly two hundred feet of
topographic relief. Pinkerton's Run provides a wide sloping stream valley
nearly dividing the park in half while small tributaries provide steeper
narrow valleys. The site is bordered on the north by the Parkway West, a
major traffic thoroughfare for the western portion of the Pittsburgh
metropolitan area. To the south Is Robinson Run, a major tributary of
- 168 -
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Chartiers Creek and to the east and west are developing residential areas
in Fayette and Collier Townships.
Park Facilitles
Figure 27 depicts the major existing and proposed facility devel-
opments for Settlers Cabin Park. Existing facilities include picnic
areas, hiking trails, log cabin, an oil well, the interpretive center, and
swimming pool complex. Proposed facility development includes the follow-
ing elements:
additional picnic areas
the ethnic viI I age
active recreation area
historic theme for all facilities
new trails and bikeways
major tennis complex
In addition, access roads and signs will be improved. Expanded
park traffic is expected, so such facility improvement is necessary.
Vegetative Cover
The park is dominated by relatively mature trees. The heaviest
woodlands within the park are found in the lowlands adjacent to streams.
Dominant species Include Oak, Black Cherry, Locust, Beech and Maple. On
the hilltops within the park, the vegetative cover consists primarily of
young Locust, Aspen and Pines. The park was previously contour stripped
over much of its area, so many of these trees are growing on strip mine
spoils. Prior to the commencement of mining In the early 1900's the re-
gion was chiefly agricultural. Therefore, this forest cover Is mostly
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Figure 27. Existing and proposed park facilities.
— LEGEND —
Existing Picnic Area
and Game Fields
Proposed Picnic Area
and Game Fields
Swimming Complex
^% *
%
V/////A Game Refuge Area
hl>-v£S''^al Reforestation Area
-------
naturally seeded second growth covering abandoned farmland. A number of
shrub and grass species are also in evidence throughout the park, provid-
ing cover and food for rabbits, pheasants, and deer.
Hydrology
The park area is contained within the Robinson Run Watershed.
Pinkerton's Run flows through the park before discharging into Robinson
Run and finally into Chartiers Creek. The surface and groundwater of the
Settlers Cabin area is heavily impacted by acid mine drainage. Acid
drainage most seriously affects Pinkerton's Run, the largest stream in the
park. Tributaries vary from being polluted to Intermittently being af-
fected by mine drainage. A major eastern tributary Is relatively clean.
There is no evidence of other organic or Industrial pollution in the park
area.
Mining History
From 1908 through 1937 deep mining activity was extensive
throughout the Chartiers Creek Watershed. Typical room and pillar opera-
tions with drift entries were generally developed. As the room and pillar
areas were completed, the pillars were recovered, causing localized subsi-
dence and surface and groundwater flow disruptions. Mine openings were
generally left unsealed, allowing water and air to enter the mines, caus-
ing formation of acid mine drainage, which subsequently drained via
gravity through other openings.
- 171 -
-------
The site was stripped most heavily during the 1940's. Much of
the coal left in place by previous deep mining was stripped from the coal
outcrop following the contours of the land surface. Many of these strip
mines were improperly reclaimed and now provide a means for surface water
to enter the deep mines, later discharging as acid mine drainage. Figure
28 depicts the extent of past deep and strip mining within the park.
Summary of Mining-Related Environmental Problems
Mine Drainage
A study of the entire Chartiers Creek Watershed was completed in
1970 which identified 43 major sources and an additional 250 sources of
acid mine drainage in the watershed (where major sources contribute great-
er than 1,000 Ibs. of acid per day). A later study which focused on Set-
tlers Cabin Park identified 25 significant discharges (none greater than
1,000 Ibs. per day to local streams). Of the identified discharges, 23
originated from abandoned deep mines and two from an abandoned strip mine.
The deep mine discharges accounted for 95% of the total documented acid
load in the park. Of the identified sources, 11 were outcrop discharges
or seepages, 6 were discharging through adjacent strip mines, and 6 were
drainage from collapsed or partially backfilled deep mine entries.
PInkerton's Run receives over 30$ of this documented acid load
from a total of 11 drainage sources. Collectively, the 25 discharges pro-
duce 5,000 Ibs./day acid load and 250 Ibs./day of iron. This drainage has
continually or intermittently degraded 12 miles of streams within the
park.
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-------
Figure 28. Mined land inventory map.
- LEGEND -
V/////A Unreclaimed Strip Mines
n? >A-
•"<\
l£.-V;ff&"il Partially Reclaimed Strip Mines
I | Reclaimed Strip Mines
I I Deep Mine Areas
-V
X////A Subsidence Areas
-; y r ^;^'y i-.;
*•£
-------
Subsidence
Much of the park surface Is only 20 to 60 feet above the aban-
doned mine workings, thus roof collapse and subsequent surface subsidence
are common. This subsidence has disrupted normal surface runoff patterns
and allowed water to enter the abandoned workings through sink holes. In
addition, subsidence patterns within the park have restricted conventional
facility development In a number of areas.
Unreclaimed Strip Mines
Nearly all of the stripping In the park occurred from the late
1940's until the early 1960's. This activity generally involved contour
cuts following the outcrop of the Pittsburgh seam. A number of these
mines were partially backfilled forming flat benches in the pit areas.
Three stripped areas were adequately reclaimed. The remaining mines were
left totally unreclaimed, with pits and highwalls left intact. A number
of these unreclaimed strip pits are located updip from adjacent deep mine
workings. These areas impound surface runoff, which then Infiltrates Into
deep mine workings, becomes acidified, and is gravity discharged through
openings on the downdlp sides of the underground mines.
SETTLERS CABIN RECLAMATION/ABATEMENT
Proposed RecIamat i on
A comprehensive reclamation and pollution abatement plan was
first developed for the park during the late 1960's. Working with the
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Allegheny County Department of Parks, the Pennsylvania Department of Mines
and Minerals sponsored development of this plan. Construction was slated
to begin when Allegheny County reassessed its position, and all activity
was halted pending further action by the county.
In 1976, an Appalachian Regional Commission-sponsored mine drain-
age study resulted in development of a comprehensive five phase reclama-
tion and abatement plan. Important elements of this plan follow:
. Phase 1 - Reclamation of an unreclaimed strip mine and
construction of a mine drainage Interceptor system for
Pinkerton's Run.
. Phase 2 - Surface mine reclamation on 18 additional
acres, of which 6 acres were actually outside of the
park.
. Phase 5 - Revegetation of four additional surface mined
sites.
. Phase 4 - Daylighting (stripping out abandoned under-
ground workings) of two areas within the park. This
procedure involved clearing of all site vegetation,
excavation, coal removal, regradlng and revegetation.
Phase 5 - Construction of a IIme neutralization treat-
ment facility located on Robinson Run. This was viewed
as the last element in a comprehensive plan for abate-
ment of mine drainage within the park.
In summary, the five phases involved 44 acres of strip mine rec-
lamation, 77 acres of additional strip mine revegetation, 34 acres of deep
mine daylighting, and construction of a water collection system and treat-
ment plant. Total construction costs were estimated at $2,669,000 (1976)
with an annual operating budget of almost $110,000. Table 1 summarizes
these costs.
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-------
Implementation of Plans
The only reclamation which is likely to be actually implemented
at Settlers Cabin is backfilling, regrading and planting of two strip
mines totaling 8 acres and stabilization of an additional 17 acres (Figure
29). As of March 1980, total estimted cost for the proposed reclamation
is $140,000.
TABLE 1
ESTIMATED COSTS
Phase
1
1 1
1 1 1
IV
V
Total
Estimated First
Construction
$ 326,000
69,000
42,000
863,000
1,369,000
$2,669,000
Costs
Engineering
$ 17,000
6,000
—
63,000
102,000
$188,000
Total
$ 343,000
75,000
42,000
926,000
1,471,000
$2,857,000
Estimated
Operation
and Maintenance
Costs per Year
$ 11,000
—
—
—
107,000
$118,000
Equivalent
Annual
Costs
$ 43,000
7,000
4,000
87,000
246,000
$387,000
SETTLERS CABIN PROJECT MANAGEMENT STUDY
The previous section provided a Settlers Cabin site and regional
environmental overview. This environmental overview coupled with the sum-
mary of the various land use/facility development and reclamation/abate-
ment plans which have been proposed for the site provides a site/reclama-
tion needs point of reference for the Institutional study which follows.
In addition, elements of this site analysis will be requisite input into
the test application of the Land Use Decision Matrix to Settlers Cabin,
which is presented in a later section of the report.
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Figure 29. Proposed reclamation.
— LEGEND -
bff&PJ Pit Backfilling
V///A Stabilization and
Subsidence Control
I I Strip Mined Areas
-------
The management study Is structured as a layering of pertinent
project information. Included are: a general identification of Involved
agencies; a chronology of major project events and activities; a detailed
examination of agency functional project involvements; and a summary of
project implications for the Institutional/Management Study, as well as
the application of the Land Use Decision Matrix to the Settlers Cabin
site.
Agency InvoIvements
The number of agencies actually involved in the Settlers Cabin
Project reflects the initial multi-agency participation and coordination
intent of the study. The Environmental Protection Agency, the Appalachian
Regional Commission, and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Re-
sources were all to some extent involved in project funding, planning, and
plan review. The involvement of ARC and the selection of county land for
reclamation additionally mandated Involvement of the U.S. Bureau of Mines,
the Southwestern Pennsylvania Economical Development District, and Alle-
gheny County Departments of Parks and Public Works. In addition, the
Pennsylvania Department of Mines and Minerals, which later underwent reor-
ganization and assimilation into the Department of Environmental Re-
sources, was involved in initial reclamation planning activities at the
site during the late 1960's. Following is a brief summary listing of per-
tinent agencies and the nature of their involvements In the Settlers Cabin
Project.
- 178 -
-------
Environmental Protection Agency, Region III - Initiated
the project in 1974 as a demonstration for non-point
source pollution control. Specific EPA interest has
been focused on the institutional aspects of project
progress and execution.
Appalachian Regional Commission - has participated with
EPA since project initiation. ARC funded the site en-
gineering/polIution abatement feasibility study in
1975. ARC is also providing "205" funding for a 3/4
share of projected construction costs.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Bu-
reau of Resources Management, Division of Mine Area
Restoration - has also been involved since project in-
ception. DER participated in site planning, engineer-
Ing study review, funding (1/4 share for construction
costs), and assumed primary responsibility for project
administration and Implementation activities. In ad-
dition, the Division of Mine Area Restoration is re-
sponsible for obtaining required mineral releases.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources,
Bureau of Design - responsible for design review for
project engineering plans and specifications.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources,
Bureau of Operations -will participate in project
construction oversight and past construction evaluation
and monitoring.
Pennsylvania Department of Commerce, Bureau of Appala-
chian Development - provided program link between ARC
and the Local Development District (LDD) for "205"
funding request and processing.
Southwestern Pennsylvania Economic Development Commis-
sion - submitted project funding requests as part of
yearly Action Plans, as required by ARC.
Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Planning Commission
- was Involved only to the point of providing regional
lead in "A-95" project review process.
Allegheny County Department of Public Works - was Ini-
tially the lead county agency for coordination with
DER, EPA, and ARC. At one point, DPW was considering
use of youth conservation corps type labor for a por-
tion of the reclamation work.
- 179 -
-------
. Allegheny County Department of Parks, Bureau of Plan-
ning - has participated primarily in a project review
role. They initiated and then halted reclamation ac-
tivities in the late 1960's. They reviewed all plans
and provided park planning inputs into reclamation/
abatement plans developed in 1976.
Apart from the agencies involved in various reclamation activi-
ties, the Pennsylvania Department of Community Affairs, the Economic De-
velopment Administration and the Pennsylvania Bicentennial Commission were
all Involved through funding various park facility development projects.
Project Chronology
The agency activities and interactions which to one degree or
another have shaped the direction, progress, and success or failure of the
Settlers Cabin Project are outlined in Figure 30. A chronology of project
milestones is summarized in the flowchart with brief supporting descrip-
tions. The events depicted include key agency activities, decisions, in-
teractions, or project milestones such as engineering study completion or
funding. The flowchart does not specifically highlight the most critical
of these events or interactions. Instead, such analysis is reserved for a
later discussion. The immediate focus is description of operational
agency project management, planning, funding, and coordination activities.
Agency programs and operations are examined for specific project rather
than generic operational performance. Specific agency institutional char-
acteristics (I.e., funding procedures) are also linked to any problems
encountered during the project. Therefore, the focus of the following
discussions Is on key functional elements of the project:
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-------
Figure 30. Settlers cabin project
milestone chronology.
ASSEMBLY OF LAND
FOR PARK
DEVELOPMENT
INITIAL PLANNING AND
FACILITY DEVELOPMENT
PARK FACILITIES OPEN
TO PUBLIC
PARK RECLAMATION
AND ABATEMENT
NEEDS DETERMINED
DEVELOPMENT OF
RECLAMATION AND
ABATEMENT PLANS
HALT TO ALL
RECLAMATION
ACTIVITIES
Park land assembled from privately owned
parcels and donated to Allegheny County
during the 1950's. Procurement of addi-
tional adjacent parcels has continued.
An initial master plan for "West Park," as
Settlers Cabin Park was then called, was
completed in 1960. Development of picnic
areas and hiking trails then proceeded.
Facility development has continued throughout
the 1 970's. Included were additional picnic
facilities, cabin restoration, an extensive
swimming complex, and ball fields.
The park opened to the public in 1968.
Within a couple of years the park was
averaging 110,000 visitors per summer
season.
The Allegheny County Parks Department
conducted an inventory of mining associated
problems on all county parklands in 1969.
Acid mine drainage, abandoned mines, and
abandoned oil and gas wells identified. The
County contacted the Department of Mines
and Minerals exploring potentials for tech-
nical and funding support.
No funds were available for well plugging,
but the Pennsylvania Department of Mines
and Minerals immediately initiated develop-
ment of mine reclamation and pollution abate-
ment plans. Plans finalized to the point of
field visitation with perspective coal opera-
tor/reclamation contractors.
Upon plan review, the county requested a
halt to all reclamation activities. Potential
incompatibility between park and reclama-
tion plans and the desire to minimize de-
struction of mine site pioneer vegetation
cited as the primary reasons for work
cessation.
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-------
Figure 30. Settlern cabin project
milestone chronology (Cont'd.).
EPA AND ARC
PLAN
RECLAMATION
DEMONSTRATION
SETTLERS CABIN
SITE SELECTED
DER AGREES
TO PROJECT
PARTICIPATION
DER WITHDRAWS
FROM PROJECT
DER
REASSESS
INVOLVEMENT AFTER
FURTHER STUDY
ENGINEERING
FEASIBILITY
STUDY
EPA - Region III developed plans to initiate
a 303(e) water quality planning demonstra-
tion project. Because of previous success
of EPA/ARC partnership in completing the
Monongahela Basin Study, EPA contacted
ARC for joint project involvement. EPA
and ARC signed a Cooperative Agreement
in 1974 with the study to focus on mining-
related pollution abatement planning.
The search for a potential demonstration site
focused in the Monongahela River Basin.
Initial Elk Creek site in West Virginia
dropped because of potential conflict with
other EPA R&D efforts. Settlers Cabin site
selected with assistance of Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Resources.
Initial contact established with the Pennsyl-
vania DER and interest in project participation
expressed. In addition, the Allegheny County
Departments of Parks and and Public Works
willing to participate. Concepts such as use
of job corp participants for reclamation work
discussed.
DER withdrew support for the project
based on insufficient pollution abatement
benefits as determined by internal agency
project benefit/cost determination procedures.
A compromise reached as DER agreed to hold
final decision concerning project partici-
pation until completion of a detailed mine drain-
age/pollution abatement study.
ARC contract with an engineering consultant
to conduct a detailed mine drainage/mining
problems study of the park. A detailed five
phase reclamation/abatement program resulted
from the study.
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-------
Figure 30. Settlers cabin project
milestone chronology (Cont'd.).
DER AGREES
TO LIMITED
PARTICIPATION
LDD REQUESTS
"205" FUNDS
FOR CONSTRUCTION
PREPARATION OF
ENGINEERING
DOCUMENTS
NEED FOR ADDITIONAL
EARTHWORK
DETERMINED
ACQUISTION OF
MINERAL
RIGHTS
NEED FOR SECOND
OVERRUN
DETERMINED
DER agreed to limited project participation.
Reclamation of two surface mines within the
park decided upon.
Following standard ARC "205" fund request
procedures, the Local Development District
(LDD) was contacted and construction funds
applied for. (ARC share 75% from "205")
Engineering consultant retained to prepare
plans and specifications for the two surface
mines (8 acres). Site visits confirmed the
need for stabilization of an additional 17
acres of subsidence prone land. Plans com-
pleted and circulated for review.
Local Development District requested overrun
funding to complete additional stabilization
work and accommodate increased costs due
to inflation.
DER - Division of Mine Area Restoration
seeks release of mineral rights. Allegheny
County guaranteed release for the state in
lieu of obtaining release from all mineral
owners.
Due to additional project delays, inflation
invalidates prior construction cost estimates.
Additional funding needs determined and
second overrun process begun.
- 183 -
-------
. Project Initiation (Research)
Planning (including Data Collection and Analysis)
. Funding (Financial Assistance)
. Plan Review (Decision-Making)
Implementation (Construction)
This listing was also derived from the "Management Study Schemat-
ic" which ARC initially developed to structure the management study. The
additional category "regulation" assumed virtually no role In the Settlers
Cabin Project. However, regulations would certainly be of critical con-
cern to any project planned for an active coal mine or quarry.
Project Initiation
As detailed previously, reclamation planning was actually initi-
ated at the site during the late 1960's with the Allegheny County Inven-
tory of abandoned mines and associated environmental problems on a I I
county held lands. A regional reclamation/pollution source inventory
(Operation Scarlift - the Chartiers Creek Pollution Abatement Project) and
development of park reclamation and abatement plans by the Pennsylvania
Department of Mines and Minerals followed soon afterward.
The EPA/ARC project was initiated as an EPA Region III "Specific
Non-Point Source Pollution Control Demonstration Project" in 1974. Part
of a nationwide demonstration program, these projects were mandated to be
cooperative efforts of federal, state, and local agencies and private
groups. The projects were to address regionally significant non-point
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sources (In this case pollution from abandoned coal mines). Regions were
assigned project types such as urban runoff, saltwater Intrusion, and
agricultural pollution.
Early in the project, EPA personnel decided to Involve the Appa-
lachian Regional Commission (ARC) because of ARC's knowledge of Appalachia
and their Involvement with EPA in the Monongahela River Basin Study. In
addition, ARC was already managing a successful ongoing mine reclamation
program (205). An interagency agreement between EPA and ARC was prepared.
Once project preliminaries were completed, a search for a suit-
able project/demonstration site began In the Monongahela Basin. The Elk
Creek Watershed, upstream from Clarksburg, West Virginia, was Initially
selected for a mine drainage/polIution control project. Subsequent inves-
tigation revealed the area to be unsuitable for the type of demonstration
which was planned (a deep mine sealing project was being considered be-
cause ARC was not able to fund surface mine reclamation on privately owned
land). It was felt that extensive active mining activity, as well as EPA
and West Virginia DNR pollution control demonstration projects already In
the watershed lessened the utility and attractiveness of Elk Creek as a
demonstration watershed. Looking for potential sites in Pennsylvania, ARC
contacted the Pennsylvania DER who agreed to participate In the project.
Settlers Cabin was then Identified as an attractive potential demonstra-
tion site because of its location in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area, as
well as being in a heavily mined/polluted watershed. In addition, the
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site was on public land with heavy recreational usage and planned new fa-
cility development. The Allegheny County Departments of Public Works and
Parks then agreed to participate in the project at Settlers Cabin.
Planning (Including Data Collection and Analysis)
Site planning activities have been focused in two general areas -
park facility master planning and reclamation/pollution abatement plan-
ning. Although often seemingly running parallel, there have been a number
of attempts at integrating park development and reclamation/pollution
abatement at Settlers Cabin. For example, park planners are utilizing un-
graded strip mines for tennis court construction - requiring lower earth
moving costs than neighboring unaffected areas. In addition, the reclama-
tion/engineering feasibility study completed in 1976 considered overall
park development plans in its recommended reclamation/abatement strategy.
On the other hand, reclamation planned by the Pennsylvania Department of
Mines and Minerals in the late 1960's was halted when park planners became
concerned about potential park development and reclamation plan incompat-
ibilities (park planners wanted to minimize the disturbance to pioneer
vegetation on a number of unreclaimed strip mines). And very recently,
questions concerning the relationship between the two strip pits proposed
for reclamation and a planned access road for a new tennis complex were
raised.
Since inception of the EPA/ARC reclamation effort, planning ac-
tivities have been focused toward: determining a suitable scope of work
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for the proposed reclamation; detailed data collection; development of a
comprehensive reclamation/pollution abatement strategy; and finally, de-
velopment of engineering plans and specifications.
Prior to undertaking the feasibility study In 1975, ARC and EPA
envisioned implementation of a comprehensive reelamatIon/abatement program
In the park. However, these plans were first curtailed in 1975 when DER
withdrew its project support. DER cited the following reasons for their
project withdrawal:
. Pollution abatement benefits were not significant
enough to warrant project participation. At this time,
DER was mandated to consider mine drainage abatement
benefits above all other factors in project priorltiza-
tlon and selection. In addition, it was felt that
abatement of pollution In Pinkerton's Run would do
little to improve the quality of Robinson Run, the
receiving stream.
Limited money also mandated funding of higher priority
projects in Allegheny county.
In addition, two other factors weighed heavily in the state's de-
cision to not participate. The state had historically encountered prob-
lems in conducting reclamation in the Chartiers Creek watershed because of
the region's complex surface and mineral ownership pattern, as well as the
existence of a large number of small active mining operations. A portion
of the proposed reclamation was to also take place on neighboring private-
ly held land. DER was operating with a policy of JTO surface mine reclama-
tion on private land.
Upon completion of the engineering feasibility study, DER was
still hesitant to participate because of disagreement with various ele-
ments of the recommended abatement plan (primarily construction of the
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treatment plant and reclamation proposed for neighboring private land).
In addition, the overall project benefit/cost ratio was still insufficient
(DER procedures did not consider factors such as aesthetic/recreational
benefits). However, additional analysis by the engineering consultant re-
vealed that reclamation of two ungraded strip mines totally within the
park was within a cost/benefit range acceptable to DER. Therefore, recla-
mation of the two strip mine pits (totaling 8 acres) was planned as the
"first phase" of reclamation for the park.
However, subsequent site visitation prior to development of de-
tailed engineering plans and specifications revealed that subsidence con-
trol on an additional 17 acres adjacent to the strip pits was required.
Therefore, the final project scope included the 8 acres of pit backfilling
and regrading and 17 additional acres of surface stabilization.
Funding
EPA, ARC, and Pennsylvania DER - Division of Mine Area Restora-
tion have all been involved in funding elements of the Settlers Cabin
Project. Specific funding Involvements have varied according to the fol-
lowing general project components: 1) the Settlers Cabin agency project
management/institutional study; 2) the project planning and engineering
studies, which have been completed; and 3) project construction and post-
construction monitoring.
The elements of the project specifically focused on documenting
agency cooperation/activities In a specific reclamation project have been
funded by EPA Region III as part of the pollution control demonstration
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project. These funds were passed through to ARC under terms of the ARC/
EPA interagency agreement. Funds were primarily allocated to the "Insti-
tutional Study" and development of the "Land Use Decision Matrix."
A number of different funding arrangements were used to fund the
first reclamation/pollution abatement feasibility study, as well as more
recently completed engineering plans and specifications. The 1976 abate-
ment feasibility study was funded by ARC as a pianning/demonstration proj-
ect. However, funds for preparation of engineering plans and specifica-
tions came from EPA, ARC, and the State. The EPA share was a portion of
their total demonstration allocation. ARC funds were allocated through an
ARC/State "205" funding agreement. The state 1/4 share was allocated from
"Operation Scarlift" funds which have been supporting Pennsylvania's aban-
doned mine reclamation program for over ten years. State fund allocation
required internal project review and processing procedures Involving the
Division of Mine Area Restoration and the Office of the Secretary for Re-
source Management. ARC funds, as mandated by "205," were not directly ad-
ministered or managed by ARC. The funds were passed through to the U.S.
Bureau of Mines In Pittsburgh. Then DER, as the agency with project man-
agement responsibility, invoiced the Bureau as costs were incurred (this
involved only engineering, as construction has not yet begun). Engineer-
ing costs were met as an element of the total construction allocation.
Engineering and construction fund requests were processed as part of the
same "205" project agreements.
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Estimated construction costs have been revised twice with a third
update now required. Initially, approximately $35,000 was allocated for
backfilling and regradlng the two unreclaimed strip pits (8 acres based on
1976 estimated costs). But, the additionally identified 17 acres which
required stabilization, as well as inflated construction costs, increaed
project costs to $110,000 in 1979. Because of delays in USBM project re-
view, these funds were not allocated. These additional delays have in-
creased estimated project costs to nearly $140,000. Application proce-
dures for an additional funding overrun have just recently been initiated.
Plan Review (Decision-Making)
Plan review activities generally occur upon completion of data
analysis and planning and prior to selection of final implementation
strategies or project construction. For example, project/plan review Is
often undertaken to evaluate the technical quality of contracted work.
Review may also include an examination and selection of a preferred alter-
native from a number of alternative plans. In addition, mandated reviews,
such as that of the responsible "A-95" agency, must be completed to ensure
project compatibility with pertinent growth management, economic develop-
ment, and land use plans. And finally, plan review is often a major part
of the public participation program that may be associated with a particu-
lar project.
Plan review has assumed an important role in determining the di-
rection and progress of the Settlers Cabin Project. Following Is a sum-
mary of each agency's project Involvements specific to plan review and
decision-making.
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The Appalachian Regional Commission
The Commission assumed primary responsibility for review of the
1976 reelamation/abatement feasibility study, as that study was executed
solely under an ARC contract. ARC circulated the document for comment to
other pertinent agencies and coordinated multi-agency efforts focused
toward selection of a preferred implementation strategy. As the actual
engineering plans and specifications were completed with "205" funds, the
U.S. Bureau of Mines assumed prime responsibility for review of those
plans.
U.S. Bureau of Mines
The Bureau of Mines has been delegated primary technical project
review responsibility for ARC funded mine restoration projects. For Set-
tlers Cabin, the Bureau participated in the review of all studies, plans,
and specifications Including the two project cost overrun requests. A
mix-up in Bureau engineering plans and specifications review partially
contributed to the project delays which caused the second cost overrun.
This problem has been corrected and review is now proceeding.
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources
The Division of Mine Area Restoration and the Bureau of Design
are primarily responsible for the state review of feasibility studies and
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engineering plans and specifications. The State's participation in Set-
tlers Cabin was based on a compromise reached with ARC and EPA after re-
view of the reelamation/feasibiIIty study, as that study had recommended
an approach that would have required construction funding levels far In
excess of planned DER project commitments.
The Bureau of Design assumes primary responsibility for all rec-
lamation engineering, design, and design review (except mine fires) for
projects being conducted with state funds. As much of the work In Penn-
sylvania Is contracted, the scope of this effort often Includes a detailed
design review.
AIlegheny County Department of Parks
The Parks Department has been actively Involved in plan review
since project inception. As detailed previously, It was a Department re-
view of proposed plans that halted reclamation in 1969. The Department
was consulted throughout development of the reclamation/abatement
feasibility study. Recently, the county review of the engineering plans
for the strip mines nearly resulted In another work cessation as questions
were raised concerning the compatibility of planned reclamation and a
tennis complex and access road planned to be immediately adjacent to one
of the strip mines.
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Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional
Planning Commission
The Commission was the lead agency for provision of local "A-95"
review.
Southwestern Pennsylvania Economic
Development Commission
Being the Regional Local Development District, the Commission
conducted project review as part of the "205" funding request process (DER
actually compiled the technical data required for the "205" pre-applica-
tlon and application).
Project Involvement Conclusions
In summary, plan review and subsequent planning decisions Im-
pacted the project most heavily at two points.
1) After initially deciding to participate in the project
with EPA and ARC, DER withdrew Its project support af-
ter a review of regional and site data presented in
the Chartiers Creek Mine Drainage Study. This in part
led to Initiation of the more detailed reclamation/
abatement feasibility study undertaken in 1975-1976.
2) DER's review of the proposed abatement of the recom-
mended reclamation/abatement plan outlined in the
feasibility study was also unfavorable. The scope was
In excess of what DER was willing to fund. In addi-
tion, DER did not agree with construction of the lime
treatment facility. The funding to pollution abate-
ment benefit ratio also did not meet DER criteria.
Therefore, a revised first phase project was developed
which Included reclamation of the two strip mines.
This project was well within the range of projects
fundable by DER.
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Implementation
Under most "205" project working agreements, the states assume
primary responsibility for project implementation - management, construc-
tion supervision, and post-construction monitoring. As detailed previ-
ously, a state simply invoices the Bureau of Mines as work Is completed.
Plans and specifications are generally developed with a percentage of the
estimated construction cost allocation. Implementation specifically In-
cludes those activities required to bring a project from design through
construction to post-construction evaluation. The important elements of
DER's project implementation system include:
Preparation and/or review of engineering plans prior to
Initiation of construction;
Procurement of a I I required permits such as Encroach-
ment, Highway Occupancy, "404," and Erosion and Sedi-
ment Control;
Procurement of required surface and mineral releases;
Development of bid packages and selection of
reclamation contractors;
Construction monitoring (as required);
Post-construction monitoring (as required).
The Department of Environmental Resources Is organized according
to specific functional divisions. Therefore, a number of Divisions and
Bureaus are required to be involved as projects progress from initial
planning through construction and post-construction monitoring. The fol-
lowing flowchart depicts various Division and Bureau Involvements for a
typical reclamation project. In addition, these involvements are summar-
ized in the following discussions.
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Fi()ure SI. Pennsylvania DER abandoned mine
reclamation implementation framework.
ACTIVITY
INQUIRY OR
COMPLAINT
PROJECT SELECTION
AND PLANNING
CONSULTANT
SELECTION
(AS REQUIRED)
1
DETERMINATION
OF RECLAMATION
NEEDS
I
DETERMINE
FEASIBILITY
I
DETERMINE
PROJECT
SCOPE
I
PREPARE
DESIGN PLANS
AND SPECIFICATIONS
I
DESIGN
REVIEW AND
FINAL DESIGN
PREPARATION
OBTAIN
PERMITS
(AS REQUIRED)
I
OBTAIN PROPERTY
EASEMENTS AND
RELEASES
I
PUBLIC NOTICE
AND
BID SCHEDULE
COMPLETE PROJECT
FUNDING
ARRANGEMENTS
1
NOTICE TO PROCEED/
CONTRACTORS SELECTION
1
CONSTRUCTION
SUPERVISION
DER
DISTRICT
OFFICE
POST CONSTRUCTION
MONITORING AND
FACILITY OPERATION
INVOLVED AGENCY
Citizen Complaints
Regional Agencies
Mine Area Restpratlon Project Planning
Division of
Mine Area Restoration
Division of
Mine Area Restoration
Division of
Mine Area Restoration
Bureau of Design
Division of Mine Area Restoration
Bureau of Design
Bureau of Design
Consultants
Division of Mine Area Restoration
Acquisition Branch
Bureau of Operations
Division of Mine Area Restoration
Bureau of Operations
Bureau of Operations
Bureau of Operations
Division of Mine Area Restoration
Bureau of Operations
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Project Selection
The majority of potential projects selected for reclamation by
DER are initially identified either through citizen complaints or internal
department project planning. The majority of mine drainage projects iden-
tified are the result of planning and detailed data analysis. However,
mine fire and subsidence projects are nearly always the result of citizen
or local agency inquiries or complaints. Relatively few projects have
been Initiated similarly to Settlers Cabin, that is, site selection for
demonstration based on a site search by a single or multiple cooperating
federal an30state agencies.
Determining Need and Feasibility
and Preparation of a Scope of Work
These activities often occur as an interactive process of site
analysis, needs determination, work scope preparation, review, and prep-
aration of a final scope of work. Field visits, extensive data review,
and new data collection and analysis are undertaken as required.
For Settlers Cabin, ARC, EPA, and DER jointly examined project
options, assessed the feasibility of alternative options and selected the
final project scope to be implemented. The Chartiers Creek Mine Drainage
Study and the Settlers Cabin Study commissioned by ARC provided primary
technical Input into this effort.
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Project Design
DER reclamation projects have relied on both Bureau of Design and
outside consultant engineer ing/design services. Designs are also gener-
ally reviewed by the Division of Mine Area Restoration. For Settlers
Cabin, the Bureau of Design was primarily responsible for design review of
the consultant-prepared plans and specifications.
Obtain Required Permits
Depending on the nature of a particular project, one or more per-
mits may be required prior to construction. Erosion and Sediment Control,
"404," and local construction and excavation permits are the most commonly
required permit types. When involved, a design consultant generally ob-
tains all required permits. Only Erosion and Sediment Control and Highway
Occupancy Permits are required for Settlers Cabin.
Obtain Easements or Releases
The Acquisition Branch of the Division of Mine Area Restoration
has responsibility for acquiring all required property owner agreements,
easements, and releases. This has often proved to be a troublesome compo-
nent In the DER project implementation system. This has been particularly
true in populated, heavily mined areas such as the Chartiers Creek Water-
shed. In addition, Allegheny County has poorly maintained the surface and
mineral owner records that are required for completing deed searches for
owner contact. A complex surface and mineral ownership pattern magnifies
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the time required for owner identification, contact, negotiation, release,
and finally legal review. In addition, releases cannot be obtained for
adjacent recently mined areas until reclamation performance bonds are
fully returned.
Through negotiation, surface and mineral easements and releases
are generally obtained. Police power is available, but policy has dic-
tated its use only for emergency access, exploratory drilling, never for
initiation of actual reclamation. Eventually, agreements were reached
with all mineral owners for the Settlers Cabin Project. In addition, the
county provided DER with a waiver of responsibility - such waivers are
often obtained when property owner identification efforts have been unsuc-
cessful. Acquisition Branch personnel estimated a two week effort was
required to obtain all required releases and agreements for Settlers
Cabin.
Prior to project initiation, all property agreements are reviewed
by DER's Bureau of Legal Services and filed in the courthouse of the
county in which the project is to take place.
Public Notice and Bidding
The Bureau of Operations Is responsible for all public notices
for potential bidding, preparation of bid schedules, bid reviews, and con-
tracts preparation prior to contractor selections. Contractor selection
for Settlers Cabin is pending receipt of construction funding.
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Complete Funding Arrangements
Project funding is the joint responsibilities of the Division of
Mine Area Restoration and the Bureau of Operations. Potential funding
strategies are often formulated in the early stages of project development
by the Division of Mine Area Restoration. The Division is an important
point of contract between DER and the various federal funding agencies
(ARC, USBM, and, to a lesser extent, EPA). The Division also prepares a
pre-appl ication for review by the Local Development District and ARC. The
Bureau of Operations is actually responsible for final completion of fund-
ing arrangements. The procedures for ARC funding have already been out-
lined. In addition to ARC, the State has conducted a number of 50/50 cost
sharing projects with the Bureau of Mines. These projects are generally
intended to demonstrate new techniques for solving problems such as mine
fires, burning refuse, and subsidence control. The State has also co-man-
aged a number of projects with the Environmental Protection Agency. These
projects are generally undertaken as one-of-a-kind R&D projects.
Settlers Cabin funding has proceeded according to standard "205"
practice. The Division of Mine Area Restoration prepared the required
pre-application and the Bureau of Operations actually requested funding.
With the exception of the lengthy USBM review of the first cost overrun
request, funding activities have proceeded typically (the Bureau review of
the first cost overrun request actually resulted in project delays of
near Iy one year).
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Contractor Selection
The Bureau of Operations, following standard state bid review and
contractor selection procedures will select a construction contractor for
Settlers Cabin.
Construction Supervision
The Bureau will either utilize Bureau field office or consultant
personnel for construction supervision. For particularly large projects,
a resident project engineer is often assigned to the site until work is
completed. However, Settlers Cabin is a relatively small project, and it
is expected that the design engineers will provide much of the required
construction supervision.
Post-Construction Monitoring
and Facility Operation
As project conditions warrant, post-construct ion monitoring may
be required. Such monitoring is often the shared responsibility of Mine
Area Restoration and the Bureau of Operations. Remedial construction and
project maintenance are often required. In addition, the Bureau of Opera-
tions asumes operating responsibility for the treatment plants that are
constructed.
PROJECT SUMMARY
The project is actually still underway as construction has not
been completed. Therefore, it is not yet possible to evaluate the proj-
ect's effectiveness or increased site land use potentials. However, at
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this point It is possible to examine various agency involvements, inter-
actions, and activities to identify project characteristics which present
implications for the larger reclamation/institutional management study.
These implications may be best examined in terms of the two initial
objectives of the project.
Initiation of a study in and an evaluation of agency
performance in a multi-agency environmental improvement
project.
Planning and implementation of an actual environmental
improvement project at the Settlers Cabin site.
With respect to the first objective, the following points quickly
summarize the project up to this point:
. EPA, ARC, USBM, and Pennsylvania DER did maintain a
working liaison throughout the life of the project.
. Overall, major project involvements and decisions
appeared to reflect desired inter-agency cooperation
and participation.
The project is instructive as a case study of insti-
tutional procedures or mandates of different agencies
which conflict, and how they may be compromised through
a process of negotiation.
. However, the project has only limited value as a proto-
type for I oca I-state-regional-federal agency coopera-
tion. This limited value is due to:
1. The project being initiated as a EPA demonstration
project. This EPA project involvement is atypical
as EPA has generally focused only on developing new
reclamation/abatement technologies. The project
was actually developed with 208 and 303 water re-
source planning funds.
2. ARC also atypical Iy functioned as a project ini-
tiator. ARC funded the Initial abatement study
as a special planning project and the construction
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with 205 funds. The majority of 205 projects were
Initiated by regional or state agencies and not by
ARC.
3. The majority of the devastated land which is in
need of reclamation in Appalachia is privately held
and not public land. Settlers Cabin is being
actively managed and developed for public use.
In addition, the types and numbers of agencies involved in AML
reclamation have changed since this project began. For example, ARC is
reexamining its commitment to reclamation in light of OSM and the states
assuming primary leadership roles in such projects. In addition, recent
EPA mandates are directing state and regional water resource planning
agencies to lessen their involvements In mining related pollution abate-
ment planning.
Addressing the second objective, the project did result in the
documentation of major mining related environmental problems/hazards with-
in the park. Alternative reclamation and abatement schemes have been de-
veloped and a scope of work for construction prepared. The engineering
design has also been completed but construction has as of yet not been
completed.
Review and Evaluation of Agency
Project InvoIvements
Settlers Cabin Is a useful case study for identifying the charac-
teristics of the reclamation planning institutional framework which either
supported or inhibited the various Involved agencies In their project ef-
forts. However, using the project to draw larger conclusions about agency
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operations and effectiveness or the effectiveness of the overall reclama-
tion planning system must be done so cautiously. Many aspects of the
project are not indicative of numerous other such reclamation projects
which have been initiated and successfully completed.
A summary overview and evaluation of agency project involvements
is now presented. The discussion is structured around the five following
project components:
. Project Initiation
Planning
. Funding
. Decision-Making
Implementation
Within these five components the project will be described in
terms of the background information included in the "Institutional Frame-
work" and in terms of implications for using the Land Use Decision Method-
ology (LUDM) on the Settlers Cabin site.
Project Initiation
The project was initially formulated as a cooperative multi-
agency reclamation/abatement effort. Institutional arrangements for proj-
ect planning and implementation were at least tentatively completed even
prior to selection of the site, in the majority of reclamation projects,
the opposite case is true as a problem or hazard Is usually Identified
first and then the institutional arrangements are developed to abate that
problem or hazard.
The site was actually selected after EPA and ARC examined and
rejected a previously selected site in West Virginia. Pennsylvania DER
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assisted with selection of Settlers Cabin as a potential project site.
With Settlers Cabin as the project site, the involvement of a number of
agencies in the project was assured. In addition to EPA and ARC, other
agencies or organizations which became Involved in the project included
Pennsylvania DER, the regional LDD, and the County Departments of Parks
and Public Works. Selection of a privately owned site would have elimi-
nated the two country departments but would have allowed for the involve-
ment of local or regional zoning and planning boards. However, selection
of a privately held site would have precluded ARC from contributing funds
to reclamation of surface mined areas as ARC "205" funds may not be
utilized for restoring surface disturbances from mining on private land.
In summary the project began with EPA and ARC as primary project
sponsors and DER as the lead agency for reclamation planning and implemen-
tation. In addition, the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the Allegheny County
Department of Public Works became involved because of institutional links
to other agencies and the Parks Department as the owner/developer of the
site.
Planning
Site planning activities for the Settlers Cabin site proceeding
on two para I I el/coordinated fronts. Park planning and reclamation plan-
ning functions were never really structured Into a comprehensive planning
effort. However, each effort did apparently consider the other planning
perspective during the development of the site plans which were Imple-
mented .
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The planning and design of recreational facilities did not ex-
plicitly consider planned or potential reclamation. Facilities were de-
signed so as to avoid unreclaimed potentially troublesome portions of the
site. However, one exception to this are tennis courts which were sited
using an ungraded strip pit associated grade change to actually lower con-
struction costs. In general, facility plans were not directly linked to
required reclamation.
Detailed reclamation planning began with the ARC sponsored recla-
mation/abatement study. This study was undertaken to provide an updated
detailed description of mining related problems within the park. A pre-
viously completed "Operation Scarllft" study contained generalized region-
al data which was judged to be inadequate for the detailed reclamation
engineering which was planned. In addition, early in the project DER
withdrew its support for a reclamation project in the park to focus on
more critical problems in the region. The study, then, was also initiated
to provide DER with additional documentation on which to base a final
project participation decision.
DER initially withdrew Its support because of the results of a
project evaluation procedure which they utilize for project selection.
This procedure is based primarily on cost effectiveness and amounts of
pollution abated. Increased land use potentials, proximity to urban
areas, and other such less tangible reclamation benefits are not explic-
itly considered In DER's reclamation planning. Therefore, reclamation
planning for multiple or secondary benefits is difficult within DER's
reclamation planning framework.
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The ARC sponsored study resulted in a recommended reclamation/
abatement plan for the site. This plan was comprehensive requiring a
funding level over ten times greater than the construction funds which
were eventually committed. However, a comprehensive reclamation/abatement
project which would have eliminated all of the site's major problems was
never really envisioned by any of the involved agencies.
Construction of a treatment plant was an integral element of this
overall plan. However, this was totally opposed by the state as unabated
pollution sources upstream from Pinkerton's Run would have continued to
degrade water in the receiving stream even after plant construction.
Project Funding
ARC formalized its commitment to the project when it authorized
the reclamation/abatement study which was prepared. This study was not
originally planned as ARC, EPA, and DER had hoped to utilize existing data
from the previously completed "Scarlift" study in developing suitable site
reclamation strategies.
Once the study was completed, DER agreed to provide only minimal
construction funding - It's 1/4 share for backfilling two upgraded strip
pits. This funding level reflected the relatively low priority which DER
assigned to the project. A consultant was contracted to prepare plans and
specs for the proposed reclamation. Initial fleldwork revealed that there
was subsidence associated with the two pits. Subsidence control for these
areas was added to the scope of work.
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In addition, funding delays resulted in two cost overruns, the
second of which was recently noted. The overruns were primarily associ-
ated with delays in Bureau of Mines plan review and sign-off which are
required in support of ARC sponsored reelamation/abatement projects.
Decision-Making
A number of key decisions determined the eventual scope of the
proposed construction.
First, the site was selected somewhat intuitively based on the
professional judgement of a number of involved agency personnel and not
through any systematic site evaluation or selection effort. Settlers
Cabin's location, ownership, and mining history appeared to suit per-
ceived site requirements for the project. ARC, EPA, and DER collaborated
on site selection.
Once the site was selected, EPA and ARC took the initiative in
determining a suitable scope of work for the project. When DER expressed
concern about the older data being utilized, ARC Initiated their abatement
feasibility study.
Upon completion and review of this study's findings DER committed
to a minor construction effort - backfilling the strip pits. DER decided
to assign a low priority to the project based on the severity of the Iden-
tified problems as well as the overall uncertain abatement benefits to the
watershed.
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Under "205" projects, ARC's funding commitments are directly
linked to the state's 1/4 share. Therefore, the final project scope con-
sisted of $30,000 in state funding and $100,000 of ARC funds once the two
cost overruns were accounted for.
Project Implementation
A number of required implementation tasks have been completed.
Most importantly, property releases have been obtained. Problems which
were encountered in this effort were caused by two factors:
The site is In Allegheny County which in general has a
very complex mineral ownership pattern; and
Allegheny County has Implemented a cumbersome inade-
quate system, for maintenance of surface and mineral
ownership records.
DER has historically encountered problems and delays In obtaining
property releases In more developed areas of the state. In addition, ac-
tive mining In the watershed Is continuing on a number of sites which adds
to the reluctance of owners to release their surface or mineral rights for
reclamation. To obtain these rights, a lengthy process of owner identifi-
cation, establishing contract, and state-owner negotiation is nearly al-
ways required.
No major difficulties were encountered in obtaining the required
"Erosion and Sediment Control" and "Highway Occupancy" permits prior to
construction. In Pennsylvania, obtaining "Stream Encroachment" permits
has often caused major reclamation project delays, as lengthy state and
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local review periods are required prior to permit issuance; but an "En-
croachments" permit was not required for this project.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE LAND USE DECISION METHODOLOGY
Examined in the context of the "Institutional Framework" the
Settlers Cabin project presents an illustrative case study of land use de-
cision making for mined lands. This discussion identifies those aspects
of the Settlers Cabin project which would have influenced and been Influ-
enced by actually using the LUDM in planning the project. This discussion
focuses on the three following areas:
. The key land use decisions which shaped the eventual
course of the project.
. Land use related benefits which will be derived from
the proposed reclamation.
. The potential benefits which would have been derived
from utilization of a planning tool such as the LUDM
during the planning of the park.
The first two points examine the project as it occurred. Obvi-
ously, land use related decisions were made throughout the planning and
development of the park facilities, as well as during formulation of pro-
posed reclamation and abatement plans. As well, benefits will be derived
from the limited reclamation which is being implemented.
Point three is more speculative as it identifies points in the
project at which utilization of a planning tool such as the LUDM would
have likely altered the eventual outcome of the project. This material is
presented primarily to additionally establish a hypothetical context for
applying the LUDM to the Settlers Cabin site.
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Key Land Use Decisions
The following elements of the Settlers Cabin project appear to
have been the key determinants of existing land use patterns and future
development plans for the park.
1. The park was initially assembled from privately held
parcels by a non-profit corporation during the late
1950's. The land was donated to Allegheny County.
Projected growth in the region and the availability of
inexpensive unreclaimed mined lands in the Chartiers
Creek Basin contributed to initial selection and land
procurement for the Allegheny County Park Sytem which
includes a ring of regional parks around Pittsburgh.
Of these, Settlers Cabin was the major park planned
for Western Allegheny County. Park development or
expansion utilizing unreclaimed mined land had been
undertaken by the county on a number of park sites.
2. The initial park master planning was completed with
only general consideration of existing mine and pollu-
tion problems. No specific assessment of the nature
and extent of these problems was undertaken until
1969. At that point, the county completed an inven-
tory to take advantage of "Operation Scarlift" funds
which were available up to that time. More recent
facililty construction and planning have utilized the
detailed mining/pollution data which are now avail-
able. For example, subsidence-prone areas have been
Identified and considered in park facility planning.
3. The comprehensive reclamation/abatement strategy
developed In 1976 explicitly considered park master
plans. Plan development has focused on coordination
of reclamation and park planning activities rather
than development of an integrated park facility/rec-
lamation master plan. However, the feasibility study
provided a suitable data base for evaluating the po-
tential impacts of unreclaimed mines and associated
pollution of new facility development In the park.
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By the 1976 reclamation/abatement study most major facility de-
velopment decisions for the park had been implemented or finalized. So at
that point it was only possible to develop a reclamation strategy that re-
sponded to these implemented and proposed development plans. Comprehen-
sive facility/reclamation planning was never really undertaken during the
Settlers Cabin project.
Reclamation Benefits
The reclamation strategy which is being implemented will improve
the general aesthetics, surface stability, and overall utility of approx-
imately twenty-five acres of land In the park. The two surface mines bor-
der existing and proposed picnic and field sport facilities. Therefore,
twenty five additional acres of stable more aesthetic park land is the
primary benefit which will be realized from the reclamation. Access be-
tween the two picnic areas and other sections of the park will also be
improved. There are also currently no plans to actually develop either of
the reclaimed sites.
At Settlers Cabin reclamation has not been required to provide
additional developable land as the majority of the park was not disturbed
by mining. In addition, a larger percentage of this unreclaimed acreage
has been naturally stabilized and vegetated. Had the total park area been
smaller or past mining more intense then reclamation would likely have
been required to provide necessary land for development. As it stands
now, the park encompasses an area of over 1,000 acres of which 700 acres
have not really been seriously impacted by the mining which has occurred.
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Potential Use of the Land Use Decision Methodology (LUDM)
At this point In the project, there is actually little applied
value to be realized in applying the LUDM to the Settlers Cabin site. The
development of the park is nearly completed with little opportunity re-
maining to affect future land use decisions. However, it is valuable to
identify the points at which such a procedure could have assisted in the
park development and reclamation planning which has occurred.
A planning methodology such as the LUDM has its greatest utility
at the very beginning of a project. At that point in the Settlers Cabin
project, a number of important land use analyses could have been com-
pleted. Prior to assembly of the land and donation of the county, the
site could have been evaluated for recreational sltability either as a
single site or with a number of possible alternative sites. And secondly,
prior to initiating actual site planning the County Parks Department could
have re-examined the development suitability of the park. Within the park
boundary it may also have been of value to examine the development suit-
ability of various sub-areas of the overall park area. In that way the
LUDM could have been used for determining land use ratings for areas with-
in the boundaries of the park - prioritizing the nature and extent of the
environmental problems which have been Identified.
The next discussion presents the application of the LUDM to the
Settlers Cabin site. The section is structured to highlight the following
elements of the project:
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. The procedures and data required to actually Implement
the LUDM.
Results of the recreation suitability analysis.
. Suitability analysis for a number of alternative land
uses.
APPLYING THE LUDM TO SETTLERS CABIN
The LUDM framework and supporting analysis matrix are utilized to
evaluate recreational development suitability of the Settlers Cabin site.
For this application, the procedures presented in the previous "Land Use
Decision Methodology" section were explicitly utilized.
Prior to presenting the various components of the LUDM it is im-
portant to reiterate a couple of points specific to the potential utility
and limitations of the LUDM and the matrix. For example:
The LUDM is intended to function as a general site
analysis tool. It has no applied utility for evalua-
tions of existing or planned site developments. The
LUDM is not suitable for design evaluation - it Is for
general site selection/analysis. The LUDM is also a
framework for decision-making. Specific data para-
meters, ratings, weightings and analysis schemes may
require adjustment for modification for application to
specific sites or regions.
The matrix is primarily used as a tool for concisely
depicting the environmental/socioeconomic attributes of
a site or alternative sites, structuring those
attributes in a decision making framework.
The matrix Is but one option for supporting the LUDM.
A matrix format was selected because matrices are suit-
able for examining a range of different but related
data types. Within the LUDM framework, map overlay or
statistical systems could be utilized equally as well.
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The remainder of this section presents the application of the
LUDM to Settlers Cabin. This application specifically followed the LUDM
structure and procedural outline which was previously introduced. This
application discussion is organized according to the six main elements of
the LUDM - Identified Development Needs; Identify Principle Constraints;
General Site Screening; Institutional Constraints; Detailed Site Analysis;
and Impact Analysis.
Identified Development Need
For the LUDM to have utility in land use decision-making a local,
regional, or state site development need or set of site development needs
will be first identified. Such needs are generally identified and quanti-
fied prior to initiation of any site identification/evaluation effort.
For this case study, recreation has been identified as a regional site
development need, and the site is being examined for potential suitability
for siting a major regional park facility - Settlers Cabin.
Identify Principle Constraints
This component Is structured to facilitate an initial site analy-
sis based on a set of general regional environmental characteristics. The
key to this Is the Identification and analysis of the landscape components
which are key regional indicators of development suitability. For ex-
ample, in a particular region, potential priority sites might include all
moderately sloping, forested, undeveloped land. Likewise, typical region-
ally constrained areas may include floodplains, wetlands, and steep
slopes.
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The effort should focus on Identifying the key land use con-
straints for the region or particular area which is being examined. The
county and regional environmental and land use surveys which have been
completed throughout Appalachia in support of regional "HUD 701" planning
may be suitably utilized in this analysis. Using such data a typical
"constraints" analysis can be developed including planning considera-
tions such as:
Identification and elimination of HUD designated flood-
plains from further consideration for development.
Identification and noting of other identified flood-
plains (from USGS, SCS, etc.) for potential elimina-
tion.
Identification and elimination of slopes greater than
30$ from further consideration for development.
Identification and elimination of landslide prone areas
from further consideration for development.
Identification and elimination of built up areas from
further consideration for development.
As deemed appropriate, other environmental resource and hazard
considerations may be included in this analysis. Such typically identi-
fied areas Include prime agricultural lands, groundwater recharge areas,
prime wildlife habitat, and unique cultural features. In addition to
steep slopes and floodplains, other common hazard considerations include
earthquake potential and air pollutant concentration areas.
This level of analysis is Intended to serve a "honing down" func-
tion with the end result being a set of sites or portions of a region
which will be subjected to rigorous site analyses in preceding steps of
the LUDM.
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This "site screening" focuses on those factors which are suit-
abllity determinants for mined as well as unmined sites. The factors
which are included in this analysis address: site acreage and configura-
tion; the presence of various natural hazards; and proximity and access to
regional community facilities and environmental resources. The factors
included In the matrix (Figure 33) were utilized for applying the LUDM to
Settlers Cabin. These factors are Intended to serve as first-cut Indica-
tors of site developabiIIty for alternative land use proposals.
The following list summarizes the site screening factors which
are utilized as we 1 I as a rationale for their Inclusion In the Settlers
Cabin Analysis.
Rationale
Factor
Acreage
Site Width
Flood Hazard
Slope Hazard
Adjacency to
Active Sur-
face Mining
Adjacency to
Active Deep
Mining
Site acreage is a key determinant of
land use plan feasibility - acreage
requirements vary for particular
land uses.
Land uses have general site config-
uration requirements (i.e., distance
for noise abatement associated with
an industrial facility).
Intensive land uses should not be
encouraged on flood prone areas.
Land uses are generally limited by
slope (I.e., grade maximums for
roads, sidewalks, game fields,
etc.).
Compatibility with planned land
use(s).
Compatibility with planned land
use(s).
- 216 -
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Proximity to Used as an indicator of population
Incorporated location for work force, market,
Areas and service considerations
Adjacency to Indicator of site accessibility.
Highway
Adjacency to Indicator of site accessibility.
Ra iI road
Access to Key Infrastructure components.
Water/Sewer
Access to Industrial site feasibility factor.
River
Access to Rec- Indicator of recreation potential.
reational Water
Depending on site location and conditions, additional or fewer
factors may actually be appropriately utilized for completing this first-
cut site analysis. In addition, a number of these factors Impact various
land uses more significantly than others. A generalized weighting is
therefore incorporated into the matrix to address these land use differ-
ences. However, this weighting scheme is general and may be refined or
restructured depending on specific requirements of the LUDM application.
For Settlers Cabin, a number of different data sources were
utilized to complete this analysis. The following list summarizes these
sources.
Factor Data Source
Acreage Settlers Cabin Park Master Plan.
Site Width Settlers Cabin Park Master Plan.
Flood Hazard HUD Floodplain Maps (FIRM), USGS 7.5
Minute Quadrangles.
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Slope Hazard
Adjacency to
Active Sur-
face Mines
Adjacency to
Active Deep
Mines
Proximity to
Incorporated
Areas
Adjacency to
Highway
Adjacency to
RaiI road
Access to
Pub I !c
Water/Sewer
Access to River
Access to Rec-
reational Water
USGS 7.5 Minute Quadrangle and Slope
Analysis.
Personnel Communique - David Hogeman
(DER).
Personnel Communique - David Hogeman
(DER).
Allegheny County highway map.
Allegheny County highway map.
Allegheny County highway map.
Allegheny County Planning Department
water/sewer map.
Allegheny County highway map.
Allegheny County Parks Master Plan.
These sources are only worthy of note as they are indicative of
the data sources which may be tapped for completing such analyses through-
out Appalachia. Nearly everywhere a combination of published data, gener-
al information maps, and consultation with experts will yield this site
information.
To complete this analysis a series of simple overlay maps may be
prepared for displaying this data for comparative analysis between alter-
native sites and land uses (Figure 32). In composite, these factors pro-
vide a general screening mechanism for evaluating sites based on key loca-
tlonal and site characteristics.
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Figure 32. Site conditions.
— LEGEND —
Flood Plain
Steep Slopes
-------
Results of the application to Settlers Cabin are depicted in Fig-
ure 33. To better understand these results it may be valuable to review
the operational mechanics and theory behind the matrix.
The matrix is structured to facilitate analysis of a
number of site and regional environmental, institution-
al, and mining related conditions in terms of probable
impacts on planned land uses for mined sites.
. Site factors are referred to as evaluation factors
which are aggregated into three data levels based on
considerations such as acreage, proximity, and problem
severity. 0, 1, and 2 values are assigned based on the
extent to which each factor is likely to negatively im-
pact a proposed land use development strategy. A value
of 0 reflects a suitable condition and a 2 a less
suitable site condition.
. The factors are then evaluated specifically to individ-
ual land uses. Three value levels are assigned with 1
being the least impact and 3 the greatest on that par-
ticular land use (i.e., subsidence Is a greater deter-
rent to industrial development than to passive recrea-
tion).
The evaluation factors are multiplied by the land use
weightings. For each land use option the results are
then summed.
The ratings for alternative sites and/or land uses may be then compared or
evaluated, and planning may proceed accordingly.
The following general observations were made concerning the
Settlers Cabin site profile which emerged based on these "site screening"
factors:
Based on acreage and configuration, the site was rated
as Ideal for the proposed development.
Flooding and other natural hazards are not a critical
concern at Settlers Cabin.
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- 221 -
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Based on access and proximity factors, the site ap-
peared to be welI suited for recreational development
(as the majority of negative impact factors were rated
as low or moderate). These ratings reflect the site's
location in a rapidly urbanizing portion of Allegheny
County where access and infrastructure parameters rated
highly. Such a context Is atypical for the majority of
mined sites in Appalachia.
Institutional Constraints
A complete "Institutional Constraints" analysis was not crucial
to the Settlers Cabin project as the site involved public lands and there-
fore was not directly subject to most local plans or ordinances. The pri-
mary institutional consideration for the project was actually conformance
of the site development plans to the overall county parks master plan.
However, such conformance was assured during park planning and facility
design.
For Illustrative purposes other Institutional considerations were
also examined In terms of their potential impacts had the site been pri-
vately owned. For example, comprehensive plan conformance is not required
as there are currently no adopted comprehensive plans for Allegheny County
or any of the municipalities which border the site. In addition, zoning
ordinances for site adjacent areas provide a homogeneous land use context
for the site as "industrial designated" zones surround the site. The
existing land use pattern around the site is very diverse (Figure 34). As
such, nearly any development strategy short of heavy industry or a major
commercial development would be compatible and feasible within this land
use context.
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Figure 34- Land use.
— LEGEND —
-------
This "Institutional Constraints" analysis for any given site may
be accomplished quite simply. A compilation of a I I potential land use/
development restrictions Is required. At a minimum, this compilation
should Include:
If the land is publicly owned, all agencies, regula-
tions, or directives potentially Impacting reclamation/
development planning for that land.
- The land management agency(ies).
- General services agencies (construction,
planning, etc.)
- Environmental control agencies (permitting,
planning).
- Mining reclamation and abatement agencies
(regulations, 522 status, EIS status,
permits).
Infrastructure planning agencies (sewer, water,
power, pianning).
If the land Is privately owned.
- Mining reclamation and abatement agencies.
- Environmental control agencies.
- Planning agencies (comprehensive plans).
- Zoning Board (ordinances, hearings, variances).
Infrastructure planning agencies.
. Any regulations or activities which potentially impact
potential land disposal or development must be identi-
fied and weighed during this site evaluation effort.
Environmental, Health and Safety
Problems (Detailed Site Analysis)
Previous site analyses utilized evaluation/analysis site screen-
Ing factors which are equally appropriate for mined and unmined sites.
However, this site analysis component focuses the LUDM on site mining
related disturbances and Impacts. The parameters which are utilized are
- 224 -
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specifically mining related - surface disturbances, underground mining
impacts, off-site impacts, and associated water and visual pollution.
For Settlers Cabin this analysis was completed utilizing data
from the previously discussed Chartiers Creek Scarlift Study and the ARC-
sponsored reclamation/abatement feasibility study. Nearly all of the data
which were required to complete this analysis were available from these
sources. However, throughout most of Appalachia such studies are not gen-
erally available. If these studies had not been available for the site,
the following alternative data collection strategy could have been imple-
mented to provide a satisfactory data base for Settlers Cabin.
Site Factors
Unsealed Mine Openings
Polluted Mine Drainage
Subsidence Potential
Blowout Hazard
HighwalIs, Impounded
Water, SpoiI Config-
urations, Vegetation
Toxic Spoil, Overburden
Refuse
Alternative Data Sources
General field reconnais-
sance; USBM Mine Map Reposi-
tory In Pittsburgh.
Field sampling program; gen-
eral field reconnaissance.
General field reconnais-
sance; USBM Mine Map Reposi-
tory.
USBM Mine Map Repository;
general field reconnais-
sance.
Aerial photographic inter-
pretation; general field
reconnaissance.
Field sampling program;
aerial photographic inter-
pretation; general field
reconnaissance.
General field reconnais-
sance.
- 225 -
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Structures General field reconnais-
sance; aerial photographic
Interpretation.
Depending on the acreages and locations of sites to be evaluated,
required field work can usually be quickly completed. A site reconnais-
sance based on visual observation and simple field analysis methods (I.e.,
pH) will supply the required data.
It is also worth noting that such data will become more avail-
able for many parts of Appalachia in the years to come. The state AML in-
ventories and planning programs will be collecting and analyzing a great
deal of pertinent mine site information.
To complete this analysis for the Settlers Cabin site, a number
of map overlays were prepared for summarizing pertinent data. Figure 28
presented a portion of this data base as it was transferred to common
scale overlay maps. Following are the procedures which were utilized to
construct the data base for Settlers Cabin. The actual results are sum-
marized In Figure 33.
. Unsealed mine openings - The ARC-sponsored study mapped
and identified on-site deep mine openings. Their area
of impact represented less than one percent of the
total site.
Polluted mine drainage - Polluted surface water was
Identified In the ARC study. Twelve miles of inter-
mittent and perennially polluted streams were Identi-
fied during a summer of 1976 sampling program.
Subsidence hazard - Extent of potential hazard was es-
timated from maps. Actually subsiding areas were
mapped in ARC report.
- 226 -
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Blowout hazard - Was not analyzed in existing data.
Review of maps appear to indicate that blowout hazard
is low.
Impounded water - Small unplanned ponds were identified
In ungraded areas by review of ScarIIft and ARC report
text and maps.
Spoil configuration - Ungraded areas were remapped from
ARC study maps. Extent of regrading was estimated
based on descriptions of mined areas in the two re-
ports.
Toxic spoil - Estimated based on mine descriptions In
the ARC report.
Vegetation - Estimated from land cover maps, 7.5 minute
quadrangle maps, and the site description included in
the ARC report.
Overburden - Percent sandstone was estimated using geo-
logic data included in the Scar lift and ARC reports.
. Refuse piles - No major refuse disposal sites were
identified.
Structures - No abandoned mine structures were
Identified.
Resultant site values for each of these factors were aggregated
into the three data levels included In the matrix. Gray overprints hlgh-
I ight the ratings which were assigned to each factor (Figure 33). For
eventual compositing 0, 1, and 2 values are assigned to the corresponding
aggregated factor values.
For numerically compositing the resultant values for a specific
land use such as recreation the ratings (0, 1, and 2) are multiplied by
the land use weightings for recreation. The individual weighted values
are then summed yielding a composite recreational site suitability rating,
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In and of itself this value is essentially meaningless. To be of any real
value in a decision-making context the rating must be compared against
other ratings or against predetermined site suitability standards. This
may involve looking at the land use ratings for a number of sites to
select the most suitable site. Such an analysis places alternative sites
on a continuum of least suitable to most suitable for development assuming
that the greater the mining related problems which must be overcome or
dealt with are, the less suitable the site is for development. The rating
may be compared against alternative land use ratings for the same site.
Another operational alternative is using the matrix to develop qualitative
profiles of sites not relying on numerical values or aggregated weight-
ings. For Settlers Cabin upon completion of this quantitative analysis a
qualitative profile of site Implications for recreational development was
completed. The important elements of the profile for Settlers Cabin in-
clude:
. On-slte unsealed mine openings were Identified, but due
to their location and relatively low number, they do
not exert major negative impacts over most of the site.
. Streams on the site are generally moderately polluted
by acid mine drainage.
Subsidence had occurred and evidence points to the
potential for continued location subsidence In the
future.
Ungraded strip pits were partially naturally reclaimed
and as such present only moderate to slight regrading
problems.
. Geologic data points to localized surface toxic spoil
areas.
No major refuse areas or abandoned structures were
identified.
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The rating scheme permits site/1 and use relationships to be ex-
plicitly examined and evaluated. Using the rating scheme, the resultant
summed value is a composite site screening. Institutional constraints, and
on-site mining/pollution rating for the site. The site rating which re-
sults may range from 0 (the ideal site) to 168 (totally unsuited for any
land use). The majority of mined sites will fait into a low to mid-range
on the rating continuum. A rating of 25 resulted from the application to
the Settlers Cabin site. This value is well within the low range (few
significant deterrents to development) of possible site ratings. A number
of factors contributed to this low rating.
Settlers Cabin was assigned unusually positive access, proximity,
and Infrastructure ratings because of the site's location within the
Pittsburgh metropolitan area. These values were atypical Iy high for aban-
doned mines in Appalachia as relatively few such areas are located within
heavily developed metropolI tan areas.
Perhaps more critically, the site Is large (over 1000 acres) with
most of this acreage not having been seriously disturbed by past mining.
It appears that the impact of the problems which are present is diffused
when considering the entire site. Briefly, it is felt that this low
rating (high suitability) most reflects the following three site charac-
teristics:
The site's location In an urbanizing metropolitan area
where development demand Is likely high and Infrastruc-
ture availability and access are also positive develop-
ment factors;
- 229 -
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. The site's mining related environmental, health, and
safety problems are generally not serious; and
The problems which are present do not impact the capa-
bility of the majority of the site to support recrea-
tional development.
These results suggest that the Settlers Cabin site was an appro-
priate choice for the development that has occurred. If the site had been
smaller and/or the mining more intense, the resultant site rating would
have been significantly higher. For example, If the matrix was applied to
specific heavily mined portions of the overall site, those portions would
be rated as much less suitable for development. Therefore, it is the di-
lution of these problems over the entire mined and unmined portions of the
site which caused this low rating.
Alternative Land Uses
For illustrative purposes the Settlers Cabin site was also eval-
uated for suitability for a number of alternative land uses. This is done
to present the site analysis results for all the land uses which are In-
cluded on the matrix. In addition. It illustrates potential limits to the
use of the matrix without possible additional project specific refinement.
When evaluating the suitability of a site or sites for alterna-
tive land uses the matrix always scores In favor of the least intensive
land use. This is obviously the case because the site requirements for
unintensive uses are much less stringent than those for development uses
such as heavy industry.
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This inherent pattern can be short circuited. For example, ad-
ditional criteria for comparing alternative land uses may be developed.
This could be done in a number of ways. Perhaps the best way would be
to construct hypothetical profiles of poor, suitable and excellent sites
given the site requirements of each land use and then compare the values
for actual sites to values along this hypothetical continuim. In this way
a site could be judged to be most suitable for a particular land use even
though other land uses may score more favorably. The point is that the
LUDM is meant to be a framework for site analysis not a static analyses
tool. Matrices or any number of other analysis tools may be adequately
utilized, modified or developed for use in the LUDM framework. In fact,
the LUDM is perhaps most useful for organizing complete site appraisals
and not as a detailed selection methodology.
The ratings which resulted from appl ication of the matrix to
Settlers Cabin ranged from 17 for forestry to 48 for industry. All of
this range is well within the low range of possible scores. This is
because the site was actually only partially disturbed and in fact is
suitable for any land uses which would not significantly conflict with
adjacent land uses.
Again, there was a pattern of decreasing suitability with in-
creasing land use intensity. This was the case as the matrix weighs in
favor of less Intense land use options as such land uses are nearly always
suited for development on mined land. However, If need be, a revised
weighting scheme could be developed to add greater emphasis to Intense
land use options.
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Impact Assessment
Actual impact assessment is difficult as a specific site develop-
ment/reclamation strategy was not developed as part of this project. Re-
sults of the matrix did indicate that forestry, light residential, and
recreation were the most feasible potential land uses for the site. All
three options could be implemented with a minimum of reclamation due to
the large unmined acreage which comprises the majority of the site.
An evaluation of alternative plans must consider that although
site development factors are being addressed by other LUDM components,
otherwise feasible plans may potentially Impact key regional resources or
socioeconomic factors and such impacts should be explicitly considered.
In addition, new reclamation/development may be difficult in the context
of various land management schemes, plans, or regulatory contexts which
inhibit construction activity. In addition, apparent secondary effects
may turn out to be unacceptable In given situations (I.e., Increased traf-
fic through an existing residential area due to a new recreation develop-
ment). Therefore, this component of the LUDM is also conceived of as a
filter for testing alternative plans or sites for major planning flaws,
and identifying the major Impacts associated with each plan option.
Summary
This section has presented the Settlers Cabin Case Study. A de-
tailed description of the project was Included to illustrate actual agency
Involvements and activities associated with planning and implementing an
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AML reclamation project. The case study highlights the complexity in
agency functioning and the inter-agency Intel-reactions which are required
to implement even a minor reclamation project.
The Settlers Cabin site and project context were then utilized
for a test case application of the Land Use Decision Methodology. The
application was not undertaken to affect land use planning at Settlers
Cabin but merely to illustrate the operability of implementing the LUDM
and matrix on a "typical" AML site. The application focuses on the data
sources and specific parameters and procedures which were utilized, and an
explanation of the results which were obtained. These results indicate
that Settlers Cabin was an appropriate site for the recreational develop-
ment which has occurred.
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APPENDIX A
CURRENT MINING METHODS AND RECLAMATION PRACTICES
The following pages provide an overview of the mining related
factors which determine the developabiI ity of active and reclaimed mine
sites. Important topic areas in this section include a discussion of:
the mining regions of Appalachia; the mining and reclamation methods asso-
ciated with those regions; and an overview of mining/reclamation implica-
tions for developing mine sites.
To fully appreciate the land use decision-oriented terminology
presented throughout this report, it would be advantageous to briefly re-
view the surface mining methods that are most commonly employed throughout
Appalachia. These mining methods have been developed to provide the most
effective ways of extracting coal In the region's diverse geologic, topo-
graphic, and natural conditions. This combination of environmental condi-
tions also influences the reclamation techniques that technically and
economically may be implementable on a given site.
Mining method is a critical parameter In the development of rec-
lamation plans. Mining method determines the duration of an operation;
total site acreage affected once the operation has been terminated; and
the configuration of the mined site (i.e., narrow banded, nearly rectan-
gular, etc.). The method employed also influences the availability of
equipment for implementing reclamation plans. Resultant site slopes and
topographic features are a function of mining method (i.e., contour re-
grading vs. scalped mountaintop removal sites) and equipment. In addi-
tion, mining method determines the completeness of coal recovery, thus
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influencing the potential for later additional surface or underground
mining (i.e., partial recovery contour vs. complete recovery mountaintop
removal operations).
Within Appalachia there are two distinct mining regions with
distinctly different associated mining methods. The first region Includes
Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, Georgia, and Alabama, where topography is
characterized by gently rolling hills vegetated with pasturelands and for-
ests. Mining methods here include box cut, modified area, and block area
mining. West Virginia, Virginia, eastern Kentucky, and Tennessee form the
second region, in which topography Is relatively steep with many mining
o
operations working on slopes in excess of 30 . Commonly used mining meth-
ods include contour haulback, block cut contour, and mountaintop removal,
with augering often associated with contour mining operations.
Mining and Reclamation In Flat and Rolling Terrain
Prevalent mining methods in gently rolling terrain include box
cut and modified area mining. Initially, with box cut mining a dozer
equipped with a ripper will clear vegetation from the initial cut area and
the area upon which the first "cut" volume will be placed, creating a
windrow of trees, brush, and grasses. The topsoil is removed and stock-
piled by either a dozer or scraper specially brought in for the task. The
initial excavation by the dozer then opens a box-shaped area over 100 feet
by TOO feet and 30-40 feet deep by pushing the material onto the cleared
area downslope, leaving an outcrop barrier. This material may require
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blasting or dozer ripping before excavation. Coal exposed after this ex-
cavation is loosened by ripping and loaded into coal haulers by a small
front-end loader. Following coal removal, the dozer clears and constructs
a level bench, one cut wide (100-125 feet), on the outslope by pushing the
woody material and excess overburden into the previously opened pit. Top-
soil is removed between the vegetation clearing and bench construction
operations. During the drilling and blasting phase, the dozer executes a
cycle identical and immediately adjacent to the initial box cut.
Modified area mining is usually incorporated where a coal seam
outcrops on opposite sides of a hi I I or ridge, with maximum overburden
thickness through the hill being no greater than 150 feet. Modified area
mining is also labeled hilltop removal or ridge removal and is accom-
plished by establishing an initial box cut through the hill, exposing and
removing coal from outcrop to coutcrop. Successive cuts are taken, with
overburden from each new cut placed in the previous one. Regrading re-
places the terrain to its near original contour, a major difference from
mountaintop removal.
Especially applicable to some abandoned contour stripptngs, modi-
fied area mining can enable mining of coal previously thought unrecover-
able, and at the same time reclaim those orphan strip mines whose aban-
doned benches provide excellent storage area for initial box cut spoils.
STEEP SLOPE MINING AND RECLAMATION
Haul back and block cut contour mining and mountaintop removal are
the prevalent mining methods throughout steep slope Appalachia. A typical
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contour mine progresses along the outcrop of a coal seam or seams, usually
excavating in a single direction. Total length of the affected area may
exceed several miles over the life of a mine. Pit widths and highwall
heights are determined by the topography, stripping ratio, and capabil-
ities of the equipment at the mine. Initial cut spoil is often excavated
using bulldozers and loaders and hauled by trucks to fills or ridges.
In haul back operations, dozers push blasted overburden to front-
end loaders. The overburden is then loaded and transported to a deposi-
tion site. Once in place, dozers will regrade the spoil and prepare It
for reclamation. Box cut mining is similar except that mining often pro-
gresses in both directions along the outcrop from a central point along
the mining area. Spoil from the first cut is placed in a permanent fill
or temporary storage area, after which overburden is excavated in blocks
and placed in previously cut blocks. The process becomes cyclic in suc-
ceeding cuts until completion. Reclamation grading is conducted as the
final load of spoil is pushed into each mined out cut, with revegetation
of graded blocks occurring as soon as weather permits.
Apart from the mines discussed in the previous section, contour
mines will generally be following steep slope regrading requirements,
(steep slopes are those which exceed 20 degrees) or any lesser slope
designated by the regulatory authority. Specific to backfilling and
grading, critical steep slope requirements are:
A prohibition on downsi ope spoiling.
Highwall elimination (grading is not specifically
limited to return to original contour).
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Because most contour mining reaffects previously mined areas,
sufficient spoil may not always be available for approximating original
contour. Variances may be granted to permit disturbances above the high-
wall in order to approximate original contour. The amount of disturbance
is limited to the distance required to cover and blend the highwalI to the
existing and surrounding topography as shown In Figure A-4.
Mountaintop removal mining, as its name impl ies, removes the en-
tire top of a mountain ridge, creating a level surface. Having grown in
popularity over the past decade, this method makes possible 100 percent
recovery of coal (with the exception of outcrop barriers.) Serving as an
excellent alternative to contour mining in hilly and mountainous areas,
using the same equipment (dozers, trucks, front-end loaders, and, some-
times, power shovels), mountaintop removal mining affects large blocks of
land, rather than sinuous bands characteristic of contour methods.
The excavation operation begins along the deepest economically
removable coal seam outcrop parallel to the ridge. An undisturbed outcrop
and overburden barrier, 15 to 20 feet wide at the outslope, is left to
serve as a natural seal around the entire base of the bench to retain
surface and mine water within the active operation. This barrier later
helps to provide support for the backfilled overburden and to confine
groundwater within the graded spoil.
To provide adequate operating room, the ample first cut is trans-
ferred by rock trucks to a pre-planned storage area, usually a valley
fill. Excavation takes place after overburden drilling and blasting: the
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Figure A-4. Highwall reduction in steep slope contour mining.
ORIGINAL SLOPE
> 2O%
Original Ground Surface
FINAL SLOPE LINE
COAL SEAM
No Scale
front-end loader or power shovel and rock truck teams work progressively
towards the center of the mountain. Concentrically circling the mountain,
the lower benches or cuts advance ahead of the upper excavations. This
excavation continues with rock trucks hauling material to the storage
areas via ramps connecting the series of benches until only a level sur-
face remains. The bench heights are determined either by the occurrence
of a coal seam or by equipment reach limitations.
A variation of mountaintop removal mining Is termed "Cross-
Ridge." Cross ridge mining excavation differs from conventional mountain-
top mining by advancing cuts perpendicular to the axis of the mountain
ridge from crop Iine to crop IIne.
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After initial site preparation, clearing and grubbing of vegeta-
tion, and excavation of an adequate Initial cut, a perpendicular cut bench
or lift is established. This lift advances ahead of each subsequent
bench. Material is removed by common equipment (dozers, front-end load-
ers, power shovels, and rock trucks) and stored in adjacent valley fills.
Once this stepped advance has progressed to where the lowest predetermined
recoverable coal seam has been removed, overburden material is then depos-
ited on the lowest seam bench. As the removal sequence continues, the
rock trucks continue to haul to this area, forming a backstack via con-
necting ramps. Since the excavated material is piled in lifts on the
mined out bench, fewer and less extensive valley fills are required, hold-
ing truck haulage to a more consistent, balanced operation. The sequence
of advancing cuts with haulage to the backfill or backstack area for dis-
posal will continue completely through the mountain ridge. The end effect
is a smooth rounded ridge line.
Chief areas of concern for regrading mountaintop mining sites are
slope limitations and surface drainage placement. The outslope of the re-
graded area must not exceed 1v:2h, while the ins I opes cannot exceed 1v:5h.
All inslopes must slope away from the outer edge of the mountaintop and
may drain down only through stable channels In hollows where no fill has
been placed. Throughout the duration of backstacking operations, drainage
plans should be followed carefully because the inward sloping of the re-
graded areas may cause the diversion of excessive runoff to the active
mining area. The following figure illustrates typical drainage networks
and regrading schemes for mountaintop mine sites.
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APPENDIX B
LAND USE AND SITE DEVELOPMENT
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
This Appendix presents the following background information;
Information Summary - Land Use Decision Analysis
An Annotated Bibliography: Determining Land Uses in a
Mine Lands Area
An Annotated Bibliography: Economic Development of
Mine Lands in Appalachia
. An Annotated Bibliography: Settlers Cabin Case Study
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INFORMATION SUMMARY -
LAND USE DECISION ANALYSIS
Historically, land use decision analysis has been approached from
a number of different academic disciplines. These include geography,
planning, landscape architecture, economics, sociology, and political
science. In spite of the multiplicity of approaches taken in analyzing
land use decision making, the literature can be divided into two groups:
studies designed to explain land use decisons (positive approach), and
research used to recommend alternative land use patterns or decision
methodologies (normative approach).
The earliest significant contributions to this area come from
geographers in the nineteenth century. Central to these discussions was
the question of city location: what were the factors influencing the
location of cities? Early works by German authors circumscribed the scope
of the "positive approach" to urban location theory, in particular:
Kohl, J.G., Per Verkehr und die Ansiedlungen der
Menschen in Ihrer Abhanglgkeit von der Gestaltung der
ErdoberfI ache, 1843.
Sax, E., Die Verkehrsmlttel In Volks; und Staatswirths-
shaft, 1878.
Ratzel, F., Anthropogeographle, 1891.
These early studies formulated theories on city location based on
the industrialization of a region and its transportation network.
American authors quickly adapted the experience of America's
period of settlement in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to this
research in location theory. Notable studies included:
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Coo ley, D.H., The Theory of Transportation, 1894.
Weber, A.F., The Growth of Cities In the Nineteenth
Century: A Study In Statistics, 1899"!
These studies saw city location determined by economic facotrs,
where cities are most efficiently located at "breaks of transportation."
These breaks can be due to junctions of two different transport modes,
caused by physical barriers, political boundaries, or disaggregation of
the distribution system.
At the turn of the century, a number of writers diverged from
this economic tradition, and produced location theories based on environ-
mental factors. Works by Friedrick Ratzel (discussed previously) antici-
pated this environmental approach by emphasizing the natural resource base
of a region, along with such factors as "craving for protection," "divi-
sion of labor," and "streams of traffic." American writings taking an
environmental approach included:
Ripley, W.Z., "Geography as a Sociological Study,"
Political Science Quarterly, December, 1895.
Semple, E.G., Influences of Geographical Environment on
the Basis of Ratzel's System of Anthropo-Geography^
1911.
Semple's work postulated that "man is a product of the earth's surface."
To display this principle, she noted how differences in topography in-
fluenced different types of commercial cities: coast, pass, piedmont,
river, and seaport.
To this point in time, researchers were concerned with explaining
land use decisions as a process in its own right (positive approach). The
normative approach was presented by the "possibiI ist" thinking of French
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geographers. Jean Brunhes', Human Geography; An Attempt at a Positive
Classification, Principles and Examples (1920), presented the view that
city location was influenced by the same factor "which influence the loca-
tion of a house" - sunlight, water, transportation topography, forests,
climate, and vegetation. In this thinking, certain locations were deter-
mined to be more suitable for settlement than others, and thus there would
be a settlement pattern most in harmony with the geographic base of the
region.
Prior to this exposition of the normative approach in the academ-
ic literature, various other individuals contributed to this area. Not-
able among these were English landscape architects of the eighteenth cen-
tury (Temple, Kent, Brown, Price, Knight and Shenstone); the philosophy of
Henry David Thoreau; the American landscape planners Charles Eliot and
Frederick Law Olmstead; and Scottish urban planner and teacher Patrick
Geddes. Working from this tradition of environmental planning toward
creating a more "natural" environment for man, planner-philosophers like
Benton MacKaye and Lewis Mumford began to reshape the American Landscape
beginning in 1920's. Among their important contributions are the Appala-
chian Trial (MacKaye) and the New York Regional Plan (Mumford). The
essence of this normative tradition is that man should perceive nature as
a value and plan his settlements to maximize that value.
In recent years, this environmental approach has reached a bench-
mark plateau with Ian McHarg's, Design with Nature (1969). In this book,
McHarg explains his planning philosophy and synthesizes his landscape
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planning experience since World War II Into a land use decision methodol-
ogy. He coins the term "physiographic determinism" to describe this meth-
odology, although the term environmental determinism might be equally as
appropriate. In this methodology matrices portray various environmental
interrelationships, which are then "overlayed" on mapping for a region, to
produce individual physiographic areas with homogenous characteristics.
each of these areas has an appropriate land use or mix of land uses.
McHarg's approach has been further refined by Julius Gy. Fabos'
group at the University of Massachussetts. Their METLAND model combines
McHarg's ecological planning method with the recent advances in computer
technology and remote sensing. These advances allow greater degree of
detail in characterizing an area, and facilitate the rapid manipulation of
data to produce alternative land use schemes.
At this point in the discussion, it will be useful to review
several important characteristics of the environmental approach to land
use decision analysis:
The environmental approach diverged from the economic
approach at the turn of the century and has evolved
independently since that time.
During the 1920's the environmental approach was
strongly influenced by planners, and thus took on a
normative perspective (to advocate land use decision
rather than to explain the decisions).
The approach has culminated in a land use decision
methodology incorporating overlay mapping and matrix
displays, which attempts to incorporate intrinsic
natural values of the landscape Into the decision-
making process.
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With these facts In mind, we cannot go back and trace the evolu-
tion the economic approach to land use decision analysis.
Economic approaches to land use decision analysis during the
early twentieth century evolved into classical location theory. An early
study by Johann Heinrich von Thunen, Die Isol ierte Staat in Beziehung auf
Landwirtschaft and Natlonalokonomie, (1826), provided the foundation for
other German writers to complete this theory. Important contributions
included:
. Weber, A., Ueber den Standort der Industrlen, 1909.
Christaller, W., Die zentralen Orte in Suddeutschland;
Elne okonomlsche - geographlsche Untersuchung uber die
Gesetzmasslgkeit der Verreltung and Entwlcklung der
Siedlungen mlt stadtlschen Funktlonen, 1933.
Losch, A., Die raumliche Ordnung der Wlrtschaft; eine
Untersuchung uber Standort, WIrtschaftsgeblete und"
internetlonaI en Handel, 1943.
The crux of these studies was to apply the principles of econom-
ics to the spatial distribution of land uses. This topic of classical
location theory (often called central place theory) was historically ne-
glected as a subject for study in economics.
After World War II, a wealth of empirical studies emerged as
location theory was being applied to real-world situations. Contributions
at this time were still largely "positive" in their perspective - to ex-
plain land use decisions rather than to recommend them. These empirical
studies can be divided Into several disciplines, although differences in
scope and emphasis are not readily apparent. Important disciplines and
leading researchers include:
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regional science - Walter I sard
. urban geography - Brian J. L. Berry
urban economics - Edgar Hoover
An important component of this emphasis an empirical studies has been a
reliance on complex modeling - linear programming (optimization tech-
niques), factor analysis (statistical correlation studies), and input-
output analysis (matrix algebra).
Emphasis on problem solving, although not totally absent in
previous years, became an underlying concern during the 1960's. With
increasing public concern over urban problems, studies emphasized the
nature of public problems (notably housing and the environment) and
potential mechanisms to resolve those problems. These analyses relied
heavily on the theories of welfare economics to explain these problems as
"market failures" of a free enterprise economy. Theoretical works in this
area include:
. Pigou, A.C., The Economics of Welfare, 1920.
Arrow, K.J., Social Choice and Individual Values, 1951.
. Coase, R.H., "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of
Law and Economics, 1960.
Solutions to market failure emphasized placing the full social cost on the
actions of individuals who are Imposing costs on others (Internalizing the
"externality"). Alternative solutions have included the precise delinea-
tion of proper rights to avoid "the tragedy of the commons," along with
such actions as providing subsidies to Induce socially acceptable behav-
ior, or simply regulating behavior by fiat. Examples of these procedures
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in land use decision analysis include the interpretation of zoning as reg-
ulation by fiat to avoid situations where adjacent land uses impose a neg-
ative spillover effect of externality on each other: the interpretation of
open space easements as subsidies to private landowners to maintain land
uses in a socially desirable manner; or the interpretation of severance
taxes as internalizing the external or social costs of mineral extraction
(additional road maintenance and community facilities for example) on the
mineral producer.
To summarize, the economic approach to land use decision analysis
has merged classical location theory with welfare economics to analyze and
resolve urban and environmental problems. From this perspective, problems
result from flaws in the economic system, and thus should be corrected by
manipulating the system. This approach contrasts starkly with the envi-
ronmental approach in which market forces are totally replaced by a land-
scape design process.
A particularly good example of the current state of modeling,
using the economic approach is described in Walter I sard's EcoI ogle-
Economic Analysis of Regional Development, 1972. Using an input-output
approach, Isard traces the flow of residuals (pollutants) for a given land
use pattern, and places monetary values on the costs of the various eco-
nomic activities associated with the land use pattern. In theory, pollu-
tion costs could then be managed to arrive at a socially acceptable land
use pattern, although the author recognized the complexities of system
make its practical application quite suspect.
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Before moving on to a discussion of the relevance of land use
decision theory to mine lands problems, an area of investigation (prag-
matic approach), which developed totally independent of the academic tra-
dition must be explored. This work was accomplished under the direction
of the National Sand and Gravel Association.
Historically, the sand and gravel industry has been involved
with, and affected by, land use planning and controls. Beginning in the
early 1960's their industry association sponsored a series of studies to
aid the industry in its relationship with land use planning groups and the
community in general. These studies concentrated on determining appro-
priate final land uses for sand and gravel operations, thus recognizing
the extraction as a transistory land use. A compilation of these studies
is presented in Kenneth L. Schellie's (ed.), Sand and Gravel Operations -
A Traditional Land Use (1977).
In recent years, this practical approach to land use decision
making in mine lands areas has been taken a step further by the Resource
and Land Investigations (RALI) Program of the U.S. Department of Interior.
This program sponsored a series of projects on "Integrated Mined-Area Rec-
lamation and Land Use Planning." Volume 2 of this series presents a meth-
odology for this type of planning in detail. Relying on an impact assess-
ment format, the discussion recommends procedures to develop an appropri-
ate information system, display of data on overlay maps, and generage im-
pact analysis for alternative land use schemes incorporating public par-
ticipation. In this land use decision methodology, matrices are not spe-
cifically recommended although matrix display could provide the scheme for
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a non-computerized data base/information system. A good example of a ma-
trix approach to evaluating environmental impact is presented in Luna
Leopold's (and others), A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impacts,
(1971 ).
The relationship of these various traditions in land use decision
theory to mine lands problems can best be analyzed by posing the following
question: How can the results of the economic (Isard) and environmental
(McHarg) approaches to land use decision analysis be synthesized into the
pragmatic approach (RALI) to produce an improved land use decision process
for mine lands areas? To incorporate the economic approach would require
a method to evaluate externalities among land uses both temporally and
spatially for mine lands areas. To incorporate these two tasks would re-
sult In a delineation of the appropriate individual land units in a mined
land region along with the influences or externalities these individual
land uses exert on each other.
An elementary attempt at this type of synthesis is described in
James E. Rowe's, "A Suitability Matrix for Selecting Land Use Alternatives
for Reclaimed Strip Mine Areas," Landscape Planning, (September, 1977)..
In this study, Rowe utilized econometrics (multiple regression) to evalu-
ate economic development potential in terms of transport access and prox-
imity to urban areas. Combining this with a natural resource/land use
suitability analysis (as In McHarg's approach), he produced a matrix in-
dicating those land uses most appropriate for a given site after reclama-
tion.
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Efforts under this contract will work toward extending the RALI
model as described above. Rowe's work to synthesize these different ele-
ments of land use decision analysis into a decision tool will thus be ex-
panded to include a full analysis of land use externalities in mine land
areas and natural resource constraints to land use potential.
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LIST OF REFERENCES
1. MacKay, B., The New Expi orat Ion-A Philosophy of Regional Planning,
1928.
2. Mumford, L., The Culture of Cities, 1938.
3. Smith, R.H.T., E.J. Taaffe, and L.J. King (eds), Readings in Eco-
nomic Geography, 1968.
4. McHarg, I., Design with Nature, 1969.
5. Berry, B.J.L., and F.E. Morton, Geographic Perspectives on Urban
Systems, 1970.
6. Clawson, M., Suburban Land Conversion in the United States, Resources
for the Future, Inc., 1971.
7. Leopold, L.B., F.E. Clarke, B.B. Hanshaw, and J.R. Balsey, A Pro-
cedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact, U.S. Geological Survey,
1971.
8. Isard, W., Introduction to Regional Science, 1975.
9. Fabos, J.G., and S.J. Caswell, Composite Landscape Assessment, 1977.
10. LeFevers, J.R., and E.A. Imhoff, "Land Use Planning in Surface Mine
Areas," Processings of the Fifth Symposium on Surface Mining and
Reelamation, 1977.
11. Rowe, J.E., "A Suitability Matrix for Selecting Land Use Alternatives
for Reclaimed Strip Mine Areas," Landscape Planning, September 1977.
12. Scheillie, K.L. (ed.), Sand and Gravel Qperations-A Transitional Land
Use, National Sand and Gravel Association, 1977.
13. Imhoff, E.A., W.J. Kockelman, J.T. O'Connor, and J.R. Lafevers, Inte-
grated Mined-Area Reclamation and Land-Use and Resources Planning in
Surface Mined Areas, U.S. Geological Survey, 1979.
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AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY:
DETERMINING LAND USES IN A MINE LANDS AREA
The following annotated bibliography has been designed to assist
planners integrate final land use considerations into reclamation plan-
ning. Thus, it concerns itself with the general problem of determining
the appropriate land uses in a mined lands environment. The literature
has been segregated into six categories reflecting various land uses:
agriculture
multiple uses
recreation
timber
urban/industrial
waste disposal
Not considered here is the wealth of literature on reclamation techniques
designed for conservation and aesthetic purposes.
Among the land use categories listed above, the "multiple uses"
category comprises those studies involving decision-making among alter-
native uses, or reclamation to meet multiple use objectives. The other
categories include studies where a final land use was predetermined and
reclamation was specifically designed to incorporate that land use.
Preparation of this annotated bibliography relied on four sources
(shown in order of importance):
Gleason, V.E., Coal and the Environmental Abstract
Series - Bibliography on Mined Land Reclamation, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, April, 1979.
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Lewis, L.R., J.R. LeFevers, A.O. Perry, and W. Rice,
Jr., Integrated Mined Area Reclamation and Land Use
Planning, Vol. 4, A Bibliography of Integrated Mined
Area Reclamation and Land Use Planning with Annota-
tions, U.S. Geological Survey, December, 1976.
Czapowskyj, M.M., Annotated Bibliography on the Ecology
and Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Land, U.S.
Forest Service, 1976.
Rowe, J. E. (ed.), Coal Surface Mining: Impacts of
Reclamation, 1979.
Extensive research in this area is currently done by the Resource and Land
Investigations (RALI) Program of the U.S. Geological Survey. RALI spon-
sored publications will be incorporated into this bibliography throughout
this study.
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MULTIPLE USES
1. Hall, H.H., "The Romance and Reclamation of the Coal Lands of South-
eastern Kansas," Kansas Academy of Science Transactions, 1940.
A brief history of strip mining for coal in Kansas is pre-
sented. Examples of conversion of waste land for profit are shown
such as a quail farm, state park, and orchard.
2. Riley, C.V., "An Ecological and Economic Study of Coal Stripped Land
in Eastern Ohio," M.S. Thesis, Ohio State University, 1947.
This field study of Tuscarawas County, Ohio included a study
of the extent of volunteer revegetation, the success of planned vege-
tation, and the use of the area as wildlife habitat. Economic re-
turns available to surface mined land were evaluated for agricultural
and forest uses as compared to abandoned land. The study concluded
the reclamation for wildlife management and tree production would
have the most value.
3. Limstrom, G.A. and R.W. Merz, "Rehabilitation of Lands Stripped For
Coal in Ohio," Ohio Reclamation Association, 1949.
Most strip mined land in Ohio was adaptable to three general
uses: forestry, recreation/wildlife, and agriculture. More inten-
sive uses, such as industry or settlements, are of minor importance
except near municipalities or near major transport routes. Based on
the beneficial environmental impacts of reforestation, this study
recommends that stripped land is best suited for forestry in Ohio.
4. Foresman, F.J., "Stripped Land Rehabilitation," American Mining Con-
gress, 1952.
Describes how strip pits have been converted into forest,
farming, pasture, and recreation land.
5. Wells, J.R., "The Reclamation of Strip Mined Scars in Southeastern
Kansas," Kansas Academy of Sciences Transactions, 1953.
Spoi (banks offer a habitat for a variety of plants without
leveling. Conditions in the area favor grazing as a final land use
over orchards or forests. Spoils can provide habitat for fish and
wiIdIi fe a I so.
6. Flowers, A.E., "Profitable Stripping - Productive Reclamation," Coal
Age, 60 (5), 1955.
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A recreational facility, nursery, game production (pheasants),
and corn field is incorporated into reclamation of strip mined land
i n Kansas.
7. Guernsey, L., "Land Use Changes Caused By a Quarter Century of Strip
Coal Mining in Indiana," Indiana Academy of Sciences Proceedings, 69,
1959.
Land use data is presented on the transition of former
cropland to orphan land, reclaimed land, cropland, and recreation
uses after strip mining. County data in Indiana is utilized.
8. StrolIman, I., Land Use Control in the Surface Extraction of Min-
erals, Part I, American Society of Planning Officials, December,
1951.
The process of mineral extraction is examined relative to
planning problems, zoning law, and judicial interpretation. Individ-
ual mineral industries are examined separately in addition to coal.
9. Case Histories: Rehabilitation of Worked Out Sand and Gravel Pits,
National Sand and Gravel Association, 1961.
Examples of successfully rehabilitated land after sand and
gravel deposits have been excavated are presented.
10. Guernsey, L., "Settlement Changes Caused by Strip Coal Mining in
Indiana," Indiana Academy of Sciences Proceedings, 70, 1961.
Population and land use changes in the coal mining region of
Indiana are compared to the non-coal mining region. The study con-
cludes that strip mining causes instability in settlement patterns.
Mining impacts include: 1) a decrease in the number of farms, 2)
creation of irregular and smaller fields, and 3) transition from
single farm units to more complex tracts. Major impacts were not
present, although improved roads and more semi-urban settlements were
noted in the mined area.
11. Seastrom, P.M., "The United Electric Coal Company's Land Use
Program," American Mining Congress Committee on Strip Mining, August
28, 1963.
The company's Fidelity Mine in southern Illinois has been
reclaimed to 2000 acres of pine and hardwoods, 1200 acres of pasture
(with 500 head of cattle), 135 acres of orchard, and hunting and
fishing areas.
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12. Knabe, W., "Methods and Results of Strip Mine Reclamation in
Germany," Ohio Journal of Science, 1964.
This is a report on the trends in mining and reclamation in
Germany. Topics include coal regions, integrated mining and recla-
mation, the agricultural value of overburden, reclamation equipment,
agricultural reclamation, reforestation, and amelioration of spoil
banks.
13. Conservation and Land Use in the Surface Coal Mine Industry, Mine
Land Conservation Conference, October 5, 1964.
Speeches discuss laws, enforcement history, and reclamation of
str ip mining.
14. Hyslop, J., "Strip Mining in Eastern Ohio: Blessing or Curse?",
Rotary Club, St. Clairsville, Ohio, May 18, 1964.
Speech discusses aesthetic land use, and monetary effects of
strip mining in eastern Ohio.
15. Jones, C.D., "From Waste to Profits," Coal Mining and Processing, 1
(7), 1964.
Resource recovery by an Ohio coal company of coal waste
products into lime, brick, and pipe is discussed. Surface areas are
reclaimed to commercial forest and pasture.
16. Sitlerly, J.H., "Future Land Use in the Appalachian Plateau and its
Relation to Strip Mine Reclamation," Ohio Journal of Science, 64,
1964.
The dominant factors influencing land use changes to 1980 in
Appalachia will be environmental regulations and recreation develop-
ment rather than agricultural development. Economic and sociologic
reasons for this hypothesis are presented.
17. Conversation and Land Use in the Surface Coal Mine Industry, Mined
Land Conservation Conference, October 5, 1964.
Various papers on private sector reclamation for productive
land uses are presented.
18. Reilly, J.D., "Planning Surface Mine Reclamation Before Mining,"
Mining Congress Journal, 51 (11), 1965.
A need for planning of reclamation before mining is stressed.
Economics, revegetation, erosion, water conservation and aesthetics
and potential land use for recreation, forage, timber, and urban
development must be considered.
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19. "Varied Uses of Surface Mine Spoil in West Virginia," West Virginia
State Soil Conservation Commission, (n.d.).
This report presents various examples of land uses on
reclaimed lands including farms, forests, churches, and school
bu iId i ngs.
20. "The Way to New Land Uses," Mined Land Conservation Conference,
(n.d.).
Reclamation incorporating land uses are described.
21. Guernsey, L., "Selected Effects of Glacial Till on the Physical
Characteristics and Existing Land Use of Indiana's Strip Mined
Lands," Indiana Academy of Science Proceedings, 77, 1967.
Based on samples from 22 sites, improved soil characteristics
due to higher percentages of till material were found to influence
more intense land uses on reclaimed land.
22. Goodwin, F.W., Planning for Mining of Construction Materials, New
Jersey Federation of Planning Officials, Nov., 1967.
The role of planning in the wise use of mineral resources is
discussed in this brief report. The author provides a review of the
effectiveness of regulations and performance standards, and outlines
an approach to planning for surface mining and rehabilitation from a
regional viewpoint. Emphasis is placed on the need to return to pro-
ductive use for community and private purposes.
23. Jensen, D.R., Selecting Land Use for Sand and Gravel Sites, National
Sand and Gravel Association, 1967.
Criteria and procedures for the selection of post-mining land
use are discussed and site development procedures are outlined.
Potential land uses are examined in terms of their respective
requirements and possible future benefits. Fill types and soil
comparisons are briefly presented in an appendix.
24. SchelIie, K.L., and A.M. Bauer, Shaping the Land; Planned Use of
Industrial Sand Deposits, National Sand and Gravel Association, 1968.
The historical and current background of the industrial sand
industry is reviewed in light of extractive methods, processing, rec-
lamation, and their respective Impact on land use. A careful dis-
tinction is drawn between reclamation and Planned Extraction and
Development. The authors examine potential land uses and planning
procedures designed to realize predetermined post-mining and land use
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goals. The importance of pre-mining studies and site planning to re-
duce reclamation costs and improve extraction efficiency is empha-
sized. The development of a Master Plan during the early stages is
recommended, with input from local and regional officials.
25. Miller, E.L. and J.R. DeTuerk, "A Landscape Architectural Approach to
Reclamation and Development of Deep Anthracite Strip Pits," Depart-
ment of Landscape Architecture, The Pennsylvania State University,
1968.
Characteristics of mined areas are analyzed and used as the
basis for plans to develop and beautify three strip pits.
26. Callahan, J.C., an J.G. Callahan, "Effects of Strip Mining and Tech-
nological Change on Communities and Natural Resources in Indiana's
Coal Mining Region," Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, January, 1971.
This detailed study of Indiana's surface mining industry
includes an analysis of land uses for reclaimed land.
27. Weber, L.S., "The Development and Use of Coal Surface Mined Lands in
Minois," I I I inois State Geolog ical Survey, May, 1971.
The history of surface mining in Illinois is presented with
emphasis on trends in reclamation techniques. Various land use
options in reclamation are described.
28. Coates, W.E., "Landscape Architectural Approach to Surface Mining
Reclamation," First Research and Applied Technology Symposium on
Mined Land Reclamation, 1973.
Landscape planning will take mined land (an interim use) to
its final and best use through planned reclamation. Specific recla-
mation techniques utilized in landscape planning are described.
29. Fanin, P.J., "The Mining Industry and Federal Land Use an Surface
Mining Policy," American Mining Congress Convention, September 9-12,
1973.
The Senator from Arizona discusses two bills - land use con-
trol and surface mining regulation - pending in Congress. Adverse
impacts on the mining industry are predicted with passage.
30. Fenton, M.R., "Landscape Design Principles for Strip Mine Restora-
tion," Ecology and Reclamation of Devastated Land, Vol. 2, Hutnik and
Davis (ed.), 1973.
The development of Moraine State Park on reclaimed surface
mines in western Pennsylvania Is described.
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31. Montgomery, H.B., "Land Use Planning of Surface Mined Land," Sympo-
s I urn on Surface Mine Reclamation and Land Use Reclamation, October,
1973.
Land use policy in areas affected by surface mining is con-
sidered. Enabling legislation, interagency cooperation, and public
participation in land use policy formulation and development is dis-
cussed.
32. Olschowy, 6., "Landscape Planning on an Ecological Basis," Ecology
and Reclamation of Devastated Land, Vol. 2, Hutnik an Davis (eds.),
1973.
Larger scale reclamation in German is discussed in which en-
tire settlements are removed and then restored as mining proceeds.
Reclamation can restore the land to other productive uses, including
recreation.
33. Paller, W., and D.A. Schulz, "Planning Approaches to Surface Mining
on the National Forests," First Research and Applied Technology
Symposium on Mined Land Reclamation Preprints, 1973.
Phosphate mining in Caribou National Forest in Idaho is ex-
amined relative to the problems of strip mining. Mine Planning to
promote a multiple land use policy is demonstrated. Specific anal-
ysis of trade-offs between the extraction of the non-renewable re-
source with timber production, wildlife needs, water quality, fish-
eries, and groundwater is presented.
34. Thirgood, J.V., "Planned Reclamation," First Research and Applied
Technology Symposium on Mined Land Reclamation Preprints, 1973.
This study recommends that the previous and intended use of
the mined land and surrounding area be considered in reclamation
pianning.
35. SchelIie, K.L., and D.A. Roger, Site Utilization and Rehabilitation
Practices for Sand and Gravel Operations, National Sand and Gravel
Association, 1973.
Directed at the sand and gravel producer, this volume is pre-
sented as a guide for preplanning and useful adaptation of land after
extraction of sand and gravel. With projected growth levels of the
nation, it is the problem of the sand and gravel industry to get com-
munity acceptance in establishing new sites and reserving resource-
rich areas for future growth by participating in zoning law modifica-
tions. This objective is possible through cooperation with community
land use planning authorities.
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36. Kundrna, F.L., "The Prairie Plan," Journal of Urban Planning and
Development, September, 1973.
The Prairie Plan is described in which sewage sludge from
Chicago is applied to strip mine land in Fulton County, Illinois.
Part of the study area is used for reclamation purposes. Costs of
the project are summarized.
37. Land Reborn, Ohio Board on Unreclaimed Strip Mined Lands, January 1,
1974.
Orphaned mines are examined in detail. The report includes
all relevant environmental data on the affected area and makes recom-
mendations for reclamation and the possible future use of the land.
38. Osterhoudt, F.H., "Social and Economic Impacts of Potential Coal
Development in the Northern Great Plains," Second Research and
Applied Technology Symposium on Mined Land Reclamation Preprints,
1974.
This paper discusses the impacts which may occur to the entire
socioeconomic fabric of the northern Great Plains with increased coal
development. Important variables studied include population growth,
support services, housing, transportation, income, employment, gov-
ernment policies, changes in lifestyle, and Indian problems.
39. LaFevers, J.R., "A Cost and Benefit Analysis of the Reclamation on
Land Surface Mined for Coal in Vigo County, Illinois," Ph.D. Dis-
sertation, Indiana State University, 1974.
Most land use planning is done after reclamation is completed.
In this study it was shown that mined areas can be as much as ten
times as attractive for housing sites as adjacent unmined areas.
However, in most cases, development occured on sites reclaimed for
other purposes - forestry, pasture, and agriculture.
40. "A Balanced Approach to Resource Extraction and Creative Land Devel-
opment Associated with Open-Pit Copper Mining in Southern Arizona,"
College of Architecture and Mines, University of Arizona, 1974.
The activities of an open-pit mining operation in Arizona pro-
duces disruptions of the earth's surface that seem to stretch from
horizon to horizon. Immense amounts of solid waste are generated.
Ore processing consumes sizable amounts of fresh groundwater, which
has multiple demands in Arizona's arid climate, and produces tailing
ponds that are miles in dimension. Dried tailings produce dust and
grit problems and require vegetative screening. After examining num-
erous existing sites, a number of alternatives in mining procedures
and their feasibility are discussed. Generally, solid waste dumps,
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tailings ponds and waste water are handled in such a way as to yield
land for a predetermined and desirable reuse, such as residential
development of wildlife habitat. The study was a joint effort of
local government, private industry, and educational institutions.
41. Gartner, E., "Exploiting Rheinish Brown Coal Deposits in Deep Open
Cast Mines Followed By Landscaping and Recultivation," Energy Engi-
neering Convention, 1975, Lines of Development In Energy Engineering,
May 5-7, 1975.
Brown coal surface mining in Germany displaces entire settle-
ments which are relocated into totally planned communities. Reclama-
tion to forest, agricultural, and recreational uses is described.
42. Green, J.E., Selected Materials For Planning the Reclamation of Land,
Council of Planning Librarians, May, 1975.
This report is a short bibliography of reclamation planning
with emphasis on Appalachia and the Eastern Interior Coal Field.
43. Moran, S.R., G.H. Groenwold, L. Hemish, and C. Anderson, "Development
of a Pre-Mining Geologic Framework for Landscape Design Reclamation
in North Dakota," Proceedings of the Fort Union Coal Field Symposium,
Vol. 3, April 25-26, 1975.
The integration of soil data, characteristics of spoil, hy-
drology, and pre-mining ecology into landscape planning is described.
A definition of a "reclamation unit" is derived in relation to the
North Dakota lignite area.
44. Research and Demonstration of Improved Surface Mining Techniques In
Eastern Kentucky. Surface Mine Pollution Abatement and Land Use Im-
pact Investigation; Volume III. Cosiderations of Post-Mining Land
Use, Mine Inventory and Abatement Plan for the Quicksand Watershed,
Eastern Kentucky University, (n.d.).
Post-mining land use in this Appalachian watershed is analyzed
in reference to demand, location, development costs, environmental
baseline characteristics, and environmental impacts of the mining.
An inventory and analysis of 33 surface mines is included.
45. Rowe, J.E., "An Inventory of the Unique Uses for Reclaimed Strip
Mined Land in the Appalachian Region," University of Tennessee Envi-
ronmental Center, 1975.
When surface mine legislation Is enacted, mine operators,
regional planners, and regulatory agencies will be required to con-
sider alternative uses as presented in this study.
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I
I
46. Friz, T.O., "Mineral Resources, Mining and Land Use Planning in Wis-
• consin," Geological and Natural History Survey, University of Wiscon-
• sin Extension. 1975.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
sin Extension, 1975.
This report provides background information that can be used
by individuals, local and state governments, industry and planning
units as the basis for assessing concerns over matters such as rising
mineral costs, mining methods, reclamation, and land use conflicts.
47. Greenwald, E.H., Jr., "A Landscape Architect Looks at Site Planning
for Mines," Mining Congress Journal, June, 1976.
The author, a landscape architect, presents a "design process"
that can be used for planning site development and surface facilities
of coal mines. The "design process" consists of six phases that in-
clude program definition, site analysis, master plan development
schematic design, design development, and contract documents/field
services. This "design process" method was used in the development
of a master plan for a proposed deep mine in southwestern Pennsyl-
vania. The author outlines the Pennsylvania site development.
48. Ballou, S.W., "Socioeconomic Aspects of Surface Mining: Effects of
strip Mine Reclamation Procedures Upon Assessed Land Values," Surface
Mining and Reclamation Fourth Symposium Preprints, October 19-20,
1976.
Impacts of assessed land valuation were examined on the degree
of reclamation for Mahosta County, Iowa. Procedure evaluated sites
with 1) no reclamation, 2) graded spoils, 3) revegetated spoils, 4)
utilization as sanitary landfill, and 5) topsoiI replacement. Pre-
mining and post-mining assessments were then used to determine the
extent of land devaluation following strip mining.
49. Clover, F.W., "Use of Surface Mined Lands," Surface Mining and Rec-
lamation, Fourth Symposium Preprints, October 19-20, 1976.
Four examples of final land uses for surface mined lands in
West Virginia are described: Feed lot operation, rifle range, pas-
ture, and potential housing development. In addition, 86 actual uses
of reclaimed land in West Virginia are cited.
50. Verma, T.R., and J.L. Thames, "Multiple Uses of Mined Land in the
Southwest," Surface Mining and Reclamation, Fourth Symposium Pre-
prints, October 19-20, 1976.
Water and land resources at strip mined land on the Black Mesa
of Arizona are analyzed for land use potential. Agrosystem, grazing,
livestock production, and recreational uses are evaluated. Specific
reclamation techniques to achieve multiple land use planning objec-
tives are described.
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51. LaFevers, J.R., and E.A. Imhoff, "Land Use Planning in Surface Mine
Areas," Surface Mining and Reclamation, Fifth Symposium Preprints,
October 18-20, 1977.
The study examines the current state of knowledge with regard
to reclamation and land use planning. A paucity of information is
discerned. The need for more research is addressed relative to the
1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act.
52. Rowe, J.E., "A Suitability Matrix for Selecting Land Use Alternatives
Reclaimed Strip Mine Areas," Landscape Planning, September, 1977.
This study describes a procedure which combines a landscape
architectural suitability analysis with econometrics and matrix dis-
plays to determine the appropriate land uses in a mining environment.
Physical parameters are evaluated in a manner similar to McHarg's
Design With Nature approach. Spatial parameters were evaluated using
on econometric model relating land use to two demand terms: trans-
portation access and proximity to urban centers. Matrices display
the degree to which land uses are appropriate under various access,
proximity, and natural resource characteristics.
53. Imhoff, E.A., W.J. Kockelman, J.T. O'Connor, and J.R. LaFevers,
Integrated Mined Area Reclamation and Land Use Planning, Vol. 2,
Methods and Criteria for Land Use and Resources Planning in Surface
Mi ned Areas, U.S. Geological Survey, April, 1978.
The concept of the integration of reclamation planning with
land use planning is traced historically through this report. Ex-
amples are given to successful efforts to integrate these two types
of planning in various extractive industries. The processes of land
use planning and plan implementation are described as they relate to
resource protection, extraction regulation, and site reclamation. In
addition, a model for integrating land use planning and reclamation
planning is developed to illustrate procedures for achieving, and
factors which might prevent, effective integration of the various
planning processes.
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WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Deasy, G.F. and P.R. Griess, "Strip Pits and the Sanitary Land Fill
Process," Mineral Industries, the Pennsylvania State University,
November, 1960.
The use of strip pits as sanitary land fills is recommended.
Aesthetic and population access factors are considered. Specific
application to abandoned mine areas is recommended.
2. "Surface Mining, Solid Waste Disposal Combined at Pennsylvania
Operation," Coal Age, 76 (11), 1971.
The experience of Aloe Coal Company west of Pittsburgh is
described. Strip mining, solid waste disposal, and land reclamation
were combined at this site.
3. Badner, R.M. and W.T. Hemsley, "Evaluation of Abandoned Strip Mines
as Sanitary Land FiI Is," Proceedings of the Third Minera logical Waste
Utilization Symposium, 1972.
Methods to combine abandoned mined land reclamation and solid
waste disposal are explained. Specific reclamation techniques are
described which ensure minimum environmental impacts. Suitability
factors are developed and case studies are described.
4. Kundra, F. and G. Kelly, "Implementing the Chicago Prairie Plan,"
Symposium on Recycling Treated Municipal Waste Water and Sludge on
Forest and Croplands, August 21, 24, 1972.
The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Chicago will use a 7,000
acre tract of strip mined land to dispose recycled municipal wastes.
The land is utilized as a natural filter.
5. Dalton, F.E. and R.R. Murphy, "Land Disposal IV: Reclamation and
Recycle," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 45 (7),
1973.
Strip mine areas in Fulton County, Illinois are identified as
disposal sites for solid waste. Costs for the project are estimated.
Environmental monitoring systems are described.
6. Use of Abandoned Strip Mines for Solid Waste Disposal in Maryland,
Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, June, 1973.
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This EPA-sponsored study described projects demonstrating the
feasibility of using abandoned strip mines for solid waste disposal
by sanitary land fill techniques. The demonstrations at two sites
analyzed hydrogeological, chemical, microbiological, and settlement
data to determine environmental impact. No public health problems
were found. The Appendix includes information on land fill tech-
niques, costs, job description, relevant laws and regulations, and
environmental baseline data.
7. Kundra, F. and G. Kelly, "Implementing the Chicago Prairie Plan,"
Conference on Recycling Treated Municipal Waste Water Through Forest
and Cropland, Sopper and Kardos (eds.), March, 1974.
The disposal of sewage sludge on surface mine land in Fulton
County, Illinois is described.
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AGRICULTURE
1. Edwards, J.H., "Unleveled Spoil Brings Good Return as Farming Proj-
ect," Coal Age, 52 (2) 1947.
The experience of the reclamation of a Fulton County, Illinois
strip mine is described. Six hundred acres were purchased and re-
claimed into a farm which supported a herd of beef cattle.
2. "Strip Mine Farming," Medowlark Farms, Inc., August, 1952.
The experience of a farm on a reclaimed strip mine incorpor-
ating hogs, cattle, sheep, grain crops, and an orchard.
3. Foresman, F.J., "Strip Grazing for Prize Angus," Coal Age, 60 (9),
1955.
Pittsburgh and Midway Coal has a cattle ranch in Kansas on
reclaimed strip mined land. Black Angus and Hereford graze on clover
and Koreanm Lespedeza. Some hay is also produced.
4. "A New Land," United Electric Coal Companies, (n.d.).
The companies experience in reclaiming strip lands to agricul-
tural, grazing, and forest land is provided. Emphasis is on reclaim-
ing for orchards and vineyards.
5. Sappenfield, V., "Spoil Bank Lands Return Farm Profit in Indiana,"
Coal age, 61 (5), 1956.
Indiana coal company grows corn and raises cattle on reclaimed
land. Methods to determine potential farm land are discussed.
6. "Reclamation Project Yields a Profit," Coal Age, 66 (11), 1961.
Hanna Coal Co. of Cadiz, Ohio planted crown vetch on reclaimed
spoil banks. Cattle now graze and a seed recovery plant is estab-
lished, which sells excess seed to seed houses.
7. "Reclaiming Land for Profit", Coal Age, 68, (10), 1963.
Ayrshire Collieries over the past ten years reclaimed over
3,000 acres, creating eight working farms and donating the remainder
of the land to various public institutions.
8. "Reclaimed Strip Lands to Produce Elderberries," Coal Age, 70 (3),
1965.
Hanna Coal Company will plant elderberries on 20 acres of
reclaimed strip land near Cadiz, Ohio.
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9. Morgan, M. and W.L. Parks, "Reclamation of Mined Phosphate Land,"
Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, 1967.
Productive capacity of soil mined for phosphate was evaluated
for growing agricultural crops. Responses to lime and fertilizer are
given. Physical and chemical properties of mined and unmined areas
are discussed.
10. Cornforth, C.L., "Farming for Profit on Reclaimed Land," Coal Mining
and Processing, 8 (8), 1971.
The Ayrshire Coal Co. runs farms on mined land which profit-
ably produce port, beef, and grain. The farms are located in Illi-
nois and Indiana.
11. "Land Reclamation Can Even be Profitable," Mining Congress Journal,
57 (12), 1971 .
The scientific farming of the Ayrshire Coal Company or re-
claimed land is described. Reforestation is used only when reclaimed
land is not suitable for farming.
12. "Capital Fuels' Strip Mine Fruit Orchard," Coal Mining and Proces-
sing, 9 (7), 1972.
An active strip pit was converted into a fruit orchard in one
year.
13. Higgins, T., "The Planning and Economics of Mined Land Use for Agri-
cultural Purposes," First Research and Applied Technology Symposium
on Mined Land Reclamation Preprints, 1973.
The experience of Peabody Coal's reclamation program is de-
scribed. Specific procedures to reclaim for agricultural purposes
include ameliorating toxic spoil problems by mining methods, soil
treatment, and plant selection. Experiences with beef cattle oper-
ations, dairying, hay, row crops, and cereal grain as final land uses
or reclaimed land are described.
14. Swanson, E.R., "Two Environmental Analyses Involving Agriculture,"
Seventh Annual Symposium - Interface Workshop on Decision and Envi-
ronmental Analyses, October, 1973.
This study analyzes cropping systems which can be utilized on
a solid waste disposal project on mined lands. The Fulton County,
Illinois case study is presented. Crops which use large amounts of
sludge nitrogen are shown to be most appropriate here.
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15. "Profitable Farming is the Goal at Medowlark," Coal age, 79 (10,
1974.
Amax's experience in reclaiming land to agricultural land is
described. On this reclaimed land, 150 tenant farmers grow crops,
raise livestock, and harvest timber.
16. Reiss, I.H., "We are Farmers not Miners," Coal Mining and Processing,
H_ (5), 1974.
Amax's subsidiary, Medowlark Farms, is described. In 1973,
they produced over 1 million bushels of grain and sold more than 1
million pounds of cattle from reclaimed land. In addition, over
1,000 acres of water had been created for recreational use.
17. Reiss, I.H., "Total Utilization of a Land Resource," Mi ni ng Congress
Journal, 63 (10) 1977.
The experience of Medowlark Farms of returning land to farm-
ing after mining is described. The author argues that land original-
ly in corn can be improved by returning it to an alfalfa/beef cattle
operat ion.
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URBAN/INDUSTRIAL
1. Flowers, A.E., "Effective Reclamation Sets Stage for Industrial
Development," Coal Age, 71 (12), 1966.
A 22 year reclamation project in Pennsylvania includes an
industrial plant, swimming pool, park, lake, airport, high school,
and nursery.
2. Blakely, J.W., "New Cities for Appalachia -Will They be Denied?",
Coal Mining and Processing, 11 (1), 1974.
Community development associated with mountaintop removal/
head-of-hollow fill mining is discussed. A proposal to use a 53-acre
site constructed in this manner is presented which incorporates a
high school and some residential development.
3. Maneval, D.R., "Abandoned Mine Areas Can be Valuable Assets," Coal
Mining and Processing, 13 (8), 1976.
Two case histories of reclamation of mined areas to industrial
parts are described. Appalachian Regional Commission support activ-
ities are described for these Delano, Pennsylvania and Coshocton,
Ohio projects.
4. Rowe, J.E., "The Strip Mining Dilemma: the Case of Virginia. Land:
Issues and Problems," V.P.I.S.U. Cooperative Extension Services,
1976.
Strip mining can create level land that can later be employed
for industrial or commercial development. Residential areas offer
greater design flexibility, but often increase costs.
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TIMBER
1. "Two Thousand Acres of New Forests Planted: Reforestation of Strip
Mine Land to Provide Future Timber Supply," Outdoor Indiana,
November, 1943.
Strip mine reclamation by tree planting is described using
pine seedlings. Effort done in response to Indiana's 1941 strip mine
I aw.
2. "Spoil Reclamation - Assures Good Income Without Level ing," Coal Age,
51_ (7), 1946.
Tree growth is found to be better on unleveled spoil. Fruit
trees were planted using airplane seeding.
3. Sawyer, L.E., "The Use of Surface Mined Land," Journal of So!I and
Water Conservation, October, 1949.
The experience of the Indiana Coal Producers Association is
described. Trees planted on mine spoils produced valuable forest
products by 1949. Discussions of the superior growth of trees on
ungraded spoils is provided.
4. Flowers, A.E., "Sunnyhill Makes its Money do a Job," Coal Age, 59
(5), 1954.
An Ohio strip mine is reclaimed to commercial locust and
hardwood trees. An economic analysis of reclamation costs versus
return is presented.
5. Davis, G. and R.D. Melton, "Plantations on Strip Mine Banks Can Yield
Timber Products," Pennsylvania State Forest School, 1962.
Tree stands on upgraded spoils were evaluated on a 25 year
basis on their ability to produce timber products.
6. "First Pulpwood Harvest from 'New Forest'," Pennsylvania Conservation
Foundation, October 6, 1964.
News release reports delivery of pulpwood from reforested
spoil bank area in Appalachia.
7. "Pulpwood Harvested from Spoil Bank Forests," Coal Age, 69 (11),
1964.
Reforested spoil areas supply pulpwood in Clearfield County,
Pennsylvania. Plantings of red and white pine, Norway Spruce and
Douglass Fir occurred fourteen years prior to delivery.
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8. Jones, W.G., "Coal for Today - Timber for Tomorrow," The Northern
Logger, June, 1964.
Cooperative efforts of federal, state, and industry organi-
zations to transform mine lands to commercial timbering are de-
scribed.
9. Rickard, D., "Miracle of Spoil Banks - A New Beauty and a New Indus-
try," Philadelphia Inquirer Magazine, March 28, 1965.
The Pennsylvania Conservation Association has planted trees
for commercial timbering on-central Pennsylvania mined lands. First
commercial cutting expected after six years.
10. Buckner, E.R. and J.S. Kring, "A Crop for Mine Spoils," Keep Tennes-
see Green, 1967.
This study examines the potential for Christmas tree nurseries
on stripped land. They provide a profitable, short rotation crop
suitable to wide variations in site conditions.
11. PI as, W.T. and J.D. Burton, "Pulpwood Production Potential on Strip
Mined Land in the South," Journal of SoiI and Water Conservation, 22
(6), 1967.
Experiements in Alabama, Kentucky, and Tennessee indicate
slower pine growth or spoil areas relative to good sites. Spoils of
pH 4 or less will not support tree grwoth sufficient for pulpwood
production.
12. Davis, G. and W.H. Davidson, "Coal Mine Spoil Banks Offer Good
Potential for Timber and Wildlife Production," Pennsylvania Forests,
Winter-Spring, 1968.
About one-quarter of spoil sites offer good timbering poten-
tial. Confiers do well, but valuable hardwoods do not. A hybird
poplar does do well; however, specific plantings can be designed to
enhance wildlife habitat.
13. Jones, W.G., "On Reclaimed Land - Timberl - and In Nine Years at
That," Coal Age. 76 (11 ), 1971 .
Reforestation of mined land at Karthaus, Pennsylvania produced
a lumber value of $40 per acre in nine years. Hybird poplar and
canifers were successful during these nine years in which abnormally
low rainfall occurred.
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RECREATION
1. "More Strip Pits for Fishin'!," Outdoor Indiana, December, 1951.
Regulations encouraging the construction of lakes in reclaimed
areas are described. Opportunities for recreation are discussed.
2. Verts, B.J., "A Place to Hunt," WiIdlife, December, 1956.
Wildlife development on 924 acres of strip mined land is
described.
3. Collins, F.W., "Game Management Practices on strip Mined Land," Pro-
ceed ings of the Tenth Annual Conference, Southeastern Association of
Game and Fish Commissioners, October 7-10, 1956.
Discussions center on game management of surface mined land in
Kentucky. Observations over a four year period indicate wildlife
migration into these areas.
4. Verts, B.J., "An Evaluation of Wildlife and Recreational Values of a
Strip Mined Area," M.S. Thesis, Southern Illinois University, 1956.
Mammal and bird populations were studied in detail on a re-
claimed Illinois surface mine. Vegetation characteristics are also
noted. Hunting and trapping use is examined. Reclamation modifi-
cations to improve recreational values were recommended.
5. Arata, A.A., "Trapping the Striplands," WiIdlife, September, 1957.
The trapping of muskrats, raccoons, opossums, and mink on the
banks of strip mine ponds in Illinois is discussed.
6. "Outdoor Recreation and its Relation to the Mining Industry," Amer-
ican Mining Congress, 1961.
Mining opportunities to create outdoor recreation sites are
presented.
7. Roseberry, J.L., "Report on a Survey of Potential Recreation Utili-
zation of Illinois Strip Mined Land," Midwest Coal Producers Insti-
tute, 1962.
Reclaimed strip mine land in Illinois is an I ayzed for recre-
ation potential. Acreage, ownership, present recreational acreage,
and potential recreational acreages are tabulated for individual
counties. Suitability factors for recreation are discussed.
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8. Klimstra, W.D., P.A. Vohs, and J.W. Cherry, "Strip Mined Land for
Recreation," Wi Idlife, 1953.
The devetpment and use of strip mine lands for recreation on a
specific tract of land is described.
9. Roseberry, J.L. and W.D. Klimstra, "Recreational Activities on Illi-
nois Strip Mined Land," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 19
(3), 1964.
Status of Illinois' strip mined land is examined with special
attention placed on recreational land uses. Opportunities to create
new recreational sites from current mining are discussed.
10. "Tourist Recreation Resources in Southern Indiana," Department of
Recreation and Park Administration, Indiana University, October,
1964.
Specific locations where strip mine areas were reclaimed for
recreational purposes are presented.
11. Dalrymple, B.W., "They're Mining for Bass in Kansas," True's Fi shing
Yearbook No. 16, 1965.
This article describes fishing areas in Kansas which once were
strip pits.
12. Gwynn, T.A., "Reclaiming Strip Mined Lands in North Dakota by Estab-
lishing Game Management Areas," Knife River Coal Mining Company,
January 1, 1965.
Potential for wildlife, recreation, and grazing is analyzed
for the lignite-stripping area of North Dakota. Costs of reclamation
are presented.
13. Gwynn, T.A., "Reclaiming Strip Mined Lands by Establishing Game Man-
agement Areas - An Update," Knife River Coal Mining Company, July 15,
1966.
Revegetation success is reported. Problems of alkaline
drainage and overbrowsing by wildlife are present. Willows doing
well for deer forage.
14. Pickels, G., Realizing the Recreation Potential of Sand and Gravel
S i tes, NationeFi Sand and Gravel Association, 1968.
The sand and gravel industry can provide cheap construction
material if large tracts of reserves are kept from other preemptive
uses near population centers. Careful planning of site development
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can provide concurrent and post-operational recreation areas. Often
extractive and processing operations will last from 15 to 30 years.
With adequate screening, adjacent unmined land can be used for out-
door recreation with the industry volunteering construction of park
facilities. Possible uses of a depleted site are numerous and depend
upon site characteristics and community needs.
15. "Friendship Park has Potential to become Recreation Mecca on Re-
claimed Land," Consol News, 8 (5) 1969.
This reclaimed site in Jefferson County, Ohio is a planned
recreational development and is described here.
16. "Reclamation Creates a New Resource," Coal Age, 74 (12), 1969.
Reclamation efforts of the Ohio Power Company has created
recreation land for fishing, camping, picnicking, and hunting.
17. McNay, L.M., Surface Mine Reclamation, Moraine State Park, Penn-
syI van ia, U.S. Bureau of Mines, 19707
177 acres of mined land were reclaimed to specific recre-
ational land uses. Landscaping procedures and costs are described.
18. "Trauax-Traer Mines by Master Land-Use Plan," Consol News, 9 (5),
1970.
A mine plan is presented which includes a golf course and
other recreational uses in the final reclamation plan.
19. Brunei", C.C., "Fishery Management in Strip Mine Lakes," First Re-
search and Applied Technology Symposium on Mined Land Reclamation
Preprints, 1973.
Ten strip mine lakes in Kansas and six in Indiana demonstrated
that strip mine lakes can support good quality sport fishery. Physi-
cal parameters and stocking guidelines are suggested.
20. Fowler, O.K. and C.H. Perry, "Three Years Development of a Public Use
Wildlife Area on a Mountain Coal Surface Mine in Southwest Virginia,"
First Research and Applied Technology Symposium on Mined Land Recla-
mation Preprints, 1973.
The development of the Hagy Wildlife Management Area in south-
western Virginia is described. Cooperative agreements among public
and private organizations established the area to demonstrate that
surface mined land could be incorporated into this recreational/
wildlife area. Cooperative agreements among the Penn Virginia Coi—
poration (landowner), Virginia Division of Mined Land Reclamation,
Virginia Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries, and the TVA are
exami ned in detaiI.
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21. Proceedings Digest; Mid-Atlantic Regional Conference on Surface
Mined Land for Outdoor Recreation, Pennsylvania State University,
December 12-14-1973.
Discussion center on the needs and factors involved in con-
verting mined lands into recreation areas.
22. Proceedings, Regional Conference on Surface Mined Land for Outdoor
Recreation, Kent State University, May 22, 1973.
Papers discuss reclamation planning for recreational purposes
in the surface mining industry.
23. Zande, R.D., "Friendship Park - One Use of Reclaimed Strip Mined
Land," First Research and Applied Technology Symposium on Mined Land
Reclamation Preprints, 1973.
Plans to transform 1,100 acres of strip mined land in Jeffer-
son County, Ohio into park lands are reveiwed. Plans calI for a
lake, for fishing and boating, an airport, picnic areas, and hiking
trails.
24. Krause, R.R., "Industry's Role in Reclamation for Recreation,"
National Conference, Surface Mined Land for Outdoor Recreation, May
14, 1973.
The potential and use of strip mined lands for recreation are
discussed. The case study of Friendship Park in Ohio is cited.
25. Preplanning; Surface Mining for Outdoor Recreation, U.S.D.I. Bureau
of Outdoor Recreation, 1974.
The specific example of Friendship Park in Jefferson County,
Ohio is studied. Factors considered in this analysis of this 1,100
acre site are public land, industrial development, economic develop-
ment, recreational use, and the value of preplanning.
26. Sources of Assistance in Reclaiming Surface Mined Lands for Outdoor
Recreation, U.S.D.I. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, (n.d.).
This report described the functions of 27 government agencies
which can provide assistance in reclaiming land. Existing mined land
reclamation regulations and programs are also discussed.
27. Maneval, D.R., "Reclaiming Land for Recreational Development, Part
I," Coal Mining and Processing, 12 (4), 1975.
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Cost advantages of reclaiming mined land for recreation are
described. Other factors considered are access, availability of
utilities, and potential for water recreation. Government agencies
which can provide technicial and financial assistance are noted.
28. Maneval, D.R., "Recreational Development on Reclaimed Land, Part II,"
Coal Mining and Processing, 12 (6), 1975.
Several reclamation projects in Pennsylvania are described in
which recreation facilities were developed.
29. "Transform this Surface Mined Land into this Recreation Mecca,"
Consol News, April-May, 1975.
The article describes Friendship Park, Jefferson County, Ohio
which was created from mined land.
30. Andreuzzi, F.C., Reclaiming Strip Mined Land for Recreational Use in
Lackawanna County, PA. - A Demonstration Project, U.S. Bureau of
Mines, 1976.
This reclaimed park's facilities include picnic grounds, play
areas, camping grounds, and winter sports area. The "Anthracite
Museum" is also a major attraction.
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AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY:
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF MINE LANDS IN APPALACHIA
A myriad of public programs are available as funding mechanisms
for economic development projects. The Appalachian Regional Commission
has utilized many of these programs, which will be useful for land use
development in mine lands areas.
In the descriptions that follow, programs have been divided into
three categories:
Economic and community development
Environment, conservation, and natural resources
Transportation
Descriptions have been excerpted from the Catalog of Federal Domestic
Assistance. Numbers designated for each program refer to its number in
the catalog.
Economic and Community Development
Appalachian Regional Commission
23.002 Appalachian Supplements to Federal Grant-in-Aid
Objective is to meet the basic needs of local areas and assist in
providing community development opportunities by funding such
development facilities as water and sewer systems, sewage treat-
ment plants, recreation centers, Industrial sites, and other
community development facilities. Grants may supplement other
federal grants or, when sufficient funds are unavailable, funds
may be provided entirely by this program.
The grants may be used for providing supplemental funds under any
federal grant-In-ald programs authorized on or before December 31,
1978. To be eligible for special basic grants, projects must be
of high priority In the state's Appalachian Development Plan and
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either of critical importance to a phased investment and develop-
ment program for a multi-county area, or of unusual economic bene-
fit to such area. This program is considered suitable for joint
funding with closely related federal financial assistance programs
in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
23.005 Appalachian Housing Assistance
Objective is to stimulate low and moderate income housing con-
struction and rehabilitation, and to assist in developing site and
off-site improvements for low and moderate income housing in the
Appalachian region.
Project planning loans may be used for costs of planning federal
(HUD and FmHA) and/or state low and moderate income housing proj-
ects and obtaining project funding. Included may be preliminary
site engineering and architectural fees, consultant fees, site
options, federal and/or state agency fees, and construction loan
fees and discounts. Site Development and Off-Site Improvement
Grants may be used only for reasonable site development costs and
necessary off-site improvement costs when used in conjunction with
federal (HUD and FmHA) and/or state low and moderate income hous-
ing programs. The grants must be essential to the economic feasi-
bility of housing constructed or rehabilitated for low and moder-
ate income families and individuals. The ARC may provide, or con-
tract to provide, technical assistance for constructions, rehabil-
itation, and operation of low and moderate income housing.
23.011 Appalachian Demonstration Projects
Objective is to expand knowledge of the region to the fullest
extent possible by means of state-sponsored research (including
investigations, studies, and demonstration projects) in order to
assist the ARC in accomplishing its objectives.
Funds may be used to research and demonstrate the feasibility of
plans and programs for concerted economic and social development.
Priority will be given to research of region-wide significance and
application. States can carry out investigations, research,
studies, evaluations, and assessments of needs, potentials, or
attainments; and technical assistance, training programs, demon-
strations, and the construction of necessary facilities incident
to such activities. Demonstration programs include rural trans-
portation, Indigenous arts and crafts, timber development, junk
car and solid waste disposal, and energy-related enterprise
i-39
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development. All developments resulting from such research and
demonstration projects must be made freely available to the
general public. Existing research by other agencies is to be
utilized as much as possible. This program is considered suitable
for joint funding with closely related federal financial assis-
tance programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular
A-111.
Economic Development Administration
11.300 Grants and Loans for Public Works and Development Facilities
Objective is to assist in the construction of public facilities
needed to initiate and encourage long-term economic growth in
designated geographic areas where economic growth is lagging
behind the rest of the nation.
Grants are provided for such public facilities as water and sewer
systems, access roads to industrial parks, port facilities, rail-
road sidings and spurs, public tourism facilities, vocational
schools, and site improvements for industrial parks. Qualified
projects must fulfill a pressing need of the area and must:
1) tend to improve the opportunities for the successful establish-
ment or expansion of industrial or commercial plants or facili-
ties; 2) assist in the creation of additional long-term employment
opportunities; or 3) benefit the long-term unemployed and members
of low income families or otherwise substantially further the
objectives of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. In addition,
proposed projects must be consistent with the currently approved
overall economic development program for the area in which it will
be located. This program is considered suitable for joint funding
with closely related federal financial assistance programs in
accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
11.307 Special Economic Adjustment Grants
Objective is to assist state and local areas in the development
and Implementation of strategies designed to arrest and reverse
the problems associated with long-term economic deterioration.
Grants may be made to develop a strategy for the arrest and
reversal of long-term economic decline or for any of the follow-
ing activities to carry out such a plan: publ ic facil ities,
public services, business development, technical assistance,
B-40
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training, and revolving loan funds. No grant may be made to a
private profit-making entity, but loans may be made to such
entities.
Department of Housing and Urban Development
14.155 Mortgage Insurance
Objective is to provide mortgage insurance for the purchase or
refinancing of existing multi-family housing projects, whether
conventionally financed or subject to federally insured mortgages
at the time of application for mortgage insurance.
HUD insures lenders against losses on mortgage loans. Insured
mortgages may be used to finance the purchase of or the refinance
of existing multi-family housing projects. As a matter of policy,
only rental housing projects now requiring substantial rehabilita-
tion are acceptable under this program; however, minimal repairs
may be included up to 15 percent of the mortgage amount.
14.156 Housing Assistance
Objective is to aid lower income families in obtaining decent,
safe, and sanitary housing in private accommodations and to pro-
mote economically mixed existing, newly constructed, and substan-
tially rehabilitated housing.
Provides housing assistance payments to participating private
owners and public housing agencies to provide decent, safe, and
sanitary housing for lower and very low income families at rents
they can afford. Housing assistance payments are used to make up
the difference between the maximum approved rent due to the owner
for the dwelling unit which is reasonable in relation to compar-
able market units and the occupant family's required contribution
toward rent. Assisted families are required to contribute not
less than 15 percent, nor more than 25 percent, of their adjusted
family income toward rent.
14.218 Community Development Grants/Entitlement Grants
Objective is to develop viable urban communities, including two
decent housing, and a suitable living environment, and expand
economic opportunities, principally for persons of low and mod-
erate income.
B-41
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Cities may use funding to undertake a wide range of activities
directed toward neighborhood revitalization, economic development,
and provision of improved community facilities and services. Some
of the specific activities that can be carried out with block
grant funds include acquisition of real property, relocation and
demolition, rehabilitation and provision of public facilities and
improvements, such as water and sewer facilities, streets, and
neighborhood centers. In addition, block grant funds are avail-
able to pay for certain public services which are necessary and
appropriate to support other block grant activities. Units of
local government may contract with other local agencies or non-
profit organizations to carry out part or all of their programs.
Generally, communities are restricted from constructing or reha-
bilitating public facilities for the general conduct of government
and certain community-wide facilities (i.e., stadiums, sports
arenas, cultural centers, central libraries, convention centers),
and from underwriting the cost of constructing new housing, or of
making housing allowance - or other income maintenance-type pay-
ments. Neighborhood-based non-profit organizations, local devel-
opment corporations, or small business investment companies may
act as subgrantees to carry out neighborhood revital ization or
community of block grant objectives. Cities have the discretion
to design programs and establish priorities for the use of funds,
so long as the programs conform to the statutory standards and
program regulations. All projects or activities must either
principally benefit low and moderate income persons, aid in the
prevention or elimination of slums and blight, or meet other
community development needs having a particular urgency.
14.219 Community Development Grants/SmalI Cities Program
Objective is to assist communities in providing decent housing and
a suitable living environment, and expanded economic opportuni-
ties, principally for persons of low and moderate income.
Generally, grants may be used for the acquisition, rehabilitation,
or construction of certain public works facilities and improve-
ments, clearance, housing rehabilitation, code enforcement, relo-
cation payments and assistance, administrative expenses, economic
development, and completing existing urban renewal projects. Com-
munities are restricted from constructing or rehabilitating public
facilities for the general conduct of government and certain com-
munity-wide facilities (i.e., central libraries, stadiums, sports
arenas, cultural centers, convention centers), and from underwrit-
ing the cost of constructing new housing or of making housing
allowance or other income maintenance-type payments. This program
B-42
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is considered suitable for joint funding with closely related
federal financial assistance programs in accordance with provi-
sions of OMB Circular A-111.
Farmers' Home Administration
10.411 Rural Housing Site Loans
Objective is to assist public or private non-profit organizations
interested in providing sites for housing, to acquire and develop
land in rural areas to be subdivided as adequate building sites
and sold on a non-profit basis to families eligible for low and
moderate Income loans, and broadly based non-profit rural renting
hous ing appl icants.
Loans may be used for the purchase and development of adequate
sites, including necessary equipment which becomes a permanent
part of the development; for water and sewer facilities if not
available; payment of necessary engineering, legal fees, and
closing costs; for needed landscaping and other necessary facil-
ities related to buildings such as walks, parking areas, and
driveways. Loans are limited to $100,000 without national office
approval. Funds may not be used for refinancing of debts; payment
of any fee or commission to any broker, negotiator, or other
person for the referral of a prospective applicant or solicitation
of a loan; or to pay operating costs or expenses of administration
other than actual cash cost of incidental administrative expenses
if funds to pay those expenses are not otherwise available.
10.415 Rural Rental Housing Loans
Objective is to provide economically designed and constructed
rental and cooperative housing and related facilities suited for
independent living of rural residents.
Loans can be used to construct, purchase, improve, and repair
rental or cooperative housing. Housing as a general rule will
consist of multi-family units with two or more family units and
any appropirately related facilities. Funds may also be used to
provide recreational and service facilities appropriate for use in
connection with the housing and to buy and improve the land on
which the buildings are to be located. Loans may not be made for
nursing, special care, or institutional-type homes.
-43
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10.418 Water and Waste Disposal Systems
Loans and Grants
Objective is to provide basic human amenities, alleviate health
hazards, and promote the orderly growth of rural areas of the
nation by meeting the need for new and improved rural water and
waste disposal facilities.
Funds may be used for the installation, repair, improvement, or
expansion of a rural water facility including distribution lines,
wells, pumping facilities, and costs related thereto. The instal-
lation, repair, improvement, or expansion of a rural waste dis-
posal facility includes the collection and treatment of sanitary,
storm, and solid wastes. This program is considered suitable for
joint funding with closely related federal financial assistance
programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
10.422 Business and Industrial Loans
Objective is to assist public, private, or cooperative organiza-
tions organized for profit or non-profit, Indian tribes and indi-
viduals in rural areas to obtain quality loans for the purpose of
improving, developing or financing business, industry and employ-
ment; and improving the economic and environmental climate In
rural communities including pollution abatement and control, and
the conservation, development and utilization of water for aqua-
culture purposes.
Financial assistance is provided by the FmHA or in joint financing
with other federal, state, private, and quasipublic financial in-
stitutions for improving, developing, or financing business,
industry and employment; and improving the economic and environ-
mental conditions In rural areas. No financial assistance can be
extended: 1) except for loans of under $1 million or where direct
employment is 50 or less where it is calculated to or is likely to
result in the transfer from one area to another of any employment
or business activity provided by operations of the applicant; 2)
except for loans of under $1 million or where direct employment is
50 or less where it is calculated to or likely to result in an
increase in the production of goods, materials, commodities, or
the availability of services or facilities in an area when there
is not sufficient demand for such goods, materials, commodities,
services, or facilities, to employ the efficient capacity of
existing competitive commercial or industrial enterprises; 3)
where the Secretary of Labor certified within 30 days after the
matter has been submitted to him by the Secretary of Agriculture
B-44
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that the items In "1" and "2" above have not been complied with;
4) to pay off a creditor in excess of the value of the collateral;
5) for distribution or payment to the owner, partners, sharehold-
ers, or beneficiaries of the applicant or members of their fami-
lies when such persons shall retain any portion of their equity in
the business; 6) projects for production of agricultural products;
&) for transfer of ownership of a business unless the loan will
keep the business from closing, or prevent the loss of employment
opportunities in the area, or provide expanded job opportunities;
8) for the guarantee of lease payments; and 9) for guarantee of
loans may be banks for Co-ops, Federal Land Bank or Product Credit
Associations. Not more than 90 percent of the loss on principal
advanced and accrued interest and principal and accrued interest
on secured protective advances may be guaranteed to the lender.
An insured loan may be made when the applicant and FmHA agree that
a guaranteed lender is not available, if not otherwise restricted.
10.423 Community Facility Loans
Objective is to construct, enlarge, extend, or otherwise improve
community facilities providing essential services to rural resi-
dents.
Loans may be made for community facilities including, but not
limited to, those providing or supporting overall community devel
opment such as fire and rescue services; transportation; traffic
control; community, social, cultural, health and recreational
benefits; industrial park sites; access ways; and utility exten-
sions. All facilities financed in whole or in part with FmHA
funds shall be for public use.
10.424 Industrial Development Grants
Objective is to facilitate the development of business, industry,
and related employment for improving the economy in rural communi-
ties.
Grant funds may be used to finance industrial sites in rural areas
including the acquisition and development of land and the con-
struction, conversion, enlargement, repair, or modernization of
buildings, plants, machinery, equipment, access streets and roads,
parking areas, transportation serving the site, utility exten-
sions, necessary water supply and waste disposal facilities, pol-
lution control and abatement incidental to site development, fees,
and refinancing. This program is considered suitable for joint
B-45
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funding with closely related federal financial assistance programs
in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
10.430 Energy Impacted Area Development Assistance Program
Objective is to help areas Impacted by coal or uranium development
activities by providing assistance for the development of growth
management and housing plans and in developing and acquiring sites
for housing and public facilities and services.
Grant funds may be used for the preparation of growth management
and/or housing plans and up to 75 percent of the actual cost of
developing or acquiring sites for public facilities, housing or
services for which other resources are otherwise not available in
an approved designated area. Projects funded by this program
should be coordinated with other planning activities for the araa.
This program is considered suitable for joint funding with closely
related federal financial assistance programs in accordance with
the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
Environment, Conservation, and Natural Resources
Appalachian Regional Commission
23.010 Appalachian Mine Area Restoration
Objective is to further the economic development of the region by
rehabilitating areas presently damaged by deleterious mining prac-
tices and by controlling or abating mine drainage pollution, and
to meet the objectives stated of the ARC.
Grants may be used to seal and fill voids in abandoned coal mines
and abandoned oil and gas wells; reclaim, and rehabilitate lands
affected by strip and surface mining and by processing of coal and
other minerals including land affected by waste piles; and control
or abate mine drainage pollution and planning and engineering for
above. Activities to reclaim strip-mined areas are limited to
lands owned by federal, state, or local bodies of government or by
private non-profit entities organized under state law to be used
for public recreation, conservation, community facilities for
public housing, otherwise meeting the restrictions of the ARC. In
addition to actual construction costs, grants may be awarded sep-
arately for planning and engineering of potential mining area
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restoration projects. This program is considered suitable for
joint funding with closely related federal financial assistance
programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111
Environmental Protection Agency
66.418 Construction Grants for Wastewater Treatment Works
Objective is to assist and serve as an incentive in construction
of municipal sewage treatment works which are required to meet
state and federal water quality standards.
Grants can be used for construction of municipal wastewater treat-
ment works including privately owned individual treatment systems,
if a municipality applies on behalf of a number of such systems.
Such works may serve all or portions of individual communities,
metropolitan areas or regions. A project may include, but may not
be limited to, treatment of any industrial wastes which would
otherwise be detrimental to efficient operation and maintenance,
or grantee must prevent the entry of such waste into the treatment
plant. The grantee must initiate an acceptable system of user
charges, and in addition, recover from industry capital costs
associated with the treatment of industrial wastes. This program
is considered suitable for joint funding with closely related
federal financial assistance programs in accordance with the
provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
66.451 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Program Support Grants
Objective is to assist state, interstate, regional, county, muni-
cipal, and intermunicipal agencies, authorities, and organizations
in the development and implementation of state and local programs
and to support rural and special communities in programs and proj-
ects leading to the solution of solid waste management problems
and the control of solid waste management systems.
Funds may be used for the development and implementation of auth-
orized state hazardous waste programs. Funds may also be used for
the development and implementation of state solid waste management
plans, and for the implementation of programs to provide solid
waste management, resource recovery and resource conservation ser-
vices, and hazardous waste management. Such assistance includes
facility planning and feasibility studies, expert consultation,
surveys and analyses of market needs, marketing of recovered
resources, technology assessment, legal expenses, construction
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feasibility studies, source separation projects, and fiscal or
economic investigations or studies. Such assistance does not in-
clude any other element of construction, or any aquisition of land
or interest in land, or any subsidy for the price of recovered
resources. Funds may be used by special communities for conver-
sion, improvement, or consolidation of existing solid waste dis-
posal facilities, or for construction of new solid waste disposal
faciI ities. Ass istance is a I so avai I abIe to mun icipal ities with
low populations for closing or upgrading of existing open dumps,
or meeting requirements or restrictions on open burning or other
requirements arising under the Clean Air Act or the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act. This program is considered suitable for
joint funding with closely related federal financial assistance
programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
Farmers' Home Administration
10.414 Resource Conservation and Development Loans
Objective is to provide loan assistance to local sponsoring
agencies in authorized areas where acceleration of program of
resource conservation, development, and utilization will increase
economic opportunities for local people.
Loan funds may be used for: 1) rural community public outdoor-
oriented water based recreational facilities; 2) soil and water
development, conservation, control, and use facilities; 3) shift-
in- I and use facilities; 4) community water storage facilities; and
5) special purpose equipment to carry out the above purposes.
Project must be located in an authorized RC&D area. A loan for a
single RC&D measure cannot exceed $500,000.
10.419 Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Loans
Objective is to provide loan assistance to sponsoring local
organizations in authorized watershed areas for share of cost for
works of improvement.
Loan funds may be used to help local sponsors provide the local
share of the cost of watershed works of improvement for flood
prevention, irrigation, drainage, water quality management, sedi-
mentation control, fish and wildlife development, public water
based recreation, and water storage and related costs. The total
amount of WS loans outstanding in any one watershed cannot exceed
$10,000,000.
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Soil Conservation Service
10.901 Resource Conservation and Development
Objective is to assist local people in initiating and carrying out
long range program of resource conservation and development for
purposes of achieving a dynamic rural community with satisfactory
level of income and pleasing environment, and creating a favorable
investment climate attractive to private capital.
Technical and financial assistance is available only for RC&D
areas authorized for assistance. Technical and financial assis-
tance is available for the planning and installation of approved
measures specified in RC&D area plan serving purposes such as
floor prevention, sedimentation and erosion control, public water
based recreation, fish and wildlife developments, agricultural
water management purposes, water quality management, and the con-
trol and abatement of agriculture-related pollution.
10.902 Soil and Water Conservation
Objective is to plan and carry out a national soil and water
conservation program, and to provide leadership in conservation,
development, and productive use of the nation's soil, water, and
related sources.
Technical assistance is provided to individuals and groups In
planning and applying soil and water conservation practices, and
furnishing technical soil and water conservation Information to
units of government.
10.904 Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention
Objective is to provide technical and financial assistance in
planning and carrying out works of improvement to protect,
develop, and utilize the land and water resources in small
watersheds.
Assistance is provided In planning, designing, and installing
watershed works of improvement; in sharing costs of flood pre-
vention, irrigation, drainage, sedimentation control, and public
water based fish and wildlife and recreation; and in extending
long-term credit to help local interests with their share of the
costs. Watershed area must not exceed 250,000 acres. Capacity of
a single structure Is limited to 25,000 acre-feet of total capa-
city and 12,500 acre-feet of floodwater detention capacity.
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10.910 Rural Abandoned Mine Program
Objective is to protect people and the environment from the ad-
verse affects of past coal mining practices and to promote the
development of soil and water resources of unreclaimed mined
Iands.
Cost share funds are available only for conservation practices
determined to be needed for the reclamation, conservation, and
development of up to 370 acres per owner of rural abandoned coal
mine land or lands and waters affected by coal mining activities.
Practices must be applied in accordance with a reclamation plan
and contract provisions. Practices are limited to those which
will provide land stabilization, erosion and sediment control, and
development of soil, water (excluding stream channelization),
woodland, wildlife, recreation resources, and the agricultural
productivity of such lands.
Corps of Engineers
12.107 Navigation Projects
Objective is to provide the most practicable and economic means of
fulfilling the needs of general navigation through projects not
specifically authorized by Congress.
Corps of Engineers designs and constructs the project. Each proj-
ect selected must be engineer ing Iy feasible, complete within it-
self, and economically justified. The non-federal sponsoring
agency must agree to assume full responsibility for all project
costs in excess of the federal cost limit of $2,000,000; contri-
bute toward project costs for construction and maintenance in view
of recreational benefits, land enhancement benefits and other spe-
cial benefits; provide all necessary lands, easements, rights-of-
way; hold and save the United States free from damages; and pro-
vide adequate public landing or wharf piers, access roads, parting
areas, and other needed public facilities open and available to
all on equal terms. Local cost participation requirements and
procedures for determining the local share of project cost are
similar to those for navigation projects specifically authorized
by Congress under regular authorization procedures.
12.106 Flood Control Projects
Objective Is to reduce flood damages through projects not specif-
ically authorized by Congress.
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Corps of Engineers designs and constructs the project. Each proj-
ect selected must be engineering Iy feasible, complete within it-
self, and economically justified. Non-federal sponsoring agency
must be responsible for alI lands and damages, and project costs
in excess of the federal cost limit of $2,000,000 or $3,000,000 if
project is located in an area that has been declared a disaster
area in a period of five years prior to its authorization; provide
a cash contribution for land enhancement benefits and for project
costs assigned to project features other than flood control; pre-
vent future encroachment which might interfere with proper func-
tioning of the project for flood control; and maintain the project
after completion. Local cost participation requirements and pro-
cedures for determining the local share of project cost are simi-
lar to those for flood control projects specifically authorized by
Congress under regular authorization procedures.
12.110 Planning Assistance to States
Objective is to cooperate with any state in the preparation of
comprehensive plans for drainage basins located within the boun-
daries of such state.
The state must have a planning program for the development, util-
ization, or conservation of the water and related land resources
underway or laid out in sufficient detail so that the relationship
of a state's request for Corps' input for some particular aspect
of the program may be appraised. All input from the Corps is to
be on an effort or service sharing basis in lieu of an outright
grant basis. The program is limited to $14,000,000 annually
except that no more than $200,000 shalI be expended in any one
year in any one state.
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation
15.400 Outdoor Recreation - Acquisition, Development, and Planning
Objective is to provide financial assistance to the states and
their political subdivisions for the preparation of comprehensive
statewide outdoor recreation plans and acquisition and development
of outdoor recreation areas and facilities for the general public
to meet current and future needs.
Acquisition and development grants may be used for a wide range of
outdoor recreation projects, such as picnic areas, inner city
parks, campgrounds, tennis courts, boat launching ramps, bike
trails, outdoor swimming pools, and support facilities such as
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roads, water supply, etc. Facilities must be open to the general
public and not limited to special groups. Development of basic
rather than elaborate facilities is favored. Priority considera-
tion generally is given to projects serving urban populations.
Fund monies are not available for the operation and maintenance of
facilities. Grants are also available to states only for revising
and updating existing state outdoor recreation plans, preparation
of new plans, and for statewide surveys, technical studies, data
collection and analysis, and other planning purposes which are
clearly related to the refinement and improvement of the state
outdoor recreation plan. This program is considered suitable for
joint funding with closely related federal financial assistance
programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
Transportation
Appalachian Regional Commission
23.008 Appalachian Local Access Roads
Objective is to provide access to industrial, commercial, educa-
tional, recreational, residential, and related transportation
facilities which directly or indirectly relate to the improvement
of the areas determined by the states to have significant devel-
opment potential, and to meet the objectives of the ARC.
Grants may be used for engineering, right-of-way, relocation, and
construction of projects relating to the objectives stated above,
and those identified in the State Appalachian Development Plan as
submitted to, and accepted by the Commission. Total access road
construction may not exceed 1,400 miles and the roads must be
accepted by the Federal Highway Administration and the state. The
state is responsible to see that they are properly maintained.
This program is considered suitable for joint funding with closely
related federal financial assistance programs in accordance with
the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
Federal Highway Administration
20.205 Highway Research, Planning, and Construction
Objective is to assist state highway agencies in constructing and
rehabilitating the interstate highway system, and building or im-
proving primary, secondary, and urban systems roads and streets;
to provide aid for their repair following disasters; to faster
safe highway design; and to replace or rehabilitate unsafe
br idges.
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Funds may be used for planning, surveying, research, engineering,
right-of-way acquisition, new construction, reconstruction, re-
pair, improvement, restoration, rehabilitation, resurfacing, road-
side beautification, and recreation. Funds may be applied to
highways, bridges, bikeways, pedestrian walkways, fringe and coor-
idor parking facilities, and rest areas. All capital projects in
urban areas of more than 50,000 population must be based on a con-
tinuing comprehensive planning process. These funds cannot par-
ticipate in any maintenance activities. Some county and local
roads and streets may be part of a federal-aid system and are eli-
gible for improvement, but only through state highway agency coor-
dination and action. Selected interstate and non-interstate auth-
orizations may be used for mass transit capital improvements at
the request of state and local governments. Special programs for
highway safety, bridge reconstruction, and railroad grade crossing
protection are also available for roads both on and off federal-
aid systems. This program is eligible for joint funding, but the
initiative lies with the state highway agency. The state highway
agency is responsible for reviewing and rejecting or approving on
a final basis specific state projects. This program is considered
suitable for joint funding with closely related federal financial
assistance programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB
Circular A-111 .
Urban Mass Transit Administration
20.500 Urban Mass Transportation Capital Improvement Grants
Objective is to assist in financing the acquisition, construction,
and improvement of facilities and equipment for use, by operation,
lease, or otherwise, in mass transportation service in urban areas
and in coordinating service with highway and other transportation
in such areas.
Grants can be applied to facilities and equipment including land,
buses, other rolling stock, and other real and personal property
needed for an efficient and coordinated mass transportation sys-
tem. Ordinary governmental or project operating expenses are ex-
cluded. Adequate public notice must be given of intent; social
and economic impact on environment must be considered; and project
must be consistent with official plans for comprehensive develop-
ment of urban areas. This program is considered suitable for
joint funding with closely related federal financial assistance
programs in accordance with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
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20.501 Urban Mass Transit Capital Improvement Loans
Objective is to finance the acquisition, construction, reconstruc-
tion, and improvement of facilities and equipment for use, by op-
eration, lease, or otherwise, in mass transportation service in
urban areas.
Loans require adequate public notice be given of intent; social
and economic impact on environment must be considered; and project
must be consistent with official plans for comprehensive develop-
ment of the urban area. Maturity dates of loans shall not exceed
40 years. Interest rate is determined by the U.S. Treasury in
accordance with policy at time of approval.
Federal Aviation Administration
20.102 Airport Development Aid Program
Objective is to assist public agencies In the development of a
nationwide system of public airports adequate to meet the needs of
civil aeronautics.
Grants can be made for constructing, improving, or repairing a
public airport or portion thereof consisting of: 1) land acquisi-
tion; 2) site preparation; 3) construction, alteration, and re-
pair of runways, taxiways, aprons, and roads within installation
of lighting utilities, navigational aids, and certain off-site
work; 5) safety equipment required for certification of airport
facility; 6) security equipment required of the sponsor by the
Secretary of Transportation by rule or regulation for the safety
and security of persons or property on the airport; 7) snow re-
moval equipment; 8) noise suppressing equipment, construction of
physical barriers, landscaping and land acquisition for noise
compatibility; and 9) terminal development. Grants may not be
made for the construction of hangers, parking areas for automo-
biles, or for buildings not related to the safety of persons on
the airport. Technical advisory services are also provided.
Appalachian Regional Development
The objective of the ARC mandate is to stimulate substantial pub-
I ic investments in public facilities that will start the region on its way
toward accelerated social and economic development; to help establish a
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set of insitutions in Appalachia capable of permanently directing the
long-term development of the region; and on a joint federal/state/local
basis, to develop comprehsensive plans and programs to help accomplish the
overall objectives of Appalachian development, including meeting the spe-
cial demands created by the nation's energy needs and policies.
Appalachian funds enable the states and local areas to develop
networks of facilities and services. The individual programs following
this description illustrate the types of investments that can be made. In
considering programs and projects to be given assistance under this Act,
and in establishing a priority ranking of the requests for assistance pre-
sented to the Commission, the Commission follows procedures insuring con-
sideration of the following factors: 1) the relationship of the project
or class of projects to overall regional development, including its loca-
tion in an area determined by the state as having a significant potential
for growth; 2) the population and area to be served by the project or
class of projects including the relative per capita income and the unem-
ployment rates in the area; 3) the relative financial resources available
to the state or political subdivision or Instrumentalities thereof which
seek to undertake the project; 4) the importance of the project or class
of projects in relation to other projects or classes of projects which may
be in competition for the same funds; 5) the prospects that the project
for which assistance is sought will improve, on a continuing rather than a
temporary basis, the opportunities for employment, the average level of
income, or the economic and social development of the area served by the
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project; and 6) no financial assistance can be used (a) to assist estab-
I ishments relocating from one area to another; (b) to finance the cost of
industrial plants, commercial facilities, machinery, working capital, or
other industrial facilities or to enable plant subcontractors to undertake
work theretofore performed in another area by other subcontractors or con-
tractors; (c) to finance the cost of facilities for the generation, trans-
mission, or distribution of electric energy; or (d) to finance the cost of
facilities for the production, transmission, or distribution of gas (nat-
ural, manufactured, or mixed). (Note: restriction (b), (c), and (d) on
financial assistance may be waived for energy enterprise development and
indigenous arts and craft projects). Each state is required by the Com-
mission to file a state Appalachian development plan annually, appraising
prospects for development in its Appalachian area and relating to them all
projects for which Appalachian funding is requested in that year. All
projects proposed for funding must be included in an annual Implementing
Investment Program. Once an application is submitted for the individual
projects and given final approval, the grant is administered by the basic
federal agency involved in that type of program except for state research,
technicial assistance, and demonstrations; LDD assistance; state housing
technical assistance special transportation related planning, research,
and demonstrations; and energy enterprise development, which are adminis-
tered by ARC.
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Local Development Districts
The objective of this program is to provide planning and develop-
ment resources in multi-county areas; to help develop the technical compe-
tence essential to sound development assistance; and to meet the objec-
tives stated under the program entitled Appalachian Regional Development.
Uses and Use Restrictions: For administrative expenses, including
technical services of certified local development districts; in addition
to the uses and use restrictions detailed in the Appalachian Development
Program, the local development district may not use grant funds for real
estate, vehicles, space improvement, vehicle repair and maintenance,
entertainment, professional dues and generally furniture, equipment and
construction. Funds may be used only in the performance of grantees pro-
gram and in accord with the budget, and amendments thereto, as approved by
the Commission. This program is considered suitable for joint funding
with closely related federal financial assistance programs in accordance
with the provisions of OMB Circular A-111.
The primary planning mechanism of LDD is the Areawide Action Pro-
gram. Simply stated, the areawide action program (AAP) is a process a
local development district (LDD) can use to make decisions and pool re-
sources to attack its problems. The process is long-range and comprehen-
sive. It links development planning to project programming. It describes
the projects and programs that the LDD believes will meet Its needs and
solve its problems, stimulate economic growth within its boundaries and
achieve its strategic objectives. It ranks these projects and programs
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according to both one-year and multi-year priorities. And it lists all of
the possible funding sources for all projects and programs included. It
is the intent that the AAP be accepted by as many funding sources as pos-
sible as the answer to their funding requirements.
The process is designed to develop a single method for planning,
setting priorities for projects and programming funds. An AAP should
combine into one document the requirements (reports, statistics, project
priorities, etc.) set by a number of different funding agencies for the
review of projects or programs for funding. This combined approach avoids
dupl ication of effort because the one document can meet the requirements
of different funding sources. Furthermore, it will assist in informing
the private sector of funding priorities, ensure the greatest return pos-
sible on public money expended and show how projects and programs are con-
sidered in relationship to one another; it should make joint funding of
projects by several different agencies easier.
The key work in this description of the AAP is process. Process
has two parts - planning and programming. The planning part of the pro-
cess involves an analysis of the major issues, needs, problems, assets and
resources of an area and the definition of development policies, strate-
gies and major priorities designed to improve the area. The programming
part of the process involves the preparation of both one-year and multi-
year funding schedules for projects and activities of areawide signifi-
cance. The planning phase identifies the pieces of an economic develop-
ment program; the programming phase ties the pieces together by slating
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them for implementation with local, state, Appalachian Regional commission
(ARC) and federal funds.
In addition to being a process, however, the AAP is also a docu-
ment - a document that flows from the organization of a consolidated de-
velopment investment program and is designed to meet the planning, pri-
ority-setting and other funding requirements of many funding agencies.
This is possible because the pieces required in planning and programming
process are relatively stable and common to the needs of many agencies; a
document that includes them can satisfy funding requirements of a variety
of agencies and programs. For some programs, additional documentation may
be necessary, but the heart of the document need not be changed. (Note:
Because this is a new effort at coordinating and consolidating the common
areawide planning requirements and priorities of a number of agencies,
many questions have arisen about the specific needs of these various agen-
cies. At this time they have not all been answered, but the results of
initial negotiations with the Economic Development Administration, Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban development and Rural Development Service may be found
in Appendix A.)
The areawide action program, then, may be simply diagrammed as
follows:
An areawide action program should Include these elements:
1) Analysis of the problems, needs, issues and potentials
of the district making use of existing plans and
programs affecting the district
2) Identification of growth areas and any related
development opportunities
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3) Establishment of the district's goals, objectives,
policies, strategies and priorities for development
4) Setting the district's project and program priorities,
including a one-year and multi-year schedule of fund-
ing by various agencies and a listing of other com-
mitments necessary to implement these projects and
programs
5) Participation by representatives of local governments
and agencies, the private sector and local citizens
6) Preparation of a document (and supplementary material
when necessary).
Putting these elements together and making the program operate
effectively is not an easy task. Although a suggested approach will be
detailed later, a general summary of the steps and terminology may be
useful now as a way of removing some of its mystery.
The process and document resulting from these steps is meant to
identify those public expenditures necessary for attracting and retaining
economic development. As such, the AAP could become the single most im-
portant method an LDD has available to influence the allocation and ex-
penditure of funds through local, state, ARC and federal programs. Effec-
tive planning and programming always increases the chances for implementa-
tion, and these procedures are heavily emphasized in the AAP.
The LDDs provide the means through which local governments working
together can participate in the Appalachian program. Over the twelve-year
history of ARC, the LDDs have been involved in a number of ways, including
the development of program and project priorities, but Congress has man-
dated that they be further involved in the Appalachian development process
and in coordinating areawide programs and projects. This is one of the
primary reasons for devising the AAP.
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The intent of this new planning and development approach is to
build upon the major features of the existing Appalachian Development Pro-
gram, to give added emphasis to the role of the LDDs and to coordinate
state agencies, federal departments and other funding sources providing
financial assistance to programs or projects in the Region. Some addi-
tional features are:
The need, because of the multiple functional programs
being carried out by LDDs, to eliminate duplication of
effort by concentrating LDD efforts on a single consoli-
dated process that will meet the planning and program
requirements of local, state, ARC and federal funding
agencies;
The need to provide a method for efficient interagency
coordination and funding of projects and programs;
The need to help in the realization of state and nation-
al policies and priorities at the areawide and local
level;
The need to relate areawide comprehensive planning to
action programming (investments) to achieve development
objectives;
The need for a common planning policy basis for A-95
reviews; and
. The need to provide a basis for improving the monitor-
ing management and evaluation of local and areawide pro-
grams and projects by the Appalachian states.
The investment decisions made at the local level to help ARC
achieve its objectives will be set forth in a district's AAP. A dis-
trict's approach to guiding and controlling the quantity and quality of
development will also be found in its AAP in the form of a set of coordi-
nated, sequentially arranged project and program Investments. This kind
of long-term thinking and planning allows the LDDs and ARC to recognize
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new trends and to alter current trends as well as to solve immediate
problems and needs.
The Appalachian Regional Development Act Amendments of 1975, under
Section 225, stress the importance of local participation in the Commis-
sion's development program and encourage the preparation and execution of
AAPs. This approach recognizes that the LDDs certified by the state under
the Act provide the linkage between state and substate planning and de-
velopment. It also recognizes that states must consult with the districts
and take their goals, objectives and recommendations into consideration in
formulating the state Appalachian development plans. In the past, each
state in the Region has considered the priorities and recommendations of
its LDDs, but the degree of LDD participation in the state development
planning process has varied considerably throughout the Region and still
does today. Now...
"The Commission's development planning process will place
increased emphasis on an areawide development strategy.
While state development plans will continue as the mecha-
nism for governing investment strategy and project selec-
tion, LDD areawide action programs, nevertheless, can pro-
vide an enhanced substate areawide contribution into the
state planning process. An action program can present
development policies and priorities of the area to allow
local leaders a better strategy for the use of local funds
and to present to the state as broad a range of recommenda-
tions as possible for the use of state and federal funds
with areawide significance, as well as for selection of
projects proposed for Appalachian funding." (Senate Report
to accompany S. 1513, July 14, 1975)
The AAP is envisioned as a continuous process through which an up-
dated annual document is produced and adopted by the district board each
year and sent to local, state and federal agencies and the Appalachian
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Regional Commission. The LDDs should develop and approve and AAP with
consultation and input from affected local public and private interests,
including individual citizens. For effective intergovernmental planning
and inplementation, the AAP must also give careful consideration to local
development plans and state Appalachian development plans. While it is up
to the Commission and the states to provide the policy guidance for area-
wide planning and development, the LDDs translate these policies and other
federal program requirements into specific action programs designed to
meet their specific needs, objectives and priorities.
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AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY:
SETTLERS CABIN CASE STUDY
Very little published information exists on the Settlers Cabin
Project. Most information for the case study was derived from interviews
with persons directly involved in the historical evaluation of the
project. A list of the persons contacted, their historical agency
involvement, and their current professional status is presented below.
Contact
Dave Hogeman
Bud Frederick
David Maneval
Joseph Blatt
Tom Stojek
Pat Fl ynn
John Kim
Al Ranjene
Al Victor
Karen Glotfelty
Case Study Agency
PA DER - Mine Area Restoration,
Harrisburg
PA DER - Mine Area Restoration,
Harrisburg
ARC
Allegheny County Parks Department,
Pittsburgh
PA Department of Community
Affairs - Bureau of App. Dev.,
Harrisburg
USBM, Washington, D.C.
Southeast PA Econ. Dev. Dist.,
Pittsburgh
PA DER - Bureau of Design,
Harrisburg
PA DER - Bureau of Operations,
Harrisburg
PA DER - Env. Master Planner,
Harrisburg
Current
Professional
Status
Same
Same
OSM
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
Same
File data from these individuals were also useful for this study. In-
cluded in this file data was correspondence between key actors and inter-
nal memorandums.
Important source documents (unpublished) for this case study
included:
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1. EPA Region III Settlers Cabin Project File
This file includes a proposal (1975) to do a demon-
stration of reclamation and park development at
Settlers Cabin. Supporting documents include: 1) an
annual report of EPA activities in this area; 2) proj-
ect outlines; 3) correspondence between key individu-
als; 4) project application from Pennsylvania DER to
ARC; and 5) on interagency agreement between EPA and
ARC.
2. Pennsylvania DER's Pre-Application for a "Section 205"
Reclamation Grant (1777, most recent)
This document provides background information on
socioeconomics, technical information on the design of
the project, funding arrangements, and other support-
ing documents.
3. "An Intergovernmental Project to Improve Environmental
Qual ity in an Area of Abandoned Mines" by Robert S.
Davis and D. R. Maneval (no date)
This report describes ARC "Section 205" efforts, the
Settlers Cabin Project, a site description, analysis
of site data, and the recommended reclamation plan.
Costs and benefits are estimated.
Two published sources were tapped. Their distribution, however,
is severe!y I im ited :
1. "Aerial Photographic Survey - Mine Drainage Study Area
- Allegheny County, Pennsylvania," by the EPA (July
22, 1975)
This map portfolio presents reference mapping from 7.5
minute USGS quadrangel maps and aerial photographs of
the study area.
2. "Settlers Cabin Park - An Environmental Assessment of
Mine Drainage Pollution," by Ackenhell and Associates
(July 1976)
This report provides a detailed analysis of site con-
ditions and potentials for reclamation for Settlers
Cabin. An environmental impact approach to analyze
the proposed reclamation was utilized.
B-65
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3. "Preliminary Planning Report for West Park, Site No.
6," by Simonds and Simonds for Allegheny County
Department of Regional Parks (1960)
Provides natural resource information for the Settlers
Cabin Site.
B-66
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Report No.
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle
A Land Use Decision Methodology for Mine Lands in Appalachia
5. Report Date
May, 1981
6.
7. Author(s)
Charles Yuill, William T. Gorton, Michael Frakes
8. Performing Organization Rent.
No.
'. Performing Organization Name and Address
Skelly and Loy
2601 North Front Street
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110
10. Pro|ect/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
80-14 CO-7105-79-1
INTER-0711
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
The Appalachian Regional Commission
1666 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20235
13. Type of Report Si Period
Covered
14.
IS. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts
This report summarizes the issues associated with the development of methodology for
determining appropriate land uses for mined lands in Appalachia. The methodology
which has been developed presents a framework which is useful for examining land
use options for previously mined land, currently active mine sites and unmined land
which has a high value or likelihood for future mining.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17o. Descriptors
Surface Mine Reclamation
Mined Land Reclamation
Land Use
Mining Regulations
17b. Identifiers/Open-Knded Terms
Land Use in Appalachia
Mine Site Development
Land Use Planning
Environmental Impact Analysis
Land-Planning Methodologies
17c. COSATI Field/Group
18. Availability Statement
19. Security Class (This
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No. of Pages
22. Price
FORM NTIS-3B IREV. 10-73) ENDORSED BY ANSI AND UNESCO.
THIS FORM MAY BE REPRODUCED
USCOMM-DC 82SS-P74
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