903R97034
Pilot Multi-Media Environmental Health Characterization Study of
South and Southwest Philadelphia
FINAL REPORT
Submitted to:
Rt ion III
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
by
Johns Hopkins University
School of Hygiene and Public Health
624 North Broadway, 4th Floor
Baltimore, MD 21205
U.S. EPA Region HI
Regional Center for Environmental
RA Information
c7, , 1650 Arch Street (3PM52)
Jo Philadelphia, PA 19103
* -*
B87
1997
vol. 1
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Pilot Multi-Media Environmental Health Characterization Study of
South and Southwest Philadelphia
FINAL REPORT
Submitted to:
Region III
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
by
Johns Hopkins University
School of Hygiene and Public Health
624 North Broadway, 4th Floor
Baltimore, MD 21205
Nadia M. Shalauta, M.S.
Project Director
Thomas A. Burke, PhD, MPH
Principal Investigator
U.S. EPA Region III .
Regional Center for Environmental
Information
1650 Arch Street (3PM52)
Philadelphia, PA 19103
-------
Disclaimer
Although the information in this document has been funded wholly or in part by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency under assistance agreement MM993259-01-0 to The
Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, it may not necessarily reflect
the views of the Agency and no official endorsement should be inferred.
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JOHNS HOPKINS PROJECT STAFF
Thomas A. Burke, Principal Investigator
Nadia M. Shalauta, Project Director
Lois D. Banks, Community Liaison
Elaine Eggleston, Administrative Assistant
Abigail Bushley
Mary Fox
Diana Hammer
Phil Heard
Jill Litt
Brigid Lowery
Andy Shore
Nga Iran
Wendy Yap
Additional administrative assistance provided by:
Teresa Brown
Laura Higgins
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study has been made possible through the cooperative efforts of a broad range of
agencies, organizations, and individuals. We want to thank our project team at EPA, William
Wisniewski, Leonard Mangiaracina, Brigid Lowery, Lorna Rosenberg, and Virginia Moseley
and acknowledge the invaluable contribution of David West and his GIS team and guidance of
Jack Kelly of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. We especially want to
thank the communities of South and Southwest Philadelphia for receiving us into their
neighborhoods and sharing their insights and experiences. We acknowledge the guidance of
our Community and Science Advisory Committees and the contribution of the multi-agency
Environmental Implementation Team. We want to thank Dr. Rick Kutz of the EPA Office of
Research and Development for helping to initiate the project.
Literally hundreds of people participated in this study; it would be impossible to list all
of those individuals who helped to shape this effort. Local officials from the City Departments
of Health, Water, Fire, Police, Planning, and Streets, as well as the Mayor's Office were
invaluable to this effort. The State Departments of Environmental Protection and Health and
the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission provided both guidance and essential
data. We also want to acknowledge the contributions of the following organizations: Clean Air
Council, the Philadelphia Public Interest Law Center, the Delaware Valley Toxics Coalition,
Sun Oil, the US Philadelphia Naval Base, and the Defense Personnel Support Center. A
special thanks goes to Dess Stokes for his leadership.
This report is dedicated to the memory of Philip Inverse.
11
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Pilot Multi-Media Environmental Health Characterization Study of
South and Southwest Philadelphia
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary E-l
Introduction E-l
Results and Findings E-9
Conclusions E-43
Recommendations E-45
I. Study Structure 1-1
A. Advisory Committees 1-1
i. Community Participation 1-1
ii. Science Advisory Committee 1-7
iii. Environmental Implementation Team 1-8
B. Data Collection/Sources of Data 1-10
i. Agencies 1-10
ii. Government Military Installations 1-10
iii. Private Organizations 1-10
iv. Community Organizations 1-11
v. Databases 1-11
vi. Other Sources of Information 1-13
C. Study Area Description 1-17
i. Geographic Boundaries 1-17
ii. Demographics 1-20
Neighborhood Profiles 1-24
II. Environmental Characterization 2-1
A. Media Specific Data 2-1
i. Toxics Release Inventory 2-1
ii. Air Quality and Emissions Data 2-14
Emissions Inventory Summary 2-24
iii. General Water Quality 2-27
iii
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iv. Drinking Water Quality 2-32
v. Waste Water 2-39
vi. Solid Waste 2-44
Environmental Crimes 2-47
B. Additional Issues of Environmental Health Concern 2-48
i. Hazardous Materials and Emergency Response 2-48
ii. Mobile Sources of Pollutants 2-54
Air Traffic Emissions 2-58
iii. Lead 2-67
iv. Radon 2-73
v. Auto Body Shops 2-77
C. Facility Specific Data 2-83
D. Comparison of Philadelphia to Other Cities: Use of Landview Data 2-89
III. Health Characterization 3-1
A. Introduction 3-1
B. Mortality 3-3
i. Cardiovascular Diseases 3-4
ii. Cerebrovascular Diseases (Stroke) 3-15
iii. Influenza and Pneumonia 3-22
iv. Accidents and Non-intentional Injuries 3-27
v. Infant Mortality 3-27
vi. Other Causes of Death 3-35
C. Cancer 3-38
i. Cancer Summaries 3-42
ii. Cancer Mortality 3-44
iii. Cancer Incidence 3-60
D. Other Diseases of Concern 3-88
i. Asthma 3-88
ii. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 3-90
iii. Low Birthweight 3-92
E. Discussion 3-98
iv
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix IV
Appendix V
Appendix VI
Appendix VII
Appendix VIII
Appendix IX
Appendix X
Appendix XI
Advisory Committee Recommendations 1-1
Demographic Profile of Study Area Neighborhoods II-1
Community Advisory Committee III-l
Toxics Release Inventory IV-1
Air Pollution and Health V-l
Drinking Water Quality VI-1
Solid Waste Management VII-1
SARA Covered Facilities VII-1
Landview Comparisons IX-1
Toxicological Data X-l
Details on Health Data XI-1
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LIST OF TABLES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Table E-l: Twenty-six cities in the Northeast U.S., ranked by size and number of EPA-
regulated sites E-l 1
Table E-2: Contributions by Sector to Emissions of Regulated Pollutants in Tons Per Year... E-18
Table E-3: Data on Childhood Blood Lead Tests in South Philadelphia and Southwest
Philadelphia E-23
Table E-4: Comparisons of Age-Adjusted Rates for Mortality, Cancer Mortality, and
Cancer Incidence: South/Southwest Philadelphia and the United States E-28
Table E-5: Crude and Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Cancer Sites in the Total
Study Area, 1974-1993 E-35
REPORT
Table 1: Environmental Concerns Defined by the Community Advisory Committee 1-4
Table 2: Health Concerns Defined by the Community Advisory Committee 1-5
Table 3: Additional Concerns Expressed by the Community Advisory Committee 1-5
Table 4: Urban Air Pollution, Sensitive Populations, and Air Quality Standards 2-14
Table 5: Air Monitoring Stations in South and Southwest Philadelphia That Report to
the EPA's Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) 2-18
Table 6: Criteria Pollutants and National Ambient Air Quality Standards 2-20
Table 7: Contributions by Sector to Emissions of Regulated Pollutants in Tons Per Year 2-25
Table 8: Compounds Released to Air from Water Pollution Control Facilities in metric
tons/year 2-42
Table 9: Substances Involved in Hazardous Material Responses hi 1995 2-50
Table 10: Wastes Identified with On-Road Vehicles 2-55
VI
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Table 11: Emissions from Motor Vehicles in Pennsylvania and Philadelphia County for a
Typical Summer Weekday, 1990 , 2-56
Table 12: Vehicle Miles Traveled and Daily Emissions by Vehicle Grade for Philadelphia
County 2-57
Table 13: Estimated Emissions from Motor Vehicles for the Philadelphia Area Summer
Weekday Mobile Source Emissions and Vehicle Miles Traveled 2-58
Table 14: Aircraft Emissions for PHL and the Regional Airport System(Tons/year) 2-62
Table 15: CDC Guidance for Lead Poisoning 2-68
Table 16: Data on Childhood Blood Lead Tests in South Philadelphia (census
tracts 13 - 51) 2-70
Table 17: Data on Childhood Blood Lead Tests in Southwest Philadelphia (census
tracts 52 - 78) 2-71
Table 18: Data on Childhood Blood Lead Tests in South Philadelphia and Southwest
Philadelphia 2-72
Table 19: Radon Levels in South/Southwest Philadelphia 2-74
Table 20: Actions Recommended by the EPA 2-75
Table 21: Typical Auto Repair Wastes 2-80
Table 22: Sources of data for EPA-regulated sites, as accessed in LandView II 2-89
Table 23: Twenty-six cities in the Northeast U.S. ranked by size and number of EPA-
regulated sites 2-91
Table 24: Most frequently released toxic compounds in 26 cities in the Northeast
U.S., 1992 '. 2-96
Table 25: Most frequently released toxic compounds in Philadelphia, 1992 2-97
Table 26: Twenty-four cities in the Northeast U.S. ranked by total pounds of material
released to different media as reported in the Toxics Release Inventory, 1992 : 2-98
Table 27: Cities in the Northeast U.S. ranked by pounds of benzene released to
different media, as reported in the Toxics Release Inventory, 1992 2-100
Table 28: Amounts of criteria air pollutants emitted, selected cities in the Northeast U.S.,
1982 - 1994 2-102
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Table 29: Underlying Causes of Mortality in South and Southwest Philadelphia:
1974-1993 3-5
Table 30: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Causes of Mortality for
Philadelphia, Total Study Area, South and Southwest Philadelphia, 1974-1993 3-8
Table 31: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Causes of Mortality by
Neighborhood 3-31
Table 32: Cancer Mortality in South and Southwest Philadelphia: 1974-1993 3-39
Table 33: 30 Year Trend in Cancer Mortality Rates per 100,000 Population 3-41
Table 34: Crude and Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Cancer Sites in the
Total Study Area, 1974-1993 3-49
Table 35: Crude Mortality Rates for Top 5 Cancer Sites by Neighborhood 3-58
Table 36: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Cancer Sites by
Neighborhood 3-59
Table 37: Cancer Incidence in South and Southwest Philadelphia: 1985-1993 3-61
Table 38: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for the Top 4 Sites and All Sites for
Males and Females: Comparison Between New York City, Allegheny County, Philadelphia,
South Philadelphia, and Southwest Philadelphia (1988-1992) 3-66
Table 39: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Pennsylvania and Philadelphia 3-74
Table 40: Cancer Incidence Rates for Total Study Area, South and Southwest
Philadelphia 3-75
Table 41: Crude Incidence Rates for the Top 5 Cancer Sites by Neighborhood 3-84
Table 42: Average Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence for the Top 5 Cancer Sites by
Neighborhood 3-86
Table 43: Trend of Asthma and COPD Mortality for South and Southwest
Philadelphia (1974-1993) 3-93
Vlll
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LIST OF FIGURES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Figure E-l: South/Southwest Philadelphia Assessment Neighborhoods (map) E-3
Figure E-2: Total Population in South and Southwest Philadelphia: 1970, 1980, and 1990 E-4
Figure E-3: Demographic Studies in South/Southwestern Philadelphia - Minority Population
(map) E-5
Figure E-4: Demographic Studies in Southwestern Philadelphia - Elderly Population
(map) E-6
Figure E-5: Demographic Studies in South/Southwestern Philadelphia - Poverty Population
(map) E-7
Figure E-6: EPA Regulated Facilities in South/Southwestern Philadelphia Assessment
Neighborhoods (map) E-13
Figure E-7: Total TRI-Reported Releases and Offsite Transfers from South and Southwest
Facilities 1987-1994 E-15
Figure E-8: Total TRI-Reported Releases to Air, Water, Land, and POTWs and Offsite
Transfers from South and Southwest Facilities 1987-1994 E-16
Figure E-9: Number of Days that Overall Air Quality Exceeded the PSI: Comparison
Between Philadelphia and Regional Area E-17
Figure E-10: Number of Days that Ozone Levels Exceeded the PSI: Comparison
Between Philadelphia and Regional Area E-17
Figure E-ll: Mobile and Stationary Source Ambient Air Emissions in South and
Southwest Philadelphia, Tons/Year E-20
Figure E-12: Automotive Repair Shop Businesses in South/Southwest Philadelphia
(map) E-24
Figure E-13: Age-adjusted Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Causes of Mortality for the Study
Area, 1974-1993: Comparison with the U.S., 1993 E-27
IX
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Figure E-14: Age Adjusted Average Mortality Rate (all causes), 1974-1993 South/
Southwest Philadelphia (map) E-29
Figure E-15: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Heart Disease (ICD 390-398, 402,
404-429): Comparison Between the Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S E-31
Figure E-16: Age Adjusted Average Heart Disease Mortality Rate, 1974-1993 South/
Southwest Philadelphia (map) E-32
Figure E-17: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Malignant Neoplasms: Comparison
Between the Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S E-33
Figure E-18: Age Adjusted Average Cancer Mortality Rate, 1974-1993 South/
Southwest Philadelphia (map) E-34
Figure E-19: Age Adjusted Average Lung Cancer Mortality Rate, 1974-1993 South/
Southwest Philadelphia (map) E-36
Figure E-20: Age Adjusted Average Breast Cancer Mortality Rate, 1974-1993 South/
Southwest Philadelphia (map) E-38
Figure E-21: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for All Sites: Comparison Between the
Study Area and U.S., 1985-1993 E-39
Figure E-22: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Top 5 Sites and All Sites:
Comparison Between Baltimore City, South Philadelphia, and Southwest Philadelphia E-40
Figure E-23: Age-Adjusted Average Cancer Incidence Rate, 1985-1993 South;'
Southwest Philadelphia E-41
REPORT
Figure 1: Gasoline Service Stations in South/Southwest Philadelphia (map) , 1-15
Figure 2: Dry Cleaning Businesses hi South/Southwest Philadelphia (map) 1-16
Figure 3: South/Southwest Philadelphia Assessment Neighborhoods (map) 1-19
Figure 4: Average Per Capita Income by Neighborhood 1-21
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Figure 5: Population Trends in South and Southwest Philadelphia Neighborhoods
(1970 - 1990) 1-22
Figure 6: Percent of Persons Below Poverty Level in Study Area by Neighborhood 1-23
Figure 7: Total TRI-Reported Releases to Air, Water, Land and POTWs and Offsite
Transfers from South and Southwest Philadelphia Facilities from 1987-1994 2-3
Figure 8: Total TRI-Reported Releases to Air, Water, Land and POTWs and Offsite
Transfers from South and Southwest Philadelphia Facilities 1987-1994 2-4
Figure 9: Total TRI-Reported Releases and Offsite Transfers from South and
Southwest Philadelphia 1987-1994 2-5
Figure 10: Top 10 Compounds Released to Air from South and Southwest Philadelphia
Facilities as Reported to TRI 1987-1994 2-6
Figure 11: Trends of Top 5 Compounds Released to Air from South and Southwest
Philadelphia Facilities as Reported to TRI 1987-1994 2-7
Figure 12: TRI-Reported Releases to Land from South and Southwest Philadelphia Facilities
1987-1994 2-8
Figure 13: TRI-Reported Releases to Water from South and Southwest Philadelphia Facilities
1987-1994 2-9
Figure 14: Total TRI-Reported Transfers to POTWs from South and Southwest Philadelphia
Facilities 1987-1994 2-10
Figure 15: TRI-Reported Releases of Ammonia to Water from South and Southwest
Philadelphia Facilities 1987-1994 2-11
Figure 16: Total TRI-Reported Transfer of Ethylene Glycol from South and Southwest
Philadelphia Facilities to POTWs 1987-1994 2-12
Figure 17: Trends of Top 10 Compounds Transferred Offsite from South and Southwest
Philadelphia Facilities as Reported to TRI 1987-1994 2-13
Figure 18: Number of Days that Overall Air Quality Exceeded the PSI: Comparison
Between Philadelphia and Regional Area 2-17
Figure 19: Number of Days that Ozone Levels Exceeded the PSI: Comparison
Between Philadelphia and Regional Area 2-17
xi
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Figure 20: Delaware River at The Navy Yard Dissolved Oxygen and Fecal Coliform
Concentrations (map) 2-29
Figure 21: Schuylkill River at Fairmount Dam Dissolved Oxygen and Fecal Coliform
Concentrations (map) 2-30
Figure 22: Finished Water Sampling 1989-1994: Percentage of Samples Containing
Noted Chemical 2-33
Figure 23: Baxter Plant Total Trihalomethane Levels 1989-1994 2-35
Figure 24: Queen Lane Plant Total Trihalomethane Levels 1989-1994 2-36
Figure 25: Belmont Plant Total Trihalomethane Levels 1989-1994 2-37
Figure 26: Estimated Air Emissions from Biosolids Recycling Center 2-41
Figure 27: Comparison of the Total Number of Hazardous Materials Incidents in
Philadelphia to South and Southwest Philadelphia 1990-1995 2-51
Figure 28: Number of Incidents by Response Level in South and Southwest
Philadelphia 1990-1995 2-52
Figure 29: Philadelphia Area Annual Civil Aviation Emissions: HC, CO, NOX, SO2
Emissions from General Aviation, Air Taxi, and Commercial Flight Operations 2-60
Figure 30: Hydrocarbon Emissions from Civil Aviation Operations in the
Philadelphia Area 2-61
Figure 31: Mobile and Stationary Source Ambient Air Emissions in South and
Southwest Philadelphia, Tons/Year 2-64
Figure 32: Mobile and Stationary Source Ambient Air Emissions By Industry Sector
in South and Southwest Philadelphia, Tons/Year 2-65
Figure 33: Total Emissions for Mobile and Point Sources in South and Southwest
Philadelphia - 1990, Tons/Year 2-66
Figure 34: Automotive Repair Shop Businesses in South/Southwest Philadelphia (map) 2-78
Figure 35: Number of Facilities Listed on Federal and State Environmental Databases:
South and Southwest Philadelphia 2-94
Figure 36: Facilities of Environmental Concern by SIC Classification: Most Frequent
Listings for South and Southwest Philadelphia 2-95
xii
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Figure 37: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Selected Causes of Death: Comparison
Between the Study Area, Philadelphia and Allegheny County 3-6
Figure 38: Crude Total Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South and Southwest
Philadelphia 3-7
Figure 39: Age-Adjusted Total Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South and
Southwest Philadelphia 3-7
Figure 40: Average Crude Total Mortality Rates: 1974-1993 By Neighborhood 3-9
Figure 41: Average Age-Adjusted Total Mortality Rates: 1974-1993 By Neighborhood 3-9
Figure 42: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Major Cardiovascular Diseases
aCD 390-448): United States, 1979-1993 3-11
Figure 43: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Heart Disease (ICD 390-398, 402,
404-429): Comparison Between the Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S 3-12
Figure 44: Crude Heart Disease Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South and
Southwest Philadelphia 3-13
Figure 45: Age-Adjuste^Heart Disease Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia,
South and Southwest Philadelphia 3-13
Figure 46: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Heart Disease: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-14
Figure 47: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Heart Disease: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-14
Figure 48: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Cerebrovascular Diseases (ICD 430-438):
United States, 1979-1993 3-17
Figure 49: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Stroke: Comparison Between the Study
Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S 3-18
Figure 50: Crude Cerebrovascular Disease Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia,
South and Southwest Philadelphia 3-19
Figure 51: Age-Adjusted Cerebrovascular Disease Mortality Rates 1974-1993:
Philadelphia, South and Southwest Philadelphia 3-19
Xlll
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Figure 52: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Cerebrovascular Disease: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-20
Figure 53: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Cerebrovascular Disease:
1974-1993 By Neighborhood 3-20
Figure 54: Age-Adjusted Average Cerebrovascular Mortality Rate, 1974-1993 South/
Southwest Philadelphia (map) 3-21
Figure 55: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Influenza and Pneumonia: Comparison
Between the Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S 3-23
Figure 56: Crude Influenza/Pneumonia Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia,
South and Southwest Philadelphia 3-24
Figure 57: Age-Adjusted Influenza/Pneumonia Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia,
South and Southwest Philadelphia 3-24
Figure 58: Age-Adjusted Average Influenza/Pneumonia Mortality Rate, 1974-1993
South/Southwest Philadelphia (map) 3-25
Figure 59: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Influenza/Pneumonia: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-26
Figure 60: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Influenza/Pneumonia:
1974-1993 By Neighborhood 3-26
Figure 61: Age-Adjusted Average Accidents Mortality Rate, 1974-1993 South/Southwest
Philadelphia (map) 3-28
Figure 62: Crude Accident Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South and
Southwest Philadelphia 3-29
Figure 63: Age-Adjusted Accident Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South
and Southwest Philadelphia 3-29
Figure 64: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Accidents (NMV) and ODs: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-30
Figure 65: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Accidents (NMV) and ODs:
1974-1993 By Neighborhood 3-30
xiv
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Figure 66: Infant Mortality Rate, According to Race of Mothers: United States,
selected years, 1950-1995 3-33
Figure 67: Infant Mortality 1978-1982 and 1987-1990: Comparison Between
Neighborhoods 3-34
Figure 68: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Diabetes Mellitus: Comparison Between
the Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S 3-36
Figure 69: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Homicide: Comparison Between the
Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S 3-37
Figure 70: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates of Cancer (All Sites) for Pennsylvania and
the United States, 1985-1991 3-45
Figure 71: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Malignant Neoplasms: Comparison
Between the Study Area, Philadelphia, and the U.S 3-46
Figure 72: Age-Adjusted Cancer Mortality Rates for the Top 5 Sites: Study Area
1974-1993 3-47
Figure 73: Crude Cancer Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South and
Southwest Philadelphia 3-48
Figure 74: Age-Adjusted Cancer Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia, South
and Southwest Philadelphia 3-48
Figure 75: Average Crude Mortality Rates for All Cancer Sites: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-50
Figure 76: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for All Cancer Sites: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-50
Figure 77: Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates of Lung and Bronchus Cancer for
Pennsylvania and the United States 1985-1991 3-52
Figure 78: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Lung Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-53
Figure 79: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Lung Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-53
xv
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Figure 80: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Breast Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-54
Figure 81: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Breast Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-54
Figure 82: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Colon Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-55
Figure 83: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Colon Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-55
Figure 84: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Prostate Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-56
Figure 85: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Prostate Cancer: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-56
Figure 86: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Pancreatic Cancer: 1974-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-57
Figure 87: Average Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates for Pancreatic Cancer: 1974-1993
By Neighborhood 3-57
Figure 88: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Top 5 Sites and All Sites:
Comparison Between Baltimore City, South Philadelphia and Southwest Philadelphia 3-62
Figure 89: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Top 4 Sites and All Sites for
Males: Comparison Between New York City, Allegheny County, Philadelphia,
South Philadelphia, and Southwest Philadelphia (1988-92) 3-63
Figure 90: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Top 4 Sites and All Sites for
Females: Comparison Between New York City, Allegheny County, Philadelphia,
South Philadelphia, and Southwest Philadelphia (1988-92) 3-65
Figure 91: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for the Top 5 Sites: Study Area
1985-1993... 3-67
Figure 92: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for All Cancer Sites: Comparison
Between Males and Females in South and Southwest Philadelphia for 1985-1989 and
1988-1992 3-68
xvi
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Figure 93: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Lung Cancer: Comparison
Between Males and Females in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, South Philadelphia and
Southwest Philadelphia (1985-1989 and 1988-1992) 3-69
Figure 94: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Breast Cancer: Comparison
Between Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, South Philadelphia and Southwest Philadelphia
(1985-1989 and 1988-1992) 3-70
Figure 95: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Prostate Cancer: Comparison
Between Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, South Philadelphia and Southwest Philadelphia
(1985-1989 and 1988-1992) 3-71
Figure 96: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Bladder Cancer: Comparison
Between Males and Females in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, South Philadelphia and
Southwest Philadelphia (1985-1989 and 1988-1992) 3-72
Figure 97: Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence Rates for Colon Cancer: Comparison
Between Males and Females in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, South Philadelphia and
Southwest Philadelphia (1985-1989 and 1988-1992) 3-73
Figure 98: Average Crude Incidence Rates for All Cancer Sites: 1985-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-77
Figure 99: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for All Cancer Sites: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood 3-77
Figure 100: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Lung Cancer: 1985-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-78
Figure 101: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for Lung Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood 3-78
Figure 102: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Colon Cancer: 1985-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-79
Figure 103: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for Colon Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood 3-79
Figure 104: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Bladder Cancer: 1985-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-80
xvii
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Figure 105: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for Bladder Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood 3-80
Figure 106: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Breast Cancer: 1985-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-81
Figure 107: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for Breast Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood 3-81
Figure 108: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Prostate Cancer: 1985-1993 By
Neighborhood 3-82
Figure 109: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for Prostate Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood 3-82
Figure 110: Average Age-Adjusted Incidence Rates for Leukemia Study Area
Neighborhood (1985-1993) 3-83
Figure 111: Trend of Asthma and COPD Mortality for South and Southwest
Philadelphia (1974-1993) 3-94
Figure 112: Low-birth weight Live Births: According to Race of Mothers and Smoking
Status: United States, selected years, 1970-1995 3-96
Figure 113: Low Birthweight Rate: 1978-1982 and 1987-1990 Comparison Between
Neighborhoods 3-97
xvm
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Executive Summary
Introduction
This report presents the results of a two year community-based pilot study of the
environmental and public health concerns in the neighborhoods of South and Southwest
Philadelphia. The study was initiated by Region 3 of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in response to long-standing community concerns regarding pollution sources in
their neighborhoods and the impact that environmental contamination may have upon their
health. The purpose of this study was to develop improved capacity for EPA to respond to
community concerns about their health and environment. The approach of the study was to
work with the community, agencies, industry, and scientists to characterize the environmental
health needs of South and Southwest Philadelphia by profiling sources of pollution and
population exposure, identifying critical information needs, and examining indicators of the
health of the community. The ultimate goal is to provide all the stakeholders with a tool for
understanding and improving the environment and public health of South and Southwest
Philadelphia.
Protecting the urban environment, the quality of life, and health of city residents may
be the most difficult challenge faced by environmental and public health agencies. Although
the nation has made great progress in improving environmental quality, many of the
community level environmental problems of the cities have evaded the reach of the national
environmental laws. From air quality to safe housing; trash disposal to traffic; the nation's
most vexing environmental problems have been concentrated in the cities. The nation's cities
also face many difficult public health problems which are compounded by poverty. This is
particularly true in the Northeast part of the country, where inner city residents have the
highest age-adjusted mortality rates when compared to rural and suburban residents and city
dwellers in other regions.1 Community health status is linked to a wide range of social,
cultural and behavioral factors. The improvement of community health status requires broad
public health considerations which go beyond traditional environmental health and protection
and include health education, reinforcement of health behavior, and access to preventive care.
The health of a community is also related to the economic and environmental vitality of a
community.
The study represents a new approach to community-based environmental protection.
This study is a pilot, and in many ways is the first attempt to examine a broad array of
environmental and public health issues on the neighborhood level. For this reason, it was not
possible to compare the findings with similar neighborhoods in other areas.
'U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health United States 1995, DHHS Publication No. 96-
1232
E-l
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The study was conducted as a partnership, shaped by the concerns of the community
through the active participation of the Community Advisory Committee. Other partners
include EPA Region III, Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, the Science
Advisory Committee (SAC), and the Environmental Implementation Team (EIT), an inter-
agency committee consisting of representatives of city, state, and federal agencies.
The Study Area
The study focused upon 26 square miles in South and Southwest Philadelphia which
include eight neighborhoods with over a quarter million people from widely diverse social and
ethnic backgrounds. The boundaries of the Study Area and each of the neighborhoods are
illustrated in Figure E-l. These neighborhood groups were originally defined by the City
Planning Commission and were selected to be consistent with health data provided by the
Philadelphia Health Management Corporation. As shown on the map, much of the land area is
non-residential and has historically been home to a wide-range of industrial, commercial, and
military facilities. The area has served as a major transportation hub with air, shipping, and
rail links. Major industrial and commercial facilities range from petroleum refineries to meat
packaging and food distribution warehouses. As is evident from the map, the residential and
industrial areas are in very close proximity. While this is consistent with historical urban
development patterns, it greatly contributes to community concerns about industrial releases
and cumulative impacts on health.
Poverty, race, and age are important determinants of the health of a population.
Between 1969 and 1994 the City of Philadelphia lost 26% of its payroll jobs.2 In South and
Southwest Philadelphia many of the historical industrial facilities have closed or down-sized,
including the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. The resulting loss of employment undoubtedly
contributed to a steady decline in population. From 1970 to the present, the Study Area
population has declined nearly 25% from 328,00 in 1970 to 253,000 in 1990 as shown in
Figure E-2. While the black population has remained stable, the white population declined
40% from 226,000 in 1970 to 138,000 in 1990. Other racial groups have seen a steady
growth in population. The 1990 census shows that the population distribution is 55% white,
41% black, 3% Asian/Pacific Islander, 0.2% American Indian, and 0.8% other races. Figure
E-3 shows the distribution of minority population throughout the Study Area. The Study Area
has also seen a shift in the age distribution of the population as well as an increase in poverty.
Between 1970 and 1990 the percentage of population aged 65 and over increased from 14% to
20%. A distribution of the population over 65 is shown in Figure E-4. During the same time
period, the percentage of persons living below the poverty level increased from 17% to 23%.
Figure E-5 shows the distribution of poverty in the Study Area according to 1990 Census data.
In interpreting Census data, it should be noted that there are concerns that some population
groups are undercounted, such as the homeless. This may impact population estimates;
however, Census data remains the national benchmark for understanding population trends.
2 Pennsylvania Economy League, Inc., Eastern Division, Factbook on the Philadelphia Economy, 1987.
E-2
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The Approach
The study combined the methods of environmental science and public health, and
utilized the elements of environmental risk assessment, descriptive epidemiology, and
community health surveillance. Public health is defined as the logical application of methods
of problem recognition, evaluation, and intervention for the prevention of disease and injury in
populations.3 Environmental health involves the application of multiple scientific disciplines to
investigate the relationship between environmental factors and human health and prevent
adverse health impacts from environmental exposures. This report presents a descriptive
assessment of environmental sources, pollutants of public health significance, ambient
environmental quality, and potential pathways of exposure.
The guidance of the community, the agencies, and other stakeholders was critical to
both the design and scope of the study and the understanding of the environmental decision-
making process. At the onset of the project, extensive stakeholder interviews were conducted
and neighborhood tours were arranged with both agency personnel and community members.
Through this process the stakeholders shaped the study by identifying the issues and sources of
concern, and by providing the data essential for the analysis. In addition, tours of several of
the major industrial facilities in the Study Area were conducted in cooperation with facility
management personnel. The study synthesized environmental and health information from a
multitude of sources including federal and state environmental and health data bases, records
from city agencies, environmental groups, private industry, and community organizations.
Sources ranged from national data bases on the World Wide Web to facility specific paper
files. The study scope was limited to existing data, and did not include the collection or .
analysis of new environmental samples. In addition, the study was limited to the
neighborhoods of South and Southwest Philadelphia. Comparisons to other Philadelphia
neighborhoods were beyond the scope of the investigation.
It must be emphasized that this study was not designed to investigate the relationship
between specific environmental sources and disease in the community. To address concerns
about community health, neighborhood level measures of morbidity and mortality were
developed from the City of Philadelphia vital statistics records and Pennsylvania State Cancer
Registry data files. The purpose of the health analysis was to address fundamental community
questions about the rates and trends of disease and mortality, and provide a public health
profile of the neighborhoods to guide prevention efforts.
Community health is a reflection of a complex interaction between social, economic,
and environmental factors. On an individual level, risk of disease is influenced by genetics,
behavior, income, and the environment. While known risk factors for individual diseases are
presented along with results, it was beyond the scope of this study to investigate the influence
of specific environmental sources or pollutants on rates of disease in the community.
3 Halperin, William, and Baker, Edward, eds.. Public Health Surveillance, New York; Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1992, p. xviii.
E-8
-------
Results and Findings
The findings of this study can be summarized into three major categories: general
findings; environmental characterization results; and, results of the health data evaluation.
This section provides a categorical summary of the findings. A more extensive presentation,
along with supporting data is presented within the full report and appendices.
General Findings
The most consistently voiced concern of the community involves the historical lack of
communication about environmental decisions which impact their neighborhoods. This has
resulted in a sense of exclusion of the community from the decision making process, and
undermined their trust in the agencies and industry. For this reason, one of the most important
results of this study has been the development of new partnerships between the neighborhoods,
agencies, business, and academia to strengthen the environmental health infrastructure of the
City of Philadelphia. The improved communication between these stakeholders may
ultimately prove to be the most valuable and durable result of the project.
Although the study was initiated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
many of the concerns of the community are beyond the purview of the Agency, and are not
covered by the major national environmental laws. A multitude of city and state agencies
share responsibilities for issues which can shape the neighborhood environment such as
sanitation, traffic, facility siting and licensing, and zoning. To address these cross-
jurisdictional issues, the Environmental Implementation Team (EIT) was established.
The study identified the need for consistent and understandable enforcement strategies
for all agencies involved in environmental protection. The fragmented nature of
environmental regulations has led to a complex web of agency responsibilities throughout the
nation.4 As a result the community is often faced with difficulty in identifying "who is in
charge".
Consistent with historical urban development patterns, residential and industrial land
uses are often found adjacent to one another. The "least restricted" zoning designation
throughout much of the Study Area has contributed to the concentration of commercial and
industrial sources of environmental emissions in close proximity to homes. Sources of
community concern range from auto body shops to waste disposal facilities and a major
petroleum refinery. Many community members are concerned about environmental justice and
believe that South and Southwest Philadelphia bears a disproportionate burden of
environmental pollution which may have adverse impacts on health.
4Burke, Thomas A., Shalauta, Nadia M., Iran, Nga L., and Stern, Barry S., "The environmental web: A
national profile of the state infrastructure for environmental health and protection", Journal of Public Health
Management Practice, vol. 3, no. 2, 1997.
E-9
-------
Community members, the Science Advisory Committee, and other stakeholders have
identified a relatively consistent list of environmental concerns which include the following:
D Emissions from industrial operations including the refinery, chemical plants,
automotive repair facilities, and other operations
D Unplanned episodic releases from industrial facilities
D Proliferation of waste treatment, transfer, and disposal facilities
D Underground petroleum contamination
D Uncontrolled solid waste dumping and illegal trash transfer
D Environmental permitting of proposed facilities and expansion of existing facilities
D Security at abandoned industrial sites
D Odors from sewage treatment facilities
D Asbestos at abandoned facilities
D Re-use plans for military facilities and redevelopment of industrial lands
D Emissions from traffic
n Noise from traffic and industrial operations
D Childhood lead exposures
Results of the Environmental Characterization
General Findings
• Over the past two decades, the Study Area has demonstrated continual environmental
improvements in air quality, surface water, and drinking water. Data on industrial
emissions also show a decrease in the release of toxic pollutants since 1987. The data
clearly demonstrate the positive impacts of major national environmental laws on
regional environmental quality.
• The concentration of industry, disposal facilities, and other EPA regulated sites in
Philadelphia is generally proportional to other urban areas in the eastern United States.
A 26-city comparison which includes land area, population, and number of EPA
regulated sites is presented in Table E-l. Among the cities in the comparison,
Philadelphia ranks second in population and square miles; it ranks second in the
number of Superfund (NPL) sites, third in the number of facilities reporting releases of
toxic and criteria pollutants (TRI and AIRS), fourth in the number of large quantity
hazardous water generators, fifth in the number of treatment storage and disposal
facilities, and ninth in the number of permitted point-source waste water dischargers.
Neighborhood level data to compare the Study Area with industrialized areas' within
other cities were not available.
E-10
-------
Table E-l: Twenty-six
City
Albany, NY
Allentown, PA
Altoona, PA
Atlantic City, NJ
Baltimore, MD
Boston, MA
Dover, DE
Hagerstown, MD
Harrisburg, PA
Jersey City, NJ
Lancaster, PA
New Haven, CT
New York, NY
Newark, NJ
Philadelphia, PA
Pittsburgh, PA
Pittsfield, MA
Portland, ME
Providence, RI
Reading, PA
Rochester. NY
Scran ton, PA
Trenton, NJ
Washington, DC
Wilmington, DE
York, PA
Rank in
Square
miles
12
16
21
18
3
6
13
20
22
17
24
14
1
10
2
5
7
11
15
21
8
9
23
4
19
25
cities in the Northeast U.S.
Rank in
Population
13
15
21
24
3
5
26
25
20
9
9
11
1
7
2
6
22
18
10
16
8
15
14
4
17
23
Rank in
Population
square mil
14
18
19
22
8
3
25
21
16
2
12
17
1
5
4
13
26
24
9
11
15
23
6
7
14
10
ranked by size
and number of EPA-regulated sites.*
Rank by Number
/
e AIR
14
15
17
19
2
12
15
15
13
18
11
7
1
4
3
5
22
14
8
9
5
20
21
16
10
6
LQG
9
14
18
19
2
12
21
17
16
8
9
13
1
5
4
6
21
15
9
11
3
20
7
17
14
9
of EPA-regulated
TSD
9
9
11
10
2
9
10
10
11
4
10
8
7
1
5
8
9
6
7
10
7
11
3
9
7
10
TRI
16
12
15
19
2
17
17
14
14
15
9
12
1
5
3
7
18
18
5
10
4
14
11
19
13
8
sites**
PCS
8
10
14
13
2
13
14
12
13
10
12
12
1
5
7
3
12
13
9
13
4
13
6
10
11
14
NPL
5
4
5
5
3
5
1
5
5
4
5
5
4
3
2
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
*The population and area data were taken from the 1990 U.S. Census (1994 City County Data Book). Other sources
of data are described in the text.
**AIR: facilities emitting one or more of the 7 criteria pollutants to air, 1982-1994.
LQG: RCRA large quantity generators, 1991.
TSD: facilities that treat, store, or dispose of RCRA wastes, 1991.
TRI: facilities releasing or otherwise disposing of one or more toxic compounds as recorded in the Toxics Release
Inventory , 1992.
PCS: facilities permitted to discharge one or more chemical or biological parameters to water (NPDES permits),
1993.
NPL: current or previous National Priority List sites, 1993.
E-ll
-------
• The use of existing environmental data bases and monitoring data is limited for
evaluating many localized environmental concerns. As in most of the nation, existing
data bases which report environmental quality information for the Study Area are
limited for the pollutants which are measured, number and frequency of samples, and
locations of monitors. Therefore, the data provide a limited assessment of the pollutant
levels and potential exposures throughout the Study Area.
• Although there is a tremendous volume of data on environmental quality, there is little
information available on the actual exposure levels of urban residents to pollutants in
their environment. An extensive data search yielded virtually no available
measurements of individual exposures in the Study Area. Individual exposure
information is essential for assessing community health risks and conducting
epidemiological investigations of the relationship between environmental pollutants and
disease.
• Many of the issues which impact environmental quality on the neighborhood level are
not covered by the national laws and require a community-based approach to
environmental protection. For example, local agencies set zoning and licensing policies
and respond to nuisance or aesthetic problems such as illegal trash disposal or local
odor complaints.
• As may be expected in a large urban area, there are hundreds of regulated and
unregulated sources of environmental emissions within the Study Area ranging from
major petroleum refining to small shops. Approximately 250 facilities are listed in
federal and state environmental regulatory databases. This includes 1 abandoned
hazardous waste site (Superfund site); 18 active sites which are under review for
inclusion on the Superfund list (CERCLIS sites), 23 sites with leaking underground
storage tanks (LUST sites); 33 large quantity generators (LQGs) and 249 small quantity
generators (SQGs) of hazardous waste; and, 11 facilities which report their chemical
emissions to the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI facilities). Figure E-6 presents an
overlay of the Study Area neighborhoods with various EPA-regulated facilities.
Environmental Pathways
Toxic Release Inventory
• There are 11 facilities in the Study Area which are required to report their annual
emissions to air, water, land, and publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) or off-site
disposal to EPA under the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). Although this is the most
extensive database available on toxics emissions, the TRI captures only a small percent
of actual releases and transfers because only manufacturers with ten or more employees
who either use 10,000 pounds or manufacture 25,000 pounds of one of the listed
chemicals must report.
E-12
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E-13
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According to the TRI data, the annual trends of releases are generally decreasing from
the period 1987 through 1994. Figure E-7 presents the trend of total offsite-transfers
and environmental emissions of TRI compounds as reported for the Study Area from
1987 to 1994. Of the emissions released to the environment, most are released to air;
while most hazardous waste is transferred off-site for disposal as shown in Figure E-8.
Based on data reported to the TRI for the time period 1987 - 1994, benzene was the
compound released in highest quantity to air, followed by toluene and cumene.
Air Quality
Because of the transport and dispersion of pollutants in air, air quality is monitored and
regulated on a regional basis. Local sources of emissions may have less impact on a
region than sources further upwind. As presented in Figure E-9, overall air quality for
Philadelphia has demonstrated continual improvement for the period 1985-1996. Air
quality measures according to the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) for the City of
Philadelphia were consistently better than those for the Philadelphia-Trenton-
Wilmington regional area from 1985 to 1993.
Of the criteria pollutants regulated by EPA (paniculate matter, ozone, lead, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides), only ozone exceeds EPA standards as
monitored within the Study Area from 1990 to 1994. Despite this non-compliance, for
the city of Philadelphia, the number of exceedances above the PSI have also shown
continual improvement and are consistently lower than the regional area as presented in
Figure E-10.
Table E-2 presents a neighborhood breakdown of total emissions of regulated pollutants
from the sources in the Study Area which are included in the State Implementation
Plan. These data show that the greatest total emissions are from NO2 and SO2, and that
the majority of emissions are from manufacturing and transportation/public utilities.
Although a vehicle inspection program and an emissions testing program have been
instituted in Philadelphia, motor vehicle emissions contribute significantly to 4 of the 6
criteria pollutants regulated under the Clean Air Act: carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
paniculate matter < lOyum, and ozone. The largest contribution to these emissions in
Philadelphia is from light duty gas vehicles (passenger cars).
For the Philadelphia regional area, aircraft are also a major source of air emissions,
with the Philadelphia International Airport system contributing the greatest percent of
air emissions from aircraft.
E-14
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E-16
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Figure E-9: Number of Days that Overall Air Quality Exceeded the PSI:
Comparison Between Philadelphia and Regional Area
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
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35
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Figure E-10: Number of Days that Ozone Levels Exceeded the PSI:
Comparison Between Philadelphia and Regional Area
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
35
35
31
I 21
25
A
22
o
E-17
-------
Table E-2. Contributions by Sector to Emissions of Regulated Pollutants in Tons Per Year
Source
Total Suspended
Participates
Paniculate Matter
<10microns
Volatile Organic
Compounds
Nitrogen Oxides Sulfur Dioxide Carbon Monoxide
Total
Eastwick-Elmwood
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
724
50
0
0
0
5
0
760
Grays Ferry-Passyunk
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Schuylklll-Point Breeze
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilrtie
Wholesale Trade
South Broad - Girard Estates
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Paschall-Kingsessing
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Pennsport-Queen Village
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Snyder-Wnitman
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Southwark-Bella Vista
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
181
41
232
18
21
61
39
52
12
27
1090
181
1
4
156
20
25
5
2
22
70
4419
677
9
16
52
23
€
10
9
1517
59
26
147
1
21
7
15
39
5
67
18
9
10
5063
152
3
21
47
6
13
10
2429
57
31
143
1
26
9
13
24
11
6
83
25
22
6
11
14
510
57
14
162
31
14
18
11,495
1,126
12
40
108
29
162
32
0
25
0
54
4,280
0
148
0
0
0
132
358
24
142
0
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29
28
68
166
13
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166
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68
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82
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309
5*8
2510
7208
8247
856
I Manufacturing includes food/kindred product*, stone/cla\/glass products, industrial machinery/equipment, furniture. chemical/allied products, electronics, petroleum/coal products, fabricated metal
| products, leather products
I Retail Trade includes building materials, garden supplies, miscellaneous retail
• I Services includes Education, health, personal (uniform rental laundry) auto body repair parking
!Transportation/Public Utilities includes Trucking, warehousing, electric/gas, w^tcr transportation railroad transportation air transportation
Wholesale Trade includes non-durable goods
I Real Estate includes real estate
I Federal facilities includes Naval base, defense suppK center
Volumes are based on 1990/pre-1990 estimates from SIP data
E-18
-------
Of all mobile and stationary sources of air emissions in the South and Southwest
Philadelphia area, automobiles are the largest contributor to ambient air emissions of
carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as shown in Figure E-ll.
Manufacturing facilities contribute the largest proportion of paniculate matter, nitrogen
oxides, and sulfur oxides.
Water Quality
General Water Quality
Both the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers have been widely impacted by historical
practices of both point and non-point pollution sources. Analyses of sediments and
biota indicate the presence of heavy metals, pesticides, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
Monitoring of dissolved oxygen and fecal coliform has shown improvements in the
water quality of the rivers over the past 30 years.
Fish consumption advisories are in effect for the Delaware River due to polychlorinated
biphenyls and chlordane contamination.
Drinking Water Quality
The Study Area is served by three drinking water treatment plants (Baxter, Belmont,
and Queen Lane) which draw water from the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers. Water
from the rivers is filtered and treated with chlorine to kill disease causing
microorganisms. The chlorination results in the formation of various chemical by-
products, primarily consisting of trihalomethanes (THMs). Drinking water from the
three treatment plants consistently meets federal requirements for chemical
contaminants; however, periodic excursions above the 100 ppb maximum contaminant
level (MCL) for total trihalomethanes have been observed.
Treated drinking water is free of lead, but piping and solder used in household water
systems may contribute to lead contamination in the water. To control leaching of
lead, the Water Department has instituted various measures including pH controls.
Ground Water Quality
In the Study Area, ground water is not a major source of drinking water and therefore
is not a major route of exposure for community residents. A thorough review of
ground water quality in the Study Area was beyond the scope of this project.
E-19
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Waste Water
The Clean Water Act and the Ocean Dumping Act were designed to restore and
maintain the integrity of the nation's waters. Wastewater treatment and sewage disposal
requirements forced many cities including Philadelphia to phase out disposal of "harmful"
sewage sludges and banned ocean disposal. South and Southwest Philadelphia have three
waste water treatment facilities designed to manage water and sludge from industry,
residences, and municipal sources. These include the Southeast and Southwest Water
Pollution Control Plants and the Biosolids Recycling Center (BRC).
• Over 200 industrial facilities throughout discharge to the two treatment plants. In
1994, 12 of the facilities were in significant non-compliance with requirements for
discharge to treatment plants.
• The City's discharge from the treatment plants consistently meets federal and state
discharge requirements.
• In 1994, the two waste water plants treated 118.1 billion gallons of sewage, generating
72 million dry pounds of sludge which was treated at the BRC.
• Construction of the BRC has eliminated ocean disposal of sewage sludge; however,
odors from the facility have been a source of community complaints.
Solid Waste
Because of the increased regulatory requirements for liners, leachate collection, and
groundwater monitoring, older landfills in the City of Philadelphia have been closed. There
are currently no active, permitted landfills in the City, and most solid waste is collected
throughout the city, transported to transfer stations and repackaged for transport to disposal
facilities outside of the city. The landfill closures, coupled with closure of municipal waste
incinerators, have resulted in greatly increased costs for trash disposal.
• In South and Southwest Philadelphia, illegal dumping has become a major source of
community concern. In the Study Area, illegal dumping ranges from illegal disposal of
household trash to violations involving oil and oil by-products. In response to the
growing problem, the Police Department has expanded its Environmental Crimes Unit,
which currently consists of 12 officers and two supervisors assigned to address such
issues.
» There are currently four operational private solid waste management facilities within
South and Southwest Philadelphia. An additional three facilities serve as recycling and
waste treatment facilities. Although these facilities serve to manage solid waste
throughout the City, community residents are concerned about a number of issues,
including site contamination, fire and illegal disposal practices. In addition, the trucks
which transport wastes to and from the transfer and recycling facilities have become
another source of vehicle emissions and a source of noise and dust pollution.
E-21
-------
Additional Issues of Environmental Health Concern
Hazardous Materials
• The Philadelphia Office of Emergency Management and the Fire Department
coordinate with the Local Emergency Planning Committee for hazardous material
responses. The number of hazardous material incidents in South and Southwest
Philadelphia has remained relatively constant for the for the period 1990-1995. In
1995, there were 339 hazardous material incidents in the Study Area, of which 335
required only Level 1 response.
• Ninety-five facilities within the Study Area submit annual reports of hazardous material
handling, use, and storage. Of these facilities, 30 listed use of extremely hazardous
substances in 1995. These facilities range from a major petroleum refinery to much
smaller facilities including meat and cheese storage lockers in small shops.
Lead
• The age of the Philadelphia housing stock presents a high risk of exposure from lead
paint. In the Study Area, 20.2% of 7332 children tested in 1994 showed blood lead
levels exceeding 15 micrograms per deciliter, the required State of Pennsylvania
reporting level. As shown in Table E-3, the number of blood poisonings > 15///dl
were slightly higher in Southwest Philadelphia than in South Philadelphia.
Radon
• Radon gas emitted from the decay of naturally occurring uranium in soil presents an
increased risk of lung cancer to residents living in homes and individuals working in
buildings with elevated airborne radon levels. A survey completed in 1995 showed that
5.5% of homes tested for radon in the Study Area had levels exceeding the EPA action
levelof4pCi/l.
Auto Body Shops
• Although the risk of community health effects related to individual auto body shops is
probably very low, there is concern that the cumulative emissions of many such
facilities in close proximity to residential housing may cause adverse health impacts.
The Standard Industrial Classification log for the Study Area lists 134 auto repair
shops. Figure E-12 exhibits the clustering of these facilities, and shows that they are
largely located within residential neighborhoods.
• An ATSDR health consultation reported a lack of association between exposure to
emissions from the auto body facilities and reported health outcomes. However, the
report cited that limited sampling data and a lack of exposure information limited the
ability to reach definitive conclusions about the relationship between health effects and
auto body shop emissions.
E-22
-------
Table E-3: Data on Childhood Blood Lead Tests in
South Philadelphia and Southwest Philadelphia5
# of children tested
blood lead 0 - 9 /zg/dl
blood lead 10-14 /*g/dl
blood lead 15-19 /xg/dl
blood lead 20 - 44 /ig/dl
blood lead 45 + /tg/dl
South Philadelphia
(census tracts 13 - 51)
1993
1778
658 (37%)
438(25%)
272(15%)
398 (22%)
12 (.7%)
1994
3857
2302 (57%)
846 (22%)
369 (10%)
322 (8%)
18 (.5%)
Southwest Philadelphia
(census tracts 52- 78)
1993
1702
556(33%)
399(23%)
288 (17%)
441 (26%)
18(1%)
1994
3475
1828(53%)
871 (25%)
415 (12%)
347 (10%)
14 (.4%)
5These data reflect venous test results and capillary results if there was not a venous test; therefore, there is
no double counting. Data obtained from the City of Philadelphia's Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program.
E-23
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Results of The Health Data Analysis
The health data analysis was conducted to profile the health status of the Study Area,
and to address community concerns about rates of illness and mortality in their neighborhoods.
The analysis is descriptive in nature. It is not an epidemiological study, and was not designed
to investigate associations with specific environmental factors. As in the environmental
characterization portion of the study, data were limited to South and Southwest Philadelphia.
Therefore, comparisons can not be made to other parts of the City. It should also be noted
that national data for mortality and cancer incidence was not available for the same time
periods as Study Area data. The development of rates and examination of disease trends is a
core function of public health. Such information can identify populations at risk, provide the
basis for prevention strategies, and profile community needs for health care services.
The health data analysis was based upon death certificate data and cancer incidence data
received from the Philadelphia Department of Public Health and the Pennsylvania Department
of Health. In response to stakeholder concerns, the analysis focused largely upon cancer
mortality and incidence. Other major causes of death were also examined. Mortality and
incidence rates were developed to present trends, compare the Study Area to other populations,
and examine differences between the neighborhoods. Since age is an important determinant of
health, age standardized rates were developed so that rates could be compared.
In interpreting the findings for cancer incidence and mortality it is important to
consider that cancer is a disease which takes many years, even decades, to develop. For
example, in smokers, 20 to 30 years may pass between the onset of smoking and the
development of lung cancer. A similar time lag, known as a latency period, is seen in worker
studies of cancer due to occupational exposures. Therefore, the cancer findings presented here
may not reflect current risk factors but may be related to past exposures.
Cancer Registry data may be limited in some years by under reporting of cancer cases
by health care providers. Another limitation of the health data analysis was the lack of
available data on the incidence of non-cancer illnesses. With the exception of a relatively
small number of reportable communicable diseases, data are not available to determine
community rates of illness. For example, although the community was very concerned about
asthma, it was not possible to develop accurate counts of the incidence or prevalence of the
disease in the Study Area. Recognizing the need to address concerns about asthma, the City
Department of Public Health has convened the Philadelphia Asthma Task Force.
E-25
-------
Major Causes of Mortality
• The top five causes of death in the Study Area are cardiovascular disease (heart
disease), malignant neoplasms (cancer), unintentional injuries or non-motor vehicle
accidents including drug overdoses, cerebrovascular disease (stroke), and
influenza/pneumonia. Heart disease and cancer are responsible for about half of all
deaths in the Study Area. Figure E-13 and Table E-4 compare the age-adjusted rates
for the top five causes of mortality in the Study Area with available national rates. The
rate of mortality for all causes in the Study Area was 838.3/100,000 for the years
1974-1993 as compared to the national rate of 542.6/100,000 for the years 1979-1993.
These findings are consistent with the generally observed national patterns of higher
mortality in urban communities. The distribution of leading causes of mortality is quite
similar, however the rates of death in the Study Area are higher than the national rates
with the exception of non-motor vehicle accidents.
• On the neighborhood level, Schuylkill-Point Breeze has the highest age-adjusted
average mortality rate for all causes among the eight neighborhoods in the Study Area.
South Broad-Girard Estates has the lowest. Average annual mortality rates for each
neighborhood are presented in Figure E-14.
E-26
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Table E- 4: Comparisons of Age-Adjusted Rates* for Mortality, Cancer
Mortality, and Cancer Incidence: South/Southwest Philadelphia and the
United States
Comparison of Average Age-Adjusted Mortality3 Rates
Mortality - All Causes
Heart Disease
Cancer - All Sites
Stroke
Influenza/Pneumonia
Accidents - Non-Motor Vehicle
Comparison of Age- Adjusted Cancer Mortality" Rates
Cancer - All Sites
Lung Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Breast Cancer (Female)
Colon Cancer**
Comparison of Average Age-Adjusted Cancer Incidence0 Rates
Cancer - All Sites
Lung Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Breast Cancer (Female)
Bladder
Colon Cancer"
Study Area
1974-1993
838.3
217.6
188.3
42.0
17.9
30.9
Study Area
1974-1993
188.3
53.6
19.4
28.5
17.4
Study Area
1985-1993
400.9
75.9
104.2
102.2
16.7
33.0
United States
1979-1993
542.6
173.6
133.4
32.3
12.9
35.2
United States
1989-1993
133.9
41
16.5
22.5
13.1
United States
1987-1991
390.4
58.2
123.0
109.5
16.9
48.2
a b Study Area data source. Pennsylvania Department of Health, Cancer Incidence and Mortality, 1988-1992
U S data source National Center for Health Statistics.Table 293.
http.//www cdc gov/nchswww/datawh/statab/unpubd/mortabs/
tab293.htm, p. 44 (November 1996)
c Study Area data source Pennsylvania Department of Health, Cancer Incidence and Mortality, 1988-1992
US data source National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 1995.
* All mortality data are age adjusted to 1940 U.S. standard population
Cancer incidence data are age adjusted to 1970 U.S. standard population
"Colon cancer data for the Study Area includes ICD-9 code 153
Colon cancer data for the United States includes ICD-9 codes 153 and 159
E-28
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Heart Disease
Heart disease is the nation's leading cause of death. Figure E-15 presents trends in
heart disease mortality since 1974. During this period, the national rate has declined
dramatically. Mortality has also declined in the Study Area, however the reduction has
been smaller and the rate remains higher (217.6 per 100,000) than the national rate
(173.6 per 100,000). In 1993, the most recent year reported, heart disease mortality in
the Study Area was 46% higher than the national rate.
Figure E-16 presents a map of the average annual age-adjusted heart disease mortality
rates for each of the Study Area neighborhoods. The highest rates in the Study Area
are found in Pennsport-Queen Village, Snyder-Whitman, and Paschall-Kingsessing.
South Broad-Girard Estates has the lowest mortality from heart disease.
Cancer Mortality
Average annual cancer mortality rates in the Study Area (188.3 per 100,000) are
approximately 40% higher than the national rate (133.9 per 100,000) as shown in Table
E-4. This increased mortality is generally consistent with rates observed in urban areas
throughout the country. Cancer mortality trends for the period 1974 through.1993
were analyzed and are presented in Figure E-17. During this time, the Study Area
shows a consistently increasing rate of cancer mortality which is similar to the trend for
the City as a whole. This contrasts with national rates which have remained stable with
a slight decrease in recent years.
Figure E-18 presents the average annual cancer mortality rates for each of the
neighborhoods. Schuylkill-Point Breeze has the highest rate in the Study Area, while
South Broad-Girard Estates has the lowest.
The leading causes of cancer death in the Study Area are cancers of the lung, colon,
prostate, and breast. Annual rates from 1974 through 1993 for these cancers, all other
sites, and all cancers combined are presented in Table E-5. The increasing rates of
cancer deaths in the Study Area are due in large part to increasing lung cancer deaths.
During this period, lung cancer deaths increased by about 50%. Mortality rates for the
other leading cancers have remained relatively stable.
Lung cancer is the major cause of cancer death both nationally and in the Study Area.
The average annual mortality rate for lung cancer in the Study Area is 53.6 per
100,000, which is 30% higher than the national rate of 41 per 100,000. Figure E-19
presents the average age-adjusted lung cancer mortality rates for the neighborhoods.
Pennsport-Queen Village has the highest rates, while South Broad-Girard Estates has
the lowest rates in the Study Area.
E-30
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• Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death among women. The annual
rates for the Stud) Area are higher than national rates and have remained relative!}
stable since 1974.
• Neighborhood breast cancer mortality rates are presented in Figure E-20. Schuylkill-
Point Breeze has the highest rate while Grays Ferry-Passyunk and Snyder-Whitman
have the lowest rates of breast cancer mortality.
Cancer Incidence
Cancer incidence is a measure of the number of new cases of cancer each year. Since
many cancers are not fatal or have increasing survival times, incidence rates provide a more
accurate picture than mortality rates of the risk of developing cancer. Incidence rates are
based upon Pennsylvania cancer registry data for the years 1985 through 1993.
The average annual cancer incidence rate for all sites was 400.9 per 100,000 for the
Study Area while the national rate was 390.4 per 100,00, as shown in Table E-4. Overall
cancer incidence is increasing both nationally and in the Study Area. Figure E-21 compares
the rates for the Study Area with national rates.
• Patterns of cancer incidence in the Study Area are consistent with other urban areas.
Figure E-22 compares South and Southwest Philadelphia to Baltimore. Age-adjusted
cancer incidence rates in the Study Area are lower for all sites, lung and prostate
cancer. The rates for breast, bladder and colon cancer are approximately the same as
those in Baltimore.
• Pennsport-Queen Village has the highest age-adjusted cancer incidence rate. Grays
Ferry-Passyunk and Paschall-Kingsessing have the lowest rates. Rates for each
neighborhood are presented in Figure E-23.
• The most commonly occurring cancers reported in the Study Area are lung, colon,
prostate, breast, and bladder as presented in Table E-4. Prostate cancer is the most
common cancer in males, and the age-adjusted incidence rate has more than doubled
between 1985 and 1993. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women and the
age-adjusted incidence rate increased by 23% between 1985 and 1993. Incidence rates
for both of these cancers, and lung cancer are increasing.
• Average age-adjusted incidence rates for leukemia in the Study Area neighborhoods are
generally similar to the national incidence of about 10 per 100,000 population. The
highest incidence rate was found in the neighborhood of Schuylkill-Point Breeze.
E-37
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Other Major Causes of Mortality
• In contrast to a gradual increase for the U.S., the mortality rate from influenza and
pneumonia has decreased in the Study Area from 1974 through 1993.
• Mortality from cerebrovascular disease (stroke) has decreased over 40% between 1974
and 1993 in the. Study Area, similar to trends seen in the City of Philadelphia and in the
United States as a whole. The average annual rate of mortality due to stroke was 42
per 100,000 in the Study Area, 30% higher than the U.S. rate of 32.3 per 100,000.
• Schuylkill-Point Breeze and Paschall-Kingsessing have the highest age-adjusted
mortality rates from cerebrovascular disease. These neighborhoods also have the
highest percentages of black population. National data has shown that the mortality
rate for cerebrovascular disease in blacks is more than 80% higher than the rate for
whites.6
• Over the 20 year period from 1974 through 1993, mortality frorrTchronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) has increased 5-fold in the Study Area.
• The rate of death from accidents, excluding motor vehicle accidents, is lower in the
Study Area (30.9 per 100,00) than the U.S. (35.2 per 100,00). This category includes
drug overdoses. The neighborhood with the highest crude and age-adjusted mortality
for accidents is Schuylkill-Point Breeze, more than double the rate of some of the
other neighborhoods.
• Grays Ferry-Passyunk and Paschall-Kingsessing have the highest rates of infant
mortality in the Study Area. A neighborhood comparison of low birth weight indicates
that these neighborhoods also have the highest rates of low birth weight babies.
• Diabetes mortality in the Study Area has steadily increased from 1974 to 1993, similar
to trends seen in the City and at the national level.
• Homicide rates in the Study Area and the City of Philadelphia, have shown larger
increases than in the nation as a whole. In 1993, the mortality rate from homicides was
about five times higher than the national rate.
6U.S Department of Health and Human Services, Health United States 1995. DHHS Publication No. 96-1232.
E-42
-------
Conclusions
The Community
The most fundamental environmental concern of the residents of South and Southwest
Philadelphia is that their homes are in close proximity to a broad range of industrial and
commercial facilities which may expose them to harmful pollutants.
Community concerns have been exacerbated by difficulties in obtaining basic
information about environmental decision-making in their neighborhoods. This has been an
impediment to community participation and contributed to a distrust of the industries and the
agencies which regulate them.
Over the past three decades there have been dramatic demographic changes in the Study
Area. The closure of many major facilities resulted in a dramatic decline in jobs. This
contributed to a decline in population of nearly 25 %, and resulted in a greater concentration of
poor and elderly residents remaining in the neighborhoods. These changes are similar to those
experienced in many major eastern cities.
The Environment
There have been many environmental improvements in the Study Area over the past
two decades. Available environmental monitoring data indicates steady improvement in air
and water quality, and reduction in the amounts of pollutants released to the environment.
Although the major federal environmental laws have lead to measurable progress, many
of the most vexing problems are beyond the authority of EPA. Protecting and improving the
urban environment requires a cooperative approach which recognizes and supports the roles of
state and local agencies.
Many of the concerns of the community are rooted in historical industrial zoning
practices and century old patterns of residential development. These practices have led to a
concentration of heavy industry and a wide variety of businesses and commercial facilities hi
residential neighborhoods.
Automobiles are, by far, the largest source of air pollution in the Study Area. The
results of the study indicate that motor vehicles are a major source of carbon monoxide and
volatile organic pollutants.
Currently available data are not sufficient to determine if Study Area residents are
being exposed to harmful levels of pollutants. Current monitoring focuses upon regional
environmental quality and does not provide measures of individual exposure.
E-43
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Public Health
The study was not designed to evaluate the relationship between environmental
pollution and disease. To examine the causes of disease, detailed epidemiological
investigations are required which include evaluation of specific exposures and other
behavioral, social, and environmental risk factors.
The health data analysis indicates that mortality rates for the major causes of death in
the Study Area are consistently higher than national rates. The findings are consistent with
observed patterns of higher mortality in urban areas throughout the nation.
Cancer mortality in the study area is 40% higher than the national rate. The rate of
mortality has been steadily increasing, largely due to increases in lung cancer deaths. Lung
cancer is the single largest cause of cancer deaths in the Study Area and throughout the nation.
Overall cancer incidence is increasing in the Study Area and nationally. The most
commonly occurring cancers are lung, colon, prostate, breast, and bladder. Mortality from
these cancers is largely preventable through healthy behavior, improved utilization of
preventive services and screening, and early detection and treatment.
The neighborhood level analysis underscores the strong impact of poverty on the health
of a community. The poorest neighborhoods have the poorest health.
The community expressed a wide range of concerns about the health of children.
Childhood asthma is a major concern, along with reproductive and developmental health.
Current data on these conditions is limited. EPA has recently announced a major Children's
Health Initiative which may help to address these concerns.
The health data analysis presents a profile of community health. Although the findings
are consistent with national trends, they do indicate that the residents of South and Southwest
Philadelphia are at elevated risk for developing a wide range of diseases. Given the constraints
of our current knowledge about the etiology of these diseases, it is not possible to measure the
impact of environmental quality on health. However, the adverse effects of many pollutants
are well documented and reducing environmental exposures is essential to protecting and
improving community health.
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Recommendations
The following recommendations were developed by Johns Hopkins with input and
comments from a broad range of stakeholders including the Community Advisory Committee,
Science Advisory Committee, and the Environmental Implementation Team.
• Develop a concrete plan for continuing and strengthening the communication links
between the agencies, community members, industry, and the academic community
which have been developed through the study. This should include specific plans and
support for the continuation of the HIT interagency group and the CAC community
advisors.
• To enhance communication, develop a strategy to improve public access to
environmental data bases. This should include development of tools such as geographic
information systems (GIS) to combine information from diverse sources and present it
in a format which is understandable and useful to decision makers and the public.
Build upon the community links established through the study, accept the community
a partner in the decision process and expand the opportunities for community-based
approaches to environmental improvement.
Develop a citizens guide to environmental health and protection in Philadelphia. The
purpose of the guide should be to describe the environmental decision-making process
and clearly define the roles of each agency involved in licensing, permitting and
environmental enforcement. The guide should provide the public with the answers to
the question "who's in charge?".
Provide the community with a clear explanation of zoning in the City of Philadelphia,
and examine the impact of historical "least restricted" zoning practices on the
environmental quality in the communities of South and Southwest Philadelphia.
Examine opportunities for re-zoning to improve environmental quality.
Continue the on-going educational initiatives through schools, environmental groups,
and community organizations to increase awareness and involvement in improving the
environment.
Examine the feasibility of considering a broader range of community health and
environmental characteristics when licensing, permitting, and citing new facilities.
Potential considerations may include concentration of existing facilities, cumulative
impact of multiple facilities on environmental quality, and proximity to vulnerable
population groups.
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Fill in the gaps in our understanding of com^'inity exposures by developing strategies
to measure the levels of key pollutants in t' ivironment. This should include
consideration of ambient monitoring, "fenc .ne" monitoring, household
measurements, and individual sampling.
Establish an approach to routinely evaluate and present health data, such as a public
health scorecard of health indicators, to guide community health prevention strategies
and respond to community concerns about their health. This should include an
expanded capacity to conduct epidemiological studies and health risk assessments to
improve current understanding of the potential health impacts of environmental
exposures.
Recognize that the study has detailed a number of specific community concerns and
develop agency specific responses to those concerns.
To evaluate the long range impact of the study and the HIT, develop an "environmental
report card" which tracks trends and uses the study results as a framework to measure
environmental progress.
Identify opportunities for reducing elevated rates of disease and mortality, focusing an
those which are preventable through smoking prevention and cessation, prevention and
screening services, and early detection and treatment.
Develop an approach to children's health to better understand environmental exposures
and prevent adverse health effects. This should build upon existing maternal and child
health initiatives and include a strategy for the prevention and treatment of childhood
asthma.
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I. Study Structure
A. Advisory Committees
i. Community Participation
At the beginning of the study, Johns Hopkins sought the active participation of the
community. Their input was crucial in helping to focus the study from literally hundreds of
identified sources of pollution to a manageable number which have focused the detailed
review. Throughout the study, Johns Hopkins continued to solicit the input of the advisory
committees and the broader community to focus the issues and approach for dam gathering,
summarization, and evaluation. Following are community related activities which have been
conducted as part of the study.
Community Advisory Committee (CAC)
The purpose of the CAC was to provide advice throughout the conduct of the study,
and to assist in identifying short term measures which can be implemented to improve the
quality of the environment in the Study Area. The CAC also assisted Johns Hopkins in
identifying pollution sources and environmental health concerns in the community. CAC
meetings were held quarterly, rotating between South and Southwest Philadelphia. Seven
meetings convened during the course of this study:
June 12, 1995
September 14, 1995
December 12, 1995
March 27, 1996
June 26, 1996
September 25, 1996
December 4, 1996
There were 20 active members on the CAC who live or work within the Study Area.
Each member agreed to the terms set forth in the "Job Description" for CAC members
(Appendix III). Following are the organizations that were represented by the CAC members:
• Eastwick Project Area Committee
• Guyer Resident's Association
• Healthy Family/Healthy Life, Inc.
• Moorish America Society
• Packer Park Civic Association
PACO-ACORN
• Passyunk Homes Tenant Council
• South Philadelphia Environmental Action Coalition
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• South Philadelphia School Board
• Southwest Community Development Corporation
• Southwest Community Enrichment Center
• Southwest Community Services
• Southwest Enlisted Against Toxics
• Southwest Philadelphia Community Taskforce
• Stadium Community Council
• Non-affiliated members
In an effort to include as many viewpoints as possible, contact was made with various
other community organizations to identify additional membership on the CAC. These
organizations include the following:
• Alliance for Community Improvement/Outreach Community Volunteers
• Baptist Clergy
• Community Development Corporation
• Greater Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce
• Indo-Cultural Family Services
• South Philadelphia Communities Civic Association
• South of South Neighborhood Association
• Vietnamese Mennonite Church
Meetings were also attended by JHU project team members and representatives of EPA
Region III. On March 27, 1996, guests from the project Science Advisory Board, Sun Oil
Refinery, and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection were invited to
participate in the CAC meeting.
Members of the CAC have served to guide the study approach and methods and have
helped to focus research questions. Following are ways in which the CAC members have
contributed to the research effort:
• served as a conduit for information transfer (disseminated information at
churches, libraries, through articles in newspapers/newsletters, and at
neighborhood/community meetings)
• provided lists of issues of concern
• showed photographs of releases
• provided news clippings
• raised specific concerns to be addressed by the EIT
(short dump sites, facilities with unsecured access, etc.)
• provided input and feedback on information contained in the Interim Findings
Reports
• developed recommendations (located in Appendix I)
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The JHU project team also attended a variety of public meetings in order to reach a
broader community and participate in information exchange, inform the community about the
Study and preliminary findings. Other community meetings attended include:
• Community /Labor Refineries Tracking Committee - March 23, 1995
• Philadelphia Baptist Association - April 1, 1995
• Meeting sponsored by the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council
Waste and Facility Siting Subcommittee - June 7, 1995
• Philadelphia Air Pollution Control Board Meeting - August 8, 1995
• Auto Body Repair Shops - September 26, 1995
• Study Interim Findings - November 15, 1995
• Supplemental Air Sampling - March 6, 1996
• Defense Personnel Support Center Restoration Advisory Board - May 21, 1996
To solicit specific input on the Study or on specific concerns raised by trie CAC, JHU
project team members met individually with members of various community groups,
industries, and associations, including:
• South Philadelphia Communities Civic Association' - March 6, 1995
National Ministries, American Baptist Churches - March 6, 1995
Clean Air Council - September 11, 1995
• Clean Water Action - March 13, 1995
PEW Charitable Trusts - May 23, 1995
Philadelphia Public Interest Law Firm - July 10, 1996
• Southwest Water Pollution Control Plant - September 12, 1995
Sun Oil Refinery - December 4, 1995; March 28, 1996
• Defense Personnel Support Center - February 23, 1996
USN Philadelphia Naval Shipyard - March 13, 1996
• University of Pennsylvania Department of Epidemiology - April 25, 1996
• Philadelphia Health Management Corporation - May 1, 1996
• Restoration Advisory Board - May 21, 1996
• Residents of the Passyunk Homes - June 26, 1996
• Meeting with EPA representatives of Sun Oil, DPSC, Dupont Marshall Labs,
and Ashland Chemical - November 26, 1996
Members of the CAC were asked to provide lists of facilities/issues of environmental
and health concern within the Study Area. Tables 1 and 2 list these concerns. The CAC
members have individually ranked the issues in terms of health concern. The lists haVe been
compiled and summarized and the overall ranking list is included in Appendix III.
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Table 1: Environmental Concerns Defined by the Community Advisory Committee
Emissions from industrial operations, including:
Sun Oil Refinery
M.A. Bruder and Sons
Auto Body and Repair Shops
Dupont Marshall Labs
Inolex Chemical
Ashland Chemical
Bil Dry Corporation
GE Skeats High Power Laboratory
Abandoned/Closed Industrial Facilities
National Heat and Power
ORFA Corporation
Keystone Oil Refinery
Publicker Superfund Site
Old Barrett Building
Former box assembly plant on Gray's Avenue
Odors and Air Emissions from:
Southwest Water Pollution Control Plant
Southeast Water Pollution Control Plant
Biosolids Recycling Center
Particulate emissions from activities associated with:
Soil Remediation of Philadelphia
Philadelphia Recycling and Transfer Station
Delaware Valley Recycling
TRC, Inc.
Dilworth Recycling and Transfer Station
Girard Point Transfer Station
Atlantic Coast Demolition and Recycling
Underground Petroleum Plumes
including the plume underlying the Defense Personnel Support Center
Illegal Dumping and trash transfer, including
Former factory at 70th and Kingessing
Woodland Oxygen Company
Proposed Facilities
C.R. Warner
new stadiums
Asbestos, associated with:
SEPTA Building, National Heat and Power Company
Re-use Plans for Military Facilities, including:
USN Philadelphia Naval Shipyard
Naval Hospital
Defense Personnel Support Center
Naval Home
Emissions from Traffic associated with:
stadiums, airports, expressways, and major roads
Noise from traffic and industrial operations
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In addition, Lois Banks, the JHU Community Coordinator maintained continuous
communication with community members. This link provided the community with ongoing
information concerning the study, and enabled JHU to address concerns which arose during the
course of the study.
Table 2: Health Concerns Defined by the
Community Advisory Committee
Cancer Rates
Asthma, especially in children
Other Respiratory Illnesses
Chemical Sensitivity
Infant Mortality
Lead Poisoning
Several additional concerns were expressed by members of the CAC which include
more general issues. These are listed in Table 3.
Table 3: Additional Concerns Expressed by the Community Advisory
Committee
Environmental Justice Issues:
Vitality of neighborhoods
Odors from sewers at Passyunk Homes public housing facility
Contaminated soil at Passyunk Homes public housing facility
Abandoned facilities
Air monitoring equipment and station locations
Regulatory/Enforcement Issues:
Compliance with federal standards
Unpermitted industrial operations
Lax zoning regulations
Lack of Communication Between Agencies and Community:
Evacuation plan for the City of Philadelphia
Lack of information when spills/fires/other incidents occur in industries
Concern regrading continued commitment and support of EPA and other
agencies in the study
Miscellaneous:
Cumulative effects of pollutants from a variety of sources
Underground pipelines and storage tanks
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Tours conducted
To get a visual sense and understand the Study Area, several tours were condv 'ed,
both of individual facilities and of neighborhoods. Several of the tours were conducts by or
involved participation of community members. These tours included:
• EPA site tour - January, 1995
• Southwest Philadelphia community with the Philadelphia Health Department
and the Air Management Services - July 20, 1995
Sun Oil Refineries - March 24, 1995 and December 4, 1995
• Tour with EPA Regional Administrator, City Officials, Journalist - April-12,
1995
JHU Project team tour of Study Area- July 10, 1995
Southwest Philadelphia with CAC member - July 17, 1995
Southwest Water Pollution Control Plant - September 12, 1995
• South Philadelphia community with CAC member - February 9, 1996
• Defense Personnel Support Center - February 23, 1996
USN Philadelphia Naval Shipyard - March 13, 1996
• Passyunk Homes - June 26, 1996
In addition, the project study team spent a significant amount of time walking the Study
Area to gain a sense of community perspective.
CAC members worked tirelessly to identify environmental and health issues that pose
major concern for the South and Southwest Philadelphia communities. The issues identified
have aided in the development of a framework for characterizing the environmental health
needs of the Study Area.
Educational Sessions
In addition a series of educational sessions have been initiated with the community
members. The purpose of the sessions was to describe the scientific methods used in this
study, answer questions about the findings, and assist the community in applying the study
results to solving community environmental problems.
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ii. Science Advisory Committee
The Science Advisory Committee (SAC) was comprised of academic scientists from
Philadelphia universities and other professionals in the environmental health and related fields.
The major purpose of the SAC was to serve as a technical peer review committee on the study
approach and findings.
Members represented the following organizations:
• University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
• Temple University
• Drexel University
• University of Pennsylvania Department of Geology
• Allegheny University of the Health Sciences
• Thomas Jefferson University
• Fox Chase Cancer Center
The PEW Charitable Trusts
• Philadelphia Health Management Corporation
A major task of the Committee was the review of study results and active participation
in the development of recommendations. An approach to setting priorities and ranking risks
was discussed with the SAC as well as potential interaction with any future comparative risk
projects which are now being considered by EPA and the City.
Among the roles of the SAC was to bring together the academic community to
strengthen the base for environmental public health within the City of Philadelphia. One
major goal was to establish sustainable bridges between regulatory agencies, the communities,
and the academic scientists. For example, this participation will be important to the
establishment of the Allegheny University of the Health Sciences School of Public Health. To
facilitate the establishment of these relationships, JHU invited SAC members to meetings with
agency personnel and the CAC. This will help strengthen existing environmental research and
educational capacities within Philadelphia.
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iii. Environmental Implementation Team
The Environmental Implement m Team (HIT) is a committee consisting of
representatives of local, state, and federal agencies organized to address both short and long-
term issues identified during the course of the study. The committee was convened to develop
a working group of governments to collectively address issues raised by the community or
identified during data collection and evaluation by the JHU research team.
Members of the BIT represent the following organizations:
• City of Philadelphia Law Department
• City of Philadelphia Managing Director's Office
• City of Philadelphia Health Department
• Philadelphia Local Emergency Planning Committee
• Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PaDEP)
• Region III Environmental Protection Agency
The new mission of the EIT is to improve the environment in Philadelphia by providing
an intergovernmental forum for collaboratively addressing environmental issues in
Philadelphia.
The inter-agency working group met 7 times to discuss issues of concern raised by the
community and to begin to provide a coordinated approach to addressing these issues.
Members of the JHU research team have attended the meetings to provide information about
the study and to relate community concerns. As a result of the meetings, the EIT has
conducted the following:
• EPA, the City of Philadelphia, and the PaDEP conducted a site visit of Keystone Oil
Refinery and National Health and Power which resulted in a permanent injunction for
abatement of asbestos in the boiler room at Keystone and a cleanup agreement with
National Heat and Power based on priorities agreed upon by all three levels of
government.
• The City Solicitor's Office brought together various offices responsible for addressing
short dumping and is working with the Managing Director's Office to explore the
possibility of forming a permanent working group.
At the January 17, 1997 meeting of the EIT, it was agreed that a small "off-line"
advisory group of City, PaDEP and EPA representatives would be formed. This advisory
group will develop recommendations for defining endpoints for evaluation and establishing a
monitoring plan. Both the CAC and Hopkins recommendations will be reviewed and
considered during the planning and development of EIT recommendations.
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Specific sites of concern identified by the community have been evaluated by members
of the HIT and profiled on EPA update newsletters to provide the community
information on various cleanup and environmental activities in their neighborhoods.
The sites were not necessarily reviewed because of potential non-compliance issues.
Among the facilities that the BIT has begun to address are:
Fleet Management Services National Heat and Power
Keystone Oil Refinery Abandoned Building at 36th/Wharton/Grays Ferry
Publicker Industries Potential Low-Level Radioactive Waste Facility
Delaware Valley Recycling Inolex Chemical Company
Sun Oil Refinery Southeast Transfer Station
TRC, Inc Dilworth Recycling and Transfer Station
Girard Point Transfer Station Atlantic Coast Demolition and Recycling
GE Skeats High Power Lab Bil-Dry Corporation
SEPTA Building Southeast WPCP Grit Incinerator
Dr. Tom Burke, Nadia Shalauta, and Dr. Jon Samet have met with city public health
officials to discuss results of air research that has been conducted by Dr. Samet and
others in Philadelphia and other U.S. cities which shows correlation of paniculate
levels and increased mortality.
Indoor air quality monitoring has been conducted at homes where complaints have been
received.
PaDEP's mobile air monitoring lab has been used for air monitoring in the Study Area.
Members of the EIT have met with representatives of Sun Oil and DPSC to discuss a
coordinated effort to delineate the extent of the oil plume which underlies the DPSC
facility and evaluate potential exposures and effects on public health.
Other issues that have been raised by the EIT include a program to improve awareness
and compliance with environmental regulations at auto body and repair shops,
approaches for controlling short dumping, and pollution and noise related to truck
traffic.
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B. Data Collection/Sources of Data
A large variety of sources of data have been reviewed to compile information on the
environmental contamination and health status of the communities within South and Southwest
Philadelphia. The following agencies and other organizations were contacted to provide
information for the study.
i. Agencies
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
• U.S. Bureau of the Census
• U.S. Geological Survey
• U.S. Department of Transportation
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (formerly the
Department of Environmental Resources)
• Pennsylvania Department of Health
• City of Philadelphia Health Department
• City of Philadelphia Air Management Services
• City of Philadelphia Water Department
• City of Philadelphia Planning Commission
• City of Philadelphia Fire Department
• City of Philadelphia Police Department
• Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission
• New York City Health Department
• Allegheny County
• Baltimore City Health Department
• New Jersey Department of Health
ii. Government Military Installations
USN Philadelphia Naval Base
• Defense Personnel Support Center
iii. Private Organizations
• Clean Air Council
• Philadelphia Health Management Corporation
• Philadelphia Public Interest Law Firm
• Sun Oil Refinery
• Clean Water Action
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iv. Community Organizations
• Alliance for Community Improvement/Outreach Community Volunteers Baptist
Clergy
• Community Development Corporation
• Greater Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce
• Indo-Cultural Family Services
• South Philadelphia Communities Civic Association
• South of South Neighborhood Association
• Vietnamese Mennonite Church
• Southwest Philadelphia Community Taskforce
PACO-ACORN
• Southwest Community Services
• South Philadelphia Community School Board
v. Databases
Several databases which are used by governmental agencies to track facility and source
specific information have been consulted. The following lists the databases reviewed and
information tracked by each.
Federal:
AIRS - Aerometric Information Retrieval System
AIRS stores information on air quality, point source emissions, and area/mobile
source data required by the Clean Air Act. Monitoring data for criteria
pollutants as reported under State Implementation Plans (SIPs) are included.
BRS - Biennial Reporting System
BRS includes selective information on sites which generate, transport, store,
treat and/or dispose of hazardous waste as defined by the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA).
CERCLIS - Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and
Liability Information System
CERCLIS contains information on sites identified by the US EPA as abandoned,
inactive or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites which may require cleanup.
ERNS - Emergency Response Notification System
ERNS records and stores information on reported releases of oil and hazardous
substances.
FINDS - Facility Index System
FINDS contains facility specific information and also indicates other sources or
databases which contain more detailed information regarding the facility.
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HMIRS - Hazardous Material Information Reporting System
HMIRS contains hazardous material spill incidents reported to the Department
of Transportation.
Landview
Geographic software developed by EPA and the Census Bureau capable of
mapping economic and demographic information, as well as EPA-regulated sites
across the country. TRIS, CERCLIS, PCS, BRS, and AIRS data are included.
NLM databases
The National Library of Medicine maintains databases such as TOXNET and
Medline which provide information on hazardous properties of pollutants, and
describe recognized risk factors for diseases being investigated.
NPL - National Priority List
NPL is a subset of CERCLIS and identifies over 1200 sites for priority cleanup
under the Superfund Program.
NPL LIENS - Federal Superfund Liens
Under the authority granted to the USEPA by the Comprehensive Response,
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980, the USEPA can file liens
against real property in order to recover remedial action expenditures or when
the property owner receives notification of potential liability. USEPA compiles
a listing of filed notices of Superfund Liens.
PADS - PCB Activity Database System
PADS identifies generators, transporters, commercial storers and/or brokers and
disposers of polychlorinated biphenyls who are required to notify the EPA of
such activities.
PCS - Permit Compliance System
PCS tracks permits, compliance status, and enforcement information for the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program under the
Clean Water Act. Information in this data base includes both industrial sources
and municipal treatment facilities.
RAATS - RCRA Administrative Action Tracking System
RAATS contains records based on enforcement actions issued under RCRA
pertaining to major violators and includes administrative and civil actions
brought by the EPA.
RCRIS - Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System
RCRIS includes selective information on sites which generate, transport, store,
treat and/or dispose of hazardous waste as defined by the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA).
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• TRIS - Toxic Chemical Release Inventory System
TRIS identifies facilities which release toxic chemicals to the air, water, and
land in reportable quantities under SARA Title III Section 313.
• TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TSCA identifies manufacturers and importers of chemical substances included
on the TSCA Chemical Substance Inventory list. The list includes data on the
production volume of these substances by plant site.
State of Pennsylvania Records:
• LUST - Leaking Underground Storage Tank
LUST records contain an inventory of reported leaking underground storage
tank incidents.
SHWS - State Hazardous Waste Sites
SHWS records are the states' equivalent to CERCLIS. These sites may or may
not already be listed on the federal CERCLIS list. Priority sites planned for
cleanup using state funds (state equivalent to Superfund) are identified along
with sites where cleanup will be paid for by potentially responsible parties.
SWF/LS - Solid Waste Facilities/Landfill Sites
SWF/LS records typically contain an inventory of solid waste disposal facilities
or landfills in a particular state. Depending on the state, these may be active or
inactive facilities or open dumps that failed to meet RCRA Section 2004 criteria
for solid waste landfills or disposal sites.
• UST -Registered Underground Storage Tanks
USTs are regulated under Subtitle I of the RCRA and must be registered with
the state department responsible for administering the UST program.
vi. Other Sources of Information
To include as much information as possible, other sources of data listed below have
also been consulted:
EPA Geographic Information Systems files Standard Industrial Classification
Philadelphia Inquirer Philadelphia Daily News
South Philadelphia Review Philadelphia City Paper
Agency World Wide Web locations Government Internet files
Medline Searches of Published Journal Articles
1-13
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping capabilities have been utilized to help
understand the location of various sources of environment'! contamination relative to the
residential populations. As examples of the spatial data that has been generated, Figures 1 and
2 provide the locations of gasoline service stations and dry-cleaners in the Study Area. The
facility locations overlay data generated by EPA which estimates emissions of volatile organic
compounds in the Study Area.
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C. Study Area Description
i. Geographic Boundaries
The South and Southwest Philadelphia Study Area is a region of approximately 26
square miles. The borders of the Study Area are as follows:
North: Baltimore Avenue in the Western part of the Study Area and South
Street in the Eastern portion of the Study Area.
East: Delaware River
South: Delaware River and the Philadelphia County Line
West: Cobbs Creek
South Philadelphia consists of the region to the East of the Schuylkill River and
Southwest Philadelphia lies to the West of the River.
The Study Area resembles many densely populated Eastern urban regions consisting of
residential neighborhoods interspersed with both light and heavy manufacturing industries,
public and private agencies, hospitals, schools, churches, recreational facilities, major
highways, and rail and air transportation. Following are the neighborhoods within the Study
Area boundaries (see Figure 3):l
South Philadelphia
census tracts 12-51
Bella Vista
Grays Ferry
Passyunk
Point Breeze
Schuylkill
South Broad
Whitman
Southwest Philadelphia
census tracts 52, 54 - 75
portions of Angora
Elmwood
portions of Mt. Moriah
portions of Sherwood
Girard Estates
Packer Park (including Stadium Area)
Pennsport
Queen Village
Snyder
Southwark
Eastwick
Kingsessing
Paschall
1 Neighborhood delineations vary depending on the source consulted. The neighborhoods defined here are
inclusive of the census tracts identified. Neighborhoods may be identified by other names in subsequent sections of
the report; however, every effort was made to include all neighborhoods of South and Southwest Philadelphia. These
neighborhood delineations have been used for City planning purposes and for health data evaluations by the
Pennsylvania Health Management Corporation.
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In order to provide comparisons between tr eighborhoods of the Study Area, eight
neighborhood groups have been identified:
Southwest Philadelphia
Paschall-Kingsessing
Eastwick-Elmwood
South Philadelphia
Grays Ferry-Passyunk
Schyulkill-Point Breeze
Southwark-Bella Vista
Pennsport-Queen Village
South Broad-Girard Estates
Snyder-Whitman
Figure 3 is a CIS map indicating the Study Area neighborhood delineations. These
neighborhood groups were selected to be consistent with health data provided by the
Philadelphia Health Management Corporation and were originally defined by the City Planning
Department.2 GIS maps (indicating street boundaries) of these neighborhoods are included in
Appendix II.
2 Ibid.
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ii. Demographics
To understand tne communities in the Study Area, demographic data have been
collected from the 1970, 1980, and 1990 U.S. Censuses. Since demographic measures such as
age, poverty, and race contribute to risk of disease, this information is important in developing
strategies for prevention. The following information was reported for South and Southwest
Philadelphia in the 1990 U.S. Census.
Total Population: 252,771
• Racial distribution: White 54.5%
Black 41.1%
American Indian 0.17%
Asian/Pacific Islander 3.44%
Other Race 0.76%
• Gender Distribution: Females 53 %
Males 47%
• Range of Neighborhood Averages of Per Capita Income (see Figure 4):
$8,045 (Paschall-Kingsessing) - $16,236 (Pennsport-Queen Village)
• Persons below poverty level: 58,116
Families below poverty level: 12,167
The population of South and Southwest Philadelphia has been steadily decreasing since
the 1970s. Figure 5 shows, by neighborhood, population trends from 1970 to 1990 as
reported by the U.S. Census Bureau. Figure 6 presents the percent of persons below poverty
level within the Study Area neighborhoods. The highest percentage of persons below poverty
level is in the Paschall-Kingsessing neighborhoods at 5.81% of the total Study Area
population, while the lowest number of persons below poverty level is in the neighborhoods of
Eastwick-Elmwood (1.43% of the total Study Area population).
1-20
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Neighborhood Profiles
Following is a brief de^ iption of the demographic profile of each of the Study Area
neighborhoods. The information is based on data form the 1990 U.S. Census.
Southwest Philadelphia
Eastwick-Elmwood
Eastwick-Elmwood in Southwest Philadelphia includes census tracts 54-62, 67, and 68.
The neighborhood of Eastwick-Elmwood has a population of 28,985, which constitutes 11.5
percent of the total Study Area population. According to the 1990 Census, the racial and
ethnic distribution of Eastwick-Elmwood is 75 percent white, 23 percent black, two percent
Asian, and less than one percent from other racial groups. The median income for Eastwick-
Elmwood families was $34,953 and the per capita income is $12,898.
Paschall-Kingsessing
Paschall-Kingsessing in Southwest Philadelphia includes census tracts 63-66, 69-72, 73-
75 (census tract 52 is a non-residential tract and thus was not included in the analysis). The
1990 Census reports a population of 52,847. This represents approximately 21 percent of the
Study Area population. The racial and ethnic distribution of Paschall-Kingsessing is 81
percent black, 16 percent white, two percent Asian, and one percent from other racial groups.
According to the 1990 Census, the median income for families is $23,199 and the per capita
income is $8,045.
South Philadelphia
Grays Ferry-Passyunk
Grays Ferry-Passyunk in South Philadelphia includes census tracts 33-36, 46-48, 50,
and 51. This neighborhood has a population of approximately 27,086, which represents 10.7
percent of the Study Area population. Of the residents in this neighborhood, 56 percent are
white, 41 percent are black, two percent are Asian, less than one percent are Native American,
and one percent are from other racial groups. According to the 1990 Census, the median
income for families is $21,311 and the per capita income in this neighborhood is $10,854.
Pennsport-Queen Village
Pennsport-Queen Village in South Philadelphia includes census tracts 15-18 and 25-27'.
The neighborhood of Pennsport-Queen Village has a population of approximately 21,020.
This represents 8.3 percent of the Study Area population. Of the residents in this
neighborhood, 65 percent are white, 29 percent are black, four percent are Asian, two percent
are from other racial groups and the remainder are Native American. According to the 1990
Census, the median income for families is $28,469 and the per capita income is $16,236.
1-24
-------
Schuylkill-Point Breeze
Schuylkill-Point Breeze in South Philadelphia includes census tracts 13,14, 19-22, 31,
and 32. The 1990 Census reports a neighborhood population of 30,098, which constitutes
approximately 11.9 percent of the Study Area population. Of this population, 13 percent are
white, 86 percent are black, one percent are Asian and less than one percent are Native
Americans or from other racial groups. According to the 1990 Census, the median income for
families is $17,566 and the per capita income is $8,383.
Snyder-Whitman
Snyder-Whitman in South Philadelphia includes census tracts 41, 42, and 44. The
neighborhood of Snyder-Whitman has a population of 25,526, which represents approximately
10.1 percent of the Study Area population. Of the residents in this neighborhood, 83 percent
are white, 10 percent are black, six percent are Asian, less than one percent are Native
Americans, and one percent are from other racial groups. According to the 1990 census, the
median income for families is $25,534 and the per capita income is $9,174.
South Broad-Girard Estates
South Broad-Girard Estates in South Philadelphia includes census tracts 37-40 and 45
(43 and 49 are non-residential tracts and thus were not included in the demographic analysis).
The neighborhood of South Broad-Girard Estates has a population of 39,020, which represents
approximately 15.4 percent of the Study Area population. Of the residents in this
neighborhood, 88 percent are white, 10 percent are black, two percent are Asian, and less than
one percent are from other racial groups. According to the 1990 Census, the median income
for families is $31,595 and the per capita income is $13,082.
Southwark-Bella Vista
Southwark-Bella Vista in South Philadelphia includes census tracts 23, 24, and 28-30.
According to the 1990 Census, the neighborhood of Southwark-Bella Vista has a. population of
28,189, which represents approximately 11.2 percent of the Study Area population. Of the
residents in this neighborhood, 69 percent are white, 18 percent are black, and 11 percent are
Asian, less than one percent are Native American, and one percent are from other racial
groups. The median income for families is $24,158 and the per capita income is $11,386.
NOTE: Appendix II includes more detailed demographic information about each of the Study
Area neighborhoods based on data from the 1970, 1980, and 1990 U.S. Census reports.
1-25
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II. Environmental Characterization
A. Media Specific Data
i. Toxic Release Inventory
As part of the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986
(EPCRA), EPA collects information from manufacturing facilities on releases of toxic
chemicals to the environment. The Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) is compiled annually and
contains information on the release and off-site transfer of 328 chemicals and 20 chemical
categories. Manufacturers with 10 or more employees who either use 10,000 pounds or
manufacture or process 25,000 pounds of one of the listed chemicals must report annually to
EPA and to the State.1 Information reported includes:
• amount of each listed chemical released to the environment or transferred off-
site for treatment or disposal;
• maximum amount of each listed chemical present at the facility the previous
year;
• treatment or disposal methods used;
• activities conducted at the facility involving the toxic chemical;
• source reduction activities undertaken to prevent pollution and waste generation;
• environmental permits held by the facility; and,
• name and telephone number of the facility contact person.
In South and Southwest Philadelphia, there are eleven facilities which report to the
TRI. These facilities include:
GE Breaker Facility
M.A. Bruder and Sons, Inc.
Sun Refining and Marketing Co.
Dupont Marshall Lab
Lerro Products, Inc.
Ashland Chemical, Inc.
Inolex Chemical Co.
Glenco Star
Hygrade Food Products Corp.
La France
Oscar Mayer
6901 Elmwood Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19142
52nd and Grays Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19143
3001 Penrose Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19145
3201 Grays Ferry Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19146
1727 Carpenter Street, Philadelphia, PA 19146
2801 Christopher Columbus, Philadelphia, PA 19148
Jackson and Swanson Streets, Philadelphia, PA 19148
8000 Executive Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19153
8400 Executive Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19153
8425 Executive Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19153
3333 South Front Street, Philadelphia, PA 19101
1987 was the first year for which manufacturing facilities were required to report their
chemical releases or transfers to EPA under EPCRA. Facilities report their releases in pounds
'U.S. EPA, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Toxic Release Inventory Public Data Release, March
1995, EPA 745-R-95-010.
2-1
-------
emitted to air, water, land, transferred to publicly-owned treatment works (POTWs), or
transferred off-site for treatment or disposal. Data from the individual facilities has been
compiled to evaluate total releases by medium and off-site transfers throughout the Study Area
for the period 1987 through 1984. The TRI-reported releases for each facility are located in
Appendix IV.
Figure 7 shows the percentage distribution of the releases in South and Southwest
Philadelphia from 1987 through 1994 to each media, POTW or off-site transfer. The figure
shows that 62 % of the chemical waste generated by the eleven reporting facilities is transferred
off-site for treatment or disposal. The majority of emissions are to air (83%), while emissions
to water (6.6%), land (2.8%) and POTWs (7.6%) are much lower.
Figure 8 shows the actual pounds of reported emissions. From 1987 through 1994, the
eleven TRI facilities in the Study Area reported releases of 4,068,118 pounds of chemicals to
the air, 322,062 pounds to water, and 138,276 pounds to land. Figure 9 presents the trend of
total off-site transfers and environmental emissions as reported for the Study Area from 1987
to 1994. A closer look at the top ten chemicals released to air is shown in Figure 10. Benzene
was reported as the compound released to air in highest quantity (705,823 pounds) from 1987
through 1994. Toluene and cumene were released to air in the second and third, highest
quantities, 660,056 and 478,572 pounds, respectively.
Figure 11 shows the trend of the top five compounds released to air. The figure shows
that the general trend of releases to air has been declining from 1987 through 1994. Similarly,
releases to land, water, and POTWs have also exhibited a general decline as shown in Figures
12, 13, and 14. TRI-reported releases of ammonia to water is presented separately in Figure
15. Only two facilities reported releases to water from 1987 through 1994. The total TRI-
reported transfer of ethylene glycol to POTWs is also shown separately hi Figure 16.
The trend of off-site transfers of compounds from 1987 through 1994 has varied, as
shown in Figure 17. Even among the top ten compounds transferred off-site, most have
trended downwards, such as aluminum and diethanolamine. Other compounds transferred off-
site have not had a clear downward trend, but have varied over the 8-year period, such as
phosphoric acid and toluene.
Although TRI is useful in evaluating emissions from large industrial sources within the
Study Area, it does not include facilities which have fewer than 10 employees or facilities that
do not meet the minimum chemical thresholds. Facilities including autobody and repair shops,
dry-cleaning establishments, schools, hospitals, and many other industries do not report their
releases of chemical compounds under the TRI. Therefore, the data do not represent a
comprehensive estimate of emissions or releases for the Study Area.
Appendix X contains chemical fact sheets from the TRI database which include health
hazard information.
2-2
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2-13
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ii. Air Quality and Emissions Data
Regulations promulgated in 1970 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
under the Clean Air Act (CAA) have served to significantly reduce levels of pollutants in the
ambient air throughout the country. Industrial areas have achieved reductions in air pollution
largely by technological interventions such as filtering systems, and process and chemical
substitutions.
As part of its control program, EPA has designated national ambient air quality
standards (NAAQS) for six pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone
(O3), lead (Pb), paniculate matter (PM10), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). These pollutants are
referred to as criteria pollutants. Table 4 lists the criteria pollutants and standard levels, as
well as populations that are especially sensitive to these pollutants and health effects that may
result from overexposure to the compounds.
Table 4: Urban Air Pollution, Sensitive Populations, and Air Quality Standards2
Pollutant
CO
NO2
Ozone
Lead
PM10*
SO2
Sensitive
Populations
individuals with
coronary artery
disease
children, asthmatics
exercising children
and young adults
fetuses and young
children
individuals with
respiratory disease
asthmatics
Effects
myocardial ischemia (including
angina) during exercise
respiratory symptoms, decrements
in lung function, increased airway
reactivity
respiratory symptoms, lung function
decrements, decrease in exercise
capacity, lung inflammation
impairment of neural development
increased mortality, respiratory
symptoms, decrements in lung
function
respiratory symptoms, decrements
in lung function
Sample
Collection
Time
1 hr
8hr
lyr
1 hr
3 mo
24 hr
lyr
24 hr
lyr
Primary
NAAQS
35 ppm
9 ppm
0.053** ppm
0.12 ppm
l.S^g/m3
150 yug/m3
50 ^ug/m3**3
0.14 ppm
0.03 ppm
paniculate matter less than 10 /urn in diameter; ** arithmetic mean
Table adapted from: Utell, Mark J., Jane Warren, Robert Sawyer, "Public Health Risks from Motor Vehicle
Emissions," Annual Review of Public Health, vol. 15, 1994, pp. 157-178.
'U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1993.
2-14
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AIRS Database
The Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) is a computer database which
contains information on air pollution throughout the United States and various World Health
Organization (WHO) member countries. The AIRS database is managed by EPA's Office of
Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) located in Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina.
Under the Clean Air Act, states are required to establish air monitoring stations to
measure criteria pollutants - CO, NO2, O3, Pb, PM10, and SO2. Stations designated to
monitor these pollutants are called State and Local Air Monitoring stations (SLAMs).
Furthermore, OAQPS has established an additional network of air monitors, referred to as
National Air Monitoring Stations (NAMs), which were established to ensure a long term
national network for ambient air monitoring within urban areas. Unlike SLAMs, which serve
the immediate needs of state and local governments, NAMs provide a systematic national
database for air quality analyses. The AIRS database contains all air quality, emissions,
compliance, and enforcement information needed to carry out national and state-specific
programs to improve and maintain air quality.
Pollutant Standard Index (PSI)4
The Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) is the federally required daily air quality reporting
system for levels of the criteria pollutants regulated under the Clean Air Act. PSI figures are
reported for all metropolitan areas in the United States with populations of at least 200,000
persons.
The PSI scale ranges from 0 - 500, with lower scores related to better air quality. PSI
scores above 100 indicate that one or more of the criteria pollutants have reached an unhealthy
level on a particular day.
PSI Scale ranges:
• 0-50: good air quality
• 51-100: moderate air quality
101-199: unhealthful air quality
• 200 - 299: very unhealthful air quality
• 300 and above: hazardous air quality
The major criteria pollutants of concern under the PSI are CO, O3, PM10, and SO2. Lead
is not included in the index because it does not have a short-term NAAQS or Federal Episode
Criteria level and Significant Harm level, and NO2 is generally not included because it does
not have a short-term standard.
2-15
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Figures 18 and 19 identify the total number of days that the PSI exceeded 100 for the
regional Philadelphia-Trenton-Wilmington area from 1984 through 1993 and for the
City/County of Philadelphia from 1984 through 1996 for overall air quality and for ozon-
The reported PSI are area-wide indices, and are not specific to the four monitoring stations in
the Study Area which are discussed below.
State Implementation Plans
Additional mandates under the CAA require states to develop and submit plans to EPA
that describe actions a state will take to improve the air quality in areas that do not meet
national ambient air quality standards and maintain these standards once met. These areas are
referred to as "non-attainment" areas. As part of these plans, referred to as State
Implementation Plans (SIPs), states must report the nature and quantity of emissions from
existing sources of pollution and identify the technologies to be used to limit emissions.
Philadelphia Air Quality
In Philadelphia, the Department of Public Health's Air Management Services (AMS)
has air quality monitors located throughout the city to collect air samples and measure hourly
and daily averages of air pollutant concentrations. Of the 31 monitoring stations throughout
the city, five are located within the South and Southwest Philadelphia Study Area.5 The
locations of the stations and the pollutants measured at these stations are listed in Table 5.
5The 500 South Broad Street station is located one block north of the Study Area. Because of its proximity to
the Study Area boundary, data from this station have been included in the evaluation.
2-16
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Figure 18: Number of Days that Overall Air Quality Exceeded the PSI:
Comparison Between Philadelphia and Regional Area
40
35
36
35
25
20
15
10
31
30 -
\
25
22
43-
A
\ / \
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 19: Number of Days that Ozone Levels Exceeded the PSI:
Comparison Between Philadelphia and Regional Area
35
35
31
l 21
25
, 22
10
c
o
2-17
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Table 5: Air Monitoring Stations in South and Southwest Philadelphia That Report to the EPA's
Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS)
Site
Defense Personnel Support Center
(21st and Oregon)
84th and Lyons (Pepper Middle School)
60th and Elmwood6
Broad and Wolf (Methodist Hospital)
500 South Broad Street
Pollutants Monitored
Sulfur Dioxide
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
Ozone; summer season (as of 6/1/93)
PM10 (as of 7/1/94)
Sulfur Dioxide (as of 6/1/93)
TSP
Carbon Monoxide
Nitrogen Dioxide
Lead
PM10
Sulfur Dioxide
TSP
The following sections provide a summary of two data sets that were collected and
profiled — air monitoring data from the AIRS database and emissions inventory data from the
SIP. AIRS data were obtained for the years 1990 through 1994. SIP emissions inventory data
were obtained and reviewed for 1990 and pre-19907 time periods. The SIP data were analyzed
by census tract number and neighborhood to determine the sources of pollution and the
volumes (in tonnage) of criteria pollutants emitted by industrial sources.
Criteria Pollutants in South and Southwest Philadelphia: An Overview
To measure Philadelphia air quality, AIRS data from the five monitoring stations in the
Study Area were evaluated. These data represent concentrations of the six criteria pollutants
measured in the Study Area and are evaluated based on 1) arithmetic means (averaged
quarterly or over a one-year period) and 2) peak values represented by maximum averages
over a 24-hour period, 8-hour period, and/or 1 hour-period. With the exception of ozone
concentrations, the evaluation of the peak averages is based on the four highest values
observed over a one-year period. The first two maximum values serve as indicators for how
an area is doing regarding ambient concentrations of certain pollutants. A city "exceeds" the
standard if the first maximum value violates the standard. A city is "out of compliance" if the
6AMS intends to upgrade the Elmwood site to include monitoring for additional pollutants, as well as for
meteorological measurements, as soon as necessary site security fencing is completed.
7 Emissions inventory data were compiled for many South and Southwest Philadelphia facilities prior to 1990.
Additional information was collected on larger facilities again in 1990. To avoid double counting of facilities, the data
were separated as pre-1990 and 1990 emissions inventory reporting.
2-18
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second maximum value exceeds the standard. The third and fourth values enable regulators to
better understand trends in ambient pollutant peak concentrations.
Table 6 compares the annual arithmetic means and second maximum values
(compliance parameters) for each of the criteria pollutants observed within the Study Area to
Philadelphia County data for 1994 and the overall national ambient air quality standards. The
measurements indicated for South and Southwest Philadelphia provide a snapshot of
concentrations measured in the region because sampling hi the Study Area is conducted at a
limited number of locations, and not all pollutants are monitored at each station.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of the incomplete combustion, or burning, of
carbon-containing substances. CO is a site-specific pollutant and the highest concentrations are
found nearest the source, such as at major intersections. It is an odorless and colorless gas.
Sources of CO include transportation, power plants, refineries, and cigarette smoke.
Increases in CO levels are observed in the early morning and evening hours in urban areas,
largely attributed to the workday transportation cycle.
Carbon monoxide manifests health effects by preferentially binding to hemoglobin hi
red blood cells and displacing oxygen. The result is reduced transport of oxygen by the blood
stream. CO can cause dizziness, headaches, even asphyxiation and death at very high
concentrations in closed spaces.
Based on data from 1990 through 1994, levels of CO measured at the 500 South Broad
Street Station did not exceed national ambient air standards for both 8-hour and 1-hour
periods. In 1990, the second maximum 8-hour average was 5.4 ppm. The second maximum
one-hour average was 8 ppm. In 1994, the second maximum 8-hour average was 5.4 ppm
and the second maximum one-hour average was 9 ppm.
2-19
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Table 6: Criteria Pollutants and National Ambient Air Quality Standards |
Pollutant
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
8-hour average
1-hour average
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO])
Annual Arithmetic Mean
Ozone (Oj)
1-hour Average
Lead (Pb)
Quarterly Average
Paniculate Matter < 10
microns diameter (PMIO) 1J
Annual Arithmetic Mean
24-hour Average
Sulfur Dioxide (SOJ
Annual Arithmetic Mean M
24-Hour Average21
Standard
9 ppm
35 ppm
.053 ppm
.12 ppm
1.5 Mg/m3
50 Mg/m3
150 Mg/m3
80 Mg/m3 (.03 ppm)
365 Mg/m3 (.14 ppm)
Philadelphia County*
8 ppm
.037 ppm
.13 ppm
22.113 Mg/m3
lll'Vg/m3
371" Aig/m3
.013 ppm
.057 ppm
South/Southwest Philadelphia9 1
5.4 ppm10
9.0 ppm
.037 ppm"
.13 ppm (1993)12
.11 ppm
.07,ug/m314
44//g/m318
81 Mg/m3 "
31 Mg/m3
124 /2g/m3 |
'Philadelphia County data are for the Philadelphia, PA-NJ Metropolitan Statistical Area. Data were obtained
from U.S. EPA, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1994, EPA 454/R-95-014, p. A-20.
The values represent the second maximum value measured in the Study Area in 1994 unless otherwise noted.
"The second maximum 8-hour and 1-hour averages for 1994 as measured at the 500 S. Broad Street Station.
"Sampling data collected at the 500 South Broad Street monitoring station.
12The values hi this cell represent the second maximum 1-hr average measured over one year.
'This value reflects a local source in Philadelphia. The highest population-oriented site in Philadelphia averaged
0.49
'The value in this cell represents the highest quarterly average over a one year period.
"Sampling data collected at the 60th and Elmwood Monitoring Station collected in 1994. The arithmetic mean
of 44 fig/m3 is an estimation. It was derived using less than 75 percent of the data necessary for verification.
0.49
'This value reflects a local source in Philadelphia. The highest population-oriented site in Philadelphia averaged
"Ibid.
"Sampling data collected at the 60th and Elmwood Monitoring Station collected in 1994. The arithmetic mean
of 44 /ig/m3 is an estimation. It was derived using less than 75 percent of the data necessary for verification.
"Ibid.
20Sampling data collected at the Defense Personnel Support Center.
21Sampling data collected at the 500 South Broad Street station.
2-20
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Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a yellowish-brown, highly reactive gas which is present in
urban environments. Sources of nitrogen oxides (NOX) include motor vehicle exhaust and
stationary sources such as fossil fuel-fired electric generating stations, and industrial boilers.
Fires are also a source of NOX. Emissions of NOX are greater during the winter months when
there is an increased use of heating fuels with peak concentrations in the early morning hours
and a second smaller peak in the late afternoon. Nitrogen oxides cause lung irritation,
bronchitis and pneumonia, and lowered resistance to respiratory infections.
Based on measurements collected at the 500 South Broad Street monitoring station, the
annual arithmetic mean concentration was .035 ppm in 1990 and .037 ppm in 1994. During
this time period, nitrogen oxide concentrations did not exceed the national standards.
Ozone
Ozone (O3), classified as a photochemical oxidant, is formed by chemical reactions
between volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is
not emitted into the air directly.
VOCs, NO, + Sunlight > O3
Ground-level ozone is a pervasive problem throughout the urban environment. Motor
vehicles, which generate nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, are a major contributor to high
ozone levels in the urban environment. Ozone is also the principle component of smog.
Conditions that produce smog vary from region to region. On the east coast of the United
States, emissions from motor vehicles and coal combustion are the primary contributors to
smog. High concentrations of ozone can cause upper respiratory tract irritation and eye
irritation.
Nationally, ozone levels tend to be elevated during the afternoon hours and throughout
the summer months. The ozone standard is based on measurements collected over a three
year period. To be in non-compliance with the NAAQS for ozone, a region must exceed the
0.12 ppm level four times over a consecutive three year period. In 1993, ozone concentrations
as measured at the Elmwood Station exceeded the standard two times. For that year, the first
maximum one-hour concentration was 0.14 ppm and the second maximum one-hour
concentration was 0.13 ppm. The third and fourth maximum values were at the standard level
(0.12 ppm). In 1994, the first maximum one-hour average was 0.12 ppm and the second,
third, and fourth maximum one-hour values were measured at 0.11 ppm.
2-21
-------
Lead
Lead (Pb) is a bluish-gray toxic heavy metal. Sources of lead in the urban environment
include lead and copper smelters, iron and steel production facilities, as well as battery
recycling plants. Other sources of lead include combustion of solid waste, windblown dust
from weathering of lead-based paint, and cigarette smoke. Major improvements in ambient
lead levels have resulted from the phase out of leaded gasoline. Since 1983, urban lead levels
in the United States have been reduced by 86 percent.22
Lead is highly toxic to the fetus and can result in pre-term birth. Exposure to lead can
also cause a decrease in intelligence quotient (IQ) in infants and small children, increase blood
pressure in adults and cause brain and kidney damage.23 In South and Southwest Philadelphia,
ambient levels of lead did not exceed national standards from 1990 through 1994 based on
measurements at the 500 South Broad Street monitoring station. In 1990, the highest quarterly
average of ambient lead was .08 /ug/m3 and the maximum weekly average over a one year
period was 0.26 //g/m3. In 1994, the highest quarterly average of lead was 0.07 /wg/m3 in
1994 and the maximum weekly average over a one year period was 0.21 Aig/m3 (based on
weekly measurements).
Particulate Matter
Prior to 1987, EPA measured total suspended particulates (TSPs) which included
particles of approximately < 30 /zm. However, in 1987, EPA replaced the TSP standard with
a PM10 standard, which regulates particulate matter less than ten microns in diameter such as
dust (sulfates and nitrates) particles, soot, smoke, and oxides of carbon, aluminum, iron, and
silicon. Major sources of particulate matter include emissions from vehicles, smoke stacks
from factories, and power plants.
Particles less than 10 fan are considered "respirable". because they are capable of
entering the respiratory tract and causing damage to lung tissues. Several recent studies
indicate an increased mortality among susceptible populations following incidents of high PM10
levels in the ambient environment.24
For particulate matter (PM10), data were available from the 60th and Elmwood station
(for 1994) and the 500 South Broad Street station (for 1990 through 1994). At the 60th and
22EPA, Office of Air and Radiation. National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1994.
"Amdur, M.O., J. Doull, and C.D. Klaason, eds., Cassarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Science of Poisons,
4th ed.; New York: Peragamon Press, 1991, p. 639-646.
"Wilson, R. And J. Spengler, Panicles In Our Air: Concentrations and Health Effects; Boston: Harvard
University Press, 1996.
2-22
-------
Elmwood station, the annual arithmetic mean concentration was 44 /xg/m3. The second
maximum 24-hour average was 81 uglm3. At 500 South Broad Street, the annual arithmetic
mean concentration was 38 fig/m3 in 1990 and 39 /xg/rn3 in 1994. The second maximum 24-
hour average was 83 /xg/m3 in 1990 and 79 pig/m3 in 1994, which meets the NAAQS.25 See
Appendix V for a more detailed discussion.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas produced during the combustion of fossil fuels containing
sulfur. The primary industrial sources of SO2 are electric power plants and refining
operations. SO2 is also released by combustion of oil for home heating, coal-fired power
plants, smelters, metal processing mills and sulfuric acid plants. Once released into the
atmosphere, SO2 is partly converted to sulfuric acid by photochemical or catalytic processes.
The combination of acidic sulfates with particulates and moisture are referred to as acid
aerosols and constitute five to 20 percent of the total suspended paniculate matter in urban
air.26 Sulfur dioxide is a respiratory irritant capable of causing lung damage.
Data on ambient SO2 concentrations were available from the Defense Personnel
Support Center (DPSC) monitoring station from 1990 through 1994, the 500 South Broad
Street monitoring station from 1990 through 1994, and the 60th and Elmwood monitoring
station for 1993 and 1994. Sulfur dioxide concentrations did not exceed national standards
during this time period.27
As measured at DPSC, the annual arithmetic mean was 40 /*g/m3 in 1990 and 31 ./*g/m3
in 1994. The second maximum 24-hour concentration was 125 /*g/m3 in 1990 and 112 /*g/m3
in 1994. These measurements did not exceed the SO2 standard.
Based on data collected at 500 South Broad Street, the annual arithmetic mean was 37
/zg/m3 in 1990 and 28 ptg/m3 in 1994. The second maximum 24-hour concentration was 144
fjLg/m3 in 1990 and 124 jig/m3 in 1994. Measurements at this station did not exceed SO2
standards.
For 1993 and 1994, data were available from the 60th and Elmwood station. In 1993,
the annual arithmetic mean was 30 /ig/m3 and 28 /ig/m3 in 1994. The second maximum 24-
25The 24-hour average for PM10 represents the highest 24-hour average out of the total days (approximately 60
days) on which measurements were collected.
"Wark, Kenneth, and Warner, Cecil, Air Pollution: Its Origin and Control; New York: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1981, Chapters.
"Data reported in Table 6 provides the arithmetic mean measured at the DPSC monitoring station and the 24-
hour average measured at the South Broad Street monitoring station.
2-23
-------
hour concentration was 88 /ig/m3 in 1993 and 112 /xg/m3 in 1994.28 The concentrations
measured at this station did not exceed SO2 standards.
Philadelphia, like many other metropolitan areas throughout the U.S., has seen marked
reductions in SO2 levels over the past several decades. This is attributed to more stringent
ambient air standards, increased energy efficiency, and changes in industrial procedures.29 In
the case of the Study Area, it may also be related to the closure of industrial facilities during
this time period.
Emissions Inventory Summary
The SIP data reflect estimates of emissions as measured and reported by the individual
industries, and public and private facilities. These estimates are derived either from source
sampling data or are calculated from expected levels of contaminants based on the use of a
given raw material or fuel. Collecting samples from an emission stream of a source is
accomplished by placing a sampling device at the release point of a stack, flue or other effluent
discharge location. Stack sampling is often a one-time activity. From this sampling,
inferences are made as to emissions on a continuous basis. The emissions measured, however,
do not necessarily provide an estimate of the concentration of a pollutant to which an
individual in the community may be exposed.
In addition to the criteria pollutants, industries must report estimated volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions to the air. They are generated from incomplete combustion of
gasoline in motor vehicles, oil refining and distribution, chemical manufacturing, industrial
and commercial solvent use, food processing, and consumer uses. VOCs do not have a
national ambient air quality standard but are important in meeting the NAAQS for ozone.
Emissions inventories reported under the SIP for over one hundred industries,
commercial businesses, schools, hospitals, and other facilities were evaluated by analyzing and
profiling emission estimates of CO, NOX, PM10, SO2, VOCs, and TSPs. Table 7 shows tons
per year of the reported criteria pollutants by industry sector for each of the Study Area
neighborhoods. Within South and Southwest Philadelphia, SOX, NOX, and VOCs constitute the
greatest percentage of pollutants. The major sources of these emissions are from
manufacturing processes including petroleum refining, transportation, and public utilities.
J8This 24 hour average represents the average of one-hour measurements of a 24 hour period.
29Weir, Tom. City of Philadelphia Health Department Air Management Services, Personal Communication, May
1996.
2-24
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Table 7: Contributions by Sector to Emissions of Regulated Pollutants in Tons Per Year
Source
Total Suspended
Participates
Participate Matter
<10microns
Volatile Organic
Compounds
Nitrogen Oxides Sulfur Dioxide Carbon Monoxide
Total
Eastwick-Elmwood
Manufacturing
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
45
724
14
19
50
0
0
0
B
0
760
Grays Feny-Passyunk
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Schuylkill-Point Breeze
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilrtie
Wholesale Trade
South Broad - Girard Estates
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Paschall-Kingsessing
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Pennsport-Queen Village
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Snyder-Whitman
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Southwark-Bella Vista
Manufactunng
Federal Facilities
Real Estate
Retail Trade
Services
Transportation/Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Totals
181
41
232
18
21
61
39
52
18
12
1
9
13
27
1090
181
1
4
156
20
5
2
22
70
4419
677
9
16
52
23
6
10
9
1517
59
26
147
1
7
15
39
8
5
67
18
9
10
5063
152
3
21
47
6
13
10
2429
57
31
143
1
26
9
13
24
11
6
83
25
22
6
11
14
510
57
1
2
1
14
162
B
31
14
7
1
2
1
6
9
18
1
1
6
11,495
1.126
12
40
108
29
162
32
0
25
0
54
4,280
0
148
0
0
0
132
358
24
142
0
0
29
28
68
166
13
0
166
0
68
0
0
0
0
0
82
0
0
0
16
0
23
0
37
0
0
30S
S4S
2510
856
Manufactunng includes food/kindred products stone/cla>/glass products industrial machinery/equipment, furniture chemical/allied products, electronics, petroleum/coal products. fabnca!£d metal
; products leather products
Retail Trade includes building matenals, garden supplies miscellaneous retail
Services includes Education, health personal (uniform rental laundr}) auto bod> repair pariung
Transportation/Public Utilities includes Trucking warehousing electnc/gas water transportation railroad transportation, air transportation
Wholesale Trade includes non-durable goods
Real Estate includes real estate
Federal facilities includes Naval base, defense supply center
Volumes are based on 1990/pre-1990 estimates from SIP data
2-25
-------
Prevailing Wind Patterns
Prevailing wind patterns are monitored in most major metropolitan areas to provide
information on wind direction and frequency for a given time period and to predict dispersion
of air pollutants from point and area sources.
Wind patterns were monitored and recorded at the Philadelphia Airport for the years
1985 to 1989. Over the four-year period, prevailing winds were recorded from the following
directions:30
West-12%
• Northwest-22%
North-8.5%
Northeast-12%
East-5%
Southeast - 9%
South - 6%
Southwest - 24%
Calm winds - 1.5%
From this information, it can be seen that the most frequent winds are from the west
(58% of the time from the west, southwest, or northwest). Therefore, air quality in the Study
Area is impacted by sources to the west more than those from the east.
Additional Reports and Data Reviewed
• EPA Aerometric Information System (AIRS) Air Quality Subsystem Quick Look
Report
• Estimating Ozone Exposures for the General Population in Eight Urban Areas
Using a Probabilistic Version of NEM
• Estimating Ozone Exposures Experienced by Outdoor Children hi Nine Urban
Areas Using a Probabilistic Version of NEM
• Estimating Ozone Exposures Experienced by Outdoor Workers in Nine Urban
Areas Using a Probabilistic Version of NEM
• Estimating Ozone Exposures Experienced by Urban Residents Using a
Probabilistic Version of NEM and 1990 Census Data
"City of Philadelphia Health Department, Air Management Services. Wind Rose - Philadelphia, PA: 1985-
1989.
2-26
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iii. General Water Quality
The principal law governing pollution of the Nation's waterways is the Clean Water
Act (CWA). It was substantially revised in 1972 to improve water quality by setting ambitious
goals for industry and municipalities to limit their emissions to water. The objective of the
law is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's
waters.31 The original goals were to achieve "fishable" and "swimmable" waterways and to
eliminate all discharges to water. In Pennsylvania, EPA and PaDEP are responsible for
implementing provisions of the CWA including water quality sampling and monitoring.
The region of South and Southwest Philadelphia is bisected by the Schuylkill River and
lies at the confluence of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers. The Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources (currently the Department of Environmental Protection) Bureau of
Water Quality Management compiles biennial water quality assessments for the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The Study Area includes part of the tidal, freshwater portion
of the Delaware River (Zones 3 and 4) and the lower portion of the Schuylkill River. This
part of the Schuylkill River, below the Fairmount Dam, is under tidal influence from the
Delaware River. Therefore, the water quality data from the tidal portion of the Delaware
River reflects the quality of the lower Schuylkill River more accurately than data from farther
upstream on the Schuylkill.
Water Quality on the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers in the Region of the Study Area
The Delaware River and Bay Water Quality Assessments 1992-1993 and 1994-1995
report water quality data from Zones 3 and 4 which cover the distance form Northeast
Philadelphia to the Pennsylvania/Delaware border.32'33 Zone 3 runs from river mile 108.4 - 95
(monitors are located at the Betsy Ross and Ben Franklin Bridges). Zone 4 runs from river
mile 95-78.8 (monitors are located near the Philadelphia Naval Yard, Paulsboro, and
Eddystone). The upstream section of Zone 4 typically has the lowest quality water in the
basin, which, as in Zone 3, is reflected by different water uses and different quality
standards.34 The water quality standards for Zone 3 and the upper portion of Zone 4 are less
stringent than required by the federal water quality goals for "swimmable" and "fishable"
waters. For example, the current standard for "fishable" does not include the propagation of
3lCongressional Research Service, Summaries of the Environmental Laws Administered by the Environmental
Protection Agency, Library of Congress, January 3, 1995.
"Delaware River Basin Commission, Delaware River and Bay Quality Assessment, 1992-1993 305(b) Report,
June 1994.
"Delaware River Basin Commission, Delaware River and Bay Quality Assessment, 1994-1995 305(b) Report,
June 1996.
MSutton, Clayton, John O'Herron, and Robert Zappalorti, The Scientific Characterization of Water Resources
in Pennsylvania; Availability, Quality, and Management, Shyamal K. Majumdar, editor.
2-27
-------
fish. Ambient water quality monitoring ., . and evaluative assessments indicate that
generally, water quality has improved sih_.. 1990 in the Delaware River. Tidal river oxygen
levels were higher during the critical summer periods, residues of toxic chemicals in fish and
shellfish declined, and the population of important fish species such as striped bass and
american shad increased. Water quality, however, is still not adequate to support the
Delaware River Basin Commission's (DRBC) standard to "swimmable" and "fishable"
classifications in the Camden/Philadelphia areas.
According to the 1996 report, aquatic life was not supported due to predicted chronic
toxicity based on modeling. The 1992-1993 and 1994-1995 reports indicated that minor
violations of dissolved oxygen and bacteria in Zone 3 were reported. In the tidal portion of
the Schuylkill, there is contamination from Philadelphia combined sewer overflows and storm
water which contribute to organic enrichment of the water. The Delaware River Use
Attainability Project (1989) found that wastewater treatment plants in this area would need to
be upgraded in order for water quality to meet the "fishable" criteria, and uncertainty exists
concerning the attainment of "swimmable" waters.
Sampling Information
The most complete general water quality data for the Study Area is from the DRBC
Navy Yard sampling station. The water quality has improved over the tune period 1967 -
1995. Figure 20 shows the decrease in fecal coliform counts per 100 milliliters of water and
the increases in dissolved oxygen recorded at the Navy Yard between 1967 and 1995. Figure
21 shows similar information for the Schuylkill River. Higher dissolved oxygen indicates a
better environment for aquatic life. Similar trends may be developing on the Schuylkill River
and in other parts of the Delaware River, but the data is not as clear as that from the DRBC's
Navy yard sampling station. Additional trend data of fecal coliform and dissolved oxygen
counts for the Schuylkill River (at the Fairmount Dam) and the Delaware River (at Wharton
Street) are located in Appendix VI.
Fish Consumption Advisories
Fish consumption advisories established by the Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Protection (PaDEP) for the Schuylkill from the Felix Dam to the mouth of the
Delaware River in Philadelphia recommend that bottom feeding fish not be consumed.
Specifically, advisories against consumption exist for white sucker, carp, and american eel due
to contamination from chlordane and PCBs.35 Fish consumption is not supported throughout
the two zones (3 and 4) in the Delaware Rive due to PaDEP advisories based on high levels of
PCBs and chlordane found in several species. The affected fish species include white perch,
channel catfish, white catfish, and american eel. In the Camden, N.J. area, the sale and
consumption of all fish, crustaceans, and shellfish is prohibited by the New Jersey Department
"Schubert, Steve, Water pollution biologist, PADEP. Personal communication to Rob Goldberg, September
13, 1996.
2-28
-------
E
.0
•e
sc.
.i
j
u> o e
-------
2-30
-------
of Environmental Protection (NJDEP). An advisory against the consumption of any channel
catfish from Zone 2 to the Pennsylvania/Delaware border was issued in 1989 by NJDEP.
Water Quality Trends
In addition to the various reports reviewed above, an attempt was made to assess long-
term water quality trends using EPA's STORET data base. The origins of this water quality
data base began before the creation of EPA, when responsibility for water protection was
under the U.S. Public Health Service. STORET is an acronym used to identify the
computerized data base system maintained by EPA for the storage and retrieval of data relating
to the quality of waterways within and contiguous to the United States.36
Because of sampling inconsistencies, a comprehensive evaluation of river water quality
in the Study Area was not possible. Not all chemicals of interest are sampled at each sampling
station, and sampling for a particular contaminant (generally toxics and organics) may be done
for a special study, but discontinued at the completion of the study. Variation and tuning and
extent of sampling is also related to regulatory requirements that exist at the time of sampling.
Additional Data and Reports Reviewed
• Kanetsky, Charles, EPA Region III, Lower Schuylkill River Water Quality Assessment,
August 1995.
• Delaware River Basin Commission, Toxics Review of the Delaware Estuary, June 1987.
U.S. EPA Region III, Delaware River Fish Tissue Study, May 1991.
36U.S. EPA. STORET User Handbook, Chapter OV-3, "STORET: Its Evolution, Definition and Operation,
rev. ed., February 1982.
2-31
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iv. Drinking Water Quality
Under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SWDA) of 1974, EPA was given the authority to
develop national primary drinkiny water regulations and to set standards for chemical
contaminants. EPA also has established programs to protect groundwater because it is the
source of drinking water in many areas across the nation.
Drinking water in the Study Area is not obtained from groundwater sources, but from
treatment plants which disinfect and remove suspended solids from River water. There are
three drinking water treatment plants which serve the Study Area: Belmont, Baxter and Queen
Lane. South Philadelphia is served by both the Queen Lane and Baxter plants, while
Southwest Philadelphia is primarily served by the Belmont Plant. The Belmont and Queen
Lane water treatment plants process water from the Schuylkill River. The Baxter plant
processes water from the Delaware River.
The treatment plants use a multi-step process to disinfect and remove particles from
river water. The water is filtered and then held in a large reservoir where sand, silt, and other
large particles settle out. Ferric chloride, a coagulating agent, is added to the water to
combine with suspended particulates, thus forming "floe." This water is again filtered ridding
it of more than 90% of suspended solids. Additional sand and coal filters remove remaining
suspended particles. Before water is piped to the community, chlorine is added to kill
microorganisms and prevent their growth. Ammonia is added to reduce the chlorine taste,
odor, and other by-products at the chlorination process37 (see below for further explanation).
Chemical contaminants in drinking water are regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act
(SOWA). The SDWA specifies Maximum Contamination Levels (MCLs) for chemical
compounds in public drinking water supplies. Treatment plants must test for these compounds
and ensure compliance with the standards. In 1994, there were no exceedances of primary or
secondary MCLs for any inorganic or organic component regulated by the Safe Drinking
Water Act at three drinking water treatment plants in the Study Area. Figure 22 shows results
of finished water sampling from 1989 to 1994. Five-year averages do not exceed primary or
secondary MCLs.38 Figure 22 includes the 11 most commonly detected chemicals, however,
the values in Figure 22 do not represent chemical concentrations in the water sample at one
time. The values represent the percentage of samples in which the chemical was detected. For
example, 1,1,2 trichlorethylene sampled at the Baxter plant was detected in approximately 5%
of the total samples taken.
"Philadelphia Water Department, Water Quality Data for Philadelphia, 1993, pp. 2-3.
"Philadelphia Water Department, Fiscal Year 1994 Annual Report of the Bureau of Laboratory Services, 1994.
2-32
-------
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chloroform
dichlorobromomethane
tetrachloroethylene
dibromochloromethane
bromoform
total trihalomethanes
benzene
toluene
carbon tetrachloride
methylene chloride
1,1,2-trichloroethylene
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2-33
-------
Drinking water may be an exposure route for trihalomethanes and lead.
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are by-products of water ^i .lorination which are formed whei
chlorine reacts with organic material, such as leaves, in the water. They include chloR i,
bromoform, dichlorobromomethane, and bromodichloromethane. Several studies have shown
that trihalomethanes and other chlorination by-products cause tumor growth in laboratory
animals. Little is known about the effects of these chemicals on humans.
Under the SDWA, THMs have two standards that must be met, the MCL and an
annual average. The annual average amount of THMs in treated drinking water which must
not be exceeded is 100 /zg/L. To control the amount of THMs in the drinking water, the
Philadelphia Water Department has adjusted its treatment process to limit THM formation by
allowing chlorine to mix with water for only the minimum amount of time necessary to kill
disease-causing microorganisms. Ammonia is then added to the water which continues to aid
in disinfection of the water, but does not provide additional THMs.39
The Philadelphia Water Department reported that for the years 1989-1994, the annual
average levels of THMs in water samples from the Baxter, Queen Lane, and Belmont
treatment plants were consistently below 100 /ig/L. During the five year period, there were
samples which exceeded 100 /^g/L, but the (annual average) remained below the standard.
The five year maximum levels of total THMs were 149 pg/L at the Baxter Plant, 120/ig/L at
the Queen Lane Plant, and 117 /ig/L at the Belmont Plant. Such values often occur seasonally
at surface water supplies when river flows are low or organic material in the river is high, for
example from decaying leaves in the fall. However, the annual mean level of THMs in water
samples from each plant is consistently below 100 /ig/L. The annual mean is used to
determine compliance with water quality regulations. Figures 23, 24, and 25 show data from
quarterly sampling of total THMs in finished water at the Baxter, Queen Lane, amd Belmont
plants.40
39 Philadelphia Water Department, Water Quality Data for Philadelphia, 1993, pp. 2-3.
"Ibid., pp 18-35, 61.
2-34
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Treated drinking water is free of lead, and water testing in Philadelphia indicates that
less than 10% of homes where tap water is tested had lead levels greater then 15 ppb. This
meets the requirements of the federal Lead Rule. Leaching of lead from solder in pipes of
older homes is possible. The water department has implemented a corrosion control program
whereby the pH of the water is adjusted to mitigate such leaching. Simple at-home
precautions can be taken to reduce lead levels to a point where no additional action is
necessary.41 These include using cold water for cooking and drinking and allowing the water
to run for a short time before using.
Appendix VI contains additional figures which show the trends of each of the
trihalomethanes in finished drinking water samples at each of the treatment plants.
Additional Reports and Data Reviewed:
• Philadelphia Water Department. Samuel S. Baxter Water Treatment Plant.
Information pamphlet. Water Department Consumer Information.
4'Philadelphia Water Department, Meeting the Lead Standard (Informational pamphlet), Philadelphia.
2-38
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v. Waste Water
As part of the 1972 revisions to the Clean Water Act, appropriations were made
available for municipal sewage treatment plant construction. Philadelphia has three sewage
treatment plants which have been substantially upgraded since the 1970's to collect and treat
wastewater from homes, businesses, and municipal and industrial facilities in South and
Southwest Philadelphia at two water pollution control plants: The Southeast Water Pollution
Control Plant (SEWPCP) and the Southwest Water Pollution Control Plant (SWWPCP) which
remove sewage and other suspended solids before discharging the water to the Delaware River.
In addition, adjacent to the SWWPCP is the Biosolids Recycling Center (BRC) where liquid
sludge (biosolids) is recycled into clean, soil-like, compost. The Biosolids Recycling Center
processes 1,250 wet tons of biosolids/day. The resulting compost is used to restore strip
mines, and fertilize farmlands, parks, and playing fields.42 About one-third of the biosolids
generated are composted, one-third land applied, and one-third are landfilled.43
Under the Clean Water Act, facilities which discharge effluent to navigable streams and
rivers are required by EPA to obtain permits under the National Pollutant Discharge and
Elimination System (NPDES). The NPDES Program regulates effluent limitations for over
115 pollutants, including 65 classes or categories of "priority pollutants."44 Both the Southeast
and Southwest WPCPs possess NPDES permits issued by the State of Pennsylvania to release
effluent into the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers and Cobbs Creek.45
EPA also requires that wastewater treatment plants remove 85 % of suspended solids
from the water entering their facilities. At the Philadelphia water pollution control plants, a
series of filtering and treatment steps are used to remove solids from the wastewater. The
wastewater that enters the sewage treatment plants first flows through bar screens which
capture large objects contained in the water. The water then flows through basins at slow
speeds to allow for settling out of the heavy suspended particles known as "grit." Grit is
composed of inorganic materials such as sand and gravel that has entered the plant through
storm sewers. The next step is "flocculation" where air is blown into the wastewater and
small particles bind together. The wastewater then travels to settling tanks known as primary
sedimentation tanks where heavy solids sink to the bottom, while scum and grease float to the
top. Following sedimentation, the wastewater is treated with microorganisms ("activated
"Philadelphia Water Department, Biosolids Recycling Center (pamphlet), Philadelphia.
43Hentz, L.H. Jr., W.E. Toffey, and C.E. Schmidt, "Understanding the synergy between composting and air
emissions," Biocycle: Journal of Composting and Recycling, March 1996.
"""Congressional Research Service, Summaries of Environmental Laws Administered by the Environmental
Protection Agency, Martin R. Lee, coordinator, 1995.
""Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Environmental Resources, NPDES Permit #PA00226671.
2-39
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sludge") which help remove organic particles from the water. The last step hi treatment
allows the water to enter the final settling tanks before it is treated with chlorine and released
to the Delaware River.46
The Southwest WPCP is designed for an average flow of 210 million gallons per day
and serves the western portions of Philadelphia and parts of southwestern Montgomery and
eastern Delaware counties. The total and average flows through the two treatment plants for
the 1994 fiscal year were:47
• Southeast total flow: 42.6 billion gallons
daily avg.: 116.7 million gallons/day
suspended solid released to river: 10,745 Ibs/day
(3.9 million Ibs/yr)
• Southwest total flow: 75.5 billion gallons
daily avg.: 206.8 million gallons/day
suspended solid released to river: 32,291 Ibs/day
(11.8 million Ibs/yr)
The BRC facility is located on 72 acres in Southwest Philadelphia and is designed for
dewatering and composting of biosolids produced by Philadelphia's three wastewater treatment
plants [Northeast (which is not located within the Study Area), Southeast, and Southwest].
The BRC has 10 large capacity centrifuges which handle 15 million gallons per week of
thickened, anaerobically digested biosolids which yield approximately 4,000 tons of sludge
cake each week at 25% solids.48 The site was designed to process all biosolids through the
composting facilities.
The BRC utilizes the aerated static pile composting process, whereby woodchips are
blended with biosolids which are placed on a perforated pipe. During active composting, air is
drawn through the piles and is discharged through biofilters for odor control. After active
composting, the compost piles are relocated to a curing area where they remain static for
several days. At the completion of curing, the woodchips are removed and recovered for
reuse in the composting process.
During the treatment of wastewater at the water pollution control plants and the
dewatering of sludge at the BRC, hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), VOCs, and NOX are
emitted to air. Table 8 indicates results of an investigation of air emissions of HAPs, VOCs
and NOX from the WPCPs and BRC. Annual emissions were estimated using sampling data
from 1994 and 1996 and EPA methods. Figure 26 provides the total annual VOC and
"'Philadelphia Water Department, Southwest Water Pollution Control Plant, information brochure.
"Philadelphia Water Pollution Control Plant, 1994 Fiscal Report, 1994.
48Hentz, L.H. Jr., W.E. Toffey, and C.E. Schmidt, "Understanding the synergy between composting and air
emissions," Biocyde: Journal of Composting and Recycling, March 1996.
2-40
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potential hazardous air pollutant (HAP) emissions from the biosolids dewatering, storage and
composting processes. The compound released in greatest quantity is methane which accounts
for 98% of air emissions from the processing of sludge at the BRC.49
Table 8. Compounds Released to Air from Water Pollution Control Facilities50
hi metric tons/year51
SEWPCP
NEWPCP
SWWPCP
BRC
HAPs
0.56
6.53
2.06
12.51
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67.9
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Pursuant to Title III of the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, facilities are
considered major sources if they have the potential to emit more than 25 tons per year of a
combination of hazardous air pollutants or 10 tons per year of a single hazardous air pollutant.
Neither BRC nor SWWPCP are considered major sources. However, Title I of the CAAA
requires facilities which have the potential to emit 25 tons per year of VOCs or NOX to
institute Reasonably Achievable Control Technology (RACT). SWWPCP is a major source of
NOX emissions and has implemented RACT. In addition, SWWPCP has shut down its grit and
scum incinerators, thus further reducing NOX emissions. BRC is a major source of VOCs and
is in compliance with the RACT regulations.
"Ibid.
"Ibid.
5INOX emissions are generated in the boiler, grit and scum incinerators and the digester flare:. VOCs and HAPs
are generated in all treatment operations. HAPs are a subset of total VOCs and include: acetone, benzene, chloroform,
1,4-dichlorobenzene, 1 ,2-dichloroethane, ethylbenzene, isopropyl benzene, methanol, methylene chloride, methyl ethyl
ketone, naphthalene, styrene, tetrachloroethylene, 1 ,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 1,1, 1-trichloroethane, trichloroethene, toluene,
and xylenes. The levels of NO, produced will be greatly reduced due to the recent removal from operation of the grit
and scum incinerator.
2-42
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Industrial Wastewater Producers
Of the more than 2,000 non-residential users53 which discharge to the water pollution
control plants (WPCP), approximately 170 are monitored by the Industrial Waste Unit (IWU)
of the Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) because of the nature of their effluent. These
industrial users, known as significant industrial users (SIU), possess permits which are
required for companies that:
• are categorically regulated under the Clean Water Act;
• discharge 25,000 gallons per day of wastewater;
• contribute to 5 % or more of the POTW's dry weather hydraulic or organic
activity; or,
• have been found by a responsible agency to have the potential to adversely
affect the POTW.
Self-monitoring by the SIUs and independent monitoring and inspections by PWD are
conducted to ensure that effluent from the SIUs is in compliance with permit conditions.
In 1994, approximately 3,200 samples were taken by both the IWU and industrial users
to assess compliance with federal and local limits. After 147 inspections of facilities city-
wide, 12 industrial users (8% of those inspected) were in significant non-compliance.
Significant non-compliance is a term applied to a facility which has one-third of samples in
non-compliance, returns reports late, has a spill which interferes with operations of the
pollution control plant, or has any other non-compliance issue. When companies are in
significant non-compliance, an ad is placed in the Philadelphia Inquirer informing the public
that the company has violated its compliance requirements. Violators are brought into
compliance through the use of consent agreements and fines.
In fiscal year 1994, there were more than 245 incidents city-wide which required
Industrial Waste Unit response. Incidents included oil spills, PCB leaks, odor complaints,
chemical spills, and sewage leaks. After a spill or leak, the IWU staff may be required to
supervise clean-up, assess environmental impacts or do further investigation of the complaints.
Additional Reports and Data Reviewed:
• Preliminary review of Emergency Response Notification System (ERNS) data
files for specific sites within our Study Area, to assess the number, vplume, and
content of spills
• Philadelphia Water Department 1994 Pretreatment Performance Summary
"These facilities are located throughout Philadelphia.
2-43
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vi. Solid Waste
Municipal Waste Management
The City of Philadelphia provides collection, transport, and disposal of residential
municipal waste in South and Southwest Philadelphia. The City collects from residential units
of 6 or less and some small commercial establishments that generate residential-type waste.
The City also collects municipal waste from a number of municipal buildings, public schools,
and some Philadelphia Housing Authority sites. Private waste haulers collect all other types of
waste. There are also several scrap yards located within the Study Area; however, a detailed
evaluation of these facilities has not been included in this report. Because there are no active,
permitted landfills or Resource Recovery facilities within the City limits, municipal waste is
disposed of outside of Philadelphia. The large majority of city collected waste is disposed of
at the Conestoga Landfill hi Berks County. The remaining waste (approximately 30%) is
taken to the Wheelabrator facility hi Bucks County for disposal.54 Two private transfer
stations and one city-owned facility currently serve as intermediary staging facilities between
waste generation and disposal.
The City of Philadelphia also organizes the Philadelphia More Beautiful Committee
(PMBC). The PMBC manages 6,652 block captains city-wide who coordinate various clean-
up activities. In fiscal year 1996, over 115,612 volunteers participated in 14,423 block clean-
ups city-wide. The PMBC also coordinates a tire bounty program. Community groups can
register with the department to receive grants to be used for community projects. Grants are
awarded based on the number of tires collected during the tire round up campaigns. A detailed
description of the City's current waste management plan and waste reduction goals is contained
in Appendix VII of this report.
Following is a list of solid waste facilities hi South and Southwest Philadelphia, some
of which are not currently hi operation.
Privately-owned Transfer Facilities. Currently Operating
BFl/Philadelphia Transfer (Transcyclery) 2209 S. 58th Street
permit valid from 10/4/95 to 10/4/05
• operating as a recycling center and transfer station
• handles recyclables, municipal and municipal-like residual waste55
"Department of Streets, Sanitation Division. City of Philadelphia Municipal Waste Management Plan, Plan
Update, Vol. 1; Philadelphia, PA, June, 1995.
"Municipal waste like residual waste is defined as: garbage, refuse, other discarded material or other waste,
liquid, solid, semi-solid or contained gaseous materials resulting from industry, mining or agricultural operations and
sludge from industry, mining, agriculture, waste treatment facilities, waste water treatment facilities or air pollution
control plants, if not hazardous. Refuse from coal is exempted. Paraphrased from PaDEP Residual Waste
Regulations. Dennis Harney, personal communication, August 1996.
2-44
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Girard Point and Transfer Station 3600 South 26th Street
• USA Waste Transfer of Philadelphia, Inc.
• handles:
-municipal waste
-municipal-like residual waste
-construction/demolition waste
-residual waste
permit valid 1/31/97 to 10/1/05
• source of "Philadelphia's Ash Armada" and "Garbage Barge"
Philadelphia Transfer Station and Recycling 36th & Grey's Ferry
• owned by Waste Management, Inc.
• handles municipal, infectious, and municipal-like residual waste
• accepts and processes recyclables
current permit is valid from 3/22/95 to 3/22/05
TRC Transfer Station and Baling Facility 2904 S. Delaware Ave.
• BFI is the parent company
• handles:
-municipal solid waste
-municipal waste like residual waste
-special handling waste
-current permit valid from 1/10/95 to 1/10/05
-permit amended June 10, 1995 to accept and process construction and
demolition waste
Privately-owned Recycling Facilities. Currently Operating
CR Warner . 61st & Passyunk
• handles:
-oil transfers
-oil/water separation
-oil storage
• facility received approval in December 1996 to process used oil and oil
contaminated solids
• permit also allows transfer (truck to well, tank to truck, truck to tank, etc.)
Delaware Valley Recycling 61st St. next to the Soil Remediation of Philadelphia
• recycling center for demolition debris (wood and concrete) from construction
projects
• wood is sold as chips to the City and others
• recent permit violations have resulted in regulatory enforcement by DEP
• facility has been restricted from accepting certain types of materials
2-45
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Soil Remediation of Phila -'"Iphia S. 61 st Street
• heat, treat, ...id process soils contaminated with fossil fuels (primarily from
leaking underground storage tanks at gas stations)
current permit is valid from 7/02/95 to 7/02/05
• dust problems have been of concern
• quality assurance and quality control problems have been mostly addressed
• new burner has been installed to control emissions more efficiently
Facilities Not Currently Operating
Atlantic Coast Demolition & Recycling 30th & Gray's Ferry
• processes materials from building demolition
• permit was not renewed
Dilworth Transfer and Recycling 1924 S. Delaware
• Ace Service Company ran transfer station and company that supplies dumpsters
recently closed (8/31795)
• no plans to reopen
• plan to sell property
ORFA.Solid Waste Processing Plant 49th & Gray's Ferry
• facility not operational
• state is in the process of revoking the operating permit granted in 5/22/86
• some waste remains in the building
• access restricted and secured
• facility has been sold to Kalmeach Feed Company which will manufacture food
for farm animals
2-46
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Environmental Crimes
Among the major concerns cited by the community members of South and Southwest
Philadelphia are environmental crimes, particularly those involving illegal solid waste disposal.
The City of Philadelphia has an Environmental Crimes Task Force to address such issues.
Agencies participating on the task force include the City's Law Department, the Department of
Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, PaDEP, and EPA.
The Philadelphia Police Department has an Environmental Crimes Unit consisting of 12
officers and 2 supervisors which has the responsibility for enforcement actions related to illegal
waste disposal.
In addition, the City runs a Streets and Walkways Education and Enforcement Program
(SWEEP) which enforces the City's solid waste and recycling regulations. The SWEEP Unit
works with the Police Department's Environmental Response Unit and Licenses and Inspection
Department to address illegal dumping problems. According to the Police Department, the
majority of environmental crimes involve solid waste, and range from illegal disposal of
household trash such as garbage bags or furniture to more serious violations involving oil and
oil by-products and large-scale dumping of demolition/construction debris.56
Additionally, according to the Environmental Crimes Unit, the majority of the crimes
are committed by small quantity generators of waste or small business owners who find
landfill/tipping fees or legal treatment and disposal of wastes to be excessive or prohibitive.
Short dumping is estimated to cost the City of Philadelphia over $5 million per year.57
In addressing this issue it is often difficult to identify the individuals who commit the
crimes. It is estimated that there are approximately 60 arrests per year. In addition, the fines
levied against the individuals found guilty of environmental crimes are generally small and do
not serve as a deterrent for continued illegal activity. In 1994, 31 offenders were convicted
and fined a total of $4,000.58
Appendix VII contains more detailed information on the magnitude of illegal waste
disposal in Philadelphia, estimated costs and control efforts.
"Inspector Grasso, Philadelphia Police Department, Environmental Crimes Unit. Personal communication,
October, 1995.
"Pennsylvania Economy League, Inc.. Eastern Division, Survey of the Costs Associated with Illegal
Dumping in Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 1995.
2-47
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B. Additional Issues of Environmental Health Concern
i. Hazardous Materials and Emergency Response
Emergency Planning and Notification
Handling, storage, and use of hazardous materials are regulated under the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986. Under Title III of this Act, known as
the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), extremely hazardous
substances and their associated threshold planning quantities (TPQs) are listed. TPQs are
defined by EPA for each specific substance. Title III also specifies facility notification
responsibilities necessary for the development and implementation of state and local emergency
response plans. There are two primary requirements of Title HI: 1) Emergency planning; and
2) Emergency release notification:
• Notification Planning
Threshold planning quantities (TPQs) are specific for each extremely hazardous
substance and vary from 10 pounds to 10,000 pounds, depending upon the
hazardous characteristic of the substance. A facility which stores or uses an
extremely hazardous substance equal to or above the TPQ must report to the
State Emergency Response Commission and the Local Emergency Response
Committee information regarding the use and storage of hazardous materials.
• Emergency Release Notification
Any facility at which a hazardous chemical is produced, used, or stored and at
which there is a release beyond the boundaries of the facility of a reportable
quantity (RQ) of any extremely hazardous substance or of a CERCLA
hazardous substance must provide emergency release notification to the Fire
Department.
,59
Hazardous Material Response Program in Philadelphia - General Information
The Philadelphia Office of Emergency Management and the Philadelphia Fire
Department maintain computerized inventories of the SARA Title III facilities and the
hazardous and extremely hazardous substances as reported by the facilities. The departments
coordinate their efforts as part of their affiliation with the Philadelphia Local Emergency
Planning Committee (PLEPC). The Philadelphia hazardous material reporting and emergency
response protocol conforms to Federal SARA Title III, and Pennsylvania Act III, the
Hazardous Material Emergency Planning and Response Act. The Fire Department keeps
"Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of Labor and Industry, SARA Title III and Pennsylvania Act
165: Facility Reporting Requirements; Harrisburg, PA: Bureau of Worker and Community Right to Know, January,
1993.
2-48
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records of all hazardous materials in Philadelphia facilities to assist hazardous response
workers in the event of fire, releases, spills, or explosions. A list of all facilities which submit
Title III annual reports is contained in Appendix VIII.
Under Title III, some substances which are acutely toxic are designated as "extremely
hazardous." The following is a list of facilities within South and Southwest Philadelphia
which are required under SARA Title III to submit annual reports to the Fire Department
regarding hazardous materials use and storage and reported the presence of extremely
hazardous substances in 1995:
AT&T
Degussa Corporation
Philadelphia Gas Works
Ashland Chemical Company
Dockside Refrigerated Warehouse, Inc.
Schuylkill Generating Station, PECO
ACME^Markets, Inc.
Jvlario Maggio Co.
Triple Seven Ice
La France, Corp.
Van Waters and Rogers, Inc.
Hygrade Food Products
Delaware Avenue Distribution Center
TRIGEN, Philadelphia Energy Corp.
E.I. Dupont, Marshall R & D Laboratory
Inolex Chemical Company
PECO, Southwark Substation
SUN Refining and Marketing Co.
Philadelphia Facility, Philadelphia Newspaper
Kansas Beef Industries of Philadelphia Inc.
Philadelphia Water Department, SEWPCP
Naval Station (Shipyard), Philadelphia
Trans World Airlines
Philadelphia Water Department, SWWPCP
Tartan Sysco Food Systems
Procacci Bros Sales Corp. (Front St., Bldg. 5)
Bell of PA (Dewey, Eastwick, Saratoga, & Penny Packer)
Hazardous Material Release Response
The Philadelphia Fire Department is responsible for responding to incidents involving
hazardous material spills, leaks, or fires. The Hazardous Materials Administrative Unit of the
Fire Department classifies hazardous response procedures as level I, II, or III. Level I
response is indicated in incidents when:
• hazardous materials are easily contained and abated without the Hazardous
Materials Task Force (HMTF);
• releases involving hazardous materials for which no HMTF is necessary and
fewer than 20 civilians must be evacuated;
• and, releases in which HMTF is required, but no evacuation is necessary.
Level I responses typically include gasoline or fuel oil spills such as those from automobile
accidents, natural gas leaks in homes or small spills of jet oil at the airport.60
"City of Philadelphia Fire Department, Hazardous Materials Administrative Unit. Memorandum dated
January 24, 1996.
2-49
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A fire involving hazardous materials which is allowed to burn itself to consumption
(i.e., pesticide) and requires evacuation of fewer than 20 civilians with or without the HMTF
is considered a Level II response. Level II also applies to releases which do not require
HMTF, but necessitates evacuation of 21 or more people. Level II responses typically include
more serious chemical or oil spills.
Level III requires HMTF and evacuation of 21 or more civilians, and/or involves
serious injury or death. Level III also includes incidents requiring multi-agency response and
sophisticated decontamination procedures, and fires that must burn due to inherent dangers.
In 1995, there were a total of 1247 hazardous material incidents. Of these, 339 (27%)
occurred within South and Southwest Philadelphia.61 Of the 1247 incidents which occurred in
Philadelphia in 1995, only 52 required the use of the HMTF. Table 9 lists the type of
materials involved in these incidents. The most common materials are flammable liquids.
Table 9: Substances Involved in
Hazardous Material Responses in 1995
Hazardous Material
Explosives
Flammable Gases
Flammable Liquids
Flammable Solids
Oxidizers
Toxic/Poisonous
Radioactive
Corrosive
Miscellaneous
Total
Number of Incidents
0
7
17
0
2
6
2
7
11
52
Figure 27 compares the total number of hazardous material incidents hi Philadelphia to
the Study Area from 1991 to 1995. While there is generally a downward trend hi the number
of Philadelphia City incidents, the number of incidents in the Study Area has remained
relatively constant. Figure 28 shows the number of incidents by response level in South and
Southwest Philadelphia from 1990 through 1995.
"Ibid.
2-50
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Emergency Planning in South and Southwest Philadelphia
Following the release of a cloud of alumina silica from the Sun Oil Refinery on
September 20. 1994. Mayor Edward Rendell appointed a task force on Emergency planning
for South and Southwest Philadelphia to ensure that "such incidents are not repeated."61 The
task force was comprised of representatives of several Philadelphia organizations including the
Philadelphia Local Emergency Planning Commission (PLEPC); city agencies including the
Departments of Health, Water, Planning, Fire. Emergency Management Services, Police, the
Managing Director's Office, and the Law Department: Sun Oil Company. Exxon Company.
Tngen Energy Corporation, Inolex Chemical Company. Dupont Chemical; and several
community and civic organizations.
The goal of the task force was to develop and recommend a comprehensive, integrated
emergency response plan for South and Southwest Philadelphia. Three subcommittees (public
education, operations and evacuation, and communication and notification) were formed to
prepare recommendations for the Mayor.
In December 1995, the task force submitted their recommendations to the Mayor which
included suggested methods for educating and raising awareness of the general public about the
existence of emergency plans, and recommended possible warning systems that can be
implemented in the case of an emergency. In response, the Mayor made the taskforce a
permanent subcommittee of the PLEPC.
Hazardous Material Reporting Requirements for the Sun Oil Refinery
Because of the size of the Sun Oil Refinery and the concern regarding the potential for
hazardous materials releases, the Fire Department has established a required reporting plan
specific to the Sun Oil facility.63 In addition, Sun has instituted a telephone hotline and
notification system to provide the community with information concerning releases from the
facility. This information is detailed in the facility specific description of the Sun Oil
Refinery.
62City of Philadelphia, Mayor's Task Force on Emergency Planning for South and Southwest Philadelphia
December 12.1995.
6'City of Philadelphia Fire Department, Hazardous Materials Administrative Unit. Memorandum dated
January 24. 1996.
2-53
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ii. Mobile Sources of Pollutants
Mobile sources represent a major contribution to the air pollutant load in the South and
Southwest Philadelphia Study Area. Substantial commuter and commercial traffic in the area
contribute high levels of emissions from automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, and diesel vehicles.
In addition to on-road vehicle emissions, aircraft emissions from the Philadelphia International
Airport and the many smaller regional airports also contribute to the pollutant load from
mobile sources.
Automobile Emissions
On-road vehicles primarily contribute to air emissions, but also contribute to other
waste streams. Table 10 lists wastes associated with on-road vehicles. Automobile exhaust is
the largest waste stream and is a complex mixture of hundreds of compounds.64 Vehicle
emissions contribute significantly to 4 of the 6 criteria air pollutants: CO, NOX, PM10, and O3.
(Ozone is formed from chemical reactions between NOX and VOCs). In addition to these
pollutants, motor vehicles also produce organic compound emissions which contribute to air
pollution and human health risk. Among these compounds are benzene, formaldehyde,
acetaldehyde, diesel vapors, 1,3-butadiene, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), and oxides
of nitrogen.
"U.S. EPA, Office of Mobile Sources, Emission Planning and Strategies Division, Motor Vehicle-Related
Air Toxics Study. April 1993.
2-54
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Table 10: Wastes Identified with On-Road Vehicles*
Waste Category
Air Emissions
Fluids
Solid Wastes
Hazardous Wastes Specifically from Vehicle
Maintenance Shops
Compound/Material
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Dioxide
CFC-12 (Freon)
Hydrocarbons (VOCs)
Oxides of Nitrogen
Other Hazardous Air Emissions
Antifreeze
Engine Crankcase Oil
Gear Oil
Hydraulic Fluid
Brake Linings
Filters
Lead-Acid Batteries
Scrap Materials (metal and non-metal)
Tires
Ignitable Wastes
Paints
Solvents
Strong Acids and Alkalis
*Table modified from "Assessing Risks from Vehicular Pollution," Metropolitan Council of Governments, 1992
The highest concentrations of primary automobile pollutants, CO, NOX, and
particulates from diesel vehicles, occur near their source: on or near highly trafficked
freeways, confined regions such as runnels and parking garages, and congested streets.65
However, the release of ozone, sulfur dioxide, and the subsequent formation of smog can
affect regions hundreds of miles from the source of emission.66 Because of the complicated
meteorology and the dynamics of emission release and deposition, it is difficult to directly
measure total traffic emissions within a metropolitan area. Therefore, traffic emissions are
estimated using, computer models.
In the Philadelphia region, studies have been prepared by both the Delaware Valley
Regional Planning Commission (DVRPC) and the Department of Transportation (DOT) to
estimate traffic emissions. In 1995, the DVRPC released a document demonstrating the
conformity of their "Direction 2020 Transportation Plan" to the Federal Clean Air Act and the
New Jersey and Pennsylvania State Implementation Plans. This plan, implemented by
DVRPC according to guidance furnished by the U.S. EPA, is intended to promote '
improvements in air quality, and assure that emissions from vehicular travel do not increase
65Utell. Mark J. Jane Warren, Robert Sawyer, "Public Health Risks from Motor Vehicle Emissions,"
Annual Review of Public Health, vol. 15, 1994, pp. 157-178.
""Don Zmger. US EPA Office of Mobile Source Pollutants, personal communication, February. 1996.
2-55
-------
unabated.67 part of the estimation of future emiss-'ons, baseline emissions for a typical
summer wet -iv in 1990 were i Iculated for CO, > . and VOCs.
Highway source emissions were estimated using Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) and
published emission factors. VMT and speeds for traffic are estimated using the Urban
Transportation Planning System, a travel simulation model which estimates VMT and speeds
for freeways, arterial area, and local areas. Emission factors are estimated using the volatility
of the gasoline sold locally, age of the vehicle fleet, parameters of state inspection and
maintenance programs, and minimum and maximum summer temperatures and other
meteorological data. Below is a summary of VMT and estimated emissions for Pennsylvania
and Philadelphia County expressed in both kg/day and tons/yr.
Table 11: Emissions from Motor Vehicles in Pennsylvania
and Philadelphia County for a Typical Summer Weekday, 1990
Total VMT
CO* kg/day
tons/yr
NOX kg/day
tons/yr
VOC kg/day
tons/yr
DVRPC68
(Pennsylvania)
59,384,400
324,194
130,163
156,523
62,844
181,890
73,029
DOT69
(Philadelphia County)
16,485,462
510,001
204,765
38,330
15,389
58,691
23,564
*Carbon monoxide emissions were estimated for Philadelphia on a typical January day because CO levels are
generally highest on cold temperature days.
DOT reported a more detailed evaluation of emissions by vehicle type. Table 12
indicates vehicle grades, vehicle miles traveled, daily emissions and percents, and the sources
of VOC emissions.
67Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission, "Conformity of the Delaware Valley's Direction 2000
Transportation Plan." Direction 2020 Report Number 35, September 1995.
69PA DOT and Carman Associates, "Pennsylvania Air Quality State Implementation Plan Update for
Ozone," Appendix 4.D: Summary Tabulations of Mobile Sources Pollutants. July 22, 1993.
2-56
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Table 12: Vehicle Miles Traveled and Daily Emissions
by Vehicle Grade for Philadelphia County
Grade of Vehicle3
LDGV
LDGT1
LDGT2
JDGV
LDDV
LDDT
HDDV
MC
Total
VMTb
Miles/day
(%)
14.388,801
(87.3)
585.550
(3.6) .
412.379
(2.5)
79,563
(0.5)
618,970
(3.8)
54,741
(0.3)
146,071
(0.9)
199,387
(1.2)
16,485,462
VOC
Kg/day
(%)
51.247
(87.3)
2.478
(4.2)
1.842
(3-D
703
(1.2)
403
(0.7)
45
(0.1)
375
(0.6)
1,616
(2.8)
58,691C
CO
Kg/day
(%)
447,804
(87.8)
25.970
(5.1)
17,357
(3.4)
9,824
(1-9)
1010
(0.2)
92
(0.02)
1672
(0.3)
6,273
(1.2)
510,001
NOX
Kg/day
(%)
29.789
(77.7)
1,731
(4-5)
1,281
(3.3)
521
(1.4)
1,123
(2.9)
124
(0.3)
3,587
(9.4)
175
(0.5)
38,330
"LDGV = Light duty gas vehicle (car)
LDGT1 = Light duty gas truck 1
LDGT2 = Light duty gas truck 2
HDGV = Heavy duty gas vehicle
LDDV = Light duty diesel vehicle (car)
LDDT = Light duty diesel truck
HDDV = Heavy duty diesel vehicle
MC = Motorcycle
bVMT = Vehicle Miles Traveled
The total VOC emissions are characterized as follows in kg/day:
Exhaust
Evaporative
Refueling
Running Loss
Resting Loss
36,656
8,262
0
11,911
1,862
(62.5%)
(14.1%)
(0.0%)
(20.3%)
(3.2%)
To determine emissions estimates for smaller geographic areas, DVRPC divided the
Philadelphia region into 5 km by 5 km grids. Using emissions factors and travel data (VMT
and speeds), emissions estimates were determined for each 5 by 5 km grid. However, this
data must be viewed with caution because emissions can travel for great distances, and may
2-57
-------
not necessarily impact individuals and the environment directly adjacent to the sources. For
regulatory purposes, emissions are usually provided for entire metropolitan areas, including
outlying suburbs.70
To estimate emissions of CO, non-methane hydrocarbons (non-methane HCs), and NOX
in the South/Southwest Philadelphia area, three different scenarios have been evaluated.
Emissions estimates for the 3 different scenarios are provided below hi Table 13. Scenario 1
is an estimate of emissions for the 5 by 5 km grid at the center of the Study Area, bisected by
the Schuylkill River. Scenario 2 is an estimate of emissions within the South and Southwest
Philadelphia Study Area. This scenario is used to compare vehicle emissions within the Study
Area to other emissions sources, including industrial and other point sources as shown in the
section on air traffic emissions. Scenario 3 includes emissions estimates for a 15 km by 15 km
square area centered around South and Southwest Philadelphia.
Table 13: Estimated Emissions from Motor Vehicles for the Philadelphia Area
Summer Weekday Mobile Source Emissions and Vehicle Miles Traveled
Scenario 1
Scenario 2*
Scenario 3
Vehicle
Miles
(VMT)
1,039,300
2,840,100
7,707,200
CO
kg/day
tons/year
16,324.1
6554
32,995.1
14,248
150,478
60,414
Non-methane HCs
kg/day
tons/year
2627
1055
5266.4
2115
23,558.7
9,459
NOX
kg/day
tons/year
2827.3
1135
5369.1
2156
19,758.8
7933 |
Source: Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission, 5 Kilometer Grids of Mobile Source Pollutants, 1990.
Received from Tom Walker on February 1, 1996.
* Scenario 2 is used in this study to estimate motor vehicle emissions within South and Southwest Philadelphia.
Air Traffic Emissions
Emissions from commercial, civil, and military aircraft also contribute to air pollution
in the Philadelphia metropolitan and surrounding areas. The largest single source of emissions
from aviation is the Philadelphia International Airport (PHL) which has heavy traffic and a
high volume of yearly flight operations.
To assess the effect of aircraft emissions on regional air pollution, data from both PHL'
alone and data which includes 48 other private and public airports in the Delaware Regional
70Don Zinger, U.S. EPA Office of Mobile Sources, personal communication, February, 1996.
2-58
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Airport System (RAS) have been reviewed.71 The major pollutants emitted by aircraft include
HCs, CO. NOX. SO, and particulates.72 These pollutants are emitted from aircraft engines at
different rates during the flight operation cycle. A flight operation cycle consists of five
specific operating modes: approach, taxi/idle-in, taxi/idle-out. takeoff, and climbout. The
five modes are used in models to estimate mode-specific and total emissions for flight
operations. Pollutant emissions during refueling and evaporative loss are also important when
assessing an airport's contribution to regional air pollution.
Emissions of HCs and CO are highest during the taxi/idle phases, because aircraft
engines operate at less than optimum efficiency at low power. NOX are released at higher rates
with increasing power and higher combustion temperature. SO: emission rates are highest
during takeoff and climbout when the fuel consumption rates are high.73 Paniculate emissions
form as a result of incomplete combustion, and are highest during takeoff and climbout
followed by high rates during taxi/idle phases.
The volume and consistency of aircraft emissions depends on the type of aircraft
engine, fuel, aircraft, and time spent in different modes. The volume of emissions which
contributes to regional pollution is dependent on meteorological conditions and flying height.
Figure 29 depicts HC, CO, NOX, and SO2 emissions for the regional airport system.
The largest contribution to air pollutant emissions by aviation is from CO. In the Philadelphia
regional area, 19 million Ibs of CO are released to the atmosphere each year from aircraft at
the 49 airports. Figure 30 provides a breakdown of HC emissions from civil aviation
operations for the regional airport system. This figure indicates the proportion of hydrocarbon
released for several modes of travel: general aviation (lift and takeoff operations), air taxi,
commercial travel, and evaporative loss. The figure shows that the largest proportion of
hydrocarbons are emitted during evaporative loss.
"Airports included in the Philadelphia Regional Airport System: Brandywine, Buehl Field, Bucks, Butter
Valley Golf Port, Camden County, Cecil County Airport, Cedar Acres Private Group, Chester County, Conowingo,
Cross Keys, Doylestown, Farmington, Flying W, Free Spirit, Ideal MFG Corp, Kroelinger, Kunda, Li Calzi,
Millville Municipal, New Castle County, New Garden Flying Field, New Hanover, New London, Nexton Farms,
Northeast Philadelphia, Old Nans, Pemberton, Pennridge, Perkiomen Vakket, Philadelphia International, Piney
Hollow Airfield, Pottstown Limerick, Pottstown Municipal, Quackertown, Raintree Airpark, Red Lion, Redwing,
Rudys, Schneiders Field, Shannon Memorial Field, South Jersey Regional, Summit Airpark, Van Sant, Vineland-
Downstown, Warrington, Weed. Wide Sky Airpark, Wings Field, Woodstock.
72U.S. EPA Office of Mobile Sources, AP-42, Compilations of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Volume 77,
Ann Arbor, MI, September 1995, p. 139.
2-59
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Philadelphia International Airport
The Philadelphia International Airport (PHL), located on 2,185 acres in Philadelphia
and Delaware Counties, is bounded by the Delaware River and Interstate 95. PHL is used by
both domestic and foreign airlines, and hosts over 420,000 commercial, commuter, and
business operations per year.74 The DVRPC estimates an increase to 547.367 operations by
the year 2020. Passengers using PHL reach the airport via interstate access, a Southeast
Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) rail line, buses, taxis, and hotel and rental car
courtesy vehicles. This vehicle traffic to and from the airport also contributes to the local air
emissions 1~
Emissions Estimates from Aircraft
Table 14 presents estimated emissions for PHL and the Regional Airport System (RAS)
based on the number of yearly flight operations. The data available for the RAS includes
emissions from lift and takeoff, taxi, and evaporative loss from refueling for the total
operations for all 49 airports included in the RAS. The RAS emissions data does not include
military which constitutes 3.6% of total operations for the 49 airports. PHL accounts for
approximately 16.4% of the total operations in the RAS.
Table 14: Aircraft Emissions for PHL and the Regional Airport System76
(Tons/year)
Carbon
Hydrocarbons Monoxide NOX SO/7
PHL78
Regional Airport
System
532
3244
1546
9427
371
2261
0.81
4.96
Source: Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Draft Final Report - Inventory of Civil Aircraft Emissions for 25
Nonattamment Areas, September 11, 1991, Table 16-1 and Figure 16-1.
74Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission, "2020 Regional Airport System Plan for the Delaware
Valley," Report No. 31, August, 1995, pg. 15.
"The City of Philadelphia is involved with the U.S. Department of Energy's Clean Cities Program, through
the Greater Philadelphia Clean Cities Program in an effort to integrate alternative fuels usage at the various public
and private fleets at PHL. There are also efforts being pursued to install natural gas fuel stations at the-airport and to
convert many fleet vehicles to less polluting fuels. Hadalski, John, Office of the Managing Director of the City of
Philadelphia. Letter to Lorna Rosenberg, U.S. EPA, Region III, March 25, 1996.
76Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Draft Final Report Inventory of Civil Aircraft Emissions for
Twenty-five Non-attainment Areas, September 11, 1991.
77Data incomplete because it does not include commercial or evaporative emissions.
78Estimated by calculating 17.8% of total RAS emissions.
2-62
-------
Figure 31 provides a comparison of mobile source emissions, both from vehicles and
aircraft, to industrial emissions in South and Southwest Philadelphia. As shown in the figure.
automobiles are the greatest source of carbon monoxide emissions in the Study Area.
contributing more than 14.000 tons per year. Automobiles also contribute to the overall
volume of volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides. This finding is consistent with
national estimates which show that carbon monoxide emissions from automobiles constitute
two-thirds of total man-made carbon monoxide emissions in cities throughout the United
States. 9 Figure 32 provides a breakdown of the pollutant specific load in South and Southwest
Philadelphia by industry sector or mobile source. Both manufacturing industries and
transportation-'public utilities contribute the largest proportions of sulfur oxide and nitrogen
oxide emissions. Together, they account for over 9,000 tons of sulfur oxide emissions and
nearly 7.000 tons of nitrogen oxide emissions. Automobiles, manufacturing and wholesale
industries are the major contributors to paniculate (PM10) emissions.
As shown in Figure 33, CO constitutes the largest percentage of emissions,
approximately 41 percent of total emissions in South and Southwest Philadelphia from
industry, automobiles, and aircraft. Nitrogen oxides constitute approximately 24 percent and
SO2 constitutes approximately 21 percent of the total emissions.
Additional Reports and Data Reviewed
• Carey, Penny M. Air Toxics Emissions from Motor Vehicles. Emissions
Control Technical Division, Office of Mobile Sources. Office of Air and
Radiation. US EPA. September 1987.
• Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. for US DOT FAA "Technical Data to
Support FAA's Advisory Circular on Reducing Emissions from Commercial
Aviation". September 29, 1995.
• Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments. "Assessing Risks from
Vehicular Pollution". Pollution Prevention Project, October 1992.
'"'US EPA, Office of Air and Radiation. National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report. 1994.
2-63
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iii. Lead
Exposure to lead is a major hazard in pregnant women and in children less than 6 years
old. Exposure to lead in utero or in young children can result in IQ reduction, reading and
learning disabilities, reduced attention span, hyperactivity. and behavioral problems. Severe
lead poisoning can lead to permanent cerebral damage.8"
Recognizing the severity of adverse effects which may result from lead exposure.
federal, state, and local agencies have instituted both statutory requirements and
recommendations for reducing lead in the environment.
Sources of Lead81
The main source of lead in the home is from fine lead dust. Other sources include
drinking water from plumbing containing lead solder or pipe, food, and lead paint chips.
Several studies have shown a strong correlation between childrens' blood lead levels and lead
levels in house dust and other sources in the home.
70% of children less than 6 years old have some lead exposure, and approximately
95 % of Philadelphia houses contain lead (more than 95 % of Philadelphia homes were built
prior to the ban of lead for home use). The highest potential for exposure to children is the
ingestion of lead-containing dust particles while eating and playing; therefore, blood lead
levels in children typically increase during the summer.
Additional sources of lead include industrial facilities (factories, lead smelters, battery
plants), leaded gasoline combustion, cosmetics, and exposure to lead-based products associated
with hobbies.
Lead in Drinking Water
Elevated levels of lead may be present in the "first flush" of drinking water in some
Philadelphia homes. Homes at most risk are those with lead service lines (i.e., the pipe
connecting the water main in the street to the water meter in the home) and homes with
internal plumbing containing lead-based solder.82 Homes built around the turn of the century
often had lead pipes and lead service lines were in common use until 1950.
""Philadelphia Department of Public Health, "Get the Lead Out!", A Lead Poisoning Prevention Project,
September 1995.
"Ibid
s:City of Philadelphia Water Department. Water Department Hotline, Personal communication, December
1995
2-67
-------
To control the leaching of lead from drinking water service lines and from solder used
in the plumbing, the Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) treats drinking water with zinc
orthophosphate before it leaves the water treatment plant. This helps to control corrosion and
the release of lead into the drinking water.
From January to June 1992, the PWD tested the drinking water for lead at 25 homes
within the South and Southwest Philadelphia Study Area. Some of the homes v/ere found to
have drinking water lead levels in excess of the "action level."83 The PWD instituted an
educational campaign to provide instruction to the public on reducing lead exposure from
drinking water.
Childhood Lead Poisoning
Although the effects of low levels of lead in blood are poorly understood, higher levels
can cause serious neurotoxic effects including encephalopathy and neuropathy.8"* The Centers
for Disease Control (CDC) have published recommendations of actions to be taken when blood
lead levels exceed 10/wg/dl as shown in Table 15.
Lead Levels
(micrograms per
deciliter)
Status
Actions Recommended
< 10 ug/dl
No lead poisoning
no action
>10 ug/dl
Concern
reduce exposure
(provide guidance to reduce exposure)
> 20 ug/dl
Lead poisoning
full medical evaluation
evaluate environmental and behavioral history
investigate environment
Two types of test procedures can be conducted to evaluate blood lead levels, capillary
screens, and venous screens. Capillary screens generally involve a needle stick on the finger
or ear lobe to obtain a blood sample. A venous screen requires the puncture of a vein to
obtain a sample. Capillary screens are faster and less expensive; however, venous screens are
a more accurate indicator of the blood lead concentrations and are used to confirm cases of
83Rob Goldberg, Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, personal communication,
November 13, 1995.
MKlassen, Curtis D, Casarett andDoull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, Fifth edition; New
York: McGraw Hill. 1996.
2-68
-------
blood lead poisoning at > 20 ug/dl.8-"
Status of Lead Poisoning in Philadelphia and the Study Area80
Following are provisional data for blood level: screenings conducted in 1994 in
Philadelphia which were submitted to the CDC:
• 42.009 children were screened in Philadelphia in 1994
• 2.245 (5.34%) with blood lead level > 20 «g/dl (confirmed by venous
screening)8
Tables 16. 17, and 18 indicate results of reportable blood lead screenings which were
conducted in 1993 and 1994 on children in South and Southwest Philadelphia. Additional
screens may have been conducted by private laboratories but not reported to the Health
Department because the test results did not exceed required reporting levels (> 15 /^g/dl for
City of Philadelphia).
• 7,332 children were tested in the Study Area in 1994
• 3.202 had blood lead levels 10 jag/dl or greater (slightly higher percentage of
children in Southwest Philadelphia had elevated blood lead levels than in South
Philadelphia)
• Several programs/initiatives are in place to address concerns regarding lead
poisoning:
1. Philadelphia Childhood Lead Poisoning and Prevention Program
2. Mayor's Task Force on Childhood Lead Poisoning and Prevention
3. CDC Program on Lead Poisoning
4. Get the Lead Out! Lead Poisoning Prevention Project
85Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program, Protocol for Environmental Investigation.
86City of Philadelphia, Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program (CLPPP) database, 1994.
s'Ibid
2-69
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Table 18: Data on Childhood Blood Lead Tests in
South Philadelphia and Southwest Philadelphia90
# of children tested
blood lead 0 - 9 /xg/dl
blood lead 10-14 /ig/dl
blood lead 15-19 /ig/dl
blood lead 20 - 44 /ig/dl
blood lead 45 + /ig/dl
South Philadelphia
(census tracts 13-51)
1993
1778
658 (37%)
438(25%)
272 (15%)
398 (22%)
12 (.7%)
1994
3857
2302(57%)
846(22%)
369 (10%)
322 (8%)
18 (.5%)
Southwest Philadelphia
(census tracts 52- 78)
1993
1702
556(33%)
399(23%)
288 (17%)
441 (26%)
18(1%)
1994
3475
1828 (53%)
871 (25%)
415 (12%)
347 (10%)
14 (.4%)
Current State and Local Legislative Activity
• Lead Certification Law (Act 44) requires certification standards for inspectors,
contractors, and most lead hazard reduction jobs. The Bill was signed by the
Governor in July 1995. Regulations for the Certification Law have not yet been
written.
• Disclosure Bill, City of Philadelphia (effective 10-28-95) -- owner/manager of
property is required to disclose at the time of sale/rental whether the property is
known to contain lead.
90These data reflect venous test results and capillary results if there was not a venous test; therefore, there is
no double counting Data obtained from the City of Philadelphia's Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program.
2-72
-------
iv. Radon
Radon is a radioactive gas produced natural!} from the decay of uranium in soil.
Exposure to radon has been shown to increase the risk of lung cancer in uranium miners. EPA
and mam scientists believe that exposure to household radon is a cause of lung cancer. The
EPA estimates that 20.000 lung cancer deaths per year are the result of radon exposure in the
home, making radon the second largest cause of lung cancer in the U.S.91 Radon in indoor air
comes primarily from the soil, and to a much lesser extent through drinking water and building
materials It enters homes and basement? through cracks in the foundation, through pipe
chases, floor-wall joints, exposed soil, and utility pipes 9~ While there is no known "safe"
level of radon exposure, the EPA has set an action level of 4 picocuries per liter (pCi/1) in
indoor air. When indoor radon levels exceed the action level, the EPA recommends mitigating
exposures, and implementing steps to reduce the indoor air concentrations of radon.
Status of Radon Contamination in South/Southwest Philadelphia93
Radon testing conducted by private citizens and companies is reported by the analytical
laboratories in the Pennsylvania Radon Statistical Summary of Readings. The Summary of
Readings is a cumulative compilation and is obtained quarterly by EPA. Based on zip code
location identifiers, 1,279 of the tests were conducted in the Study Area (through April, 1995).
Radon levels ranged from a low of 0.1 pCi/L to a high of 93.8 pCi/L. Sixty-three tests
showed radon levels exceeding the EPA action level of 4 pCi/L. Table 19 shows the results of
the testing in 8 zip codes included in South and Southwest Philadelphia. Tests were performed
primarily using activated charcoal adsorption canisters (actual breakdown of techniques used is
not available).
"US EPA. U.S. EPA Physicians' Guide: Radon, The Threat with a Simple Solution, September 1993,
document 402-K-93-008
v-lbid.
"U.S EPA Region III Radon Group, Pennsylvania Radon Statistical Summary of Readings, April 1995.
The type of testing conducted was not reported (e.g.. long or short-term tests, whether repeat samples are measured).
More specific data (other than by zip code) are not available.
2-73
-------
Table 19: Radon Levels in South/Southwest Philadelphia94
•=
Zip
code
••^•M^^^^^MMM
19112
19142
19143
19145
19146
19147
19148
19153
#
tests
^mMtm^^^^mfm
1
88
213
124
216
464
121
46
Min.
radon
level
pCi/L
^•^M^I^MHMMMB
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
Max.
radon
level
pCi/L
^^MM^^BMWMM
15.9
5.6
93.8
9.6
24.8
24.1
25.9
2.8
0.0-3.9
pCi/L
iMBMMMM^B^HM^MM
71.4%
96.6%
92.0%
93.5%
95.4%
96.1%
90.1%
100.0%
=
4.0-9.9
pCi/L
•HM^BM^^^MMMH
28.6%
3.4%
6.10%
6.5%
3.7%
3.5%
6.6%
0
=-==
10.0-
19.9
pCi/L
••••^•••^•••••IBI
0
0
1.0%
0
0.4%
0.2%
0.8%
0
,.
20.0-
49.9
pCi/L
ss=
0
0
0.4%
0
0.5%
0.2%
2.5%
0
•••••^^••^•^^
50.0-
99.9
pCi/L
0
0
0.5%
0
0
0
0
0
Extent of Radon Contamination in the Study Area
All homes are at risk from radon, and radon levels can vary greatly within a single
neighborhood, and even from house to house. While house construction can affect radon
levels, radon can be a problem in homes of all types.95 Testing of individual homes is
necessary to determine the indoor air radon concentrations. The EPA National Residential
Radon Survey estimates that the average indoor air concentration of radon in homes
nationwide is 1.25 pCi/L. EPA has developed recommended actions to be taken to reduce
radon levels in indoor air. These recommendations are listed in Table 20.
Current legislative activity:
• The EPA has set a national long-term goal that indoor air should have the same
level of radon as the ambient air outside buildings.
• Indoor Radon Abatement Act (IRAA) was passed in 1988 as an amendment to
the Federal Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).
^U.S. EPA Region III Radon Group, Pennsylvania Radon Statistical Summary of Readings, April 1995. It
is assumed that laboratories testing for radon submit all test results to the EPA. The type of testing conducted was
not reported (e.g., long or short-term tests, whether repeat samples are measured). More specific data (other than
by zip code) are not available.
"U.S. EPA. A Citizen's Guide to Radon, 2nd ed.. May 1992, document 402-K92-001.
2-74
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Table 20: Actions Recommended by the EPA96
Radon Level j Recommendations97'98
20 pCi/L
10 pCi/L
8 pCi/L
4 pCi/L
2 pCi/L
1.3 pCi/L
0.4 pCi/L
Home should be fixed, preferably by an
contractor.
^^••^^^•^^•I^HMB^^H^^HIMHB^BMB
EPA-certified
Fix home
Fix home
Fix home
Consider fixing home to reduce indoor air radon levels
between 2 and 4 pCi/L
Reducing radon levels below 2 pCi/L is
Reducing radon levels below 2 pCi/L is
difficult
difficult
Programs/Initiatives:
Each state has an Office of Radiation Program (ORP), with an Environmental
Radiation Ambient Monitoring System (ERAMS). The office for Pennsylvania is located at
US EPA Region III in Philadelphia, and is responsible for monitoring in South and Southwest
Philadelphia.
%U.S. EPA, A Citizen's Guide to Radon: The Guide to Protecting Yourself and Your Family from Radon,
2nd ed., 1992.
97Radon gas from the soil is drawn indoors by the differential air pressure between buildings and the soil.
Indoor levels of radon can be reduced by sealing cracks in floors and walls to prevent entry of the gas, or through
"blockwall depressurization" to prevent radon gas from entering the basement. Radon inside buildings can also be
removed by using a simple system of pipes and fans, such as "sub-slab depressurization," which removes and vents
radon-laden air from beneath the foundation of the house.
98Homes should be fixed using a contractor certified as Radon Contractor Proficient (RCP) by the EPA. A
list of RCP contractors and a technical guide can be obtained from the Pennsylvania state radon office (1-800-237-
2366). For experienced homeowners conducting their own repairs, the technical guide "Radon Reduction Techniques
for Detached Houses" can also be obtained at this office
2-75
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Radon and Smoking
Epidemiological studies indicate that radon exposure and smoking may have a
synergistic relationship. While smoking or radon exposure can independently increase the risk
of lung cancer, exposure to both greatly enhances that risk." Therefore, in addition to testing
a home for radon and conducting the repairs necessary to reduce indoor radon levels, quitting
smoking is strongly recommended to reduce the risk of lung cancer.
"U.S. EPA. U.S. EPA Physicians' Guide: Radon, The Threat with a Simple Solution, September 1993.
Document 402-K-93-008.
2-76
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v. Auto Body Shops
Emissions from individual auto body shops make a small contribution to the total
environmental exposures of a community. However, the number and concentration of such
facilities in urban areas raises concerns regarding the effects of cumulative exposure.
Community residents in the Study Area have expressed concerns regarding the existence of
large numbers and proliferation of automotive repair and refimshing businesses in close
proximity to homes, schools, and hospitals. Because of the lax regulation of the automobile
repair/refinishing industry, it is difficult to get an exact count of the number of operating
facilities in the Study Area. According to the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) listings.
there are 134 auto repair and paint shops in operation in the Study Area.100 However, it is
difficult to determine from agency files which shops require air pollution licenses and how
many are properly licensed. The Philadelphia Air Management Services (AMS) has identified
26 licensed facilities in South and Southwest Philadelphia. Figure 34 is a GIS map of the
locations of autobody shops in the Study Area as identified by SIC code.
Specific concerns raised by residents include the potential respiratory and other health
effects which may result from emissions from repair and re finishing operations. In response to
the expressed concerns, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR)
conducted a health consultation to review potential health effects related to auto body .
emissions. The following is a general description of the automotive repair industry, followed
by a summary of the ATSDR report and a description of the efforts of the City Air
Management Services to enforce and improve environmental regulations of auto body shops.
Overview of Automotive Repair Industry101
Of the auto body shop functions, automotive repair creates the largest quantity of total
waste. Mechanical repair generates waste oils, oil filters, engine/hydraulic fluids, antifreeze,
corrosive lead battery waste, and plastic/fiberglass dusts from sanding. Auto repair services
(e.g., oil changes, fluid replenishment, radiator repair) generates waste oil, oil filters, engine
and hydraulic fluids, radiator flushing, used batteries, and contaminated rags.
looExecutive Office of the President, Standard Industrial Classification Manual, OMB, 1987, pp. 427-443.
10!U.S. EPA, Guide to Pollution Prevention: The Automotive Repair Industry. October 1991.
(EPA/625/7-91-013).
2-77
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S.
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2-78
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Overview of Automotive Refinishing Industry:102
• Auto body painting generates thinner waste, paint and primer wastes, paint
sludge, oil and solvent-contaminated rags, sanding dusts, masking paper.
Paint types: acrylic lacquer, synthetic enamel, acrylic enamel, catalyzed acrylic
enamel, and color and clear polyurethane
• Emission Control: Paint booths are used to capture exhaust which is passed
through dry filters to capture particulates from over spraying; however, organic
air emissions are usually not controlled.
• Largest waste stream: Leftover paint and used thinner
• Other wastes: Dirty filters may contain hazardous solvents and heavy metals
from paint.
• Average shop: paints all or part of 600 cars/yr; uses 360 gallons solvents and
thinners/yr; generates 240 gallons mixed waste/yr.
(note: high positive correlation between amount of paint thinner used and the
net amount of waste generated)
• Waste storage: typically in 55-gallon drums. Either disposed of off-site, or
recycled by the supplier facility (solvent leasing).
• Waste mismanagement: Used paint cans, equipment and oil filters are disposed
of as municipal waste. Small amounts of engine fluid and antifreeze which leak
during refmishing often end up in municipal waste streams (dumpsters, drains
or sewers) .without prior treatment.
mlbid.
2-79
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Table 21; Typical Auto Repair Wastes
Operation
Waste Material
Pollutants
Shop
cleanup
outdated supplies
dirty rags/sawdust
alkaline floor cleaner
clarifier sludge
solvents, caustic cleaners, automotive
fluids (oils, alcohols, ethylene glycol,
acids)
oil, grease, heavy metals, solvents and
caustics
Parts
cleaning
solvents and
air emissions
aqueous cleaners and
dirty baths
Petroleum distillates, aromatic
hydrocarbons, mineral spirits, naphtha,
chlorinated compounds
acids, alkalis, oil and grease, heavy
metals, blended heavy oils
Auto
maintenance
motor oil and transmission
fluid
engine coolant
batteries
brakes
refrigerant
blended mineral oil, heavy metals
ethylene glycol, lead
sulfuric acid, lead
asbestos
CF-12
ATSDR Assessment of Auto Body Shops in South Philadelphia
103
In 1994, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) conducted a
health consultation to evaluate exposure to residents in the neighborhood and to assess whether
auto body shop emissions cause an increase in respiratory and other ailments in residents of
South Philadelphia. The following is a brief summary of the draft consultation.
The area which was studied is located 1.5 miles south of the Philadelphia central
business district and is 0.5 by 0.5 square miles. The area contains a 6-block neighborhood of
rowhouses (built in the early 1900s) interspersed with numerous commercial establishments
(including dry cleaners, sandwich shops, gas stations, grocery and retail shops, and auto body
repair).
The report identified 53 auto shops within the 6 block area (18 auto painting, 24 auto
repair, 11 miscellaneous). Although repair shops often use solvents, degreasers and paints
103Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Department of Health and Human Services Public
Health Service, South Philadelphia Residential Area Shop Emissions, Public Comment Release; Atlanta, GA, 1994.
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which require air pollution permits, body shops are not under current local, state or federal
emissions control regulations due to the low volume of paint and solvent used. There are over
300 auto body shops city wide that lac! air pollution licenses (either from Philadelphia
Department of Licenses and Inspections or from AMS), and only 60 were properly licensed.
For example, during the study, Fleet Management Services, a city operated auto repair shop,
had been operating without an AMS licence for paint spraying.104 The total number of
unlicensed shops in the Study Area is unknown.
Findings of the ATSDR report
The following compounds make up 90% of the air emissions from auto body facilities:
acetone, xylene, toluene, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone and n-hexane. There is
very limited sampling data (from one shop under investigation) but data suggest that emissions
of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from spray painting are insufficient to cause significant
health problems (levels 300 times below levels known to cause upper respiratory tract
irritation). The typical auto body paint has 2.5 to 6.4 Ibs VOC/gallon paint.
Most of the shops in the Study Area are small; small shops release approximately 10.2
pounds VOC/day. In South Philadelphia, three of the inspected shops released under 3 pounds
VOC/day. Although some lack spray booths and emissions stacks, most area shops are in
compliance with regulations. However, emissions from other area businesses and automobiles
makes pinpointing auto body shops as a pollutant source difficult.
Regulatory Response
During its review and health consultation, ATSDR contacted the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) to determine if an investigation of auto body shop
workers' health had been undertaken. OSHA responded that no investigation had been
conducted.
Philadelphia Air Management Services has passed new regulations regarding emissions
from auto body facilities and has increased permitting efforts. The EPA proposed reducing the
VOC content of paints and other auto refmishing products in mid-1995 as part of the 1990
Amendments to the Federal Clean Air Act.
Conclusions of the ATSDR report
Low concentration of pollutants were detected in the outside air and the VOCs emitted
were "below levels of harm." However, many were detected by smell, and the effect of odors
on health is not clear. The report found a lack of association between exposure and the
104 US EPA, Update Letter for the South/Southwest Environmental Health Characterization Study, January,
1996.
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reported health outcomes, and the health symptoms reported were non-specific, (for example,
having trouble breathing, headaches, etc ). According to the report, respiratory problems
related to "city air" (e.g., increased mortality) are primarily due to air particulates, not vapors
or gases such as auto shop emissions. However, the report concluded that it is difficult to
reach conclusions without reliable data on actual air concentrations of pollutants.
Physical complaints:
• Respiratory problems: unlikely to be due to air emissions
• Nose bleeds in children: Not enough toxicological information to draw
conclusions.
• Brain cancer: No plausible link to auto body shop emissions.
Actions
The ATSDR found insufficient cause to initiate a health study/epidemiologic survey of
the community living near auto body shops.
ATSDR Recommendations
• Extensive air monitoring/sampling required
• Increase licensing/issuing of permits to auto body shops
• Increase inspections of auto body shops
• Determine respiratory health status of residents within South/Southwest
Philadelphia
Air Management Services Efforts
The Philadelphia Department of Health Air Management Services division is
responsible for issuing permits for auto body shops which operate spray painting equipment.
AMS has been reviewing the compliance status of facilities within Philadelphia, AMS
identified 60 facilities with appropriate licenses in place and over 300 shops hi the City of
Philadelphia which were not properly licensed. A recent list provided by AMS shows that 26
shops in the South and Southwest Philadelphia are properly licensed.
In an effort to improve environmental quality and reduce air emissions from auto body
shops, Air Management Services has recently amended Regulation V of the City of
Philadelphia Department of Public Health Air Pollution Control regulations. The amendments
to section XIV of the regulation, Control of Emissions of Organic Substances from Stationary
Sources, revised the requirements for "Automobile Refinishing Operations." The regulation
requires that solvent used for cleaning be utilized so that emissions to the air are prevented,
proper storage is observed and solvent is recycled. Operations involving sanding must be
conducted indoors with appropriate ventilation and filtration devices in place. The revised
regulation went into effect on February 26, 1996.
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C. Data on Specific Facilities and Other Sites of Concern
Industrial Facilities Within South and Southwest Philadelphia
In order to understand the sources of environmental contamination within the Study
Area and potential contaminants to which the community may be exposed, files of a variety of
active and abandoned industrial facilities have been reviewed. Data on the facilities were
extracted from public files at the Philadelphia Air Management Services, City Planning
Department, City Police and Fire Departments, the Delaware Valley Regional Planning
Commission, State of Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, and Region III
Environmental Protection Agency, hi some cases, individual facilities also provided
information on their operations and the status of environmental conditions.
Facilities included in the review have been identified from federal and state sources as
listed hi section I.C.v. of this report. Additional sites have been included hi the review based
upon concerns expressed by members of the Community Advisory Committee. The following
summaries briefly identify facility operation and status as recorded hi agency files.
Ashland Chemical Inc.
Composite Polymers Facility
2801 Christopher Columbus Avenue
Ashland Chemical manufactures liquid polyester resins for industrial use. The facility
is located on a four acre site formerly used by Cargill Incorporated. Ashland is bordered on
the east and south by Publicker Industries, on the west by railroad tracks and Delaware
Avenue, and on the north by a pier connected to the Delaware River.
This facility is a large quantity generator of hazardous wastes. Environmental concerns
include emissions to the air, including acids, chemical spills and soil contamination. In 1990,
buried pipelines and soil contaminated by fuel oil of unknown origin were found, and these
were removed.
Bil-Dry Corporation
5525 Grays Avenue
The Bil-Dry Corporation produces adhesives, paints, wallpaper paste, and other
repair/construction materials (cement patching, tile grout, thin sets). It has been in operation
since 1930, and is a division of the Rooto Corporation of Howell, Michigan.
In October 1996, the EPA assessed a fine against Bil-Dry for alleged hazardous waste
violations. Chromium and methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) were found in 4 drums stored at Bil-
Dry which may have been abandoned by a previous owner. Bil-Dry was also ordered to
remove any remaining chromium or MEK waste from the property. There is no indication
that any of the chemicals had leaked.
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Defense Personnel Support Center (DPSC)
2800 South 20th St.
The Defense Personnel Support Center (DPSC) is a military-supply complex located on
86.5 acres, bounded by South Street, 20th Street, Oregon Avenue, the Schuylkill River
Expressway and Conrail lines. Past activities included garment manufacturing, fabric moth-
proofing, warehousing and supply distribution. All manufacturing ceased in 1994, and the
facility's current mission is the procurement and world wide distribution of clothing, medical
supplies and subsistence items for the U.S. Armed Forces. In 1993 the Base Realignment and
Closure (BRAC) Commission recommended that the DPSC mission be relocated. The current
DPSC facility will be closed in 1999, and the site is being studied to determine the extent of
contamination from past activities and required remediation to convert the facility for civilian
use.
The primary environmental concern at the DPSC is petroleum contaminated soil and
groundwater. Petroleum products were stored both above and below ground at the DPSC for
decades, and multiple incidences of spills and contamination have occurred (many of the
storage tanks are now closed). In addition, a large underground petroleum plume covering
approximately 54 acres and containing an estimated 250,000 gallons of fuel was detected on
the southern part of the DPSC in 1987. Major health concerns from the plume include
hydrocarbon vapors which may cause respiratory irritation and explosion hazard.
At present, asbestos removal and encapsulation and lead paint remediation are hi
progress at the DPSC. PCB containing transformers have been replaced and the contaminated
soils removed. There is ongoing investigation into soil and building contamination from the
insecticide DDT used in the moth-proofing of fabrics.
Delaware Valley Recycling, Inc.
3107 South 61st St.
Delaware Valley Recycling occupies 25 acres of land reclaimed from the west bank of
the Schuylkill River between 61st and 58th Streets, surrounded by other industrial sites (the
nearest residential area is a quarter of a mile away). Activities at the facility include the
crushing, screening and separation of tree stumps, construction debris, and demolition waste
materials (e.g., brick, concrete blocks, stone), which are processed into recycled construction
materials. A total of 2,500 tons of raw materials is processed daily, with approximately 85 to
90% of the raw materials recycled.
Site capacity for storage of regulated unprocessed raw materials is set at 25,000 cubic
yards. The company has agreed to limit the capacity of wood chip products to 12,500 cubic
yards. Environmental concerns include dust and noise; air pollution from fires are also of
concern as the spontaneous combustion of recycled coarse wood chip product lias occurred
several times.
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Facility operations have been restricted by DEP for violations of its operating permit.
Those violations included: illegally depositing construction and demolition waste at an
unpermitted site; poor storage practices; poor maintenance of stockpiled materials; and
unpermitted discharge of waste processing water from the floatation tank onto the surface of
the ground. Delaware Valley Recycling may no longer accept certain materials including but
not limited to: concrete material, source separated wood, mixed demolition waste and
grubbing waste.
E.I. Du Pont De Nemours and Co. (Marshall Laboratories)
3500 Grays Ferry Avenue
The DuPont Marshall Laboratory is a research facility which develops paints, resins,
Teflon, and semi-works for automobile paints and resins, using acrylics, alkyd and polyester
resin bases. Manufacturing was also carried out at this site until 1981. The facility is a large
quantity generator of hazardous wastes including paints and volatile organic compounds, which
are disposed of off-site.
General Electric Switch Code
(Breaker Plant Operation)
6901 Elmwood Avenue
The General Electric Breaker Plant manufactures circuit breakers for large utility
companies. Other activities at this site include lithography and spray painting. Past activities
included electroplating. The plant is an operating, permitted hazardous waste facility, and
contains two water cascading paint booths and a large holding tank for recycling water.
The facility is a large quantity generator of hazardous waste. The waste includes
plating sludge (containing heavy metals), waste oil, paints and solvents. Other environmental
concerns include the release of volatile organic solvents from spray painting into the air, soil
contamination from interim storage of hazardous waste, and spills from waste tank removal.
Inolex Chemical
Jackson and Swanson Streets
The major product lines of Inolex Chemical include cosmetic emulsifiers, emollients,
fiber lubricants, synthetic lubricants and polyester polyols, which are used hi the emollient and
cosmetic industries. This site is a small quantity generator of hazardous wastes. Inolex has
three solid waste management units on site where hazardous wastes are stored for 90 days or
less.
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M.A. Bruder and Sons, Inc. (M.A.B.)
52nd and Grays Ferry Avenue
M.A. Bruder and Sons has been in operation at its present site since 1970 as a producer
of paints for commercial and retail sale. The facility consists of a large manufacturing
building, tank farm, storage yard, drummed waste storage area, and a solvent still. Among
the air contaminants reported to the AMS, M.A.B. lists lead and compounds, various volatile
organic compounds, and the criteria pollutants. This plant is a large quantity generator of
hazardous wastes. These wastes are disposed of off-site, or, as in the case of waste solvent,
recycled off-site.
Former Barrett Building/Celotex
36th and Wharton Avenue, South Philadelphia
The Old Barrett Building was formerly a concrete manufacturing facility. Historical
environmental concerns include leakage of PCB-contaminated transformer oil, which was
reported in August 1989. The leak occurred within 50 feet of residences and near the
Schuylkill River. Funds from CERCLA ("Super-fund") were allocated to begin cleanup and
approximately 147 gallons of spilled transformer oil containing 72% PCB were removed. In
addition, 300 gallons of contaminated oil from an adjacent transformer were removed. On
December 1, 1989, the site was verified as sufficiently cleaned, and no further action was
deemed necessary. The site was officially closed on January 2, 1990. In 1993, the Coast
Guard completed tank and surface clean up operations on the site. In October 1995, the
Philadelphia Fire Department investigated the drums in the facility and determined that they
were empty. Asbestos abatement has been performed by the City and an investigation will
take place to determine whether remaining issues exist.
Penrose Avenue (owned by PECO)
Intersection of 30th and Penrose
The Penrose Avenue site contains trucks, trailers, "roll-off dumpsters, scrap metals,
and piles of refuse and tires. An emergency assessment of the site was conducted by the EPA
in May 1990, and found 50 to 60 drums containing unknown materials in two dumpsters.
Environmental concerns include the leakage of drum contents into the dumpsters and into the
soil. Air monitoring indicated a high concentration of organic vapors (580 ppm) near the
drums, which also poses a fire and explosion hazard. Field testing showed that chlorinated
materials such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organic solvents were likely to be
present.
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Publicker Industries/Cuyahoga Wrecking Plant
3223 Delaware Avenue
Publicker Industries distilled liquor and industrial alcohols from 1912 until 1985, on a
37-acre site bordered by the Delaware River, Ashland Chemical Company, Packer Marine
Terminal and New Orleans Cold Storage, and Delaware Avenue. The site is located just north
of the Walt Whitman Bridge which spans the Delaware River from Philadelphia to New
Jersey. While the area is primarily industrial, there are major population centers nearby.
As production declined in the late 1970s, the company used some of its tanks to store
fuel and oils for other companies. In 1986 Publicker operations ceased and the facility was
sold to Overland, a subsidiary of the Cuyahoga Wrecking Company. Following a fatal
explosion in November 1986 where two workers were killed, Overland declared bankruptcy
and abandoned the site. An estimated two million gallons of hazardous materials were present
when the facility was abandoned which were contained in 440 large tanks, storage drums,
product stock, warehouses, chemical laboratories, reaction vessels, a power plant and an
estimated several hundred miles of aboveground and underground process lines.
Environmental and health hazards include poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), oil,
poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), acids and bases, volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
insecticides and asbestos. As an additional hazard, most of the existing structures had
deteriorated due to weather, fire, and neglect.
The facility was listed on the National Priorities List (NPL) for cleanup under the
Superfund Program in 1987. Emergency cleanup, site stabilization, and contamination source
control was initiated following the NPL listing. Many of the buildings have since been razed,
viable equipment and materials removed, and hazardous substances collected and properly
disposed of. On December 28, 1995, the EPA finalized its Record of Decision (ROD) to
complete clean-up of this site. Final remediation and clean-up of the facility is currently hi
progress.
Soil Remediation of Philadelphia, Inc.
3201 South 61st St.
Soil Remediation of Philadelphia uses fuel oil and natural gas to burn off hydrocarbons
from soil contaminated by gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene and other fuels. The facility was
converted from an asphalt plant, and the asphalt manufacturing equipment was modified to
create a closed system for the incineration of organic compounds.
The plant operates 16 hours per day, and processes about 800 tons of soil daily (50 tons
per hour). Incoming contaminated soil is first analyzed for organic compounds, lead, heavy
metals and hazardous substances. Soil that contains hazardous materials can not be remediated
at this site, and no hazardous wastes are generated during the remediation process.
Environmental concerns include sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide and carbon monoxide emissions
generated in the processing. Source testing indicates that these emissions are destroyed with
greater than 99% efficiency in a thermal oxidizer unit.
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Sun Refinery
3144 Passyunk Avenue
Sun Oil is an integrated fuel refinery located on 1440 acres, just east of the Schuylkill
River. The facility contains 3 operation sites (North, West and South Yards) and distills crude
oil into light hydrocarbon gases, kerosene, furnace gas, gas oils, reformer stock, and asphalt.
The crude oil processing capacity is currently 300,000 barrels per day. The site was used as
an oil distribution and crude oil processing center starting in the 1860s, while gasoline
production began during World War II.
Sun Oil is a permitted hazardous waste facility, and generates a large volume of
hazardous waste from the refining of crude oil. This includes approximately 7600 gallons a
day of dissolved air float, 5500 tons per year of slop oil emulsion solids, 200 tons per year of
separator sludge, and 100 tons per year of tank bottoms containing lead. Sun Oil's two waste
processing areas are Girard Point and Point Breeze. The Girard Point area is permitted for
hazardous waste storage and incineration. The hazardous waste incinerator has not operated
since December 1994. Point Breeze waste processing area also stopped its land farming waste
operations in December 1994.
Environmental concerns at this facility include contamination of air, soil, groundwater
and surface water. Sun is the largest source of TRI listed air emissions in the Study Area.
There is a potential for leaching of wastes from the open-air land farming unit (North Yard)
and from waste burial sites (North Yard and West Yard). The waste burial sites were used
from the 1940s through the 1960s and include wastes such as leaded storage tank bottoms,
chemical waste, and mixtures of unknown refinery waste. Many of these older burial sites are
not lined, and leaching of hazardous substances into soil and water has been documented.
In addition, the refining operations involve the use of hydrofluoric acid (HF) as a
catalyst hi the petroleum alkylation process. The HF unit has its own alarm system to warn of
any releases. Because of concerns regarding environmental releases from the refining
operations, Sun has instituted a telephone warning system that provides information of the
status of non-routine releases.
-------
D. Comparison of Philadelphia to Other Cities: Use of Landview Data
South and Southwest Philadelphia are not alone in facing complex environmental
problems. Many of the issues present here are common to industrialized urban communities.
In order to provide perspective and compare Philadelphia to other areas, the environmental
status of Philadelphia is compared here to other cities, using information from the LandView
IJ105.106 geographic reference database. Because data was not available on geographic areas of
the same relative size and population density as the Study Area, the data presented here is for
the entire city of Philadelphia and is compared to other urban areas. LandView II includes
1990 demographic and economic data from the Bureau of the Census, and information on
facilities, sites, and monitoring stations as listed in several EPA data bases. Table 22 lists the
EPA databases included in the LandView II system. (See section I.B.v. for a description of
these databases).
Table 22: Sources of data for EPA-resuIated sites, as accessed in LandView II 1
Type of facility or site
Criteria air pollutant sources
Large quantity generators and
facilities which treat, store, or
dispose of hazardous wastes
Superfund sites
Point-source (wastewater)
discharges
Releases or transfers toxic
chemicals
EPA monitoring system
Aerometric Information Retrieval
System (AIRS)107
Biennial Reporting System (BRS)
National Priorities List (NPL)
Permit Compliance System (PCS)
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)108
Reporting
year(s)
1982-1994*
1991
1993
1993
1992
* 1156/1179 facilities (98%) reported from 1990-1992.
I05U.S. EPA and US Department of Commerce, LandView II: Mapping of Selected EPA-Regulated Sites
TIGER/Line 1992 and 1990 Census of Population and Housing, Northeast Region, March, 1995.
l06Accuracy of data provided in the LandView II system is limited by the input of the individual data bases.
EPA has determined that approximately 15% of the wastewater loadings reported in PCS include inaccuracies
because of issues in identification of effluent monitoring locations, and improper labeling of effluent pipes.
I07A detailed description of the AIRS database is provided in section II.B.ii.
I08A description of the Toxics Release Inventory is included in section II.B.i.
2-89
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In this comparison, cities are defined by their boundaries of incorporation. Smaller
adjacent municipalities are not considered, even though they may contribute to the
environmental quality of the larger metropolitan region. The comparison of pollution sources
between cities has other substantial limitations as well. The determinants of industrial
pollution are numerous, and they vary from city to city. As a result, there are limitations to
the inferences which can be drawn from these comparisons. Examples of the factors
influencing industrial pollution include:
• the historical presence of industries in a community
• the influence of geography and climate
• the availability of natural resources
• zoning practices
• the volume and location of traffic corridors
• trends in the demand for industrial goods and services
• industrial processes and the types of waste
• the methods and costs of waste disposal
• the siting of industrial outfalls
Table 23 provides a ranking of 26 cities in the Northeast U.S. by area, population,
population density, and the number of EPA-regulated sites from a variety of data bases.109
Among the cities included in the comparison are: Albany, Allentown, Altoona, Atlantic City,
Baltimore, Boston, Dover, Hagerstown, Harrisburg, Jersey City, Lancaster, New Haven, New
York, Newark, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Pittsfield, Portland, Providence, Reading, Rochester,
Scranton, Trenton, Washington, Wilmington, and York. The data suggest wide differences
between cities. In general, large or densely populated cities have more facilities than smaller
or less densely populated cities. Philadelphia's population density ranking is similar to its
rankings for the number of regulated facilities. On the other hand, Rochester has more
facilities than it's population density might suggest and Boston has fewer than expected.
Philadelphia has the fourth highest population density; third highest number of facilities
reporting to AIRS; fourth highest number of large quantity generators (LQG); fifth highest
number of treatment, storage, and disposal sites (TSD); third highest number of TRI facilities;
seventh highest number of facilities reporting to the PCS; and second highest number of NPL
sites. As a comparison example, Baltimore has the eighth highest population density, but the
second highest number of facilities reporting to AIRS; second highest number of LQGs;
second highest number of TSD facilities; second highest number of TRI sites; second highest
number of facilities reporting to the PCS; and third highest number of NPL sites. The actual
values for each of the categories in Table 23 are listed in Table 1 of Appendix IX.
'°The data do not represent all pollution sources. For example, only facilities which release 100 or more
tons of criteria air pollutants (5 tons hi the case of lead and 1000 tons hi the case of carbon monoxide) are required to
report their emissions to the Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS).
2-90
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2-92
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Figure 35 shows the number of facilities within South and Southwest Philadelphia that
appear on each of the state and federal environmental data bases as listed hi section I.C.v. Of
the CERCLIS sites, 18 are considered "active." The remaining sites have been archived
which indicates that, according to EPA, these sites do not pose sufficient risk for Superfund
involvement and no further action is required. Figure 36 indicates the number of facilities of
environmental concern in the Study Area based on Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
codes.110
Table 24 shows the most frequently released toxic compounds hi these same 26 cities
in 1992, while Table 25 shows the most frequently released toxic compounds released to all
media hi Philadelphia in 1992 based on data reported to the TRI. Based on the number of
facilities which reported release or transfer of a compound, sulfuric acid ranked highest in
Philadelphia with 12 facilities reporting a release. In the 26 city summary, sulfuric acid was
again the compound reported to be released with greatest frequency. Based on the number of
pounds released or transferred, Philadelphia and the other cities both reported methanol and
toluene among the top five chemicals. The remaining top five chemicals reported for the 26
city summary include sulfuric acid, ammonium sulfate solution, and copper. For Philadelphia,
the remaining compounds hi the top five were methyl ethyl ketone, formaldehyde, and
cumene.
Table 26 presents the TRI data by releases to each medium. (See Appendix IX for
counts of facilities). In 1992, approximately 50% of listed chemicals were transferred off-site
by reporting facilities. Releases to air (stack and fugitive air emissions combined) made up
60% of the emissions and transfers to POTWs accounted for 30% of the emissions. In cities
such as Baltimore, Reading, and Pittsburgh, "other off-site transfers" accounted for 75-95% of
the total chemical transfers. In Rochester, the majority of material was released to air, and in
Newark the majority of material was discharged to publicly owned treatment works. In
Philadelphia, off-site transfers and releases to air were roughly equivalent. Thus, the patterns
of release differed substantially from city to city. Philadelphia ranked highest hi releases to
land, second hi releases to air, and fourth hi total releases. Table 2 of Appendix IX identifies
the number of compounds or chemical categories released by medium hi each of the 26 cities.
Table 3 of Appendix IX lists the number of facilities reporting the release or transfer of toxic
compounds to each medium.
To compare Philadelphia to other cities hi terms of emissions of benzene to the
environment, TRI data was also evaluated. Table 27 provides the pounds of benzene
emissions and the city rank in terms of pounds of benzene emissions released to the
environment in 1992. Only 5 of the 26 cities included hi this review reported benzene releases
under the TRI in 1992. Overall, Philadelphia ranked second hi terms of benzene emissions,
while Pittsburgh ranked first.
""Standard Industrial Classification Manual, 1987. Executive Office of the President. OMB 427-443.
2-93
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Table 24: Most frequently
released toxic
Ranked by number of facilities
releasing compound
Chemical compound or
category
Sulfuric acid
Toluene
Xylene (mixed isomers)
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
Hydrochloric acid
Ammonia
Glycol ethers
Copper
Methanol
Zinc compounds
Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone
Nitric acid
Phosphoric acid
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Nickel
Ethylene glycol
N-butyl alcohol
Barium compounds
Chromium
Copper compounds
Chromium compounds
Manganese
Ethylbenzene
Dichloromethane
Lead
Number of
facilities
104
92
87
85
82
75
61
59
59
54
52
52
37
37
36
34
33
32
31
31
31
29
26
24
23
22
compounds in 26 cities in the Northeast
U.S., 1992.*
Ranked by pounds of compound
released per year
Chemical compound or
category
Methanol
Sulfuric acid
Toluene
Ammonium sulfate
(solution)
Copper
Hydrochloric acid
Dichloromethane
Acetone
Xylene (mixed isomers)
Copper compounds
Ammonia
1,1,1 -Trichloroethane
Chromium compounds
Methyl ethyl ketone
Chromium
Lead compounds
Manganese
Nickel
Nickel compounds
Formaldehyde
Cumene
Glycol ethers
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Trichloroethylene
Manganese compounds
Zinc compounds
Pounds
per year
18,180,095
12,820,511
6,731,596
5,758,846
5,686,320
5,511,225
5,415,969
4,939,582
4,798,489
3,947,655
3,831,245
3,763,531
3,482,888
3,114,097
3,037,210
2,975,778
2,823,540
2,009,200
1,618,696
1,587,423
1,471,583
1,314,878
1,288,299
1,215,140
1,013,228
992,783
*Data from the Toxics Release Inventory.
2-96
-------
Table 25; Most frequently released toxic compounds in Philadelphia, 1992*
Ranked by number of facilities
releasing compound
Ranked by pounds of compound
released per year
Chemical compound or
category
Number of
facilities
Chemical compound or
category
Pounds
per year
Toluene
Ammonia
Sulfuric acid
Methyl ethyl ketone
Hydrochloric acid
Xylene (mixed isomers)
Glycol ethers
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Acetone
Copper
Diethanolamine
Ethylbenzene
Methanol
Phosphoric acid
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
Chlorine
Chromium compounds
Ethylene glycol
Methyl isobutyl ketone
N-butyl alcohol
Nitric acid
Phenol
Phthalic anhydride
15
13
12
11
10
10
8
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
Methanol
Toluene
Methyl ethyl ketone
Formaldehyde
Cumene
Acetone
Lead compounds
Xylene (mixed isomers)
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Ammonia
Sulfuric acid
Phenol
Copper compounds
Ethylene glycol
Dichlorodifluoromethane
Zinc (fume or dust)
Copper
Glycol ethers
Styrene
Molybdenum trioxide
Phosphoric acid
Tetrachloroethylene
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Hydrochloric acid
Ethylbenzene
Benzene
3,311,562
2,116,322
1,573,402
1,506,398
1,391,900
1,026,695
706,137
701,315
602,950
378,964
372,828
242,433
185,555
180,502
140,000
136,745
130,557
126,541
124,955
110,000
109,112
103,870 '
94,656
87,623
83,343
71,919
*Data from the Toxics Release Inventory.
2-97
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Table 28 provides a summary of the amounts of criteria pollutants emitted by facilities
in each of the 26 cities included in the evaluation. Philadelphia ranks 2nd in CO emissions,
6th in NO2 emissions, 4th in PM10 emissions, 15th in SO2 emissions, and 3rd in VOC reported
emissions. There were no reported emissions of lead under the AIRS program in Philadelphia
in 1992. Table 4 in Appendix IX indicates the number of facilities reporting releases of the
criteria pollutants.
Additional tables which provide comparison of Philadelphia to the northeastern U.S.
cities are included in Appendix IX.
Several important limitations should be kept in mind when using these data:
• The list of cities was randomly chosen and is not comprehensive.
• The data represent only an historical "snap-shot"; historical trends, the level of
locally accumulated material, and the current status are not considered.
• Some of the databases contain information for only a limited number of
facilities.
In general, the data on EPA-regulated facilities reflect the diverse circumstances found
in different cities. For the City of Philadelphia, in particular, the burden of pollution sources
appears to be neither disproportionately heavy nor light relative to other cities in the Northeast
United States. Based on a limited inventory, Philadelphia's toxic chemicals appear to be fairly
equally distributed to air, publicly owned treatment works, and other off-site transfers.
2-101
-------
Table 28: Amounts of criteria
City
Albany, NY
Allentown, PA
Altoona, PA
Atlantic City, NJ
Baltimore, MD
Boston, MA
Dover, DE
Hagerstown, MD
Harrisburg, PA
Jersey City, NJ
Lancaster, PA
New Haven, CT
New York, NY
Newark, NJ
Philadelphia, PA
Pittsburgh, PA
Pittsfield, MA
Portland, ME
Providence, RI
Reading, PA
Rochester, NY
Scranton, PA
Trenton, NJ
Washington, DC
Wilmington, DE
York, PA
hj^^^HB^^M
air pollutants
emitted,
1994*
selected cities in
the Northeast U.S., 1982
Tons of pollutant emitted
CO
168
94
60
34
10447
2455
175
262
2641
1847
32
847
7076
1742
11447
155434
24
7
66
1604
1488
29
245
288
10983
870
NO2
623
184
168
1663
6351
18665
2111
2975
355
34312
496
7012
42869
7802
14348
11637
257
334
667
4357
14623
657
2736
1722
19832
5148
PM.o
230
1
162
38
249
128
648
2291
2000
568
33
682
339
SO2
329
938
7310
23096
5863
4882
416
649
21487
427
54426
701
340
1042
14622
519
2543
38815
4347
Volatile Lead
Organic
Compounds
137
523
611
80
3844
797
755
169
823
6
8171
1804
21743
2485
11642
13470 1
91
125
2455
2979
7132
363
359
962
3012
1120 1
^^^•••B^™^^^^^^"^^™^^^^^™^"""^^^^^^^^^^^^——'
*Data from the Aerometric Information Retrieval System: 4804 (79%) of the records are from 1990; 5970 (98%)
are from 1990-1993.
2-102
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III. Health Characterization
A. Introduction
In the second half of the study, efforts were focused on the evaluation of the health
status of the neighborhoods of South and Southwest Philadelphia. This evaluation included a
review of the major causes of mortality in each of the neighborhoods, as well as a review of
cancer incidence data. The study has not been designed to evaluate links to specific
environmental exposures, and the findings should not be interpreted to demonstrate any
specific causal link to environmental quality in the community.
It must be recognized that although the environment may play an important role hi
community health, there are many factors which contribute to individual risk. These well-
recognized factors include:
• hereditary factors;
• social and behavioral factors (such as diet, smoking, and exercise);
• socioeconomic status; and,
• access to and utilization of health care.
This assessment is based on death certificate data and cancer incidence data received
from the Philadelphia Department of Health and the Pennsylvania Department of Health. The
computer data files received include cases of cancer diagnosed from 1985 through 1993 and
death certificate information for all deaths of Study Area residents from 1974 through 1993.
Comparing morbidity and mortality experience in a community to other communities or
populations requires calculation of summary statistics. Following is a list of terms and
definitions that are used throughout the health data section to help interpret the summary
statistics reported in this evaluation. These definitions are adapted from the 1994 SEER
Report1 and Last's Dictionary of Epidemiology.2
Incidence describes the number of new cases of a health effect which occur in a population.
Incidence is generally reported as a rate which is calculated as a fraction of the number of
newly diagnosed cases of disease divided by the number of persons or the population at risk
over a given period of time. This rate is also called a crude incidence rate.
T -j _ Number of newly diagnosed cases of disease „ 100 000
Number of persons at risk per year
'Ries, et al., SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1973-1991: Tables and Graphs, National Cancer Institute, NIH
Pub. No. 94-2789, 1994.
2Last, John M., ed., A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 3rd ed.; New York:Oxford University Press, 1995.
3-1
-------
For example, the incidence rate of lung cancer among males in the United States in 1990 was
81.9 cases per 100,000 population.
Mortality rate is the rate at which deaths occur in a population within a specific time period.
Mortality rate = NumberofdeathsperYear x 100,000
J Number of persons at risk of death '
The U.S. mortality rate for lung cancer among males was 75.6 deaths per 100,000 males for
the year 1990.
Age-adjusted rate is an incidence or mortality rate which has been mathematically adjusted to
minimize the effects of a difference in age distribution among comparison populations. This is
important to make sure that differences in disease rates between populations are not simply due
to the fact that one of the populations has an older population, and is therefore more likely to
have higher morbidity and mortality rates. To age-adjust, rates of disease for specific age
groups will be applied to a standard population with known age distribution. Rates from other
areas are also applied to the same standard population. The resulting age-adjusted rates can be
compared to reveal differences in disease experiences. They can be compared because the
same known population is the basis for each number. Age adjustment is important in South
and Southwest Philadelphia because the age distributions are different. For example, South
Broad-Girard Estates is an older population than Grays Ferry-Passyunk.
Understanding population trends is particularly important for the evaluation of health
data and in interpreting the trends in disease incidence and the calculation of disease incidence
and mortality rates. For example, a neighborhood may have a declining total number of
reported cases, but this may reflect a population decrease rather than a decrease in the risk of
disease. This is particularly important in the Study Area since population declined nearly 25%
between 1970 and 1990.
Age is also an important demographic and health consideration. For example, the 1990
census shows that South Broad-Girard Estates is the neighborhood with the highest percentage
of elderly -22% of the residents are 65 or older. Therefore, it might be expected that overall
mortality in this neighborhood would be higher than a younger neighborhood. To account for
the age differences in the health comparisons, age-adjusted rates are presented along with
crude rates.
Appendix XI provides a detailed description of the major health endpoints under review
including statistics, clinical descriptions of the disease, and an explanation of risk factors.
These include detailed descriptions of heart disease, various cancer sites, cerebrovascular
disease, COPD, infant mortality, and low birthweight. Annual rates for each of the Study
Area neighborhoods are shown for the major mortality and cancer endpoints.
3-2
-------
B. Mortality
Methods
Mortality data for the Study Area was obtained from records of the City of Philadelphia
with permission of the State of Pennsylvania Department of Health. Data was available on
deaths of South and Southwest Philadelphia citizens for the period January 1, 1974 to
December 31, 1993. During this 20 year time period, over 60,000 deaths were recorded in
the Study Area. Case level data was aggregated by census tract and groups of census tracts
were aggregated as defined by the neighborhood boundaries presented in the environmental
characterization portion of this study.
Mortality data presented are in groupings defined by the 9th revision of the
International Classification of Disease (ICD-9) and have been grouped to be consistent with
categories defined by the City of Philadelphia in their annual Vital Statistics reports. Table 29
indicates the disease groups and their ICD codes that were utilized in this evaluation.
Age-adjustment was accomplished by breaking the cases down into 11 age categories:
0 to 5 46-55
6-10 56-65
11-18 65-74
19-25 75-84
26-35 >85
36-45
The number of cases by age category was multiplied by a factor to standardize to the 1940
population.
Annual population estimates of the Study Area neighborhoods were derived by linear
interpolation and extrapolation of the 1970, 1980, and 1990 Census population data.
Population estimates for the years 1991 to 1994 were calculated based on projections of
continuing population trends from the 1980 to the 1990 Censuses. This adjustment allows for
a more accurate depiction of the disease trends in the Study Area. This adjustment was
necessary to account for the decreasing population hi the Study Area neighborhoods over the
time period of evaluation to allow for accurate rate calculations and presentation of disease
trends.
3-3
-------
Findings
Table 29 presents a summary of total deaths in the Study Area for the years 1974
through 1993. Heart disease and cancer are the leading causes of death, responsible for about
54% of all mortality. Other leading causes include cerebrovascular diseases or stroke,
influenza and pneumonia, unintentional injuries or accidents including drug overdoses, chronic
lung disease, and diabetes. The distribution of causes of death is similar to that of other areas
in the country. Figure 37 compares the distribution of major causes of deaths with the city of
Philadelphia as a whole and Allegheny County to show the consistency in mortality patterns.
Figures 38 and 39 show the trends in total mortality rates for South, Southwest, and the
entire City of Philadelphia. Total mortality has remained relatively consistent over the past 20
years, with the crude mortality being lowest in Southwest Philadelphia. After adjusting for
age, it can be seen that total mortality in the Study Area is higher than in Philadelphia as a
whole.
Table 30 presents the age-adjusted mortality rates for the top five causes of death for
each year. Neighborhood differences in total death rates are compared in Figures 40 and 41.
The highest average crude mortality rate was in Schuylkill-Point Breeze, over double the rate
of the lowest and youngest neighborhood, Grays Ferry-Passyunk. After age-adjustment,
Schuylkill-Point Breeze remains the highest, and South Broad-Girard Estates is lowest. The
rates of total mortality for the Study Area are higher than the national rate (510.5 age-adjusted,
864.5 crude, 1991-1993).3 This is consistent with the generally observed national patterns of
higher mortality in urban communities.
i. Cardiovascular Diseases
Since 1900, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) have been the number one killer in the
United States (except for 1918) and account for a far greater number of deaths than either
cancer or AIDS. Of the current U.S. population (258 million), more than 60 million people
have some form of these diseases. CVD is a general term for various diseases of the heart,
blood vessels, and circulatory system, including conditions such as coronary heart disease
(heart attack), angina (chest pain), arrhythmias and sudden cardiac arrest, congestive heart
failure, rheumatic heart disease (heart valve diseases), congenital heart defects, atherosclerosis
and high blood pressure. Atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries) and high blood pressure
(hypertension) are also major causes of cerebrovascular disease and leading causes of many
deaths from heart attack and stroke. Appendix XI contains a detailed explanation of each of
these conditions.
"Department of Health and Human Services, Health, United States, 1995.
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Figure 41: Average Age-Adjusted* Total Mortality Rates: 1974-1993
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Between 1983 and 1993 the age-adjusted mortality rate from major cardiovascular
diseases in the U.S. declined from 236.0 per 100,000 in 1983 to 181.8 per 100,000 in 1993.4
However, in 1993 the total number of deaths from these diseases increased significantly. One
reason is that the population of middle-aged and older people is increasing. Another reason is
that advances in medical treatment have allowed more people to survive previously fatal
cardiovascular events, but now these people are dying of subsequent cardiovascular illnesses.
For example, heart attack victims whose lives were saved by better emergency care may now
be dying of congestive heart failure. Figure 42 shows the national trends of decreasing
mortality for heart disease for the four major population groups, black females, black males,
white females, and white males. All groups demonstrate a steady decrease in heart disease
mortality rates, males remain higher than females and black males continue to have the highest
rate of death from heart disease. Therefore, in evaluating community trends, it is important to
recognize that the racial distribution of the population will influence the expected rate of
mortality from heart disease.
Figure 43 compares the 20 year trends in mortality from heart disease for the Study
Area, the City of Philadelphia, and the U.S.. Mortality in the Study Area is higher than both
the City and the U.S., and does not show the same dramatic decline as in the U.S. as a whole.
In fact, for both the City and Study Area, the mortality trend has leveled off or shown a slight
increase in recent years. In 1993, the most recent year reported, heart disease in the Study
Area was 46% higher than the national rate.
Figures 44 and 45 show the crude and age-adjusted mortality trends for the City, and
South and Southwest Philadelphia. The crude mortality rate is lowest in Southwest
Philadelphia, probably reflecting the younger age of the population. When the data are age-
adjusted, the three areas have a similar pattern, with Southwest Philadelphia having slightly
higher heart disease mortality rates.
When the average crude rates for heart disease are compared by neighborhood,
Southwark-Bella Vista, South Broad-Girard Estates, and Schuylkill-Point Breeze have the
highest mortality rates (Figure 46). These are also the neighborhoods with the highest
percentage of adults over 65 years of age. Grays Ferry-Passyunk, the youngest neighborhood,
has the lowest crude mortality rate for heart disease. When the data are age-adjusted, the rates
for all the neighborhoods are more similar (Figure 47). Figure E-16 hi the Executive
Summary presents a map of the age-adjusted average heart disease mortality rates for each of
the Study Area neighborhoods.
4National Center for Health Statistics. Table 293. http://www.cdc.gov/nchswww/datawh/statab/unpubd/
mortabs/tab293.htm, p. 31 (November, 1996).
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Figure 46: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Heart Disease: 1974-1993
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Risk Factors5
• High blood pressure
• Tobacco smoke - smokers risk of heart attack is more than twice that of
nonsmokers. Nearly one-fifth of deaths from cardiovascular diseases are
attributable to smoking. It is also estimated that about 37,000 to 40,000
nonsmokers die each year from cardiovascular diseases as a result of exposure
to environmental tobacco smoke.
• Elevated serum cholesterol levels
• Physical inactivity - less active, less fit persons have a 30-50% greater risk of
developing high blood pressure.
When high blood pressure exists with obesity, smoking, high blood cholesterol levels
or diabetes, the risk of heart attack or stroke increases several times. Obesity, diabetes and
stress are other contributing risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.
Many chemical agents may provoke arrhythmias, sometimes with serious
consequences. Known factors include high or low blood and tissue concentrations of a variety
of minerals, such as potassium, magnesium and calcium; however, these substances have not
been known to cause a substantial number of cardiac arrhythmias.
Effects of Race, Gender, and Age6
• Heredity - children of parents with cardiovascular disease are more likely to
develop it than families that do not have a history of heart disease.
• Race - Blacks, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban and Mexican Americans are more
likely to suffer from high blood pressure than Anglo-Americans. Consequently,
their risk of heart disease is greater.
• Gender - males have a greater risk of heart attack than females earlier in life;
after menopause, female death rate from heart disease increases.
• Age - about four out of five people who die of heart attacks are aged 65 or
older. At older ages, women who have heart attacks are twice as likely as men
to die within a few weeks of the attacks.
ii. Cerebrovascular Disease (Stroke)
Stroke is a form of cardiovascular disease that affects the arteries of the central nervous
system; although, statistics on stroke are collected and evaluated by the National Center for
5American Heart Association. Mean and Stroke Facts: 1996 Statistical Supplement.
http://www.amhn.org/1996/list.html (November, 1996).
6American Heart Association. Mean and Stroke Facts, http://www.amhrt.org/1996/list.html (November,
1996).
3-15
-------
Health Statistics (NCHS) distinctly from heart disease. A stroke occurs when a blood vessel
bringing oxygen and nutrients to the brain bursts or is clogged by a blood clot or some other
particle. Because of this rupture or blockage, part of the brain does not get the flow of blood
it needs. Deprived of oxygen, nerve cells in the affected area of the brain cannot function and
die within minutes. The devastating effects of stroke are often permanent since dead brain
cells cannot be replaced.
Strokes affect different people in different ways, depending on the type of stroke and
the area of the brain affected. Brain injury from a stroke can affect the senses, speech, and the
ability to understand speech, behavioral patterns, thought patterns and memory. Paralysis on
one side of the body is common. Stroke also can cause depression, as survivors think they are
now less than "whole."
Approximately 3,820,000 stroke victims are alive today in the U.S.. Of this number,
45% are male; 52% female.7 Stroke killed 149,740 people in 1993 and accounted for about
one of every 15 U.S. deaths.8 According to the National Center for Health Statistics, it is the
third largest cause of death, ranking behind diseases of the heart and cancer. Death rates for
strokes have been declining in the U.S. Between 1983 and 1993 the age-adjusted death rate
decreased from 34.5 per 100,000 in 1983 to 26.5 per 100,000 in 1993. During the same
period, the age-adjusted death rate for whites fell from 32.1 per 100,000 in 1983 to 24.5 per
100,000 in 1993, and for blacks from 59.0 per 100,000 to 45.0 per 100,000.9 Figure 48
shows the trend data for stroke rate in the U.S. from 1979 to 1993. Figure 49 shows the trend
data for the Study Area from 1974 to 1993.
Mortality from stroke has been steadily declining in the Study Area, similar to the
trends of the City of Philadelphia and the U.S.. Between 1974 and 1993 mortality has
decreased over 40%. This is most likely due to the success of efforts to control high blood
pressure. Crude and age-adjusted rates for South and Southwest Philadelphia, which reflect
the continued improvement, are presented in Figures 50 and 51. Average mortality rates by
neighborhood are compared in Figures 52 and 53. When adjusted for age, the neighborhoods
of Schuylkill-Point Breeze and Paschall-Kingsessing have the highest mortality as presented in
Figure 54. These are the neighborhoods with the highest percentages of black populations
(over 80%). National data has shown that the mortality rate for blacks is over 80% higher
than whites.
7 American Mean Association. Mean and Stroke Facts, http://www.arnhn.org/1996/list.htinl (November,
1996).
Note: This data was originally reported by the National Center for Health Statistics, Phase I, National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey III (NHANES III), 1988-91.
8 American Heart Association. Mean and Stroke Facts: 1996 Statistical Supplement.
http://www.amhrt.org/1996/list.html (November, 1996).
'National Center for Health Statistics. Table 293. http://www.cdc.gov/nchswww/datawh/statab/unpubd/
mortabs/tab293.htm, p. 44 (November, 1996).
3-16
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Figure 50: Crude Cerebrovascular Disease Mortality Rates 1974-1993:
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(D (D
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•Rates ire ige-adjueted to the 1040 U S populMion
-» ro w
3-19
-------
Figure 52: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Cerebrovascular Disease:
1974-1993 By Neighborhood
14000
12000 -
g 10000-
s.
g 8000
K
= 6000 •
6
4000
2000 •
000
if
to ?
. D
S I
* 3
I
9 tn
II
I
sr
Figure 53: Average Age-Adjusted* Mortality Rates for Cerebrovascular
Disease: 1974-1993 By Neighborhood
7000
*Rat«s v« »g«-ad|u«ted to the 1940 U S population
3-20
-------
3-21
-------
Risk Factors
High blood pressure - the most important risk factor for stroke; stroke risk
varies directly with blood pressure.
Cigarette smoking - nicotine in tobacco smoke increases a person's blood
pressure and cigarette smoke causes platelets in the blood to become sticky and
cluster, shortens platelet survival, decreases clotting time and increases blood
thickness.
Heart problems - people with heart problems have more than twice the risk of
stroke than people with normally functioning hearts. Transient Ischemic
Attacks (TIAs), increased red blood cells, prior stroke and asymptomatic carotid
bruit (an abnormal sound heard when a stethoscope is placed over the carotid
artery), are strong predictors of stroke.
Effects of Race, Gender, and Age
• Heredity - stroke risk is greater for people who have a family history of stroke.
• Race - African-Americans have more than a 60% greater risk of death and
disability from stroke than whites. Asian-Pacific Islanders and Hispanics also
have a higher risk of stroke.
• Gender - the incidence of stroke is about 19 percent higher for men than for
women.
• Age - For men under age 65, the difference is even greater. Older people have a
much greater stroke risk than younger people. The risk of stroke in people aged
65 to 74 is about 1 % a year.
iii. Influenza and Pneumonia
Influenza and pneumonia combine to be the fourth leading cause of death in the Study
Area. Mortality from these causes is most common in the very young and elderly. Periods of
high mortality occur in cycles of about 10 years, reflecting the cycle of flu epidemics.
Over the past twenty years, there has been a decrease in mortality from influenza and
pneumonia in the Study Area, contrasting with a gradual increase for the U.S. (Figure 55).
Trends in South and Southwest Philadelphia have been similar (Figures 56 and 57). As
presented in Figures 58, 59, and 60, Schuylkill-Point Breeze had the highest average crude
mortality rate and Paschall-Kingsessing had the highest age-adjusted mortality rate for
influenza and pneumonia.
3-22
-------
OOO'OOL
pajsnfpe-a6v
-------
Figure 56: Crude Influenza/Pneumonia Mortality Rates 1974-1993:
Philadelphia, South and Southwest Philadelphia
6000
5000
° 4000
3000
2000
o
1000
000
CO CD ED
CD CO CD
CD CD CO
t» CO O — fO W *"
3500
2500
Figure 57: Age-Adjusted* Influenza/Pneumonia Mortality Rates 1974-
1993: Philadelphia, South and Southwest Philadelphia
2000-7
1500
a 1000
500
000
CD (D tO
«. Ol O)
O> 05 CB 03 00
-• to U ^ til
•Rates afo»g*-a4u«ted to the 1940US populabcn
3-24
-------
too
30
il
< i.
Q>
CB Wg
0^0.
> (0 O
00 c
ir>COr^C3>CD'9:C\iO
CMCVlCMi-^-^T-2
3-25
-------
Figure 59: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Influenza/Pneumonia: 1974-
1993 By Neighborhood
7000
8
§ 5000
I
c> 4000
TO
K
= 3000
« 2000
o
1000 •
000
B S
s^
= ?
to S
T)
i
5?
II
3
I
i
3. S
m m
4000
Figure 60: Average Age-Adjusted* Mortality Rates for
Influenza/Pneumonia: 1974-1993 By Neighborhood
d lo th« 1040 U S popul»on
3-26
-------
iv. Accidents and Non-intent'onal Injuries
Accidents, excluding motcx ehicle accidents, are the fifth leading cause of death in ae
Study Area and fourth nationally. The category also includes accidental drug overdoses. For
both the City and Study Area, deaths have increased in recent years. Rates are similar in both
South and Southwest Philadelphia (Figures 61, 62, and 63). The neighborhood with the
highest crude and age-adjusted mortality for accidents is Schuylkill-Point Breeze, more than
double the rate of some of the other neighborhoods as presented in Figures 64 and 65.
Table 31 presents the age-adjusted annual mortality rates from 1974 to 1993 for the top
five causes of death and for total deaths for each of the neighborhoods.
v. Infant Mortality
Infant mortality refers to the death of children less than one year of age dying in the
first year of life. It is considered one of the clearest indications of the overall public health
and well being of a community. The leading causes of infant mortality include low birthweight
and disorders relating to short gestation, birth defects, and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
(SIDS). According to the National Institutes of Health low birthweight contributes to 60% of
deaths in the first year of life (NIH, 1989).
Figure 66 shows the trend for infant mortality in the United States. The infant
mortality rate in the U.S. has been steadily declining from 20.0 per 1000 live births in 1970 to
8.0 per 1000 live births in 1994.10 The preliminary infant mortality rate in 1995 is 7.5 per
1000 live births.11
Figure 67 shows a comparison of infant mortality for the Study Area neighborhoods.
Schyulkill-Point Breeze and Paschall-Kingsessing have the highest rates. This data was
provided by the Philadelphia Health Management Corporation. According to the Philadelphia
Health Department's Division of Maternal and Child Health, infant mortality has shown a
continued decline in more recent years.12
10National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 1995; Hyattsville, Maryland: Public Health
Service, 1996, p. 102.
1 'Centers for Disease Control, Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 45, No.3, Supplement 2, 1996.
l2Susan Libermann, Philadelphia Department of Health, Division of Maternal and Child Health, personal
communication, January 29, 1997.
3-27
-------
3-28
-------
Figure 62: Crude Accident Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia,
South and Southwest Philadelphia
6000
000
tO O
•Rites we age>ad|u«ted to the 1040 U S popoJabon
3-29
-------
8000
7000
= 6000
|
| 5000
I
K 4000
*
| 3000
Figure 64: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Accidents (NMV) and ODs:
1974-1993 By Neighborhood
2000
1000-
000
l-o
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Risk Factors for SIDS
• maternal smoking and drug use
• births to teens
• infections late in pregnancy
The National Commission to Prevent Infant Mortality estimates that as many as 25 percent of
infant deaths could be prevented if mothers were provided adequate prenatal care.13
Effects of Race
Despite the steady decline in the infant mortality rate in the U.S., the gap between
death rates among black infants and that in white infants remains quite large:
• Since 1980, infant mortality rates for black infants have been more than double
that for white infants. In 1980, the mortality rate was 10.9 per 1000 live births
for white infants and 22.2 for black infants.
• In 1994, while the mortality rate for white infants declined to 6.6 per 1000 live
births, the rate for black infants remained high at 15.8 per 1000 live births.14-15
• A 1990 estimate of 7.8 per 1,000 live births for the Latino population was
derived from 45 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, a slight decrease
from the 1989 rate of 8.5 based on data from 43 states and the District of
Columbia.16
vi. Other Causes of Death
Diabetes: Figure 68 contrasts mortality from diabetes for the Study Area, City, and
U.S.. All three show an increase over the past decade.
Homicide: Figure 69 compares homicide mortality in the Study Area, the City, and the
U.S.. Nationally, there has been a slight increase in recent years, while both the City and
Study Area have had larger increases since 1987. In 1993, the mortality rate in the Study
Area was about five times higher than the national rate.
13Child Welfare League of America, The Child Welfare Stat Book 1993, Washington, DC, 1993.
14National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 1995; Hyattsville, Maryland: Public Health
Service, 1996, p. 102.
15Centers for Disease Control, Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 45, No.3, Supplement 2, 1996.
l6Child Welfare League of America, The Child Welfare Stat Book 1993, Washington, DC, 1993.
3-35
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3-37
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C. Cancer
Methods
Among the health concerns of community residents, cancer ranked at the top. To
evaluate this concern, data on cancer incidence and mortality for the Study Area was obtained
from the Pennsylvania Department of Health. Data on cancer mortality was available for the
20 year period 1974-1993. The City of Philadelphia health department has completed its
evaluation of the 1994 and 1995 data; however, timing of the data availability did not allow
for its inclusion in this analysis. During the 1974-1993 period, over 15,000 cases of cancer
mortality were recorded in the Study Area. Table 32 provides a summary of the frequency of
death for each cancer site in the Study Area as well as the gender and racial frequencies. Case
level data was aggregated by census tract and groups of census tracts were aggregated as
defined by the neighborhood boundaries presented in Section I.ii.
Cancer incidence data was available for the 9-year period 1985-1993. During this time
period, over 14,000 new cases of cancer were recorded in the Study Area. As in the case of
mortality data, incident cancer cases were aggregated by census tract and census tract groups
consistent with the neighborhood boundaries previously defined.
Both cancer mortality and cancer incidence data are presented in groupings defined by
ICD-9. As previously described on page 3-3, population estimates were derived utilizing
linear interpolation and extrapolation of U.S. Census data. The adjustments allow for a more
accurate depiction of cancer trends in the Study Area. Crude and age-adjusted rates were
calculated for the Study Area and for each of the neighborhoods.
The data has been compared to national, statewide, and city-wide rates. Rates for
specific cancer sites were requested from several cities throughout the United States.
Responses obtained from many agencies provided only frequencies of cancer cases and
therefore were not appropriate for comparison. Where comparable rates were provided, data
is presented in this report. Data on cancer mortality was age-adjusted to the 1940 U.S.
standard population, consistent with other mortality data, while cancer incidence data was age-
adjusted to the 1970 U.S. standard population.
The following section describes the epidemiology of various cancer endpoints,
including lung, breast, prostate, colorectal, bladder, and pancreatic cancers. The summaries
for this report include mortality and incidence statistics, discussion of risk factors, symptoms,
methods of early detection, and an overview of racial, ethnic, age, and gender trends.
For each type of cancer, a general review of United States data is provided. Where
available, specific information regarding Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and the Study Area are
3-38
-------
Table 32: Cancer Mortality in South and Southwest Philadelphia: 1974-1993
Cancer Site
Total Cancer Mortality
Bladder
Bone & Articular Cartilage
Brain & Nervous System
Breast
Cervix
Colon
Connective & Other Soft Tissue
Esophagus
Eye
Gallbladder & Extrahepatic Bile Duct
Head, Face, or Neck
Kidney & Other Urinary Organs
Larynx
Liver & Intrahepatic Bile Duct
Lymphatic & Hematopoietic Tissue
Nasal Cavity & Middle Ear
Oral Cavity
Other Digestive
Other Endocnne
Other Female Genital Organs
Other Male Genital Organs
Ovary & Other Utenne Adnexa
'ancreas
Prostate
Rectum & Anus
Retropentoneum & Peritoneum
Skin
Small Intestine
Stomach
Testes
Thymus, Heart, & Mediastinum
Thyroid
Trachea, Bronchus, & Lung
Uterus
All Other Sites
Total Number
16,038
353
39
209
1,247
196
1,660
86
426
3
116
145
219
200
215
1,177
18
267
57
19
24
3
351
732
808
315
12
164
24
633
12
9
27
4,387
207
1,678
Number of
Females
7,322
113
14
90
1,239
196
828
47
126
1
70
36
91
35
83
585
6
71
28
7
24
351
409
149
3
80
9
257
1
19
1,366
207
781
Number of
Males
8,716
240
25
119
8
832
39
300
2
46
109
128
165
132
592
12
196
29
12
3
323
808
166
9
84
15
376
12
8
8
3,021
897
Number of Non-
Whites
5377
107
12
47
367
115
471
27
266
0
22
70
73
75
85
341
7
125
14
6
5
1
103
263
371
84
3
34
13
237
1
5
9
1,383
80
555
Number of Whites
10,661
246
27
162
880
81
1,189
59
160
3
94
75
146
125
130
836
11
142
43
13
19
2
248
469
437
231
9
130
11
396
11
4
18
3,004
127
1,123
% of Total Mortality
100
2.20
0.24
1.30
7.78
' 1.22
10.35
054
2.66
0.02
0.72
0.90
1.37
1.25
1.34
7.34
0.11
1.66
0.36
012
0.15
0.02
2.19
4.56
5.04
1.96
0.07
1.02
0.15
3.95
007
0.06
0 17
27.35
1.29
1046
3-39
-------
included. The majority of the United States incidence and mortality data comes from the
"SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1973-1991" report from the National Institutes of Health of
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The SEER Program routinely collects
cancer incidence, mortality, and patient survival data from designated cancer registries in
various regions of the country. The geographic areas represented by the registries cover rural,
suburban, and metropolitan areas and "with respect to selected demographic and
epidemiological factors, they are reasonably representative subsets of the United States
population."17
The Pennsylvania and Philadelphia incidence and mortality data is from the
Pennsylvania Department of Health Report "Pennsylvania Cancer Incidence and Mortality
1988-1992." The Study Area data was provided by the Pennsylvania Department of Health.
The top leading causes of cancer deaths among males in the United States are lung
cancer, prostate cancer, colon and rectum cancer, pancreatic cancer, lymphoma, leukemia,
esophageal cancer, liver cancer, stomach cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, and brain
cancer (lung cancer being the leading cause of cancer death).18 Among females, lung cancer is
also the leading cause of cancer death, followed by breast cancer, colon and rectum cancer,
ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, lymphoma, leukemia, liver cancer, brain cancer, corpus
uteri and unspecified uterine cancer, stomach cancer and multiple myeloma.
The mortality rates for these cancers have changed over the last 30 years, as shown in
Table 33. This table lists the mortality rates for each site of cancer for the periods 1960 to
1962 and 1990 to 1992, and the percent change in mortality rates. Those cancers in boldface
type are profiled in detail in this report.
Although death rates may have declined or remained stable, the actual number of
deaths did increase because the population over the age of 65 has become larger and older.
The U.S. population increased 39% from 1962 to 1992.19
"Ibid, p. 1.
'"American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures 1996, 1996.
"Ibid., p. 6.
3-40
-------
Table 33: 30 Year Trend in Cancer Mortality Rates per 100
Cancer Site
All Sites
Lung
Prostate
Breast
Colon and Rectum
Pancreas
Ovary
Lymphoma
Leukemia
Esophagus
Liver
Brain
Cervix Uteri
Other uterus
Bladder
Kidney
Multiple Myeloma
Mortality Rates
1960-62
(age-adjusted)
male female
185.3 135.4
40.2 6.0
20.7 not appl.
0.3 25.9
25.2 22.4
10.6 6.4
not appl. 8.7
5.0 3.3
9.1 5.7
4.8 1.2
6.3 6.0
4.3 2.8
not appl. 8.9
not appl. 6.3
7.2 2.7
3.9 2.0
2.1 1.5
Mortality Rates
1990-92
(age-adjusted)
male female
220.0 141.9
74.4 32.3
26.7 not appl.
0.2 26.9
23.0 15.5
10.1 7.2
not appl. 8.0
8.1 5.2
8.3 4.9
6.1 1.5
5.5 3.3
5.2 3.5
not appl. 2.9
not appl. 3.4
5.7 1.7
5.3 2.5
3.8 2.5
,000 Popuijtion20
Percent Changes
male female
19% 5%
85% 438%
29% not appl.
-33% 4%
-9% -31%
-5% 12%
not appl. -8%
62% 58%
- 9% - 14%
-25% 0%
- 13% -45%
21% 25%
not appl. -67%
not appl - 46 %
-21% -37%
36% 25%
81% 67%
As shown in Table 33, the mortality rates of some cancers increased while others have
remained stable or declined. As previously mentioned, the increased size of the population
over the age of 65 plays a large role in the increased mortality and incidence of many cancers.
Other cancers may appear, at first, to be increasing in incidence, when the cancer is simply
being detected earlier or more easily due to advanced techniques. For example, breast cancer
incidence initially rose sharply with the increased use of mammography screening. Prostate
cancer demonstrated a similar increase in incidence which coincided with increased screening
of prostate specific antigen.
20Table adapted from the American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures, 1996, pg 6.
3-41
-------
i. Cancer Summaries
The following section presents background information including recognized risk
factors and national statistics for the top sites of cancer incidence and mortality.
Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States, and it is
estimated that there were 177,000 new cases of lung cancer and 158,700 deaths from lung
cancer in 1996.21 Smoking is the most important risk factor for lung cancer, responsible for
87% of lung cancers. Other risk factors include exposure to radon gas and asbestos.22 Lung
cancer incidence rates are higher among males than females in the United States, and are
higher among blacks than among whites.
Breast Cancer
Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer mortality among women. In 1996,
it is estimated that there were 184,300 new cases of breast cancer diagnosed among women,
and 1,400 new cases among men.23 Several risk factors for breast cancer have been
established including reproductive history (early onset of menarche, late onset of menopause,
nulligravidity, etc.), obesity, and family history of breast cancer. The incidence of breast
cancer is higher among white women than among black women, but the mortality rates are
higher among black women, probably due to more limited access to health care and late
diagnosis.
Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer mortality among men, responsible
for an estimated 317,100 new cases of cancer and 41,400 deaths in 1996.24 The largest risk
factor for prostate cancer is age: over 80% of all prostate cancers are diagnosed among men
65 years of age or older.25 The mortality rate for prostate cancer for blacks is more than twice
the mortality rate for whites. Black males in the United States have the highest incidence of
prostate cancer in the world.26
1 American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures 1996, 1996, p. 11.
22 Ibid, p. 10.
23Ibid. p. 11.
2ilbid, p. 11.
"Ibid, p. 13.
26Ibid, p. 13.
3-42
-------
Colorectal Cancer
Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of cancer death in the United States. In
1996, an estimated 133,500 new cases of colorectal cancer were diagnosed, and an estimated
46,400 deaths were due to the disease.27 The mortality rates for colorectal cancer have fallen
over the last 30 years for both men and women. Family or personal history of inflammatory
bowel disease or colorectal cancer are associated with an increased risk of cancer, and high-
fat/low fiber diet and physical inactivity are other possible risk factors. The incidence of
colorectal cancer is higher among males than among females, but are similar for both blacks
and whites. Mortality rates are slightly higher among blacks of both genders and all age
groups.
Bladder Cancer
Mortality from bladder cancer has decreased for both males and females, blacks and
whites, since the early 1970s. It is estimated that in 1996 there were 52,900 new cases of and
11,700 deaths from bladder cancer. Smoking is the greatest risk factor for bladder cancer, and
is implicated in an estimated 47% of bladder cancer deaths in males and 37% of bladder
cancer deaths among females.28 The incidence of bladder cancer among men is three times
greater than among women. Bladder cancer incidence is also considerably higher among those
over age 65 than those less than age 65, and is higher among whites than blacks.
Pancreatic Cancer29
Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer mortality in men, responsible for an
estimated 13,600 deaths in the U.S. in 1996. It is the fifth leading cause of female cancer
mortality responsible for an estimated 14,200 cancer deaths in 1996. Little is known about the
cause of pancreatic cancer, although smoking and a high fat diet are risk factors and some
studies have suggested associations with chronic pancreatitis, diabetes, or cirrhosis. Pancreatic
cancer occurs more frequently in black Americans than in white Americans.
27 Ibid, p. 10.
28 Ibid. p. 19.
29 Ibid, p. 14.
3-43
-------
ii. Cancer Mortality
Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality both nationally and in the Study Area.
Nationally, one out of every four deaths is from cancer similar to rates in South and Southwest
Philadelphia. Figure 70 presents trends in age-adjusted cancer mortality for the U.S. and
Pennsylvania for the years 1985 to 1991. Mortality has been steady, with males at higher risk
than females and black males showing consistently the highest rate of mortality.
Figure 71 presents the trends for the Study Area, City of Philadelphia, amd the U.S..
National mortality has been stable, while there has been a steady increase in cancer deaths in
both the City and Study Area. From 1974-1975 to 1992-1993 the average age-adjusted
mortality rate for all cancer sites increased 12% as shown in Figure 72. Age-adjusted
mortality from cancer is approximately 40% higher in the Study Area than in the U.S.. This
is consistent with trends observed for urban areas throughout the country.
Figure 73 and 74 present the crude and age-adjusted rates for the City of Philadelphia
and South and Southwest Philadelphia. Patterns are consistent for the three areas. Southwest
Philadelphia has the lowest crude rate due to its younger population. After age-adjustment,
South and Southwest Philadelphia are similar and higher than the City as a whole.
Table 34 present the annual crude and age-adjusted mortality rates for the top five
cancers, all other cancers, and all sites. From year to year the rates may change due to
statistical chance or other reasons. In interpreting the data it is more valuable to examine
longer term trends than single year variations, particularly when comparing small populations
such as the neighborhoods of the Study Area. To provide a measure of the annual variation in
rates, figures include a bar which shows the standard deviation. This is a measure of the
statistical imprecision of the rate.
Figures 75 and 76 present the average rates for the total time period from 1974 to
1993. Figure E-18 in the Executive Summary presents a map of cancer mortality rates in the
Study Area neighborhoods. Schuylkill-Point Breeze has the highest crude and age-adjusted
cancer mortality rates.
3-44
-------
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3-47
-------
Figure 73: Crude Cancer Mortality Rates 1974-1993: Philadelphia,
South and Southwest Philadelphia
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3-48
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3-50
-------
Top Cancer Sites Comparison
The following section presents study neighborhood comparison of the average rates of
mortality for the major cancers. The standard deviation is plotted to give the reader an idea of
the statistical imprecision of the rate. Figure 77 presents national and state rates for lung
cancer mortality. Figures 78 and 79 present crude and age-adjusted mortality rates for lung
cancer by neighborhood. Pennsport-Queen Village and Schuylkill-Point Breeze exhibits the
highest age-adjusted lung cancer mortality rates. Breast cancer mortality rates for the Study
Area neighborhoods are presented in Figures 80 and 81. Schuylkill-Point Breeze and
Southwark-Bella Vista had the highest age-adjusted mortality rates for the period 1974-1993.
Crude and age-adjusted mortality rates for colon cancer in each of the neighborhoods are
presented in Figures 82 and 83. Schuylkill-Point Breeze and Paschall-Kingsessing exhibit the
highest age-adjusted rates. Schuylkill-Point Breeze also exhibits the highest crude and age-
adjusted mortality rates for prostate cancer as presented in Figures 84 and 85. Figures 86 and
87 present crude and age-adjusted mortality rates for pancreatic cancer. Paschall-Kingsessing
and Grays Ferry-Passyunk have the highest age-adjusted rates. The data for each year, for
each major site is also presented by neighborhood in Tables 35 and 36.
Average annual cancer mortality rates in the Study Area are approximately 40% higher
than the national rate. This increased mortality is generally consistent with rates observed in
urban areas throughout the country.
The five leading causes of cancer death in the Study Area are cancers of the lung,
colon, prostate, breast, and pancreas. Annual rates from 1974 through 1993 for these cancers,
all other sites, and all cancers combined are presented in Table E-4. During this period, lung
cancer death increased by about 50%. Mortality rates for the other leading cancers have
remained relatively stable.
More detailed information on the trends in each individual neighborhood is presented in
Appendix XI.
3-51
-------
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3-54
-------
Figure 82: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Colon Cancer: 1974-1993
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3-56
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Figure 86: Average Crude Mortality Rates for Pancreatic Cancer: 1974-
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iii. Cancer Incidence
This section examines trends in cancer incidence in the Study Area from 1985 to 1993
and comparison populations where data is available. In Pennsylvania, cancer is a reportable
disease. Data obtained for this evaluation was provided by the Pennsylvania Department of
Health.
Cancer incidence measures the new cases of cancer reported each year. Incidence may
be a better measure than mortality of the impact of cancer on a population, since many cancers
do not cause death or may have a long survival period. However, incidence date may
undercount the actual number of cancer cases because limited access to health care may inhibit
the ability to diagnose cancer in some populations. There may also be differences in findings
for cancer incidence and cancer mortality. For example, the incidence of breast cancer is
higher in white women than black women. However, mortality from breast cancer is higher in
blacks.
Over 1,250 cases of cancer are reported each year in the Study Area. Table 37
summarizes the number of cancer cases in the Study Area reported between 1985 and 1993.
The top 5 sites of cancer incidence are lung, breast, prostate, colon, and bladder. This is
similar to the national pattern of cancer incidence.
Overall, cancer incidence is increasing both nationally and in the Study Area. In the
recent years for which data is available, Study Area rates are higher and appear to be
increasing faster than national rates. Figure E-21 compares the rates for the Study Area with
national rates.
3-60
-------
Table 37: Cancer Incidence in South and Southwest Philadelphia: 1985-1993
Site of Cancer
All Sites
Bladder
Breast
Cervix
Colon
Leukemias
Lung&Bronchus
Lymph
Oral Cavity
Prostate
Rectum
Stomach
Other
Total
Number
11,523*
509
1,625
424
1,015
279
2,172
309
361
1,245
470
312
2802
Number of
Females
5,776
148
1,614
424
537
148
813
156
105
not appl.
223
129
1479
Number
of Males
5,746
361
11
not appl.
478
131
1,359
153
256
1,245
247
183
1322
Number of
Whites
7720
419
1,115
200
724
174
1,494
235
191
753
358
195
1862
Number of
Non-Whites
3803
90
510
224
291
105
678
74
170
492
112
117
940
% of Totals
Cancer
Incidence
100
4.42
14.10
3.68
8.81
2.42
18.85
2.68
3.13
10.80
4.08
2.71
24.32
* For one cancer case, sex was not identified on the record
Comparison of Cancer Incidence in the Study Area to Other Urban Areas
It is well recognized that cancer incidence is generally higher hi urban areas than in
suburban or rural areas. Therefore, incidence rates in the Study Area would be expected to be
higher than those for the state or U.S.. Although the available data for comparison to other
areas proved limited, available incidence data from other cities were examined.
Figure 88 compares the incidence rates for the top five sites of cancer and the total of
all sites of cancer for South and Southwest Philadelphia and Baltimore. The incidence rates
are similar with Baltimore having a higher incidence for all sites, lung, and prostate. The rates
for breast, bladder, and colon cancer in the Study Area are approximately the same as those in
Baltimore. Figure 89 presents a similar comparison of male cancer incidence with New York
City and Allegheny County (which includes Pittsburgh). Again, the rates for these urban areas
are similar. The patterns of cancer incidence for males in the Study Area are similar to those
of Philadelphia, New York, and Allegheny County. Males in South Philadelphia have lower
rates of prostate cancer than males in Philadelphia as a whole. Males in Southwest
3-61
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Philadelphia have lower age-adjusted colon and bladder cancer rates than males in the
comparison populations. Figure 90 is a similar comparison for females and demonstrates the
relative consistency of urban cancer rates. Once again, incidence in the Study Area is similar
to the other urban areas. The data for these figures is contained in Table 38.
Figure 91 presents the trends in age-adjusted cancer incidence rates in the Study Area
for total cancer and the top five sites. Overall, cancer incidence rates have increased by 32%
from 1985-1986 to 1992-1993. During this time period, prostate cancer incidence more than
doubled, lung cancer increased by nearly 30%, and breast cancer increased by more than 22%.
To examine cancer incidence trends in males and females, incidence rates were
compared for the periods 1985 through 1989 and 1988 through 1992. There is a two year
overlap in these time periods to allow for a comparison to Pennsylvania data which was
provided for these periods by the State Department of Health.
Figure 92 shows that total cancer incidence has increased in both males and females in
South Philadelphia and Southwest Philadelphia. Figure 93 shows that lung cancer incidence
has increased in both males and females for both South and Southwest Philadelphia. This
contrasts with a decrease for males in the City and the State. Figure 94 shows that breast
cancer incidence is lower hi the Study Area than in the City and State. All areas show an
increase in incidence. Figure 95 shows that prostate cancer incidence has increased. Rates in
the Study Area are similar to those for the City and State. Figure 96 presents incidence rates
for bladder cancer. Rates are higher in males than females, the highest rate is found in South
Philadelphia males. Figure 97 compares incidence rates for colon cancer. Rates for both
males and females are lower in the Study Area than in the City and State. The age-adjusted
and crude incidence rates for the Study Area for each available year are presented in Tables 39
and 40.
3-64
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-------
Neighborhood Comparison of Cancer Incidence Rates
To examine differences between the neighborhoods, crude and age-adjusted cancer
incidence rates for each study area neighborhood were compared. The comparisons include all
cancer sites and the top cancers. When the annual variation in rates is considered, the
neighborhoods present similar rates of cancer incidence. The highest crude rate for total
cancer is in South Broad-Girard Estates (Figure 98). This reflects the age of the population in
that neighborhood. When the rates are age-adjusted, Pennsport-Queen Village has the highest
rate, however, the rate for all neighborhoods are similar (Figure 99).
For lung cancer (Figures 100 and 101) crude incidence is lowest in the younger
neighborhoods of Grays Ferry-Passyunk and Paschall-Kingsessing. After age adjustment, the
rates are more similar with Pennsport-Queen Village having the highest rate. Colon cancer
crude rates are lowest in Paschall-Kingsessing and Grays Ferry-Passyunk. After age
adjustment, the rates are similar for all neighborhoods (Figures 102 and 103).
Similar comparisons are presented for the incidence of bladder (Figures 104 and 105),
breast (Figures 106 and 107), and prostate (Figures 108 and 109) cancers. Crude incidence
rates comparisons reflect the age differences of the neighborhoods, while age-adjusted rates are
generally similar throughout the Study Area.
A neighborhood comparison of leukemia incidence rates is presented in Figure 110.
This comparison was prepared in response to concerns about environmental exposure to
benzene, which is known to cause leukemia in workers at high exposure levels. Benzene is
used in gasoline and other petroleum products, and is present in cigarette smoke. Age-
adjusted incidence rates are generally similar to the national incidence of about 10 per
100,000.30 The highest incidence was found in the Schuylkill-Point Breeze neighborhood.
Tables 41 and 42 present the crude and age-adjusted neighborhood rates for each year
for each of the top cancer sites.
30Ries et al., SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1973-1991: Tables and Graphs, National Cancer Institute,
NIH Pub. No. 94-2789, 1994.
3-76
-------
Figure 98: Average Crude Incidence Rates for All Cancer Sites: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood
80000
Figure 99: Average Age-Adjusted* Incidence Rates for All Cancer Sites:
1985-1993 By Neighborhood
60000
•Rites ire ige-adjufted to the 1970 U S popul*on
3-77
-------
Figure 100: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Lung Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood
16000
14000
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1985-1993 By Neighborhood
12000
•Run ir« «}»-»Jtii««0 to B» 1870 U S
3-78
-------
Figure 102: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Colon Cancer: 1985-1993
By Neighborhood
8000
Figure 103: Average Age-Adjusted* Incidence Rates for Colon Cancer:
1985-1993 By Neighborhood
6000
5000
3000 -
2000
000
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3-79
-------
4500
Figure 104: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Bladder Cancer: 1985-
1993 By Neighborhood
Figure 105: Average Age-Adjusted* Incidence Rates for Bladder
Cancer 1985-1993 By Neighborhood
3500
•Ratts ire ige-adjinted to the 1970 U S popultton
-3-80
-------
Figure 106: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Breast Cancer: 1985-
1993 By Neighborhood
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100.00
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a |
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1985-1993 By Neighborhood
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000
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3-81
-------
Figure 108: Average Crude Incidence Rates for Prostate Cancer: 1985-
1993 By Neighborhood
30000
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5000 -
000
Figure 109: Average Age-Adjusted* Incidence Rates for Prostate Cancer:
1985-1993 By Neighborhood
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3-82
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D. Other Endpoints of Concern
i. Asthma
Asthma is a respiratory condition that is characterized by 1) airway obstruction
(blocking) that is reversible or partly reversible; 2) airway inflammation (swelling); and 3)
increased airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli that cause breathing difficulty such as
allergens, airborne irritants, exercise, viral infections, weather, and emotion.31 Despite this
description of asthma, medical researchers, clinicians, and public health practitioners have yet
to reach consensus on how to define asthma. This is due, hi part, to the difficulty in defining
conditions specific to asthma that do not also share characteristics of other conditions similar to
asthma.
Asthma affects over 14 million Americans including 4.8 million children under the age
of 18. It is becoming more prevalent and severe across all age groups. Between 1979 and
1992, asthma deaths in the United States increased by 58 percent. Furthermore, hospital
admissions and emergency room visits have increased by fifty percent among adults and over
200 percent among children. In 1993, asthma accounted for an estimated 198,000
hospitalizations and 342 deaths among persons under the age of 25.32
Reasons suspected for the rise in asthma-related morbidity and mortality rates include:
1) greater physician awareness and subsequent increase hi reporting; 2) poor ambient and
indoor air quality, particularly in the urban setting; 3) increased rates of premature births; 4)
decreased rates of breastfeeding; 5) poorer living conditions; 6) increased barriers to the timely
delivery of health care services; and 7) increased use of medications to control asthma.33
Populations At Risk
Children, Hispanics, blacks, elderly and the urban poor are at greatest risk for asthma.
Risk factors for asthma include environmental exposures, genetic factors, and lifestyle.
Specifically, environmental tobacco smoke, exposure to combustion by-products emitted by
gas or wood stoves or fireplaces, allergens such as pollen, mold spores, animal dander, or dust
are recognized to exacerbate asthma. Also, certain foods have been shown to exacerbate or
provoke asthmatic attacks. For children, factors that affect fetal growth and immune
responses, such as maternal smoking and nutrition, second-hand cigarette smoke, ambient air
pollution, and indoor air pollution, may increase the risk of asthma.
31 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of
Asthma. Publication No. 91-3042. August 1991.
32Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports. "Asthma Mortality and Hospitalization Among Children and
Young Adults -- United States, 1980 - 1993." 45 (17):350-353. 1996.
33 Weiss, K.B., Gergen, P.J., and Wagener, D.K. Breathing Better or Wheezing Worse? The Changing
Epidemiology of Asthma Morbidity and Mortality. Annual Review Public Health. 1993. 14:491-513.
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Asthma in Philadelphia
In the state of Pennsylvania, a disproportionate number of asthma-related deaths occur
in Philadelphia. This reflects a national trend in which deaths from asthma occur
predominantly in large cities. In Philadelphia, the rate of mortality from asthma decreased
from 1.68 deaths per 100,000 population in 1969 to 0.68 deaths per 100,000 population in
1977, but then increased to 0.92 deaths per 100,000 population in 1978 and continued to
increase to 2.41 deaths per 100,000 population in 1991.34
Between 1985 and 1991, Lang and Polansky found that 258 deaths in the Philadelphia
area were attributed to asthma as the primary cause of death. There was no relation observed
between death and the season or month in which the death occurred. The authors found that
the majority of deaths occurred in hospitals (65.1 percent) and among nonwhites. From 1985
through 1991, the average annualized death rate from asthma was 3.35 deaths per 100,000
population among nonwhites and 1.44 per 100,000 among whites in Philadelphia. Among
persons between the ages of 5 to 34 years of age, the average annualized death rate from
asthma was 1.57 deaths per 100,000 population among nonwhites and 0.49 deaths per 100,000
population among whites.35
In Philadelphia, the rates of death from asthma were correlated with census tracts with
higher proportions of black and Hispanic residents. Also, women with asthma were found to
have increased illnesses.36
To address concerns regarding asthma rates in the City of Philadelphia, a task force
was organized by the Philadelphia Department of Health in September 1995. Membership of
the Asthma Task Force is comprised of asthma specialists, representatives of local medical
centers, health maintenance organizations, the Asthma and Allergy Association, the American
Lung Association, and members of the Philadelphia Health Department. The goal of the task
force is to reduce asthma-related morbidity and mortality in Philadelphia. The following
approaches have been identified to reduce the occurrence of asthma:
• modify prescription patterns of primary care physicians;
• modify environmental exposures thought to trigger the onset of asthma; and
• improve public education and outreach efforts regarding asthma.
34Lang, David and Polansky, Marcia. Patterns of Asthma Mortality in Philadelphia From 1969 to 1991. The
New England Journal of Medicine. Decembers, 1994. 331:1542-1546.
35Langetal., pg 1543.
36Skobeloff, E.M., Spivey, W.H., St Clair, S.S., Schoffstall, J.M. "The Influence of Age and Sex on
Asthma Admissions." Journal of the American Medical Association. 1992. 268:3437-3440.
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To facilitate this process, the task force has formed several subcommittees that will
focus on specific aspects of the disease. A final report will be prepared by the task force to
document their findings, detailing suggested approaches to reduce disease occurrence and
severity.
ii. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) encompasses two specific diseases or
a combination of the two: emphysema and chronic bronchitis. These diseases obstruct
breathing and the oxygenation of blood and are often irreversible. Onset of the disease usually
occurs late in adult life and is most prevalent among smokers and former smokers. It is
characterized by abnormal tests of expiratory flow that do not change significantly over several
months of observation.37 In addition to emphysema and chronic bronchitis, the definition of
COPD includes asthmatics who have chronic airflow obstruction as well as subjects with less
common conditions such as bronchiectasis and upper airway obstruction.38
COPD is a progressive lung disease that affects approximately 16 million Americans
and claims the lives of 87,000 Americans annually.39 This places COPD as the fourth leading
cause of death among Americans. Moreover, mortality from COPD has increased by
approximately 33 percent while heart disease- and stroke-related mortality rates have declined
over the past decade.40
Emphysema
Emphysema is an anatomically defined condition characterized by the enlargement and
destruction of the alveoli (tiny air-containing sacs distal to the terminal bronchiole) as well as
the destruction of parts of the pulmonary capillary bed.41'42 As a result, the alveoli are unable
to expel air as they should during exhalation. Specifically, the alveolar walls lose their ability
to stretch and recoil, thus resulting in the loss of elasticity of the lung tissue and the inability
for proper gas exchange.
37Silvennan, Edwin, Speizer, Frank, "Risk Factors for the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease," Medical Clinics of North America, vol. 80, May 1996, pp. 501-21.
39American Lung Association, Fact Sheet: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 1996.
40Celli, Bartolome, "Current Thoughts Regarding Treatment of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease,"
Medical Clinics of North America, vol. 80, May. 1996, p. 589.
41Silverman, Edwin, Speizer, Frank, "Risk Factors for the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease," Medical Clinics of North America, vol. 80, May 1996, p. 501.
42 American Lung Association, Fact Sheet: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 1996.
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People with emphysema are unable to remove used air from their lungs and intake
enough new air to breathe properly. Symptoms of emphysema include cough, shortness of
breath, and an increased effort to breathe.
Emphysema affects approximately 1.9 million Americans, with 55 percent of them
male. Between 1982 and 1993, however, the prevalence rate of emphysema among women
increased by 24 percent.43
Chronic Bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis is characterized by excessive mucus production in the bronchi and
chronic inflammation in the small airways (bronchial tubes). The accumulation of mucus in
the airways and the consequent thickening of these inflamed airways results in obstruction.
Clinically, COPD is defined by the presence of cough-productive of phlegm for at least three
months per year for at least two consecutive years.
Chronic bronchitis afflicts an estimated 13.8 million people and is the sixth leading
chronic health condition in the U.S. Smoking is the major risk factor for chronic bronchitis.
Risk Factors
Cigarette smoking has been established as the major cause of COPD, including the
effects of environmental tobacco smoke on the lungs of children.44 Approximately 80 to 90
percent of all cases of COPD are attributed to smoking. In 1993, there were an estimated 46
million adult smokers in the United States, which represents approximately "25 percent of the
adult population. It has been estimated that 15 percent of one-pack-per-day and 25 percent of
two-pack-per-day smokers go on to develop COPD if they continue their habit.45 COPD also
can be exacerbated by exposure to cold air, unhealthful air quality days, paniculate pollution
such as dust and fumes from car exhaust, paint, and aerosols.
Increased risk in older age groups is attributed to the cumulative smoking effect and the
loss of pulmonary function with increasing age. Also, an age-adjusted increased risk in men
has been observed. However, with an increasing number of women smokers, the prevalence
of COPD in women is on the rise, which will likely result in a narrowing of the observed
gender gap. Respiratory infections in children may predispose them to the development of
COPD. Influenza and pneumonia mortality age-adjusted rates per 100,000 in 1984 were 15.8
43'Ibid., p. 1.
^Silverman, Edwin, Speizer, Frank, "Risk Factors for the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease," Medical Clinics of North America, vol. 80, May 1996, pp. 501-502.
45Kanner, Richard. "Early Intervention in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Review of the Lung
Health Study Results." Medical Clinics of North America. May 1996. 80:523.
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for white males, 8.8 for white females, 25.2 for black males, and 11.3 for black females.46
However, there is a need for research to determine whether COPD deaths might be more
likely coded to influenza and pneumonia in blacks compared to whites and whether influenza
epidemics affect COPD morbidity and mortality in blacks compared to whites.47
For a small percentage of the population, an inherited deficiency of a protective protein
in the lungs, referred to as alpha- 1-antitrypsin48 (AAT),49 results in earlier onset of a severe
form of emphysema. No other genetic risk factors have been proven.50
Table 43 presents a summary of data on asthma and COPD mortality in South and
Southwest Philadelphia for the period 1974 through 1993. Figure 111 presents the trend of
mortality from asthma and COPD in the Study Area from 1974 through 1993. The number of
deaths from COPD have increased 5-fold over the 20 year period. Asthma deaths have also
increased steadily. These increases may be impacted by changes in the definitions of asthma
and COPD during this time period.
Measures of mortality from asthma provide a very crude measure of the impact of
asthma on the community. Understanding of asthma would require an in-depth analysis of
asthma incidence and prevalence in the Study Area.
iii. Low Birthweight
Birthweight of less than 5 pounds 8 ounces is classified as low birthweight. Incidence
of low birthweight is presented as percent of live births. Low birthweight infants may be
preterm (short gestational age) or term babies small for gestational age. Insufficient weight
gain by the mother during pregnancy is a primary cause of low birthweight. Women who gain
less than 20 pounds during pregnancy are twice as likely to bear a baby of low birthweight as
women who gain over 20 pounds.51 The incidence of low birthweight in the U.S. rose from
6.8 percent of live births in 1986 to 7.3 percent in 1994. In 1995, the incidence of low
46Gillum, Richard. "Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Blacks and Whites: Pulmonary Function
Norms and Risk Factors." Journal of the National Medical Association. 1991; 83:398.
47/&tf.,p. 398.
48AAT, which is produced by the liver, is a "lung protector." In the absence of AAT, emphysema is
inevitable. Approximately 50,000 to 100,000 Americans suffer AAT deficiency emphysema.
49American Lung Association, Fact Sheet: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 1996, p. 2.
50Silverman, Edwin, Speizer, Frank, "Risk Factors for the Development of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease," Medical Clinics of North America, vol. 80, May 1996, p. 501.
5'Child Welfare League of America. The Child Welfare Stat Book 1993. Washington, DC, 1993.
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birthweight remained at the 1994 level, at 7.3 percent.52 Figure 112 shows the trend for low
birthweight in the United States from 1970 to 1995. The rate of low birthweight nationally is
about twice as high in blacks compared to whites. Figure 113 presents a neighborhood
comparison of low birthweight rates for two time periods. This data was obtained from the
Philadelphia Health Management Corporation. The highest rates of low birthweight are in
Schuylkill-Point Breeze and Paschall-Kingsessing. This most likely reflects the racial
distribution of the neighborhoods since these have the highest percentage of black population
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Risk Factors
• maternal malnutrition
• close child spacing
• low socioeconomic status
• improper prenatal care
• exposure tp alcohol and other drugs
• smoking
The incidence of low birthweight for mothers who are smokers is almost double the incidence
for mothers who are non-smokers. In 1993 the incidence of low birthweight for smoking
mothers was 11.84 percent of live births, and only 6.56 percent for non-smoking mothers.53
"National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 1995; Hyattsville, Maryland: Public Health
Service, Table 11, 1996, p. 90.
53Ibid.
3-95
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E. Discussion
The purpose of the health data analysis was to present a profile of the heath status of.
the neighborhoods of South and Southwest Philadelphia. The analysis was limited by the
availability of data and focuses upon the major causes of mortality, cancer mortality, and
cancer incidence. In interpreting the health information, it is important to note that the study
did not examine specific risk factors which may be related to the development of disease.
Individual risk of developing and dying from disease usually involves a complex interaction of
genetic, behavioral, social, and environmental factors. This study was not intended to
examine the relationship between these risk factors and the patterns of disease in the Study
Area.
Although the rates of disease in the Study Area are generally higher than the national
rates, they are consistent with rates in other urban areas. In addition, the rankings of major
causes of deaths are consistent with the nation. Mortality from heart disease, the number one
cause of death, is steadily declining nationally and in the Study Area. Deaths from stroke are
also decreasing both nationally and in the Study Area while cancer incidence and mortality are
increasing.
It has been recognized for a long time that the environment can play a role in the health
of communities. Historically, the relationship between contaminated water supplies and
infectious diseases has been well documented. More recently, air pollution has been related to
exacerbation of asthma in children and increased mortality. Occupational studies have shown
that workplace exposure to certain chemicals can increase cancer risk, but at the present time it
is not possible to quantify the contribution of environmental exposures to community cancer
rates.
The analysis of cancer mortality and incidence indicates that for several of the most
common cancers rates are increasing in the Study Area. This generally reflects national
trends. In examining these trends, it should be emphasized that for most cancers there is a
lengthy period of time between exposure to a causal agent and development of disease. This
lag is known as a latency period. For example, there may be a 20 to 30 year latency period
between the age a person begins smoking and the age at diagnosis for lung cancer. Similar lag
time has been observed in workers exposed to cancer causing chemicals. Therefore, it must be
recognized that the patterns of cancer incidence and mortality in the Study Area may reflect
risk factors from decades ago.
Many of the major causes of death in the Study Area may be largely preventable
through healthy behavior, improved utilization of prevention services and screening, and early
detection and treatment. For example, most lung cancers can be prevented through smoking
prevention and cessation. Similarly, early detection of breast and prostate cancer can
dramatically reduce mortality from these diseases.
3-98
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The health data analysis presents a profile of community health. Although the findings
are consistent with national trends, they do indicate that the residents of South and Southwest
Philadelphia are at elevated risk for developing a wide range of diseases. Given the constraints
of our current knowledge about the etiology of these diseases, it is not possible to measure the
impact of environmental quality on health. However, the adverse effects of many pollutants
are well documented and reducing environmental exposures is essential to protecting and
improving community health.
3-99
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