United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Gulf Breeze FL 32561
Middle Atlantic Region 3
6th and Walnut Sts
Philadelphia PA 19106
Research and Development >'*•» Ocfober 1979
EPA-600 8-79-029 SAV 1
v°/EPA Chesapeake Bay Program
Distribution and Abundance
of Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation in the Lower
Chesapeake Bay, Virginia
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EPA Report Number
600/8-79-029/SAV1
September 1979
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SUBMERGED AQUATIC
VEGETATION IN THE LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY, VIRGINIA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region III Information Resource
Center (3PM52)
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19107
by
Robert J. Orth
Kenneth A. Moore
and
Hayden H. Gordon
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
Contract No. EPA R805951010
Project Officer
William A. Cook
Chesapeake Bay Program
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region III
6th and Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Chesapeake Bay Program, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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FORWARD
The submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) of the Chesapeake Bay fill an im-
portant ecological role in the Bay system. Aquatic grasses function
as food, shelter, and habitat and breeding areas for finfish and shellfish,
waterfowl, and species of the lower trophic levels.
In recent years, a noticeable decline in the distribution and abundance
of the SAV has been observed. The EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, in attempt
to understand the role of the grasses, has developed an SAV research program
which will examine the cause-and-effect relationships potentially responsible
for the decline in bottom grasses. Research results will provide data for a
management plan aimed at protecting and enhancing the growth and propagation
of the Bay's submerged plants.
One of the tasks of the SAV program is the conduct of studies to delineate
the distribution and abundance of the grasses in the Bay system. This report
presents the results of that work in the Virginia waters of the Chesapeake
Bay. Compatible studies are being conducted in the Maryland waters, and the
results will soon be available.
This effort, in combination with the Maryland Study, establishes the
first comprehensive inventory of the SAV in the entire Bay system. The
products of the study, a series of maps (1:24,000 scale), will serve as a
baseline to measure future changes in the abundance of the Bay grasses.
Follow-up studies are being conducted in 1979 and are projected for
1980. It is intended that the products of this research will not only be
useful to Bay managers in making decisions concerning Bay resources and uses
but also will assist in defining a cost-effective program for future monitor-
ing of Bay grass populations.
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ABSTRACT
The distribution and abundance of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
in the lower Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries were delineated with color
aerial photography and surface information. Over 8500 hectares of SAV were
identified on 31 topographic quadrangles. To enable computer retrieval of
the aerial resource information, all information from the 1978 mapping effort
was entered into a data base based on the Universal Transverse Mercator
coordinate system.
The greatest concentrations of SAV were found at the mouths of the
largest tidal rivers and creeks along the Chesapeake Bay shoreline, and to
the east of Tangier and Great Fox Islands. Freshwater and low salinity
portions of Virginia's tidal rivers were generally found lacking in large
areas of SAV, although numerous small fringing beds and pocket areas
associated with adjacent tidal marshes were identified.
Based on the co-occurrence of the 20 species found at 93 locations
throughout Virginia's tidal waters three species associations of SAV were
identified. Zostera marina and Ruppia maritima dominated the higher
salinity regions, Zannichellia palustris and others the lower salinities
regions and Ceratophyllum demersum and others in the freshwater regions.
Of the total of 20 species of SAV that were identified, 18 of the species
occur primarily within the tidal rivers. Species richness was inversely
related to salinity with the low salinity areas having the greatest number
of species.
Seventeen transects conducted across large SAV beds in six areas around
the Chesapeake Bay shoreline revealed Ruppia to be dominating the shallow,
more protected areas (+1 to -4 dm) with Zostera and Ruppia co-occurring at
intermediate depths (-4 to -8 dm) and Zostera predominating at deeper depths
(-8 to -12 dm). Bottom types varied from silts to coarse sands with
variations in sediment not directly related to speciation of these two
species.
Analysis of the historical distribution of SAV throughout the lower
Bay was accomplished by use of aerial photography for six selected areas.
Low levels of SAV in 1937 increased significantly until approximately 1971
when a precipitous decline in coverage occurred during the period of 1973-
1974. This decline continued until 1978 when the lowest levels in SAV over
the last 40 years were recorded.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword ill
Abstract iv
Figures vii
Tables ix
Abbreviations and Definitions x
Acknowledgment xi
Executive Summary xii
1. Introduction 1
Objectives 3
2. Conclusions 4
3. Recommendations 6
4. Materials and Methods 8
Preliminary aerial surveys 8
Mapping of submerged aquatic vegetation 8
Aerial photography 11
Mapping process - 12
Area measurement 12
Data base 12
Field surveys 17
Transect analysis 20
Analysis of historical SAV distribution 24
5. Results and Discussion 28
Aerial mapping 28
Distribution of SAV in mesohaline and polyhaline areas .... 28
Lower James River 31
James River to York River 31
York River 31
Mob jack Bay 32
Horn Harbor area 32
Piankatank River area 32
Rappahannock River 33
Fleets Bay to Potomac River 33
Northampton County 33
Accomac County 33
Distribution of SAV in selected oligohaline and freshwater
areas 34
Potomac River 36
Chickahominy River 36
Comparison of imagery obtained on summer and winter
overflights 37
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5. Results and Discussion (cont.)
Historical distribution of SAV •. 42
Parrott Islands 42
Fleets Bay 48
Mumfort Islands 48
Jenkins Neck 48
East River 58
Vaucluse Shores. 58
Transect analysis of mesohaline and polyhaline SAV beds ... 65
Plum Tree Island 71
Browns Bay 75
Ware Neck 75
East River 78
Horn Harbor 80
Vaucluse Shores 82
Distribution of SAV along Virginia's tidal shoreline 88
Species associations 88
Species distribution 93
References 97
Appendices
A. General guidelines for mission planning and execution 101
B. Topographic quadrangles showing the distribution and abundance
of SAV 102
C. Distribution of SAV by stations 134
D. Data derived from transect analysis at seventeen locations .... 149
vi
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Transfer of SAV distribution information from photography to
computer tape 9
2 Crown density scale used to estimate SAV percent cover 13
3 Example of SAV bed on a base map with 1000 meter grid
overlay 16
4 Distribution of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in Virginia .... 18
5 Relationship between transect reference staff and VIMS tidal
station 23
6 Relationship between transect reference staff and transect
staff 25
7 Determination of instantaneous tidal height from calculated
tidal curve 26
8 Locations of topographic quadrangles in Virginia where SAV
was observed and mapped in 1978 29
9 Direction of recent changes in the distribution of Zostera
dominated SAV beds 35
10 Distribution and abundance of SAV delineated from summer
and winter photography at Tangier Island 39
11 Distribution and abundance of SAV delineated from summer
and winter photography at Back River 40
12 Seasonal changes in number of shoots and biomass of Zostera
at Vaucluse Shores 41
13 Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at Parrott
Island, 1937-1978 45
14 Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at Fleets
Bay, 1937-1978 49
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Number Page
15 Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at Mumfort
Island, 1937-1978 52
16 Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at Jenkins
Neck, 1937-1978 55
17 Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at the East
River, 1937-1978 59
18 Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at Vaucluse
Shores, 1938-1978 62
19 Relationship between percent cover and depth for Zostera and
Ruppia at Vaucluse Shores 70
20 Depth profiles and percent cover estimated for Zostera and
Ruppia at Plum Tree Island transects 74
21 Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Browns Bay transects 76
22 Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Ware Neck transects 77
23 Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at East River transects 79
24 Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Horn Harbor transects 81
25 Delineation of SAV bed, zones of similar vegetation and
position of transects at the Vaucluse Shores area 83
26 Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Vaucluse Shores transects 84
27 Dendogram of SAV species associations in the lower Chesapeake
Bay and its tributaries 91
viii
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Computer data base information stored on magnetic tape for a
single 1,000-meter grid square \-j
2 Total areas of SAV by topographic quadrangles for 1971, 1974,
1978 30
3 Summer-winter comparisons of areal coverage by SAV at Tangier
Island and Back River 38
4 Areas of SAV at historical mapping sites, 1937-1978 43
5 Percent cover, density, biomass of Zostera and Ruppia-
Vaucluse Shores transect samples, August, 1978 67
6 Product moment correlation (r) of percent cover of Zostera
and Ruppia versus number of shoots, total, aboveground
and root and rhizome weights for Vaucluse Shores
transects, August, 1978 69
7 Summary of transect analyses, including importance values,
for seventeen transects across SAV beds in the lower
Chesapeake Bay 72
8 Percent occurrence of SAV species at 93 stations throughout
tidal Virginia 89
9 Associations of SAV in Virginia's tidal waters 90
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
Submerged Aquatic Species
Emergent and Other Species
Cy — Callitriche verna
Cd — Ceratophyllum demersum
C — Chara sp.
Ea — Elodea canadensis
En — Elodea nuttallii
Ms — Myriophyllum spicatum
Nf — Najas flexilis
Ng — Naj as guadalupensis
Nm — Najas minor
N — Nitella sp.
Ps — Potamogeton crispis
Pi — Potamogeton filiformis
Po — Potamogeton foliosus
Pn — Potamogeton nodusus
Pa — Potamogeton pectinatus
Pr — Potamogeton perfoliatus
Rm — Ruppia maritima
Va — Vallisneria americana
Zp — Zannichellia palustris
7m — Zostera marina
B — Bidens sp.
Bh — Baccharis halimifolia
Jv — Juncus roemerianus
L — Lemna sp.
Nl — Nuphar luteum
Pd — Pontederia cordata
^ — Peltandra virginica
Sa — Spartina alterniflora
So — Spartina cynosuroides
Sp — Spartina patens
Ta — Typha angustifolia
Za — Zizania aquatica
DEFINITIONS
Dominant — The most abundant species characterizing the mapping unit.
Abundant
Frequent
Species found in quantity essentially throughout the mapping
unit.
Scattered species or individuals occurring regularly through-
out the mapping unit.
Occasional — Individuals or colonies occurring infrequently. These may or
may not be unusual.
Rare
Individual occurring very infrequently. These may be consider-
ed unusual.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the following people for their indispensable help in the com-
pletion of the project and the preparation of this report: Charlie Alston
who aided in the flight organization and preparation, aerial photography and
data reduction, David Krantz who assisted in the field work as well as
data reduction, and Sam White who piloted the VIMS aircraft and made it
possible to obtain the excellent film coverage; personnel of the VIMS
Wetlands Department who made observations and collections of plant species
along several of Virginia's tidal rivers; Shirley Sterling, Nancy Hudgins
and Carole Knox for typing the manuscript, Mary Jo Shackelford, Nancy Sturm
and Joe Gilley of the VIMS art department and Ken Thornberry and Bill
Jenkins of the VIMS photography department for drafting the numerous figures
and providing photo-ready copies of the figures.
Mr. William Cook of the Environmental Protection Agency supported all
our endeavors and had many helpful suggestions in the planning stages of
this program. EPA's Environmental Photographic Interpretation Complex and
especially Mr. William Rhodes were extremely helpful in their support of the
aerial photography portion of our project. Our final thanks go to all the
people involved in the Chesapeake Bay Program and especially those in the
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) section for their persistence in
establishing SAVs as a high priority area of research in the Chesapeake Bay.
xi
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The distribution and abundance of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
in the lower Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries were delineated with color
aerial photography and surface information. Methods used in this study were
reviewed and modified when necessary in response to comments from EPA's
Chesapeake Bay Program, Quality Assurance Coordinator. SAV were mapped from
aerial imagery onto topographic quadrangles (1:24,000) with a zoom transfer
scope and areas of SAV beds computed with an electronic planimeter. All
SAV beds were classified into four density categories based on a comparison
with a crown density scale: <10% cover, 10-40% cover, 40-70% cover and 70-
100% cover. Significant beds of SAV were identified on 31 quadrangles with
27 occurring in the mesohaline and polyhaline areas where Zostera marina and
Ruppia maritima were found to cover over 8400 hectares (20,750 acres) of
shallow bottom. The remaining four quadrangles depicted oligohaline and
freshwater areas which were vegetated by a variety of species including:
Zannichellia palustris, Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria americana, as
well as several species of Potamogeton and Najas. These totaled 137 hectares
(340 acres).
Virginia's tidal rivers, which are largely oligohaline and freshwater,
were generally found lacking in large areas of SAV, although numerous small
fringing beds and pocket areas associated with adjacent tidal marshes were
identified through field investigations. Several areas, including a region
of the Potomac River in the vicinity of Dahlgren, and the Chickahominy River,
a tributary of the James, contained large enough beds of SAV to be mapped.
However, the greatest concentrations of SAV were found at the mouths of the
largest rivers and creeks and along the Chesapeake Bay shoreline where
mesohaline and polyhaline conditions predominate. The most significant areas
of these were: 1. along the western shore of the Bay between Back River and
the York River; 2. around the shoreline of Mobjack Bay; 3. throughout the
shoal areas east of Tangier and Great Fox Island; 4. behind large protective
sand bars near Hungar's Creek and Cherrystone Creek which are located along
the Bay's eastern shoreline.
The distribution of SAV species in Virginia's tidal waters were
classified into three associations based on their co-occurrence; one
association consisting of eelgrass, Zostera marina and widgeon grass,
Ruppia maritima, which dominated the mesohaline and polyhaline portions of
the Bay; a second association found in the oligohaline regions including the
pondweeds Potamogeton spp. and Zannichellia palustris; and a third associa-
tion primarily restricted to freshwater including coontail Ceratophyllum
demersum. Although Ruppia is much more tolerant of freshwater than Zostera,
it was not found to any significant extent in Virginia's rivers upstream from
those areas where it co-occurs with Zostera. Species diversity (numbers of
species) increased in an upstream direction with the third group, those
xii
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restricted to freshwater, having the greatest species richness. Myriophyllum
spicatum, water milfoil, occurred only in isolated areas and formed few
significant beds, even in those areas where it previously had been very
abundant in the 1960's.
Aerial overflights were made during the summer and winter of 1978.
Comparisons of imagery obtained during these periods reflected, for the most
part, the natural, late summer die-back of Zostera and Ruppia. Reductions in
coverage on the imagery of between 40 to 83 percent were recorded. The
densest areas of vegetation on the summer imagery were those most evident on
the winter imagery. In addition, those areas which were observed to have the
sparsest coverage (i.e. <40%) during the summer were not able to be observed
during the winter flights. This does not mean that in these sparse areas
there was no vegetation in the winter, but they were reduced to levels too
low to provide an image on the aerial photography at the altitude flown.
The distribution of SAV (Ruppia and Zostera) in the last 40 years was
delineated by changes in grass bed coverage in six selected areas. Mumfort
Island and Jenkins Neck in the York, the East River in the Mobjack Bay,
Parrott Island in the Rappahannock River, Fleets Bay and Vaucluse Shores at
the mouth of Hungar's Creek on the Bayside of the Eastern Shore all showed a
very reduced coverage in the late 1930's. This coincided with a period when
Zostera had also declined along the entire East Coast of the U.S. The
period between 1937 and 1953 showed a dramatic increase in areal coverage at
all sites as well as increase in bed densities. The increase continued
through the 1960's and in some areas until 1971 or 1972. Slight decreases
were occasionally observed during this period at Mumfort Island, Jenkins
Neck and Parrott Island. The largest loss of SAV occurred between 1971 and
1974, but especially in 1973. Both areal coverage and the density of the
beds in all these areas, except the Eastern Shore site, showed a significant
decrease. This decrease continued through 1978 when the distribution and
abundance of SAV in each area was the smallest observed over the last 40
years.
In reviewing the past and present data, the distribution and abundance
of SAV in the six selected areas in 1973 appeared very similar to the data
collected for 1937-1938. This suggests that whatever factor or factors
caused the major decline of the grass beds in the 1930's may also have been
operating in the 1970's.
The dynamic nature found in certain grass beds was illustrated in the
aerial photography by the dramatic changes in the distribution of the SAV at
the Vaucluse Shores site. The grass bed alterations in this area were
apparently due to the dynamics of the sandbars and sandpits found in this
region. Both features had migrated and altered the contour of the shallows.
Accompanying the changes in bar and spit formation were changes in grass bed
distribution. As the bars and spits moved, certain habitats became unsuit-
able for SAV survival while other areas became more suitable with net
migration of SAV into them. Evidence for this was confirmed by cores taken
in the sand bar region adjacent to grass beds. Samples taken to depths of
1 meter contained remnants of eelgrass rhizomes at the core bottoms. These
rhizome fragments were found closer to the surface as the existing grass bed
xiii
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was approached. In the northern section of the bed the area appeared to
be shoaling. The habitat therefore had become more suitable for Ruppia
than Zostera. General observations of sections of this northern part made
between 1976 and 1978, indicated changes in species composition from Zostera
to Ruppia. In addition, sediment cores taken in these predominantly Ruppia
areas indicate dense Zostera rhizomes in close proximity to the sediment
surface, confirming that Zostera was recently present. Thus, it appears
that geological processes such as sediment transport are very important
determinants in SAV distribution here.
Surface information was collected by field checking numerous sites
along the lower Bay for species composition. More complete species compo-
sition distribution and percent cover data were analyzed in six vegetated
areas (Mobjack Bay-Browns Bay, Ware Neck, and the mouth of the East River;
Chesapeake Bay-Plum Tree Island and Horn Harbor; Bayside, Eastern Shore-
Vaucluse Shores) of the lower Bay using a transect method. Seventeen
transects conducted across these six areas revealed a co-dominance by two
species, Zostera marina and Ruppia maritima. In general, Ruppia was found
dominant in the shallow, more protected areas (+1 to -4 dm relative to MLW)
with Zostera and Ruppia co-occurring at intermediate depths (-4 to -8 dm)
and Zostera predominantly at deeper depths (-8 to -12 dm).
Bottom types found at the 17 transects varied from silts to coarse
sands with the fine sand being the most common designation. Another bottom
type not observed in the transects but found in a few SAV beds around the
lower Bay was of relic oyster bars covered with a fine layer of silty-sand.
Variations in bottom types did not appear to be directly related to
speciation within the beds as both species were associated with each of the
sediment types.
xiv
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The shallow coastal regions of estuaries, bays, and rivers represent
extremely important areas in coastal zone productivity. Their importance
lies in the fact that these shallow zones are normally colonized by vast
expanses of wetlands and submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV).
SAV systems serve multiple, functional roles in coastal ecosystems
(Wood, et al., 1969; Thayer, et al., 1975; Stevenson and Confer, 1978).
They superimpose a structural component on an otherwise bare sand or mud
bottom. This structure serves as a habitat for many small sessile and slow
moving invertebrate species such that the density and diversity of inverte-
brate species found in the sediments surrounding the leaves are significantly
higher than adjacent, unvegetated areas (Marsh, 1973, 1976; Orth, 1977).
There is also a much higher density of the more motile, macroinvertebrate
species such as shrimp and crabs in vegetated areas compared with unvegetated
areas (Heck and Orth, in press). In addition to the habitat function, SAV
areas function as refuges for these same motile species by providing a source
of protection from predators. The effectiveness of this refuge is apparently
directly related to the density of vegetation (Heck and Orth, in press).
The blades of SAV support a diverse and sometimes very dense epiphytic
growth which is a source of food for herbivores and thus contributes to the
overall high productivity of the system.
The combined primary productivity of the plant and associated algal
components rivals that of many of the world's cultivated crops (Thayer,
et al., 1975). There are also complex nutrient interactions occurring. For
example, the individual plants have been shown to act as a "nutrient pump"
moving nutrients from the sediment to the water column and vice versa
(McRoy and Barsdate, 1970; McRoy and McMillan, 1977) with additional uptake
of released nutrients by the attached epiphytes (McRoy and Goering, 1974).
The leaves and roots of SAV are also capable of binding sediments and baffling
currents, thereby stabilizing the bottom and preventing erosion and loss
of sediment. Finally this overall importance of SAV does not end with the
living plant. Detritus derived from SAV serves as a contributor to the
detritus food chain, an attribute very important to the coastal areas.
Within the Chesapeake Bay, there are extensive shoal areas that are
heavily vegetated with submerged aquatic vegetation. The Bay with its
salinity regime spanning a range of 0 to 25°/oo is represented by a variety
of different SAV community types (Stevenson and Confer, 1978). The polyha-
line and mesohaline areas are dominated by eelgrass, Zostera marina and
widgeon grass, Ruppia maritima, while in the oligohaline and fresh water
regions, there are approximately 20 species of SAV which include redhead
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grass, Potamogenton perfoliatus; sago pondweed, Potamogenton pectinatus;
wild celery, Vallisneria americania; horned pondweed, Zannichellia palustris.
Historically, emphasis on Chesapeake Bay SAV has been directed to its impor-
tance as a food for waterfowl. However, with the decline of SAV throughout
the Bay in the early 1970's (Stevenson and Confer, 1978), the importance
of SAV for primary production, nutrient cycling, prey refuge, contribution
to food webs and sediment dynamics is now becoming apparent. It may be
that the SAV systems constitute one of the most scientifically as well as
aesthetically interesting areas in the Bay.
Because of man's ever increasing use and abuse of the coastal zone, it
is becoming apparent that those systems which are important to the ecological
well-being of the Bay must be properly managed. Management of the SAV
resource must not only recognize the importance of the resource as outlined
above but also where the resource is located and its abundance, as well as
the dynamics of the system in both space and time. Thus the overall objec-
tive of this study was to delineate the distribution of SAV communities and
to assist in understanding the dynamics of these systems from an historical
perspective.
The accurate delineation of communities of submerged aquatic vegetation
for the purpose of mapping their distribution and abundance can be exceed-
ingly difficult, if not impossible. These communities are not static but
represent dynamic elements whose distribution and abundance can vary both
in space and time. Distinct differences in SAV beds can be observed in time
frames of less than six months. Remote sensing techniques offer distinct
advantages for this type of analysis of SAV communities. The main advantage
of aerial photography is its presentation of a synoptic view of an entire
bed and the adjacent areas. Aerial photography offers a permanent record
of the grass area which can aid in depicting historical changes in grass
bed formation. This could also aid in identification of grass bed altera-
tions due to land use changes. Aerial photography is a relatively inexpen-
sive method of inventory as compared to intensive field survey work, and the
final product can provide an accurate map of the entire distribution of SAV
in an area. Grass bed anomalies are observable on aerial photographs,
e.g. sand bar and sand spit formations, halos (Orth and Gordon, 1975;
Davis and Brinson, 1976; Orth, 1979) which may not otherwise be visible from
the water surface. This synoptic overview allows the researcher to minimize
his time in the field spent searching for anomalous areas, etc. by pin-
pointing areas of interest on the photography.
Aerial photography has been used successfully around the world for map-
ping many different SAV community types and examining associated environmen-
tal problems (Edwards and Brown, 1960; Lukens, 1968; Kelly, 1969a, b;
Kelly and Conrod, 1969; Wile, 1973; Harwood, et al., 1974; Orth and Gordon,
1975; Pooni, et al., 1975; Davis and Brinson, 1976; Orth 1976; Steffensen
and McGregor, 1976; Good, et al., 1978). These efforts which have been
conducted under a variety of environmental conditions suggests that remote
sensing techniques are the most efficient and cost effective methods for
understanding the dynamics of SAV.
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OBJECTIVES
The primary objectives of this study are as follows:
1. To accurately map the distribution of eelgrass, Zostera marina (and
widgeon grass, Ruppia maritima where it co-occurs with Zostera)
in the saline portions of the lower Chesapeake Bay using remote
sensing techniques and appropriate surface information.
2. To map the distribution and abundance of SAV in selected areas of
the fresh and oligohaline waters of the lower Chesapeake Bay's
tributaries.
3. To delineate the different SAV species and their distributional
patterns in the lower Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries.
4. To determine the extent of SAV recovery or losses from selected
mesohaline areas based on historical SAV data (e.g. historical
aerial photographs and previous vegetation surveys).
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
The mapping of SAV beds in Virginia was accomplished using a Fairchild
CA-8 cartographic camera with a 152 mm (6% inch) focal length lens. The
camera was mounted in the belly of a single-engine, fixed high wing
DeHavilland Beaver aircraft and flown at altitudes of 2740 m to 3660 m.
Film type of Kodak 24 cm (9% inch) square positive transparency Aerochrome
MS, type 2448, provided excellent imagery for delineating most SAV beds
which occurred at densities ranging from <1 plant per rrr to over 1000 plants
per m . Quality assurance guidelines addressing tidal stage, plant growth,
sun elevation, water transparency, atmospheric transparency, turbidity,
wind, sensor operation and plotting were found necessary to achieve maximum
delineation of the SAV beds.
A total of over 84,000 hectares of SAV were located, mapped and outlined
onto 27 topographic quadrangles located in the saline portions of Virginia's
section of the Chesapeake Bay. Two species, Zostera marina and Ruppia
maritima, were found to be the dominant vegetation in this region. However,
speciation within the beds was not possible at the altitudes flown. The
largest concentrations of these species were found at the mouths of the
large rivers and creeks and along the Chesapeake Bay shoreline. The most
significant areas were: 1. along the western shore of the Bay between Back
River and the York River; 2. around the shoreline of Mobjack Bay; 3.
throughout the shoal areas east of Tangier and Great Fox Islands; 4. behind
large protective sand bars near Hunger's Creek and Cherrystone Creek along
the Bay's eastern shoreline. Comparisons of imagery obtained during the
summer and early winter periods reflected the natural, late summer die-
back of Zostera and Ruppia. Only the densest areas of vegetation on the
summer imagery were generally evident on the winter imagery with reductions
in coverage for two areas ranging from 40 to 83%.
Mapping of SAV located within four selected topographic quadrangles
along Virginia's freshwater and oligohaline regions, revealed 137 hectares
of submerged vegetation. These areas contained a large number of species
such as: Vallisneria, Zannichellia, Ceratophyllum, Najas, Potamogeton.
In general, the SAV in these areas were primarily small, fringing grass
beds whose imagery was difficult to observe from the air at the altitudes
flown in this study.
A field survey made along the shorelines of the lower Chesapeake
Bay and its tributaries revealed twenty SAV species comprising three
associations. These species appeared to be distributed throughout the
estuary based primarily upon the species' salinity tolerances.
Ceratophyllum and other species were found along the freshwater areas of
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Virginia's rivers. Areas of low salinities were vegetated with Zannichellia,
Potamogeton, etc. while the areas of highest salinities, primarily along the
Bay shoreline, were dominated by Zostera and Ruppia. Species richness was
inversely related to the apparent salinities, with the low salinity areas
having the greatest number of species and the high salinity areas the fewest.
Transects conducted across six vegetated areas found Virginia's
Chesapeake Bay shoreline revealed a co-dominance by two species, Zostera
and Ruppia. Distribution within these beds appeared to be a function of
two factors, site exposure and water depth, Ruppia was dominant in the
shallow, more protected areas while Zostera was more abundant in the deeper
more exposed sites.
Analysis of the historical distribution of SAV throughout the lower
Bay over the last 40 years revealed relatively low levels of SAV in 1937.
This situation reflected the documented demise of Zostera in the early
1930's. From 1937 to 1950 the coverage by SAV increased significantly
with continued increased coverage observed until the 1960's. High levels
of SAV in 1971 were followed by a precipitous decline between 1973 and 1974.
This decline continued until 1978 when, apparently, the lowest levels in
SAV over the last 40 years were recorded. Areas of greatest recent decline
were observed in the lower portions of the major rivers where in 1978
little significant SAV existed. The western portion of Virginia's
Chesapeake Bay shoreline north of the York River also experienced a
considerable reduction in coverage.
-------
SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Because SAV communities in the lower Bay are not static but dynamic
systems that undergo both seasonal as well as annual changes in abundance,
it is felt that imagery should be obtained over the next few years on an
annual basis depicting maximum standing crop of all SAV areas. This would
be of significant value because: 1. Interest in the status of Bay SAV
communities by the general public as well as state and Federal agencies
is currently very high; 2. SAV communities are at a very low coverage com-
pared to past years, and up to date information is needed to document any
continuing decline or rate of recovery; and 3. EPA's current funding of
other SAV research programs will provide results that could be correlated
with this distribution and abundance data. Obtaining, imagery on an annual
basis would provide those data necessary for deciding whether monitoring
should be continued on an annual, biennial or less frequent basis. The
costs to simply acquire the imagery for Virginia's portion of the Bay
would be minimal, and the imagery thus obtained would be available for
use by the many agencies concerned with managing this valuable resource.
2. It is important to stress that any imagery obtained for mapping SAV
communities be acquired under the constraints of tidal height, sun angle,
wind conditions, etc. that have been outlined by EPA for this current proj-
ect. Attempts to coordinate the acquisition of SAV imagery with other pro-
grams requiring aerial photography, such as land use planning, that do not
require similar constraints should consider these conditions or will most
likely result in aerial photography unsuitable for accurate delineation of
SAV communities.
3. It is recommended that altitudes of 3740 m be used for the acquisition of
the imagery of SAV communities with a mapping camera. This results in a
scale which allows a direct comparison to the standard topographic quadran-
gle (1:24,000). It also allows complete mapping of most SAV areas except for
those minute areas in the freshwater and oligohaline systems where SAV beds are
found fringing the marshes. Species determination at this altitude is diffi-
cult-if not impossible, and therefore not advised. Lower altitudes (1000 m)
may yield the species information, and if necessary, studies could be direct-
ed along this avenue of research.
In addition, it is recommended that because of the extensive die-back of
SAV throughout the lower Bay during winter months only one mapping flight
be made per year. This preferably should be made during the early summer
to record maximum standing crop of the vegetation.
-------
4. The oligohaline and freshwater portions of selected areas along
Virginia's tidal rivers have been shown in this study to contain scattered
small beds of SAV that in many cases are not evident on high altitude
aerial photography. It is recommended that future field study be conducted
in these regions to provide understanding of their distribution, abundance,
and resource values.
-------
SECTION 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
PRELIMINARY AERIAL SURVEYS
To facilitate the planned large scale mapping of submerged aquatic
vegetation in Virginia's portion of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries,
preliminary aerial surveys were made of these areas in early June, 1978.
The flights provided an overview of where current beds of SAV exist and
located specific areas for intensive surface measurements. Overflights
were made using a single engine Dehavilland Beaver Aircraft at altitudes
ranging from 300 to 200 m. They were conducted at times when weather and
tide conditions allowed for maximum viewing of SAV beds: low tide, minimal
cloud cover, and reduced wind conditions.
Prior to these preliminary overflights, available information on the
distribution of SAV beds in Virginia was reviewed. Previously known bed
outlines (Orth and Gordon, 1975) were drawn on 1:80,000 maps which were
then carried inflight and additions or deletions were made as necessary to
determine a preliminary qualitative identification of existing SAV coverage.
This information was then used to prepare flight lines for the aerial mapping,
to assist in delineating areas for transect analysis and for historical
review of changes in SAV distribution.
MAPPING OF SUBMERGED AQUATIC VEGETATION
The method of mapping submerged aquatic vegetation is graphically
depicted in Figure 1. The method consists of acquiring photography,
transferring the SAV perimeter information from the photography to maps,
measuring individual SAV bed areas, and compiling the data into a computer
data base. Each component of the procedure is more fully described below.
Aerial Photography
The first phase of the aerial photography effort was the planning of
flight lines for complete coverage of all anticipated areas of SAV in the
Virginia portion of the Chesapeake Bay. Preliminary aerial surveys for
visual observations only were conducted as described above. Flight lines
for photography were then planned for coverage of all areas where SAVs were
seen during the aerial surveys or known from prior study. Flight lines were
drawn on 1:250,000 scale USGS topographic sheets, 2° by 1° series, using
a transparent frame-size overlay for coverage at a minimum altitude of
2740 m (9,000 'feet). Flight lines were situated to ensure both complete
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bed coverage and inclusion of land features as control points for mapping
accuracy. Lines were also oriented to facilitate ease of flying where
possible. Flight direction was oriented such that the overall mission would
progress in the same direction as the tide propagation to ensure photography
at the lowest possible tidal stage.
The general guidelines used for mission planning and execution were
developed by EPA (Appendix A). These quality assurance guidelines address
tidal stage, plant growth, sun elevation, water transparency and atmospheric
transparency, turbidity, wind, sensor operation, and plotting. Although
it was the overall intent to plan for optimum conditions in all items,
some are necessarily more important than others and an order of priorities
was established to guide mission planning.
The most critical of those items listed is plant growth stage. At
the wrong time of year, it would be possible to fly an otherwise ideal
mission and record no (or little) SAV. For the predominant species of
grass in the southern Chesapeake Bay, early summer offers the best chance
of recording maximum plant coverage. To ensure the most complete distri-
bution information and to record seasonality, the entire area was photo-
graphed twice during 1978, once in the summer and once in the early winter.
The next most important condition is water transparency, which is itself
a function of wind, tide, and turbidity (often related to weather during the
previous 12 hours). Atmospheric transparency is important since a high
sunlight-to-skylight ratio yields the best SAV-bottom contrast. Sun eleva-
tion is also a consideration since at high elevations (sun too high in the
sky) sun glint will appear in a portion of the frame, masking the grass
or other features used for mapping. This effect is minimized, however, by
the proper choice of frame overlap and flight line sidelap. Sun elevations
were kept between 25° to 45°.
The choice of flight altitude is generally a trade-off between areas
covered by a frame and spatial resolution of the objects of interest. In
previous SAV mapping reported in Orth and Gordon (1975) and in special
film-filter-altitude experiments, it was found that a scale of 1:30,000
provided sufficient resolution to identify dense 1-meter patches of grass.
The maximum operational altitude for the aircraft used in this operation
is 3660 m (12,000 feet). This altitude and a standard mapping camera with
a 152 mm (6-inch) focal length lens yields imagery with a scale of 1:24,000.
Flights were made at altitudes as low as 2740 m (9,000 feet) to a scale of
1:18,000 when atmospheric conditions dictated.
Aircraft scheduling was done in advance around windows in the morning
and afternoon (2 to 3 hours) near low tide for specific regions in Chesapeak
Bay. NOAA tide tables were used for prediction of tidal stage throughout
the Bay, and a table of suggested flight windows was made for a one to two-
month period. For flights during the summer, the times from 1100 to 1300
EDT were generally avoided to minimize sun glint problems. The actual
decision to fly on a particular day was made in the early morning, based on
forecasts of regional weather systems, previous local weather (24 hours),
and most important, current conditions. Because of weather variation,
10
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it was generally not possible to pick an "ideal" day for aerial photography
in advance.
The camera used for all aerial photography of SAV was a Fairchile CA-8
cartographic camera with a 152 mm (6%-inch) focal length Bausch and Lomb
Metrogon lens. Film was Kodak 24 cm (9^-inch) square positive transparency
Aerochrome MS, type 2448, loaded into magazines in advance. The camera
was mounted in a camera port in the belly of the VIMS single-engine, fixed
high wind DeHavilland Beaver aircraft. The aircraft provides a stable
platform for vertical aerial photography from 300 to 3700 m altitude
(1,000 to 12,000 feet).
The camera was checked for vertical orientation before each exposure,
using two-axis levelling. Exposures were timed to insure 60 to 65% forward
lap (standard frame spacing), and times were adjusted according to flight
line direction in relation to winds aloft. Where adjacent parallel lines
were flown, 30% sidelap was planned to insure mapable quality contiguous
coverage. A Wratten 1A haze filter was used inside the cone of the camera
to reduce the degrading effect of atmospheric haze on image quality.
Personnel on the aircraft during a mission included a pilot, navigator,
and a camera operator. While in the air, the navigator recorded notes as
to atmospheric conditions, flight line number, altitude, heading, frame
count, camera setting, and any unusual observations on cassette tape with
a portable battery-operated recorder. The navigator signaled line start
and line stop and watched for flight line drift (making suggested corrections
to the pilot) during photography. The navigator was also experienced in the
recognition of SAV areas and modified flight lines or added more lines during
the mission to ensure better or more complete coverage.
Color film was chosen for this project since it offers adequate infor-
mation for delineating SAV beds and a great amount of general information
for use in other projects by EPA, VIMS and other agencies. When not used
in the aircraft, film was kept refrigerated. Following exposure the 38 m
rolls were flown to the EPA-EPIC facility for immediate processing in a
continuous roll Kodak 1411 processor. Each roll contained some test exposures
to permit selection of optimum transport speed and temperature during process-
ing. A duplicate copy was made for data extraction while the original was
retained (after screening) for archival purposes by EPIC. Film was generally
returned to VIMS the same day as processed. At the VIMS Remote Sensing
Center, the film was carefully reviewed for quality and adequacy of coverage
and entered into the Center's photo-index system. Cassette photo-logs
were transcribed to typed hard-copy and checked against the film. Based on
this information, areas were selected for recoverage where sun glint or
other problems dictated.
Mapping Process
Before mapping the film was reviewed by a photointerpretor and a biolo-
gist to select individual frames for best SAV coverage. The SAV beds were
identified using all available information, including knowledge of aquatic
grass signatures on the film, areas of grass coverage from previous flights,
11
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ground information, and aerial visual surveys. In areas where the SAV/bottom
contrast was poor, the grass boundary was delineated using a fine point
pencil on transparent tape placed on the film. This was done to aid in
transferring the imagery on the film to the topographic quadrangles using
the Zoom Transfer Scope. Extreme care was exercised to ensure the tape
was put on the non-emulsion side of the film in a manner which will allow
it to be easily removed at a later time. An estimate of percent cover within
each seagrass bed was made visually in comparison with an enlarged Crown
Density Scale similar to those developed for estimates of forest tree crown
cover from aerial photography (Figure 2). Bed density was classified into
one of four categories based on an objective comparison with the density
scale. These were: 1. very sparce, (<10%); 2. sparce (10 to 40%); 3.
moderate (40 to 70%); or 4. dense (70 to 100%). Either the entire bed, or
sub-sections within the bed, were assigned a number (1 to 4) corresponding
to the above density categories.
A Bausch and Lomb Zoom Transfer Scope, model ZT-4H, was used to trace
the delineated SAV bed boundaries from the aerial photography to base maps
of 1:24,000 scale USGS paper topographic (7^-minute series) quadrangles.
The Zoom Transfer Scope enables the operator to view the photograph and the
map simultaneously, adjust scale, rotate, and translate, one in relation to
the other optically, and draw the bed outlines and grass density information
directly onto the base map. Non-changing features common to the imagery
and the topographic quadrangle, such as road intersections, houses, creeks,
ets., were used for alignment and scaling purposes. After transfer of the
bed outlines onto the base maps the maps were reviewed with the aerial
photography to insure accurate coverage. The original paper topographic
quadrangles have been filed at VIMS for future reference. Translucent
mylar stable-base topographic quadrangles were placed over the original base
maps, and SAV bed outlines and density information were transferred with
black ink. These maps were then photo-reduced and are included in Appendix
B of this report. The full-size mylar quadrangles have been filed with EPA.
Area Measurement
Areas of SAV beds were derived from the 1:24,000 scale topographic
quadrangles. Measurements were made on a Numonics Graphics Calculator,
model 1224. The unit has a resolution in x and y of 0.25 mm and has registers
for scaling and unit conversion so that areas can be read out in any units
desired at map scale. Accuracy, determined by repetitive measurement of
test areas, is better than 2%. Precision (standard deviation divided by
the mean) ranges from approximately 2% at 16 mm (10,000 m2 at a scale =
1:24,000) to well under 1% at 160 mm2 (100,000 m2) with an overall average
of 1.4%. Areas on each topographic quadrangle were summed and tabulated
(Table 2).
Data Base
To enable computer retrieval of areal resource information and compari-
son of different aspects of one or more resources over time, a data base
structure has been created. All the information from the 1978 SAV mapping
effort has been entered into this data base. The geographical coordinate
12
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system for the data base is the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate
system (UTM). It is anticipated that other information summarizing areal
resources, such as oyster bar areas and marsh distribution, could easily
be entered into the data base.
The grid base for the areal data is the 1,000 m square defined by
UTM easting and northing (x and y) coordinates found along the edge of each
7Js-minute topographic sheet (the base map for this SAV study). In order
to enter any areal data into the data base, the outline of the resource
is drawn on a topographic map, as has already been done in this study for
1978 SAV beds. A clear grid containing 1,000 m lines drawn at a 1:24,000
scale is then placed over the base map and aligned with the 1,000 m UTM
grid marks. The two are then taped to the Graphics Calculator table, and
the areal data is transferred grid-square by grid-square to computer compa-
tible magnetic tape (CCT using both the digitizing and area measurement
functions of the Calculator. The lower section of Figure 1 illustrates
this step.
The Graphics Calculator contains an integral microprocessor which con-
trols the format of information sent to the CCT. For each topographic
sheet a master header is used consisting of the topographic sheet quadrangle
name, the Virginia alphanumeric index, date of the survey, and the UTM
coordinates of the origin of the digitizer (Graphics Calculator) coordinate
system. The digitizer x-axis is always electronically aligned with the
UTM easting axis. For each 1,000 m grid square there is a 7-field data
block sent to tape with the following information:
field 1 = UTM coordinates divided by 100,000 m
(2 digits - x, 2 digits - y),
field 2 = UTM coordinates for the lower left corner of the 1,000-
meter square (2 digits - x, 2 digits - y),
field 3 = topographic alphanumeric index,
field 4 = waterway code,
field 5 = resource code,
field 6 = resource area within 1,000 m square, and
field 7 = x, y coordinates in mm of the perimeter of the resource for
replotting the boundary.
Field 1 generally remains the same throughout a topographic quadrangle
(unless field 2 approaches 99 in x or y). Field 3 is the same alphanumeric
topographic quadrangle index as entered in the master header. Field 4
is a 5-digit code for a particular bay, river, or creek within the Chesapeake
Bay estuary as used by the United States Corps of Engineers, Norfolk District,
and the State of Virginia. Field 5 is a 5-digit code to describe the resource
being digitized. The first digit is the resource type. S for SAV is the
only type considered thus far. The second digit is the season of data
14
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acquisition (a number from 1 to 4 for each 3-month quarter). The third
digit is the salinity regime (1-saline, 2-brackish, 3-fresh, 4-euhaline
>24°/oo, 5-polyhaline 18 to 24°/oo, 6-mesohaline 5 to 18°/oo, 7-oligohaline
.5 to 5°/oo). The last two digits indicate the species, community type,
or other classification to define the resource. Fields 2, 6, and 7 change
for each 1,000 m grid square. Fields 3, 4, and 5 are changed when necessary.
An example of the data base for SAV beds is shown in Figure 3 and Table
1. Figure 3 illustrates the outline of a grass bed with the 1,000 m grid
overlay in place. Several of the grid crossings have been numbered (e.g.
68,72 corresponds to 68,000 m E, 72,000 m N). Information from the shaded
area would be put into the data base as shown in Table 1.
No computer programs to access the data base have been written at
present. The information in the data base, however, has been structured
for ease of information retrieval, and simple programs could be written in
minimal time to access all of the information using fields 1 through 5 as
search keys. In addition, the area perimeter has been digitized and the
x - y coordinates stored so that partial or complete resource boundaries
could be plotted either on a television type computer terminal or simple
x - y plotter. The computer tape (CCT) containing the data from the 1978
SAV mapping effort is on file in the VIMS computer center and is available
upon request.
It is anticipated that SAV information in this format will be of great
utility to managers, decision makers, scientists and others, all of whom
may need current and historical SAV resource information in a concise,
quickly accessed form.
FIELD SURVEYS
The distribution of SAV in Virginia can be divided into at least two
distinct zones: Zostera and Ruppia forming large beds in the polyhaline
(18-24°/oo) and mesohaline areas (5-18o/oo), and Vallisneria, Potamogetons,
Zannichellia, etc. comprising lesser but generally undetermined amounts
in the oligohaline (0.5-5°/oo) and freshwater areas (<0.5°/o). Because
of this, several approaches were used to gather surface information to assist
the aerial photography in zone delineation.
At locations within the oligohaline and freshwater zones (in Virginia
these fall wholly within the tidal rivers) where the preliminary overflights
revealed observable beds of SAV, field checks were made by use of small
boats to determine species present, relative abundance and habitat type
(Figure 4). In addition, these areas were mapped using remote sensing
techniques described in the preceeding section and the results displayed
on USGS topographic quadrangles (7.5 minute series).
In the mesohaline and polyhaline zones (comprising Virginia's portion
of the Bay proper and the lower sections of its major tributaries) a similar
survey was undertaken (Figure 4). In this region the beds are generally
large, well defined, and under appropriate conditions easily seen from the
15
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70,74
68,72
69,72
Figure 3. Example of SAV bed on a base map with 1000 meter grid overlay,
Coordinates are in thousands of meters.
16
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TABLE 1. COMPUTER DATA BASE INFORMATION STORED ON MAGNETIC TAPE
FOR A SINGLE 1,000-METER GRID SQUARE
Field
Data
1
0341
2
6973
3
002
4
YOR01
5
S3501
6
693
7
X,Y,X,Y,X,Y,etc.
1. UTM coordinates for topographic sheet (stays the same,
generally, throughout topographic sheet).
300000 m E, 4100000 m N
2. UTM coordinates for 1,000 meter square.
69000, 73000
3. Topographic sheet code, 002 = Achilles Quadrangle.
(7.5 min. sheet)
4. Waterway code (used by the Norfolk Corps of Engineers and
State of Virginia).
YOR01 = York River
5. Resource code.
S = type = SAV
3 = Season = July, August, September
5 = Salinity = polyhaline
01 = Community, etc. = Zostera, Ruppia
6. Area in square meters per 100.
693 = 69,300 m2
7. x, y - coordinates of perimeter of resource area for
replotting.
17
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air. It is this zone that has been the major focus of aerial mapping effort
by this study.
Other selected areas where submerged vegetation was not evident from
the air were also field checked to determine if SAV were indeed present
(Figure 4). An attempt was made to investigate several areas along the
salinity gradient in each of the major tributaries, since it is known that
salinity is one of the main factors controlling species distribution through-
out the Bay (Stevenson and Confer, 1978). Segments of shoreline along both
the major rivers and creeks were surveyed by use of a small boat and samples
obtained with a rake or collected by hand. The procedure involved slowly
moving along the littoral zone and simply observing the water for signs of
SAV presence or repeatedly raking the bottom in the most turbid areas for
evidence of SAV. A 0.5 m periscope was used on occasion to view below the
water surface. In those creek systems surveyed, an attempt was made to
go upstream as far as possible into the head of the numerous marsh guts
which are common throughout these areas. Personnel from the VIMS' Wetlands
Department assisted in this survey while simultaneously conducting their
state marsh inventory.
Locations of SAV were recorded^on USGS topographic quadrangles (7.5
minute series; 1:24,000 scale). Areas of SAV were designated as mapping
units. A mapping unit consisted of one of the following: a large bed;
a narrow or intermittent fringe along a shoreline; a pocket area at the
head of a marsh gut. For each mapping unit, species presence and relative
abundance of each species were recorded. General observations on habitat
were also made including the associated marsh vegetation. Representative
samples were collected and returned to the laboratory for further species
identification according to Gray's Manual of Botony, 8th Edition. Voucher
specimens were pressed and mounted for herbarium storage.
To display species associations between mapping units, Dice's (Boesch,
1977) index of co-occurrence was calculated. Cluster analysis was performed
using group average sorting (Lance and Williams, 1967) with the COMPAH
Program (Boesch, 1977) on an IBM 370-15 computer. Dendograms were then
constructed to distinguish significant groupings of SAV species.
TRANSECT ANALYSIS
In addition to the above field survey, the distribution of species
within selected, large SAV beds in the mesohaline and polyhaline zone were
investigated by an intensive, transect sampling program. Six areas along
both the eastern and western shore of the lower Chesapeake Bay were selected
for analysis after review of both current and historical aerial photography
and surface information data. These areas (western shore: Plum Tree Island,
Browns Bay in the Mobjack Bay, Ware Neck Point, Mouth of the East River and
Horn Harbor; eastern shore: Vaucluse Shores at the mouth of Hungar's Creek)
were representative of the dense areas of SAV presently found throughout
the lower Bay. The site selected on the eastern shore was the same site
selected for intensive study by the Functional Ecology, and Biology and
Propagation Programs also funded by the EPA, Chesapeake Bay Program
20
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The objective of the intensive transect analysis was to provide a more
detailed examination of the species composition and plant community zones
within these representative beds. In addition, other general relationships
between species present, sediment type, depth, distance from shore,
relative abundance, and relative importance of the species were investigated.
A line intercept method (Schmid, 1965; Lind and Cottam, 1969; Davis
and Brinson, 1976) was chosen for conducting the vegetational analysis because
of its ease in locating sampling points, accuracy in measuring distances,
and sensitivity to measuring changes along a gradient such as depth. In
this method, a 100 m line, marked at 2 m intervals, was run offshore from
a permanent reference stake, along a fixed compass bearing to a second stake,
Additional stakes and line in 100 m segments continued along this bearing
to the offshore limits of vegetation.
A diver equipped with a 0.1 m^ ring and depth pole graduated to mm,
visually observed the SAV along the transect. A 0.1 m2 sample size was
chosen because the limited number of species expected, the high density of
the vegetation (greater than 1000 shoots per m^) and poor visibility due
to high turbidity (Secchi disk <1 m). At 10 m intervals the sampling ring
was placed on the bottom and the following data were recorded on polysty-
rene tablets: time, distance from shoreline, depth (cm), species presence
and percent cover of each species, bottom type, and general observations
noted over the last 10 m interval. Initially, two divers made independent
observations of the percent cover to test the adequacy of the sampling
and provide quality assurance for the data collected,. These initial tests
established that one diver could accurately describe the species present
and species abundance.
A reference tidal staff graduated in mm was placed along the transect
at a bottom where the depth was estimated to be greater than mean low
water (MLW). Time and water depth (cm) were recorded at this reference
stake at 15 minute intervals throughout the duration of the transect sampling.
The tidal staff data served to relate data collected during the transect
analysis with tidal data available from NOAA tidal charts. From this, the
relationship between species presence and abundance could be related to
true mean low water.
Salinity samples were taken and temperature measurements made at each
transect. Temperature was recorded with a bulb thermometer and salinity
samples analyzed with an induction salinometer located at the VIMS laboratory.
Percent cover was used as an indicator of abundance since it allowed
a large number of observations to be made while processing of standing crop
samples could be held to a minimum. Because of the few species present and
the ability of percent cover estimates to delineate community zones (Wikum
and Shanholtzer, 1978), it was felt that adequate information would be
provided by this method. To determine correlation between percent cover
and standing crop, a limited number of samples were taken at 50 m intervals
along the Vaucluse Shores transects. After percent cover estimates were
made of each of these 0.1 m^ quadrats, the entire 0.1 m^ quadrat including
above ground and below ground portions of the SAV's were removed from the
21
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bottom and placed In a fine mesh bag. The bag was then washed to remove
most of the sediment, and the contents transferred to a plastic bag for
later analysis.
Harvested samples were divided into species and separated into above
ground plant material, and roots and rhizomes. The plants were then counted,
dried to a constant weight and weighed to the nearest 0.01 g. Product
moment correlations (Sokal and Rohlf, 1969) were calculated between percent
cover; number of shoots per 0.1 m'- ; and above ground, below ground and
Lotal weights of each species. Comparisons were also made with the more
complete seasonal standing crop data obtained at the Vaucluse Shores site
for other projects.
Relative importance of the various plant species within each transect
was illustrated by calculating importance values (Wikum and Shanholtzer,
1978) utilizing the percent cover data. Means, ranges and maximum depths
of occurrence were also investigated.
Description of vegetation-environmental relationships along the
transects was illustrated by the use of profile diagrams. Each profile
diagram presents the bottom topography from shore to the offshore limits
of plant growth in either a right-left of left-right direction depending
upon the appropriate orientation of the SAV beds on a topographic sheet.
Percent cover information for each 10 meter observation was presented by
use of bargraph so that one can simultaneously visualize species cover,
community composition and vegetation-topographic relationships1.
Bottom elevations relative to mean low wacer (MLW) were calculated
along each transect by a method of simultaneous comparisons similar to that
method described by Boon and Lynch (1972) for the Elizabeth River, Virginia.
Basically, the method is a leveling procedure in which the intervening
water surface between two tidal stations during the same phase of the tide
is assumed to act as a level plane for the transfer to tidal information.
In this study, the VIMS tidal station located on the York River, served
as a reference for each comparison. For each transect profile, MLW on the
adjacent reference staff was calculated by the following based on Figure 5:
Given: h, h2, ho
If: hj = h3
Then: MLW = h2 - hj
It is assumed that the sea's surface will not always act as a level
plane and therefore increasing the number of comparisons made during
periods of similar tidal phases (i.e. high water on low water) would increase
the precision of the calculation of MLW for each transect reference staff.
Boon and Lynch (1972) found, however, that as long as the compared tidal
stations are subject to the same tidal influences, variations in the calculat-
ed MLW heights would be minor. They found that results corrected to within
0.1 foot could be obtained when a full month of data was used.
22
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TRANSECT VIMS TIDAL
REFERENCE STAFF STATION
BOTTOM
SLACK WATER SURFACE
MLW PLANE
Figure 5. Relationship between transect reference staff and VIMS tidal
station.
23
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In this study, only one or two slack water periods were available for
comparisons. Therefore, error in calculations of MLW could be greater than
0.1 ft. However, since the transect stations involved in this study are
in close proximity to the VIMS station, have slack water periods within
one hour of the VIMS station and have approximately the same tidal ranges
(NOS Survey, 1978), it is likely, based on Boon and Lynch's work, that the
MLW determinations are accurate to within 0.2 ft. or 0.6 diameter (dm).
For comparisons between transects therefore, all elevations are rounded to
whole dm.
Bottom elevations relative to calculated MLW were determined along
each transect by comparisons with the adjacent reference staff as follows:
C B A
Transect point Transect point Difference between
elevation relative water depth at tidal height on staff
to MLW time t at time t and MLW
on staff
Refer to Figure 6.
To determine "A" in the above equation the portion of the tidal curve
covering time on site at each transect was plotted using the observed 15
minute reference staff tidal heights. An instantaneous tidal height for
time (t) was then interpolated from this graph (Figure 7).
For example, if at time t the measured water depth at a sampling point
330 m from shore along a transect was 2.0 m and at the same time t the
tidal height at the adjacent reference stake was calculated to be 1.0 m
above MLW, then the bottom would lie,
-2.0m + 1.0m = -1.0m
or, 1.0 m below MLW at the 330 m sampling point.
ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL SAV DISTRIBUTION
Six areas were examined for changes in the distribution of SAV over
approximately the last 40 years (Figure 4): two locations, Guinea Neck
and Mumt'ort Island, the York River; one in Mob jack Bay at the mouth of the
East River; one in the Rappahannock River; one on the western shore in Fleets
Bay; and one along the eastern shore of the Bay just north of Hungar's Creek.
These areas were selected after review of many historical photographs covering
Virginia's entire Bay shoreline as well as the lower portions of each of the
major tributaries since 1937. They are thought to be representative areas
demonstrating the changes in the Zostera marina and Ruppia maritima dominat-
ed SAV beds found throughout this region.
Aerial photographs available through the U.S. Geological Survey, U.S.
Department of Agriculture-Soil Conservation Service, National Oceanic and At-
mospheric Administration and the Virginia Department of Highways were
24
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TRANSECT
REFERENCE STAFF
TRANSECT
SAV BED
X= LOCATION AT
TIME t
/ / / / SHORELINE / / / /
TRANSECT
REFERENCE STAFF
TRANSECT
STAFF
TIDE HEIGHT AT
TIME t
CALCULATED MLW
Figure 6. Relationship between transect reference staff and transect
staff.
25
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W I
. UJ 2
s 2 £
«i"
^ UJ <
< U. Q
QC UJ —
I- o: H-
MLW
t
TIME
Figure 7. Determination of instantaneous tidal height from calculated
tidal curve at time t.
26
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reviewed for scale, completeness of coverage, time of year and apparent
water clarity. Because the original photographic overflights were made
for purposes other than the mapping of submerged aquatic vegetation, many
of the conditions which provide for optimum coverage of SAV were not met.
However, good coverage at approximately ten year intervals was obtained.
For the last decade more frequent intervals of coverage were available,
Orth and Gordon (1975) had documented the demise of Zojstera dominated SAV
beds in several areas of Virginia since 1971. Utilizing the aerial photography
obtained for that study, each of the selected areas, except for the Eastern
shore site, were mapped for SAV coverage in 1974. In addition, the current
1978 coverage is used.
Information from historical photographs documenting the distribution of
SAV within each of the six selected areas was transferred to base maps in
a manner similar to that employed in mapping the current 22.9 x 22.9 cm
(9x9 inch), 1978, coverage as previously described. Outlines of the SAV
beds were rectified, scale adjusted, and transferred onto United States
Geological Survey, 7.5 minute series paper topographic quadrangles using
a Bausch and Lomb Zoom Transfer Scope (Model ZT-4H). Estimates of percent
cover within each seagrass bed were made using the Crown Density Scale
(Figure 2). Bed density was classed as very sparce (<10%), sparce (10-40%),
moderate (40-70%) or dense (70-100%). If there were significant differences
in density within a bed, these different zones of coverage were also outlined.
Areas of SAV coverage within each historical site were measured using a
Numonic Graphics Calculator. Areas of each of the four density classifica-
tions within each historical site were determined, as well as total area
covered by all four categories.
27
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SECTION 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
AERIAL MAPPING
The aerial photography and the subsequent mapping process resulted in
the delineation of the significant areas of submerged aquatic vegetation
present in Virginia's tidal waters during 1978. These SAV areas are out-
lined on 31 mylar USGS topographic quadrangles (7.5 minute series) supplied
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in partial fulfillment of this
grant. Of these 31 topographic maps 27 depict mesohaline and polyhaline
areas along both the eastern and western shores of the Bay and, as such,
are dominated almost exclusively by a species mixture of Zostera marina
and Ruppia maritima (Figure 8). The remaining four topographic sheets
(Mathias Point, Dahlgren, Colonial Beach, Norge) display significant areas
of oligohaline and freshwater species found along several sections of the
tidal rivers (Figure 8). These 31 sheets do not represent all of Virginia's
shoreline but only those where SAV was observed. Reproductions of all these
quadrangles are included in Appendix B of this report.
To assist in the visual interpretation of the areas of SAV, zones of
similar percent cover within the beds are outlined on each quadrangle with
the appropriate numbers indicative of one of the four density classes
(1=<10%, 2=10-40%, 3=40-79%, 4=70=100%). Although it is evident to the authors
that this technique is subjective, it is believed that this does contribute
significantly to the results of the study. Many of the Zostera and Ruppia
dominated beds found throughout the lower Bay are characterized by large
areas of sparse coverage (e.g. Parksley, Fleets Bay quadrangles). If these
areas were presented as simple outlines, there would be a gross over-
estimation of the amount of SAV present. In addition, without a density
classification scheme those areas which contain very dense stands of sub-
merged grasses (e.g. Franktown, Achilles quadrangles) could not be identi-
fied as being of high environmental value.
DISTRIBUTION OF SAV IN MESOHALINE AND POLYHALINE AREAS
Discussion of the distribution and abundance of SAV in the mesohaline
and polyhaline regions of the lower Bay where SAV were found is presented
below based on major sections of the Bay rather than individual topo-
graphic quadrangles (e.g. the York River rather than Clay Bank, Achilles,
Yorktown, Poquoson West quadrangles). The total areas of SAV as displayed
on each quadrangle are presented in Table 2. In addition, because of the
availability of other data from previous surveys (Orth and Gordon, 1975) ,
28
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Figure 8. Locations of topographic quadrangles in Virginia where SAV
was observed and mapped in 1978.
29
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TABLE 2. TOTAL AREAS OF SAV BY TOPOGRAPHIC QUADRANGLES
FOR 1971, 1974, 1978
Quadrangle
Area (m^) by Year
1971
1974
1978
Hampton
Poquoson East
Poquoson West
Yorktown
Clay Bank
Achilles
New Point Comfort
Ware Neck
Mathews
Wilton
Deltaville
Irvington
Fleets Bay
Reedville
Elliotts Creek
Townsend
Cape Charles
Cheriton
Franktown
Jamesville
Nandua Creek
Pungoteague
Tangier Island
Chesconessex
Parksley
Ewe 11
Great Fox Island
Mathias Point
Dahlgren
Colonial Beach South
Norge
2,958,100
9,456,000
4,892,900*
^combined with
1,134,100
7,450,900
7,254,200
1,535,600
3,401,100
2,960,700
5,432,900
1,133,300
3,064,600
4,355,900
3,681,700*
Poquoson West
120,800
7,417,200
9,662,600
1,890,000
608,900
79,000
230,000
0
1,975,600
1.
2
2,182,500
5,166,300
2,104,400
19,200
0
8,152,700
10,688,900
2,560,000
638,800
104,300
594,300
53,100
,332,300
,304,000
579,400
427,000
3,214,200
852,000
,045,000
,986,900
,848,600
4,016,300
4,050,600
4,825,400
803,500
14,479,000
3,979,000
201,900
83,200
619,500
464,766
5.
3;
1.
Note: — indicates the area within Quadrangle was not mapped.
30
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similar to the 1978 mapping, the distribution of SAV in 1971 and 1974 are
presented for comparison.
Imagery was obtained from a series of mapping overflights that were
made along the vegetated portions of Virginia's shoreline during mid-
summer (July or August) and early winter (November or December). All
outlines and densities of SAV noted on the topographic quadrangles reflect
maximum plant coverage which occurred normally on the summer imagery.
Comparisons between the summer and winter imagery are discussed later.
Lower James River (Newport News South, Hampton quadrangles)
The Lower James River contained only a small area of SAV, primarily
along the north shore of Hampton Roads. These areas were dominated by
Zostera and are similar in coverage to those observed in 1971 and 1974.
However, the density was much less than that found in the previous two
surveys. The remainder of the lower James River was virtually devoid of
any SAV. Presumably, this is due to the high turbidity levels found in
that region.
James River to the York River (Hampton, Poquoson East and Poquoson West
quadrangles)
This region contained significant concentrations of Zostera and Ruppia
in both the Back and Poquoson Rivers and adjacent to Plum Tree Island. Back
River had moderate to dense beds behind Northend Point. There were also
moderately dense beds adjacent to Plum Tree Island at the mouth of the
river. The reduction of SAV in the Northwest Branch of Back River accounted
for most of the areal decrease reflected in Table 2. The upstream portions
of the River were virtually devoid of SAV. Most probably a combination of
high turbidity and a very shoal, silty littoral zone prevents their
establishment.
The area adjacent to Plum Tree Island on the Poquoson East quadrangle
contained moderate to dense beds of Zostera and Ruppia. Combined with the
SAV beds found on the Poquoson Flats, this region has some of the largest
grass areas in the lower Bay. Based on the areal computation for 1978,
1974 and 1971, there was however less grass in 1978 than observed in 1971
and 1974 (Table 2).
The Poquoson River and Crab Neck Areas contained sparse to moderately
dense beds of Zostera and Ruppia, but compared with SAV areas denoted in
1971 and 1974 there had been a reduction in some areas off both Fish Neck
and Crab Neck, adjacent to the Goodwin Islands and in the Thorofare. As
with Back River, the upstream portions of the Poquoson River were devoid
of SAV.
York River (Poquoson West, Achilles, Clay Bank and Yorktown quadrangles)
The distribution of SAV in the York River, an area where SAV has been
intensively studied in previous years (March, 1970, 1973, 1976; Orth, 1971
1973, 1975, a,b, 1977 a,b; Orth and Gordon, 1975), was significantly
31
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different from that observed in 1971 and 197A. In 1971 extensive beds of
Zostera and Ruppia were present on the south shore of the river from the
Goodwin Islands to Yorktown. On the north shore, SAV beds were found
from the Guinea Marshes as far upriver as Clay Bank, 30 km from the mouth
of the York River. By 1974, only small scattered beds were evident on the
south shore, while on the north shore, significant reductions in SAV density
were observed from the Guinea Marshes to Gloucester Point with almost
complete loss from Gloucester Point to Clay Bank. At that time, only a few
scattered beds were observed around the Mumfort Islands and Blundering
Point. In 1978, no significant vegetation was observed from Gloucester
Point to Clay Bank and vegetation was still sparse from Gloucester Point to
the Guinea Marshes when compared with 1971 distributions. Vegetation along
Goodwin Neck and Goodwin Islands also showed reductions from 1974 to 1978.
Mobjack Bay (Achilles, Ware Neck, Mathews and New Point Comfort quadrangles)
The Mobjack Bay contained significant stands of SAV along most of its
shoreline and the lower portions of its four tributaries: the Severn, Ware,
North and East Rivers. The heads of these rivers were generally devoid of
any SAV. Three areas along this region were investigated with intensive
transects: the mouth of Browns Bay, Ware Neck Point and the mouth of East
River. They contained dense beds of Ruppia and Zostera at all locations.
In addition, the surface information obtained from many other locations
indicated that the beds of SAV mapped throughout this region are predomi-
nately a mixture of Zostera and Ruppia. Interestingly, the Mobjack Bay
area reflects the least alterations with respect to the distribution of
SAV, of any other area observed in the lower Bay. Beds of SAV have main-
tained somewhat similar distributional limits since 1971.
Horn Harbor Area (New Point Comfort and Mathews quadrangles)
This area, extending from New Point Comfort north to the Milford Haven
area, had moderate to dense beds adjacent to Horn Harbor and Potato Neck.
Intensive transects conducted off Potato Neck revealed significant
concentrations of Ruppia and Zostera. As in the Mobjack Bay, the distri-
bution of SAV in this area has remained relatively stable since 1971.
Piankatank River Area (Mathews, Deltaville and Wilton quadrangles)
Very little SAV was observed in 1978 in the lower Piankatank River and
Milford Haven area. Patchy SAV was observed adjacent to Gwynn Island,
Stone Point Neck and at the mouths of Healy and Cobbs Creek. These areas
had abundant grass in 1971 but had declined to very low levels by 1974.
Much of the SAV observed in 1974 around Milford Haven and Stingray Point was
gone in 1978. Zostera and Ruppia dominate the grass beds observed in this
region. The head of the Piankatank contained small amounts of several
oligohaline species (Nitella, Ceratophyllum, etc.) which could not be
adequately observed from the air and therefore were not mapped onto the
topographic quadrangles.
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Rappahannock River (Deltaville, Wilton, Irvington, Urbanna quadrangles)
There were virtually no significant SAV beds in the lower Rappahannock
River in 1978. Only very sparse beds were found on the north shore from
Windmill Point to Towles Point. In 1971 there were extensive beds of
Zostera and Ruppia on both shores of this river which had declined to
very low levels by 1974.
Fleets Bay to Potomac River (Fleets Bay and Reedville quadrangles)
Sparse to moderately dense beds of SAV were found along this entire
;;rea. Most beds were small and very sparse and confined to the lower
portions of the creeks arid the Bay proper. The Fleets Bay area contained
much more grass in 1974, but it was the only area in this region that was
surveyed at that time. Many of the beds observed then declined in area or
decreased in density by 1978. No SAV were observed within the lower portion
of the Potomac River.
Northampton County (Townsend, Elliotts Creek, Cape Charles,__Cheritem,
Franktown and Jamesville_ tlH§!lEaJl£:L£s. ^
SAV were observed along most of the Bayside shoreline of this eastern
.'hare county from Old Plantation Creek north to Occohannock Creek. The
uresence of SAV was generally associated wltn offshore bar formations, such
Ihat the, areas with the most well defined and protective bars had the
densest beds of SAV.
For much of this region the SAV consisted of large areas of quite
sparse coverage. Vegetation in these sparse areas consisted primarily of
Zostera. However, in two sections, dense beds of SAV were observed. The
first area was adjacent to Cape Charles where moderate to dense beds were
found adjacent to Savage Neck and the town of Cape Charles. These beds
consisted of a mixture of Zostera and Ruppia. The second area was at the
mouth of Hungar's and Mattawoman Creeks. Here exists a large bed along the
south end of Church Neck off Vaucluse Shores that has been intensively
studied by this and other projects. It has formed to the east of a. large
offshore bar and represented one of tba heaviest conreitrations of SAV
along Virginia's eastern Bay shore. The vegetation is primarily Zostera
and Ruppia.
The large tidal creeks which are found in this region contain
vegetation only in their most downstream sections. Here Ruppia predominates
with lesser amounts of Zostera scattered throughout. As with Hungars
Greek, many of these beds have, formed on old oyster b?rs which have not
been maintained since the infestation of oyster pathogens in the 1950*s.
Accomack County (Jamesville, Nandua Creek, Pungoteague, __CIiescones_se_x,
Parksley, Great Fox Island, Ewell, Tangier Island quadrangles)
Large areas of relatively sparse SAV were observed along much of the
Bayside shoreline of this county from Occohannock Creek north to Beasley
Bay just south of Saxis. Most of these beds of SAV were vegetated with
33
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Zostera and Ruppia. They were adjacent to the large brackish marshes found
between the numerous tidal creeks. All SAV were observed within the lower
portions of these creeks.
One of the densest concentrations of Zostera and Ruppia in the lower
Chesapeake Bay occurred in the area to the east of Tangier Island and Smith
Island. The very large, shoal area found here provides a very suitable
habitat for SAV growth. The other Bay islands, especially the Fox Islands
were also observed to have significant beds of SAV.
In summary, the distribution of SAV in the mesohaline and polyhaline
regions of the lower Chesapeake Bay in 1978 was limited to the mouths of
the major rivers and the east and west shorelines of the Bay. This is in
contrast to 1971 when both the York and Rappahannock Rivers had extensive
beds of SAV extending 20-40 km upstream of their mouths. Although the
James River has not in recent history had extensive beds of SAV, those that
did occur in 1971 had declined significantly by 1978. In addition the
Potomac River, which was not formally studied in 1971 or 1974, is shown
through historical photographs to have had significant beds of SAV in 1971
as far upstream as the mouth of the Coan River.
By comparing historical information, historical photography and
anecdotal information, it has become apparent that since 1971 there has
been a significant decline in total area vegetated with SAV. From 1971 to
1974, it appears that the submerged grasses (dominated by Zostera and
Ruppia) had moved out of the rivers and decreased in abundance along the
northern portions of Virginia's Chesapeake Bay shoreline (Figure 9). This
dramatic decline from 1971 to 1974 has continued between 1974 and 1978. In
addition, Dr. Richard Anderson (personal communications) of the American
University reports finding little Zostera in Maryland waters in 1978.
This decline in distribution and abundance of SAV leaves Virginia with
only a few areas of large, dense beds of submerged vegetation. These
include: 1. along the western shore of the Bay between Back River and the
York River, 2. the shoreline of Mobjack Bay, 3. shoal areas east of
Tangier Island and other Bay islands, and 4. large beds formed behind
protective sandbars along the Bay's eastern shore.
DISTRIBUTION OF SAV IN SELECTED OLIGOHALINE AND FRESHWATER AREAS
Observations made during the June, 1978, preliminary overflights of
Virginia's tidal shoreline indicated an apparent lack of submerged vegeta-
tion within the oligohaline and freshwater portions of the major river
systems. These include the Potomac, Rappahannock, Piankatank, York
(including the Mattaponi and Pamunkey), and James Rivers as well as their
major tributaries. The only areas where aerial reconnaissance revealed
any SAV beds were: from Mattox Creek to Mathias Neck Point along the
Potomac River, and along the Chickahominy River, a tributary of the James.
These two areas were thus selected for aerial mapping. The observed
SAV beds along with the species information are included in Appendix B on the
34
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Figure 9. Direction of recent changes in the distribution of Zostera
dominated SAV beds.
35
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Norge, Mathias Point, Dahlgren and Colonial Beach North Topographic sheets.
More complete surface information obtained for these two areas is provided
in Appendix C including species present, relative abundance and general
observations. Sampling locations are illustrated in Figure 4.
Potomac River (Mathias Point, Dahlgren, Colonial Beach quadrangles)
The submerged aquatic vegetation found in the region between Mattox
Creek and Mathias Neck Point consists primarily of intermittent beds
fringing along the shorelines of the major creeks (<2 m depth at MLW).
The most common species appears to be Zannichellia palustris which is found
in numerous small (<5 m wide) patches along the creek shoreline. Other
species including Potomogeton crispus, Potomogeton perfoliatus, Vallisneria
americana dominate in much larger beds (5-20 m wide); Zannichellia is also
present but only as an occasional species. It is these larger beds that are
evident from the air. Salinities in this region vary considerably but are
usually in the range of 5-10 ppt (Lear, unpublished data; Lippson et al.,
1979).
Myriophyllum spicatum is a pest species which was common throughout
this region from 1959 to the early 1970's (Beaven, 1960; Haven, 1961;
Steenis, 1970). Moore (personal observation) reported dense stands of
milfoil completely across the portions of Mattox Creek in the summer of
1975. During the summer of 1978, however, Myriophyllum was virtually
absent from the major tidal creeks between the Yeocomico River and Upper
Machodoc Creek, along the Virginia side of the Potomac. Scattered plants
were observed at the head of Lower Machodoc Creek. Dense stands were
observed only across the most upstream marsh channels of Rosier Creek. In
both cases the Myriophyllum was mixed with Zannichellia in locations where
it did not form extremely dense mats. There was no Myriophyllum found at
all in Mattox Creek, while the Yeocomico River, which was reported to have
had dense stands of milfoil in 1974 (Mercer, personal observation), was
found to be devoid of all submerged aquatic vegetation. Also, no submerged
aquatics were found in Bonum, Jackson, and Gardner Creeks located immediately
north of the Yeocomico River.
Chickahominy River (Norge quadrangle)
The Chickahominy River, a major tributary of the James River, is the
second low salinity area where submerged aquatics were observed from the
air. For this study only the submerged aquatics occurring on the Norge
topographic sheet have been mapped although they do occur throughout the
river system. More complete surface information is provided in Appendix C
and sampling locations are illustrated in Figure 4. The Chickahominy River
is primarily an oligohaline to freshwater, tidal river (mean tidal range of
0.7 m, NOS Tide Table) in which salinities rarely exceed 0.5°/oo (VIMS,
Data Base). Water samples taken from Shipyard, Yarmouth and Gordon's Creeks
on August 24, 1978, during high tide, revealed salinities of between 0.15
and 0.45°/oo. Like many of the rivers and creeks in the vicinity, the
Chickahominy is a drowned, Pleistocene river valley that has been filled to
about present sea level with layers of sands, clays, and muck (organic
matter). It is a relatively undisturbed, natural area characterized by over
36
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2,500 hectares of tidal marsh. Over thirty species of emergent vegetation
have been recorded for this area (Moore, 1979) with the most dominant
being Peltandra virginica, Pontederia cordata, Zizania aquatica, Nuphar
luteum and Bidens sp. Extensive areas of swamp forest dominated by Taxodium
distichum are also found in bands between the open marsh and the surrounding
hardwood-pine forest.
The Chickahominy region is a confirmed nursery and spawning area for
many species of anadromous fishes, particularly those of the genus Alosa
(Van Engle and Joseph, 1968). It also supports many resident species such
as Micropterus salmoides (large mouth black bass) (Raney, 1950). In
addition, it is a valuable habitat for many species of waterfowl; particu-
larly during the winter months when the area is inhabited by many species of
migrating ducks and geese.
The submerged aquatics found here occur primarily as narrow (<2 meters)
fringing beds located along the edge of the marsh channels at water depths
of less than 1 meter. Dominant species include Ceratophyllum demersum and
Najas minor but commonly associated species are Nitella sp., Elodea
canadensis, Najas guadalupensis, with Najas flexilis recorded at one
location. In many cases, because of the presence of the emergent Peltandra,
Pontederia and especially Nuphar species, the submerged aquatics are not
readily seen from the air. Ceratophyllum was commonly observed from the
surface growing under areas of Nuphar. This combined with heavy encrust-
ation by epiphytes and silts and the likewise dark background of the bottom
makes it difficult to distinguish the Ceratophyllum from an airplane even
at low tide.
In addition to the fringing and embayed SAV beds found along the
Chickahominy River, numerous small pockets of submerged vegetation were
discovered at the most upstream portions of the marsh guts. Not every
gut contained vegetation, however, those that did generally contained both
Najas minor and Ceratophyllum demersum and in the deepest sections
Vallisneria americana. In most cases these small pockets of submerged
grasses were not evident from the air.
It appears then, that from our experience in these two oligohaline
and freshwater portion of Virginia's tidal rivers, aerial reconnaissance
combined with aerial photography is useful in mapping the larger beds of
SAV. However from altitudes (1500-3700 meters) suitable for mapping large
areas of shoreline SAV, those located in the many smaller fringing beds,
as well as small pocket areas, are not readily detectable.
COMPARISON OF IMAGERY OBTAINED ON SUMMER AND WINTER OVERFLIGHTS
Significant reductions in the amount of SAV were evident on the winter
imagery when compared to the summer imagery and confirmed with surface
ground truth information. This reduction was due to the normal die-back of
the submerged vegetation and, although not uniform, reductions were
observed in nearly every SAV bed. For comparison, two areas (Back River
and Tangier Island) were selected as representative of seasonal changes
37
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observed in the imagery throughout the lower Bay. These areas reflect the
range of reduction that might be expected at any one site for 1978. From
year to year, however, this change in coverage will vary for each individual
bed. During some winters virtually no SAV can be observed from the air
(Orth, 1976).
Figure 10 presents the SAV bed outlines and the appropriate percent
cover estimates for the areas surrounding Tangier Island during July and
December 1978 (Tangier Island quadrangle). Tangier Island is one of the
areas that experienced an exceptional reduction in SAV as evidenced by
the aerial imagery. This amounted to nearly an 83% decrease in coverage
(Table 3).
TABLE 3. SUMMER-WINTER COMPARISONS OF AREAL COVERAGE BY SAV AT TANGIER
ISLAND AND BACK RIVER
Area (meter'O
Date Location <10% 10-40% 40-70% 70-100% Total
7-7-78 Tangier Island 124,500 374,820 1,763,538 18,612 2,281,470
12-6-78 Tangier Island 33,522 139,908 225,22 0 398,652
6-29-78 Back River 212,388 159,180 262,194 1,456,410 2,090,172
12-7-78 Back River 0 0 841,362 420,480 1,261,842
Back River (see Hampton quadrangle) experienced somewhat less of a
dieback from summer to winter. Figure 11 presents the SAV bed outlines
and percent cover zones for an area at the mouth of Back River. This
seasonal change amounted to a 40% reduction in observable SAV coverage
(Table 3).
In both of the areas described above (Tangier Island and Back River),
the beds of SAV are dominated by a mixture of both Zostera and Ruppia.
Evidence from these as well as many other areas around the lower Bay
indicate that both species decline in a similar fashion during the fall and
winter. Figure 12 illustrates seasonal changes in both standing crop
(biomass) and number of shoots of Zostera at Vaucluse Shores on the Bayside
of Virginia's eastern shore. As evidenced from Figure 12, maximum standing
crop occurs in the June-July period, with minimum coverage in the September-
October period. Zostera has two growth phases, the strongest one occurring
in the spring and a second, less intense one, in the fall after die-back
in late summer. Though similar data are not available at present for
Ruppia, personal observations at several sites in the lower Bay indicate
that this species has a peak standing crop in August with minimum standing
crop during the winter months. Therefore, attributing declines in coverage
to one or the other of the species are probably not valid.
38
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CD
4J
a
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It was evident that the areas throughout the Bay which were observed
to have the sparcest coverage during the summer (i.e. <40%) were not able
to be observed during the winter. The reduction in standing copy of those
sparce areas during the late summer - early fall period resulted in
virtually no SAV on the imagery even though there may have been a minimal
standing stock present. It is possible, though, that had the photography
been flown at a much lower altitude some SAV would have been detected.
Those areas with the highest concentrations of SAV during the early
summer had the best chance of being observed during the winter. For
example, Tangier Island which contained a large proportion of very sparce
(<10%) and sparce (10-40%) SAV areas, showed very little SAV during the
winter. Back River, in contrast, contained a large proportion of very
dense (70-100%) areas. These areas were still observed during the December
overflight, although in generally a less dense status.
HISTORICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SAV
A review of the past photography for five of the six historical areas
revealed significant alterations in the distribution and abundance of SAV.
Only the eastern shore site did not show significant alterations. The
earliest photographs obtained for each area are 1937 or 1938 and, thus
presented is a 40 year period on which to base changes in SAV in the lower
Bay. We attempted to secure photographs taken during the early summer
period when the SAV would be at their maximum abundance. However in most
cases, available photographs were for the late spring and fall periods and,
therefore, may not reflect the maximum occurrence of SAV for that year.
Photographs for years not presented here were carefully reviewed for SAV
distribution, so as to present the most accurate picture of the changes of
SAV beds.
All areas used in the historical analysis currently contain Zostera.
It was noted that in the 1937 photographs there was less grass than in the
1950fs and 1960's. This period of the 1930's coincided with the well-
documented massive decline of Zostera on the East Coast of the U.S. and
the west coast of Europe (Rasmussen 1973, 1977). During the early 1930's,
eelgrass in many bays and rivers in coastal areas declined drastically.
At first, this decline was thought to be caused by a parasite, Labyrinthula
spp. (Renn, 1934, 1935). Later hypothesis suggested that environmental
factors such as temperature may have been involved (Rasmussen, 1973).
Whatever factor(s) caused this major decline, Zostera beds in the Chesapeake
Bay were similarly impacted.
Parrott Islands (Table 4; Fig. 13)
ft *)
In 1937, there were 1.89 x 10 m of SAV adjacent to the Parrott
Islands with the grass being sparce to moderate in all areas. By 1951,
the SAV occupied area increased to 3.55 x 10" m with 67% of that area
having moderate to dense grass. SAV had expanded outward from land and
less dense areas became more dense. In 1960, 3.53 x 10 m^ were occupied
by SAV with 70% being moderate to dense vegetation. However, by 1968,
42
-------
TABLE 4. AREAS OF SAV AT HISTORICAL MAPPING SITES, 1937-1978
Parrott Islands
Date
1937
1951
1960
1968
1974
1978
<10%
0
394,797
411,306
92,064
0
0
10-40%
297,024
778,146
631,566
1,354,110
2922
22,872
Area m2
40-70%
1,598,268
1,222,410
547,014
1,205,628
7710
0
70-100%
0
1,158,384
1,947,372
124,374
0
0
Total
1,895,292
3,553,737
3,537,258
2,776,176
10,632
22,872
Fleets Bay
Date
1937
1953
1961
1969
1974
1978
<10%
0
1,488,258
1,572,612
1,436,403
105,714
167,688
10-40%
1,385,424
597,354
1,330,140
1,938,660
1,624,884
528,918
0
Area m
40-70%
548,076
591,018
1,643,892
1,592,170
1,325,040
33,592
70-100%
744,864
284,232
884,280
270,372
0
0
Total
2,678,364
2,960,862
5,430,924
5,237,605
3,055,638
730,198
Mumfort Islands
Date
1937
1953
1960
1971
1974
1978
<10%
0
151,728
0
0
0
0
10-40%
495,060
699,252
258,210
685,536
127,488
0
Area m^
40-70%
397,368
106,356
1,880,238
1,088,976
23,826
0
(continued)
43
70-100%
23,832
1,461,846
0
0
0
0
Total
916,260
2,419,182
2,138,448
1,774,512
151,314
0
-------
TABLE 4 (continued)
Jenkins Neck
Date
1937
1953
1960
1971
1974
1978
<10%
0
426,480
140,448
0
93,972
132,714
10-40%
1,180,200
647,112
794,178
278,586
303,804
299,760
Area m^
40-70%
820,612
717,180
639,012
2,350,380
1,599,228
671,616
70-100%
32,520
1,811,832
2,067,948
33,792
93,912
162,408
Total
2,033,332
3,602,604
3,641,586
2,662,758
2,090,916
1,266,498
East River
Date
1937
1953
1963
1971
1974
1978
<10%
1,024,010
591,840
31,032
0
509,730
47,860
10-40%
809,770
1,158,490
1,916,530
2,007,460
348,820
515,000
Area m^
40-70%
1,357,790
1,394,740
2,340,480
2,253,080
1,955,130
1,864,850
70-100%
85,530
1,742,050
0
96,620
0
0
Total
3,277,100
4,887,120
4,288,042
4,307,160
2,813,680
2,427,710
Vaucluse Shores
Date
1938
1949
1955
1966
1972
1978
<10%
0
506,706
1,938,258
452,940
286,554
187,728
10-40%
1,120,284
1,771,884
0
402,324
364,764
507,054
Area m^
40-70%
1,451,392
1,715,556
528,996
2,534,178
2,515,740
80,872
70-100%
1,480,128
0
1,238,124
604,176
391,770
2,036,526
Total
4,051,804
3,994,146
3,705,378
3,993,618
3,558,828
2,812,180
44
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SAV area was reduced to 2.77 x 10° m2 with 92% of that area in sparce to
moderate densities. The SAV density data for 1968 was acquired in
November and may not indicate an actual decline of SAV but rather a winter
density minimum. It is assumed then that the difference in area described
here between 1960 and 1968 may not be real but actually an artifact of the
time the imagery was taken. In 1974 the changes were drastic; only 10,000 m2
of SAV remained, a 99% reduction. Even though these data were derived from
November photographs, an aerial reconnaissance of this river, and this area
in particular in 1974 revealed no SAV even during the early summer months.
The abundance of SAV has remained low in this area through 1978. Presently,
SAV around Parrott Island is at the lowest density observed in the last
40 years.
Fleets Bay (Table 4; Fig. 14)
In 1937, there were 2.67 x 10 m2 of SAV in the Fleets Bay area with
50% of this area having only sparce coverage. No significant changes
occurred by 1953 when 2.96 x 10& m2 were recorded. This data was from a
fall period and densities for both years may be low because of low SAY
standing crop at that time of year. By 1961, there were 5.43 x 10° m of
SAV with 46% in the moderate to dense category. It can be seen from Figure
14 that SAV was increasing Bayward from land. Total area in 1969 was
5.23 x 106 m2. However, the fall data for 1974 indicated only 3.05 x 106
m , a decrease of 40%. The largest decrease has occurred during the last
four years with only 0.73 x 10 m of SAV being left, most in the very
sparce to sparce category.
Mumfort Islands (Table 4; Fig. 15)
The SAV's in the shallow area around the Mumfort Islands have been
studied more intensively than other SAV areas in the lower Bay. Most of
these studies, however, have been concerned with the animal community
associated with the SAV's (see references by Marsh and Orth). In 1937
this area had less than 0.91 x 106 m2 of SAV with 70% of this area being
sparce to moderate in density. By 1953, this increased to 2.41 x 10^ m2
with 60% of the area being dense beds. In 1960, 2.13 x 106 m2 was
estimated but by 1971, this had been reduced to 1.77 x 10 m2. The greatest
reduction of SAV occurred between 1971 and 1974. By 1974, the total area
occupied by SAV was only 1.51 x 10^ m2. There was a further decline after
this year so that by 1978, there was no SAV in this area.
Jenkins Neck (Table 4; Fig. 16)
The area adjacent to Jenkins Neck in 1937 contained 2.03 x 106 m2 of
SAV in 1937. Despite this large area, however, 98% was classified as
sparce or moderate in density. By 1953, as in the other areas discussed
above, the grass beds increased in size by expanding out and increasing
in density. During this period, 3.60 x 106 m2 contained SAV with 50%
classified as dense beds. In 1960, 3.64 x 106 m2 of SAV was estimated with
57% classified as dense. This area diminished to 2.66 x 10b m^ by 1971 and
declined to 2.19 x 10^ m2 by 1974 with further reductions in succeeding
years. By 1978, there were only 1.26 x 106 m2 of SAV remaining.
48
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< 10% 10-40% 40-70% 70-100%
Figure 16. Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at Jenkins
Neck in the York River, 1937-1978.
55
-------
< 10% 10-40% «-70% 70-IO07.
76° 25'
Figure 16. (Continued)
56
-------
-------
East River (Table 4; Fig. 17)
The area at the mouth of the East River encompasses a broad, shoal
area. In 1937, 3.27 x 106 m2 of this area contained SAV (most likely
Ruppia and Zostera) with 55% of this area in very sparce to sparce
vegetation. By 1953, this area had increased to 4.88 x 106 m2 of SAV with
65% in moderate to dense stands of grass. The total area of SAV was
similar in 1963, but there were no dense areas. The fact that the
photograph was taken during the fall period probably accounted for most of
the area being classified as sparce to moderate. In 1971, the total area
was 4.30 x 10" m2, similar to the data for 1953 and 1963. 35% reduction
of SAV occurred between 1971 and 1974, with the greatest decrease occurring
along the outer limits of the beds where Zostera normally dominates.
There was a 13% reduction between 1974 and 1978, when only 2.42 x
/- o * •*
10° nr were covered with SAV. The outer edges of this area which previously
had sparce coverage of SAV in 1978 were devoid of any grass although the
habitat was suitable for SAV growth, as indicated by previous data for
1953 to 1971.
Vaucluse Shores (Table 4; Fig. 18)
This area represents the only anomalous pattern to the SAV distribution.
Despite the supposedly large scale reductions in Zostera around the Bay
region in the early 1930's, there apparently were still extensive grass
beds in this region (assumed to be Zostera and Ruppia). In 1938, it is
estimated that a total of 4.05 x 106 m2 of SAV existed. This total area
of coverage remained approximately the same in 1955, 1966 and 1972 despite
some changes in the distribution pattern. The 1978 data showed the total
area declined to 2.81 x 10^ m2. Thus over the last 40 years, this area has
fluctuated the least in total grass bed area of all studied. It is
significant to note that the grass bed alterations in this area are
apparently due to the dynamics of the sandbars and sandpits found in this
region. Both features have migrated and altered the contour of the
shallows. Accompanying the changes in bar and spit formation were changes
in grass bed distribution. As the bars and spits moved and caused certain
habitats to become unsuitable for SAV survival, other areas become
suitable with migration of SAV into them. Evidence for this can be found
in cores taken in the sand bar region adjacent to grass beds. Cores taken
to depths of 1 meter contained remnants of eelgrass rhizomes at the core
bottom. These rhizome fragments were found closer to the surface as the
existing grass bed was approached. In the north section of the bed the
area was found to be shoaling. The habitat therefore has become more
suitable for Ruppia than Zostera. General observations of sections of this
northern part made between 1976 and 1978 indicated changes in species
composition from Zostera to Ruppia. In addition sediment cores taken in
these predominately Ruppia areas indicate dense Zostera rhizomes in close
proximity to the sediment surface, confirming that Zostera was recently
present. Thus, it appears, that geological processes such as sediment
transport are very important determinants in SAV distribution here.
58
-------
< 10% 10-40% 40-70% ?0-IOO%
Figure 17. Changes in the distribution and abundance of SAV at the East
River, Mobjack Bay, 1937-1978.
59
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The distribution of SAV (Ruppia and Zostera) in the last 40 years, as
delineated by changes in grass bed coverage in the six specific areas,
showed a very reduced coverage in the late 1930's. This coincided with
the period when Zostera had also declined along the entire East Coast of
the U.S. The only anomalous area was the eastern shore site which showed a
more extensive grass area than the other sites. The period between 1937 and
1953 showed a dramatic increase in area coverage as well as increase in
density of the beds. The increase continued through the 1960's and in some
areas until 1971-1972. Slight decreases were observed during this period
at Mumfort Island, Jenkins Neck and Parrott Island. The largest decrease
of SAV in all areas occurred between 1971 and 1974 and more specifically
in 1973 (Orth and Gordon, 1975; Orth, 1976). Both area coverage and the
density of the beds showed a significant decrease. This decrease continued
through 1978 when the distribution and abundance of SAV in each area was
the smallest observed in the last 40 years.
In reviewing the past and present data, the distribution and abundance
of SAV in these selected areas in 1978 is very similar to the data collected
of 1937-1938. This suggests that, perhaps, whatever factor or factors
caused the major decline of the grass beds in the 1930's may also have been
operating in the 1970's. The possible cause(s) for the recent decline of
SAV in the Chesapeake Bay are numerous and have been thoroughly discussed
by Stevenson and Confer (1978).
TRANSECT ANALYSIS OF MESOHALINE AND POLYHALINE SAV BEDS
Data obtained from the seventeen transects located at six areas around
the lower Bay are found in Appendix D. Location of each transect is
displayed on the appropriate topographic quadrangle in Appendix B. The
sampling areas, number of transects and topographic quadrangles are as
follows:
Area No. Transects Quadrangles
Plum Tree Island 2 Poquoson East
Brown's Bay 2 Achilles
Ware Neck 2 Achilles
East River 2 New Point Comfort
Horn Harbor 2 New Point Comfort
Vaucluse Shores 7 Franktown
The large, mesohaline SAV beds sampled by the seventeen transects were
found to be composed almost exclusively of a mixture of Zostera marina
and Ruppia maritima. At only one location, Vaucluse Shores, transect F,
was another species, Zannichellia palustris, recorded. Comparisons of
individual transects showed a consistent pattern of distinct zonation.
Ruppia occupied the near shore, shallow areas and graded to mixed zones of
Ruppia and Zostera. At greater depths, Ruppia ended and Zostera was the
only species found. The size of each of these three zones varied greatly
and in some areas was not present at all. The primary controlling factor
for the configuration of this zonation appeared to be depth and, therefore,
65
-------
bottom topography, although site exposure also seemed Important. Salinity
did not appear to be much of a factor within each bed but could be important
in comparing different sites. Temperature and turbidity were probably also
important but were controlled to a great extent by water depth. At
different sites however, variations in turbidity probably controlled the
depths to which the two species will occur. In the least turbid areas both
species grew to the greatest depths.
Comparisons of the percent cover data with the biomass measurements
made at the Vaucluse Shores site indicated significant positive correlations.
Table 5 presents the data obtained at approximately 50 m intervals along
the Vaucluse Shores transects. Because of difficulties associated with
determining numbers of shoots of Ruppia as well as separating the above
ground and below ground portions of the plants, only total biomass is
presented for that species. Product-moment correlations calculated between
the percent cover estimates and the number of shoots of Zostera, total
weight of Zostera, above ground and below ground weights of Zostera, and
total weights of Ruppia per 0.1 m2 are presented in Table 6. All are
significant at the 1% level, indicating that percent cover provided a
good estimation of the amount of vegetation present.
2 2
Means of 741 shoots per m and 78.2 g per m were obtained for those
samples containing Zostera during this August, 1978, transect sampling.
These numbers compared favorably with the more complete seasonal data
obtained at the Vaucluse Shores site for another project (Figure 12).
No data were available for comparison with the Ruppia which had a mean total
weight of 43.2 g per nr. It appears that the data collected at Vaucluse
Shores during the transects reflects the maximum seasonal standing stock
of Zostera. Although the observations made at the other transect sites
around the lower Bay followed the Vaucluse Shores work by several weeks to
a month, there seemed to be no great deterioration of the beds during that
time. It is therefore assumed that the data obtained during all the
transects reflect near maximum standing stock conditions.
Percent cover data for the seven Vaucluse Shores transects were summed
and the means and standard deviation of the means determined for each
1 dm depth interval. This provided a composite picture of how the two
submerged species varied with depth throughout the entire bed (Figure 19).
The standard deviations were quite large since all observations at each
depth were averaged, including those with no SAV present. The distinct
zonation with depth was evident for the two species, with Ruppia dominating
the shallow depths and Zostera most abundant at the greater depths. Ruppia
was found to exhibit a significant percent cover (>5%) from +1 to -9 dm
mean low water (MLW). Maximum percent cover for Ruppia occurred at -3 dm
depths. Zostera on the other hand occurred at -10 dm MLW. Both exhibited
a greater range of depths with Ruppia recorded from +2 to -10 dm MLW and
Zostera from +1 to -13 dm MLW. In general Ruppia was found dominant in
the shallow more protected area of +1 to -4 dm MLW with Ruppia and Zostera
co-occurring at intermediate depths of -4 to -8 dm MLW. Zostera dominated
at the greater depths of -8 to -12 dm and in the most exposed sites. These
ranges of depths were characteristic of the other transected areas around
the lower Bay, although the specific depth ranges varied from site to site.
66
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68
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TABLE 6. PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION (r) OF PERCENT COVER OF ZOSTERA AND
RUPPIA VERSUS NUMBER OF SHOOTS, TOTAL ABOVEGROUND, AND ROOT
AND RHIZOME WEIGHTS FOR VAUCLUSE SHORES TRANSECTS, AUGUST 1978
Comparison of percent cover r N
vs.
Zostera Number of shoots/0.Im2 0.93** 35
Zostera Total wt.0.1m2 0.93** 35
Zostera Aboveground wt./0.1m2 0.92** 35
Zostera Roots-Rhizomes wt./O.lm2 0.87** 35
Ruppia Total wt.0.1m2 0.85** 34
**significant at 0.01 level.
69
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Bottom types found at the 17 transects varied from silts to coarse
sands with fine sand being the most common designation. Another bottom
type observed in a few SAV beds around the lower Bay was of relic oyster
bars covered with a fine layer of silty sand. Variations in bottom types
did not appear to be directly related to speciation within the beds as
both species were associated with each of the sediment types.
Table 7 presents the relative importance values calculated for each
species at each of the transects. At the Vaucluse Shores area Ruppia
appears to be the most important species across 6 of the 7 transects. As
illustrated in Figure 19 this seemed to be depth related. At the other
transects located along the western shore of the Bay both Zostera and
Ruppia varied in importance, with Zostera most important in some areas and
Ruppia in others. These data indicated that although Zostera has long been
recognized as the dominant species in Virginia's mesohaline and polyhaline
SAV beds, the importance of Ruppia should not be underestimated.
Plum Tree Island (Poquoson East quadrangle)
Figure 20 presents profile diagrams of the two transects conducted at
the Plum Tree Island area. The SAV in this region was characterized by
a nearly continuous fringing bed beginning just below MLW and extenditig
offshore for varying widths, depending upon bottom topography. The
adjacent shoreline was one of extensive brackish marshes composed largely
of Spartina alterniflora, Spartina patens and Juncus roemerianus.
Salinities recorded here were between 20 to 21 ppt and water temperatures
approximately 24°C.
The width of the SAV bed at transect A was quite narrow (<150 m) with
the bottom rapidly increasing in depth from the marsh shoreline outward.
Apparently as a result of both this relatively steep shore and the high
wave energy at this site only Zostera was present. This seems reasonable
considering the extensive root and rhizomes system of Zostera and less
extensive below ground system of Ruppia.
In contrast to the narrowness and steep slope of transect A, transect
B located several kilometers to the north was characterized by an extremely
broad zone of submerged vegetation. From the adjacent marsh shoreline,
the bottom dropped to a wide trough vegetated by a sparse coverage of
Ruppia. Although this portion of the transect had water depths suitable
for the growth of Zostera. none was found. Zostera did occur in a narrow
zone as the bottom gradually began to rise to a broad offshore bar. At
the shallowest portions of the bar (<1 dm MLW) dense stands of Ruppia were
mixed with intermittent areas of open sand. Continuing offshore, the
depths again increased, and on this slope Ruppia was gradually replaced by
Zostera. At approximately -8 dm MLW the vegetation ceased, although the
bottom continued to increase in depth.
The effect of site exposure was evident along the offshore slope of
transect B. At 800 m to 1000 m from shore, with elevations of -2 dm to -5
dm, large patches of exposed roots and rhizomes of Zostera were observed.
The weather preceeding the sampling of this transect had consisted of
71
-------
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73
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(
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several days of strong northeast winds. It appeared that nearly 10 cm
of sand had been removed from portions of the bed. The Zostera looked
quite healthy, however, and was being held in place by the remaining
uncovered root system. The only Ruppia observed were those plants whose
roots were entangled in the Zostera rhizome network. Apparently Ruppia may
have difficulty remaining established at exposed locations. A return
several weeks later to the same location indicated that fine sands were
gradually filling in these exposed areas.
The importance values calculated for both species (Table 1) indicated
Ruppia slightly more important than Zostera across transect B. This was
primarily due to the greater relative frequency of occurrence of the Ruppia
since both species had nearly equal relative cover.
Brown's Bay (Achilles quadrangle)
The Brown's Bay area is a large embayment located along a section of
Mobjack Bay. It was characterized by very dense beds of Zostera and
Ruppia nearly 400 m in width which were adjacent to extensive marshes
dominated by Spartina alterniflora. Salinity values for samples taken
while onsite averaged 18 ppt and water temperatures, 29°C. At low slack
water one sunny afternoon, however, a temperature of 36°C was recorded in a
nearshore Ruppia dominated zone.
Figure 21 presents two profile diagrams illustrating the transects
conducted across this area. Transect A, the more northern of the two,
was found to be composed predominately of Zostera. The importance value
of this species was calculated to be 160.4 while that of Ruppia was 39.6
(Table 7). Of the two transects, transect A appeared to be the more exposed
It was adjacent to a creek channel and subject to strong winds from the
north and northeast. Ruppia was never very abundant here and was not
observed below -7.5 dm depth. Zostera on the other hand, continued
offshore to a depth of -11.0 dm where the bottom continued to increase in
depth but no further vegetation was observed. Throughout this transect
the bottom was composed of fine sands with some eroded peat adjacent to
the marsh shoreline.
Transect B was somewhat the more sheltered of the two in this area with
a slope less than that of transect A. Ruppia was observed to be much more
abundant here with an importance value of 90.0 versus 109.1 for Zostera
(Table 7). For the most part this transect was characterized by dense
mixed stands of the two grasses. Ruppia was observed last at a depth of
-7.0 dm while Zostera continued to a depth of nearly -10.0 dm along a
bottom composed of fine sand.
Ware Neck (Achilles quadrangle)
Two transects were conducted on either side of Ware Neck Point (Figure
22), a narrow peninsula located at the confluence of the Ware and North
Rivers. Dense beds of Zostera and Ruppia are found along the lower shore-
lines of both of these rivers where they connect at Ware Neck Point.
75
-------
BROWNS BAY
TRANSECT A
20O 300
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
% COVER
10 I m'|
300 300
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
Figure 21. Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Brown's Bay transects.
76
-------
WARE NECK
TRANSECT A
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
Figure 22. Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Ware Neck transects.
77
-------
Salinities were found to average 17.5 ppt and water temperatures 30.0 C.
The point itself was characterized by a series of radiating, parallel bars
separating patches of SAV. Review of historical photographs for this site
indicates that these bars have remained relatively stable over the last
20 years.
Transect A was run from a shoreline of sandy beach on the North River
side of the point in a direction approximately perpendicular to the
radiating bars. The nearshore zone of this transect was characterized by
dense stands of Ruppia which began at a depth of near MLW. The first
significant bar was observed at a distance of 54 m from shore and was
unvegetated at its highest elevation (-0.3 dm). Ruppia continued again
on the offshore side of this bar but was absent again at the shallowest
portion of the next bar located at a distance of 75 m from shore and an
elevation of -1.0 dm. Zostera was first observed in a swale between two
bars at a distance of approximately 100 m from shore. Each succeeding bar
was unvegetated along its crest although the depths varied only from
-2.0 dm to -5.0 dm, elevations suitable for the growth of both Zostera and
Ruppia. Interestingly, from 150 m outward, only the offshore slopes of
the bars were vegetated until at a distance of 290 m and depth of -9.0 dm,
the vegetation ended. Ruppia was last observed at 160 m from shore at a
depth of -6.5 dm. From then on the pattern of bar - vegetation - bar
consisted solely of Zostera. Integrating the whole transect, Ruppia was
found to have an importance value of 111.6 compared to Zostera's 88.4
(Table 7). The greater relative cover by Ruppia, especially in the near-
shore zone, was primarily responsible for this dominance.
Transect B was run offshore in similar manner to transect A but on
the Ware River side of the point. It was characterized by a series of less
distinct bars as well as a broader zone vegetated with Ruppia mixed with
Zostera. For the most part both the ridges and swales of the parallel
bars were vegetated with grasses, however, the slopes of the bars were much
less than that observed along transect A. Ruppia was found to occur off-
shore to a distance of 260 m and a maximum depth of -7.3 dm. Zostera was
observed to be growing at a maximum depth of -9.7 dm nearly 360 m from
shore. Importance values for both species were nearly identical, 102.0 for
Zostera versus 98.0 for Ruppia (Table 7). Zostera had the greater relative
frequency but Ruppia the greater relative cover.
East River (New Point Comfort quadrangle)
The East River is located along the eastern shoreline of Mobjack Bay
and was characterized by broad fringing beds of SAV located near its mouth.
Few submerged aquatics were recorded within the river system. The shore-
line of Mobjack Bay both north and south of the river also consisted of
broad areas of submerged aquatics. As with the other areas of SAV around
the Bay, Zostera and Ruppia were the only two species found.
Figure 23 presents profile diagrams of the two transects conducted
along this region. Transect A was located immediately south of the East
River along the Mobjack Bay shoreline and transect B immediately north of
78
-------
0 -25 -30
Figure 23. Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at East River transects.
79
-------
the river's mouth. Salinities at both sites averaged 18 ppt and water
temperatures varied between 29°C and 32°C.
Transect A was characterized by a nearshore zone of Ruppia grading to
an offshore zone of largely Zostera. The shoreline was one of rapidly
eroding upland with a fringing marsh of Spartina alterniflora located nearly
10 m offshore. Ruppia was not observed until nearly 30 m from this marsh
fringe at a depth of -.07 dm, the intervening bottom was composed largely
of coarse sand. Between the 70 m and 170 m distance, Ruppia predominated
with dense stands of flowering shoots. At a depth of -0.5 dm and a
distance of 175 m, Zostera rapidly increases in abundance and continued its
dominance until the end of the grass bed at approximately 300 m. Comparison
of the importance values for both species, 122.8 to 77.2 (Table 7),
indicates Ruppia to be clearly the most dominant species. It was found to
occur at both greater density and relative cover.
The outer edge of the bed consisted of sparse coverage by Zostera
along a relatively flat bottom of fine sand. The depth, approximately -7.2
dm, continued without much increase for a considerable distance offshore.
Despite the fact that this depth is suitable for growth of Zostera, none
was present. A review of the historical aerial photography (see Historical
Areas-East River) indicated that as recently as 1974 this area was indeed
vegetated with SAV. Reasons for the retreat of the edge bed are as yet
undetermined.
Transect B was run offshore from a relatively stable shoreline of
Spartina alterniflora dominated marsh. The SAV bed was characterized by a
broad, shallow (<-0.5 dm) Ruppia zone grading to a narrow, deeper (>0.5 dm)
zone with sparce coverage by Zostera. Again Ruppia had the greater
importance value, 134,8 to 65.2 for Zostera (Table 7). Although the
relative frequency of both species were similar, Ruppia with its greater
relative cover, primarily in the dense nearshore zone, was determined to
be the most dominant. A small submerged bar was evident along the outer
edge of the bed; however, it was unvegetated and no vegetation was
observed beyond the bar.
Horn Harbor (New Point Comfort quadrangle)
Figure 24 presents profile diagrams of the two transects conducted at
the Horn Harbor area off Potato Neck. The region is characterized by a
shoreline of Spartina alterniflora dominated marsh with an adjacent broad
zone of SAV. It lies along the Chesapeake Bay and, as such, is exposed to
strong winds and long fetch from the northeast, east, and southeast.
Considering this exposure, it was not unusual to find that both transects
were dominated by Zostera. At transect A Zostera was found to have
an importance value of 181.3 compared to Ruppia's 18.7 (Table 7). Transect
B was similar with values of 177.7 and 22.3 for Zostera and Ruppia
respectively (Table 7). Salinities were found to average near 18 ppt and
water temperatures of 24.5 C were recorded at both sites.
Transect A was characterized by a narrow zone of mixed grasses along
the shoreline, rapidly changing to a Zostera dominated community only 50 m
80
-------
HORN HARBOR
TRANSECT A
DISTANCE CBOM SHOPFLINE
OISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
Figure 24. Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Horn Harbor transects.
81
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from shore. Zostera was also found to be growing at quite shallow depths
here. This transect and transect B to the south were the only two areas
where Zostera was found above calculated MLW. Since these elevations were
only +0.7 dm and +0.u dm, they are within the error measurements of the
technique and may in fact not be above MLW. Zostera also appeared to end
at much shallower depths here than at any of the other transected areas.
It was generally not found below -4.5 dm at either transect, as compared,
for example, with -11.0 dm at the Ware Neck site.
On several occasions winds from the south were observed to have re-
suspended sediments in the area to such an extent that visibility in the
water was virtually zero and transect operations had to be halted. Since
southerly winds are common during the growing season here, perhaps, the
Zostera has been relegated to the shallow depths by severe light limitations
due to turbidity conditions.
Transect B, located several kilometers south of Transect A, crossed
an offshore sandbar vegetated with Spartina alterniflora and continued to
the outer edge of SAV growth. On the landward side of this bar the area
was quite protected and the sediments consisted of thick deposits of silt.
Almost no SAV was found growing here but large amounts of detached Zostera
and Ruppia was observed, apparently washed in from adjacent areas.
Scattered Ruppia was observed growing on the offshore bar at depths near
MLW. On the Bay side of the bar however, only Zostera occurred. The
bottom here consisted of fine sands and, as with transect A to the north,
the Zostera ended at a relatively shallow depth of -4.6 dm.
Vaucluse Shores (Franktown quadrangle)
The Vaucluse Shores area consisted of a large, triangular-shaped bed
of SAV which was 700 m across at its widest point and over 3500 m in
length. The system is protected from strong west and northwest winds and
long fetch of the Chesapeake Bay by a series of broad, well defined
offshore bars. Review of historical photographs (see Historical Analysis-
Vaucluse Shore) indicated that these intertidal bars were moving in a north-
south direction along the shoreline in conjunction with the movement of
large sand spits. The northern half of the bed was actually a fairly
recent phenomenon (<20 years) and was formed as one of the more northern
bars migrated south. The bars protecting the southern half of the beds,
possibly controlled by tidal movements through the Hungar's Creek inlet,
have remained relatively stable over the last 40 years.
The distribution of SAV within the Vaucluse Shores site has been
sampled with seven transects (Al,A,B,C,D,E,F). Figure 25 illustrates
the locations of these transects across the SAV bed. Zones of similar
vegetational composition as determined from the transects are also outlined.
The profiles of these transects are presented in three figures 26a, b
and c.
As with the other areas of SAV previously described around the lower
Bay, Zostera and Ruppia dominated this site. A zone of Ruppia and
Zannichellia palustris was, however, noted at transect F. As described
82
-------
Figure 25. Delineation of SAV bed, zones of similar vegetation and
position of transects at Vaucluse Shores area.
83
-------
VAUCLUSE SHORES
TRANSECT A
OlSTANCt FROM SHORELINE (i-l
VAUCLUSE SHORES
TRANSECT A!
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
Figure 26. Depth profiles and percent cover estimates for Zostera and
Ruppia at Vaucluse Shores transects.
84
-------
% COVER
(0 I m*t SO
550 500
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
VAUCLUSE SHORES
TRANSECT B
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (in)
Figure 26. (Continued)
85
-------
VAUCLUSE SHORES
TRANSECT F
1 £
L
250 2QO
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
% COVEF
(0 I m*}
450 400
300 200
DISTANCE FROM SHORELINE (m)
VAUCLUSE SHORES
TRANSECT D
Figure 26. (Continued)
86
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previously and illustrated in Figure 19, Zostera and Ruppia dominated at
different depths. Since the greater depths occur within the southern
portion of the bed, Zostera was dominant there} while in the shallow,
northern portion (above transect D), Ruppia predominated. In addition,
Ruppia was the only species recorded throughout the shallow inshore areas
located south of transect D. For most of its length Vaucluse Shores was
the only one of the six transected areas where the offshore -limits of plant
growth were not limited by increasing depths. Here the sand bars acted as
well-defined boundaries to plant growth except along the inlet channel to
the south.
Transect Al was run from a small marsh island adjacent to the tip of
the Vaucluse peninsula, south to a fixed channel marker. It illustrates
to some extent the gradation from Ruppia to Zostera found throughout the
rest of the bed, although the water depths here were not sufficient to
exclude Ruppia from any portions of the transect. As a result the
importance value for Ruppia was found to be 119.6 compared with only 80.4
for Zostera (Table 7).
Transect A crossed one of the deeper sections of the bed with a
resultant zone of largely Zostera observed from 450 m to 700 m. Aerial
imagery revealed a series of short, crescent-shaped bars located in the
Zostera zone near transect A. These were vegetated with a mixture of
Ruppia and Zostera. Portions of several of these bars were indicated at
520 m and 630 m from shore. As with the other transects, Ruppia dominated
the nearshore zone of transect A, grading next to an interim zone of Zostera
and Ruppia, before finally becoming a deeper zone of predominately Zostera.,
As the water depths shallowed on the offshore bar scattered Ruppia was
observed.
Importance values calculated for transect A revealed Zostera to be
the dominant species, 119.6 versus 80.3 for Ruppia (Table 7). Zostera
occurred with both a greater relative frequency and relative cover.
Transect A, however, was the only profile at Vaucluse Shores where this
occurred.
The profile diagram of transect B indicates the broad, inshore zone of
Ruppia which changed rapidly to an offshore zone of Zostera as depths
increased. Importance values calculated for this transect again revealed
Ruppia to be the more dominant species, 113.7 to 86.2 (Table 7).
A comparatively deep channel appeared to run in a north-south direction
just inside of the offshore bar. It was vegetated primarily by dense stands
of Zostera. The channel was observed to be quite wide at transect A,
narrowing somewhat at transect B, and shoaling and narrowing further at
transect C. Cores taken along the offshore bar between transect B and C
revealed Zostera rhizomes as deep as 1 m below the sediment surface
indicating recent bar movement into this channel and shoaling within this
part of the bed.
Transect C was dominated primarily by Ruppia. It is here that recent
87
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changes have been observed in species dominance from Zostera to Ruppia.
As mentioned above, the area was possibly in response to shoaling due to
bar movement.
Transects D, E, and F illustrate the habitat found in the northern
portion of the Vaucluse Shores site. Here Ruppia predominated as bottom
depths rarely exceeded -5.0 dm. Zannichellia was observed throughout a
small area crossed by transect F. Although it was not found in any of the
other transected areas, it is widely distributed species in the Bay and is
tolerant of mesohaline waters.
A relic bar, which used to form the northern limit of the SAV bed,
was observed to come ashore just north of transect E. It can be seen in the
profiles at approximately 360 m along transect D and 150 m along transect E.
A small channel was observed between this bar and the larger bar which now
forms the offshore limits of the bed. Zostera was observed throughout this
channel as it continued north some distance above transect E. Evidence
again indicated that this entire upper portion of the Vaucluse Shores bed
was rapidly shoaling due to the southward bar and spit migration.
Eventually, it should become too shoal even for Ruppia to exist, thus
illustrating the dynamic nature of the' SAV beds found along this eastern
shoreline of the Bay.
DISTRIBUTION OF SAV ALONG VIRGINIA'S TIDAL SHORELINE
Virginia is endowed with over 5300 km (3,300 miles) of tidal shoreline
in which much of the adjacent littoral zone has the potential for supporting
submerged aquatic vegetation. As described previously, this shoreline can
be divided into two regions. The first consists of the mesohaline and
polyhaline areas of the Chesapeake Bay and its major tributaries (James,
York, Rappahannock, Potomac, etc.). The second includes the oligohaline
and freshwater portions of the major tributaries. Historically, the
first region with its Zostera and Ruppia beds has received the greatest
attention since it has been found in this study to have SAV covering over
8400 hectares (20,750 acres) of shallow bottom in densities ranging from
very sparce (<1 per m ) to very dense (>1000 m^). These areas are of
extremely high value to the coastal ecosystem and their locations and
relative densities have been described previously in this report.
However, continuum exists between these higher salinity areas (15-25
/oo) and the tidal, freshwater areas of the major rivers. Figure 4 and
Appendix C present the data obtained from the field sampling along this
continuum. Time did not permit an exhaustive field survey of all portions
of Virginia's tidal rivers and Bay shoreline but enough data were obtained
from selected areas to provide a description of the distribution and
abundance of SAV's throughout tidal Virginia.
Species Associations
Table 8 lists a total of 20 species of submerged aquatics and their
percent occurrence at the 93 locations which contained vegetation. Since
88
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TABLE 8. PERCENT OCCURRENCE OF SAV SPECIES AT 93 STATIONS
THROUGHOUT TIDAL VIRGINIA
Species
Percent Occurrence
Zannichellia palustris
Ceratophyllum demersum
Najas minor
Vallisneria americana
Elodea canadensis
Nitella sp.
Najas quadalupensis
Zostera marina
Ruppia maritima
Potamogeton pectinatus
Callitriche verna
Potamogeton perfoliatus
Potamogeton cripus
Myriophyllum spicatum
Potamogeton filiformis
Chara
Najas flexilis
Elodea nuttallii
Potamogeton nodosus
Potamogeton foliosus
42
35
23
13
13
12
12
12
12
6
6
6
5
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
89
-------
this was not a random sampling of locations along Virginia's shoreline, it
cannot be considered truly representative of the relative abundance of each
particular species throughout Virginia. Certainly Zostera and Ruppia would
have to be considered the overwhelmingly dominant species found in Virginia's
tidal waters. They are nearly the only species found in the mesohaline and
polyhaline regions (except for Zannichellia) and form extensive beds many
thousands of m in size. However, except for an occasional area of Ruppia,
they are not found where salinities are consistently below 10 ppt (VIMS,
Data Base). For the purposes of minimizing redundance only those areas of
Zostera and Ruppia where transects were made are included in Appendix C.
All other locations where Zostera and Ruppia were found are marked on the
appropriate topographic sheets included in Appendix B. It is apparent from
this study as well as previous work (Orth, 1976, 1977b) that Zostera and
Ruppia both co-occur in varying amounts in nearly all the mesohaline and
polyhaline grass beds.
A dendogram of plant species associations calculated for the data in
Appendix B is presented in Figure 27. This inverse, hierarchical class-
ification (Boesch, 1977) shows three primary plant associations: A, B,
and C. (Table 9), with Callitriche verna associated with both B and C.
TABLE 9. ASSOCIATIONS OF SAV IN VIRGINIA'S TIDAL WATERS
Zostera marina
Ruppia maritima
Potamogeton crispus
Potamogeton perfoliatus
Potamogeton pectinatus
Vallisneria americana
Zannichellia palustris
Callitriche verna
Chara*
Myriophyllum spicatum*
Najas minor
Naj as quadalupensis
Ceratophyllum demersum
Elodea canadensis
Nitella
Callitriche verna
Potamogeton foliosus*
Najas flexilis*
Potamogeton filiformis*
Potamogeton nodosus*
Elodea nuttalli*
*Less than 5 percent occurrence.
Those species which occurred in less than five percent of the field survey
stations were omitted from the calculations. However, for completeness
they have been reintroduced to the appropriate associations based on the
locations of the few stations where they occurred and other nearby associated
submerged vegetation.
90
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co
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These three plant species assocations may best be explained by their
locations and the salinity tolerance of each of the species. Species
association A, composed of Zostera and Ruppia, is tolerant of the highest
salinities found in the Bay, and therefore, they are found dispersed along
the lower Bay shoreline as well as the lower portions of the major rivers.
It is interesting to note that although Ruppia is much more tolerant of
freshwater than Zostera (Stevenson and Confer, 1978), it is not found to
any significant extent in Virginia rivers upstream from those areas where it
co-occurs with Zostera. Kerwin (1966) reported finding Ruppia in the
Poropotank River, a tributary of the York River located approximately 14 km
above the most upstream areas where large Zostera and Ruppia beds have been
recorded (i.e. Claybank). Surveys of the Poropotank conducted for this
study revealed no Ruppia, although numerous other species (Ceratophyllum
demersum, Potamogeton pectinatus, etc.) were found (Appendix C).
Species association B listed in Table 9 includes those species common
in waters where salinities are generally 15 ppt or less. In Virginia
these species have been found to occur in varying amounts in each of the
major rivers, however, the largest beds occur along the Potomac River in the
vicinity of Upper Machodoc Creek. In the other rivers these species tend to
occur only in small pocket areas at the head of numerous marsh guts where
they are generally not distinguishable from the air.
Zanichellia is generally more widespread than any of the other species
in this group and occurs further downstream in areas of higher salinity.
Although it grows mixed with the others in the group it also occurs in
monospecific stands at the heads of many small creeks.
Vallisneria americana is found in greatest abundance along the Potomac
River, especially in the vicinity of the Rt. 301 bridge (See Mathias Point
Topographic Sheet, Appendix). It is also found in small amounts in each
of the other rivers and occurs both above and below the upper limits of
saltwater intrusion. Potamogeton perfoliatus, _P. pectinatus and ]?. crispus
are also most abundant along the Potomac River in the vicinity of Upper
Machodoc Creek. Although appropriate salinity regimes (5-10 ppt) are found
in each of the other major rivers, suitable shoal areas for the formation
of large SAV beds are not present. Callitriche verna is another species
which is found in the narrow transition zone between fresh and brackish
water. It was observed at the heads of the Poropotank River adjacent to
large areas of Taxodium distichum dominated swamps and at the heads several
creeks along both the Rappahannock and Potomac River.
Association C includes those species that are commonly found in fresh-
water areas. The decrease in the salinity tolerance from association A
to B to C has resulted in an increase in diversity, with association C
having the greatest species richness. Ceratophyllum demersum appears to be
the most common, as it occurred at 35 percent of the sampling stations.
It was generally observed floating throughout the heads of many freshwater
creeks and in many areas formed dense stands especially along the
Chickahominy River. Najas minor was also common throughout the Chickahominy
92
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River as was Najas quadalupensis. 1J. minor was also observed along the
Rappahannock River.
Species Distribution
The distribution of the 20 species of submerged vegetation found in
this study have been described to some extent in the preceeding section and
have been mapped and discussed in other sections of this report. It was
felt by the authors, however, that a summary of how these species were
distributed along Virginia's tidal rivers and Bay shoreline would be of
value. Therefore the following section describes segments of Virginia's
shoreline and the vegetation that was documented to occur or was most
likely to occur there.
The upper portion of Virginia's side of the Potomac River, from the
Chain Bridge in Washington, B.C. to Mathias Point Neck, contained few areas
of SAV. Although little field work was conducted here during this study,
aerial reconnaissance combined with previous field investigations in this
region have failed to reveal any significant areas of SAV. However, based
on the dominant marsh vegetation (i.e. Nuphar, Peltandra, Pontederia) found
in the numerous creeks along this section of the river, small areas of
Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria americana and Najas are likely to
exist, especially at the creek heads and in small marsh guts.
From Mathias Neck Point to Mattox Creek numerous areas of SAV were
present. These included species such as Zannichellia palustris, Potamogeton
crispus, Potamogeton perfoliatus and Vallisneria americana which were found
along the shoreline of the lower portions of the major creeks. Scattered
Zannichellia was common at the heads of these creeks, especially Upper
Machodoc, Rosier, Monroe and Mattox. Myriophyllum spicatum occurred in
isolated areas but had its densest concentration at the head of Rosier Creek.
From Mattox Creek downstream to Smith Point at the mouth of the Potomac
few SAV existed. The absence of SAV along this section of the Potomac may
be due to its greater degree of wave exposure which could preclude the
development of SAV. The creeks, which had suitable habitat, were also
lacking in submerged vegetation. Zannichellia and Ceratophyllum demersum
were recorded at the head of Nomini Creek while Zannichellia and Myriophyllum
were found at the head of Lower Machodoc Creek, but in neither area did they
occur in significant quantities. Other creeks downstream from these two,
such as the Yeocomico River, were generally devoid of submerged vegetation.
It would not be unusual, however, especially in early summer, to find
scattered small amounts of Zannichellia at the heads of these creeks. Large
beds of SAV located at the mouth of the Coan River were observed in
historical aerial photographs. Because of the high salinities in this
region, they were probably composed of a mixture of Zostera marina and
Ruppia maritima. They have not been present since at least 1971, however.
The section of Chesapeake Bay shoreline between Smith Point at the
mouth of the Potomac River and Windmill Point at the mouth of the
Rappahannock River was vegetated with numerous beds of Zostera and Ruppia.
These have been mapped and described previously in this report. The
93
-------
numerous creeks found along this region (e.g. the Wicomico River) contained
beds of Zostera and Ruppia along their lower portions. They may also have
contained scattered Zannichellia near their heads, although none were
observed in this study.
The Rappahannock River had a species distribution similar to that of
the Potomac River, a progression form head to mouth of associations C to
B to A (Table 9).
Although little field work was conducted in the most upstream tidal
portions of the Rappahannock (above Rt. 301 bridge), scattered Ceratophyllum
is likely to be found there associated with the areas of freshwater marsh and
tidal swamp. Ceratophyllum was observed south of the bridge at the head of
Elmwood Creek. From here downstream to Tappahannock no SAV were observed
along the Rappahannock River shoreline. Several of the larger creeks, such
as Cat Point, Mount Landing and Piscataway, did contain dense beds of SAV
at their heads. Included were such species as Ceratophyllum, Najas,
Callitriche verna and Vallisneria americana. Downstream portions of these
and other creeks in this region contained scattered Zannichellia.
Large beds of SAV at one time (prior to 1971) extended as far upstream
along the Rappahannock River shoreline as the town of Moratico. These
were vegetated with Zostera and Ruppia. However by 1978, most of this
shoreline was completely unvegetated.
Zannichellia was present along this region but only within the small
tributary creeks, especially at their heads where salinities were reduced.
Priest (personal communication) reported Zannichellia found at most of
the heads of the small creeks from this middle region of the river down-
stream to the Rappahannock River's mouth. The only Zostera and Ruppia beds
observed within the river system were sparce areas occurred near the
mouth of the Corrotoman River.
The shoreline between the Rappahannock and York Rivers contained
extensive beds of Zostera and Ruppia, especially in the region of Mobjack
Bay. These have been mapped and described previously. The Piankatank River
did contain submerged vegetation at its head in contrast to the other
creeks in this region. Here species tolerant of oligohaline and freshwater
conditions occurred. They included Nitella, Callitriche, Najas, Cera-
tophyllum and Elodea. Callitriche continued upstream from the Piankatank
into an area of tidal swamp known as Dragon Run. Nitella formed scattered
dense pockets in shallow areas just downstream from the swamp, while the
other species formed small fringes or pocket areas associated with the
adjacent marsh vegetation. In the middle reaches of the Piankatank
Zannichellia was observed (Priest, personal communication) while at the
near of the river's mouth scattered sparce beds of Zostera and Ruppia were
found.
The York River contained extensive areas of oligohaline and freshwater
marshes and swamps along its two tributaries, the Mattaponi and Pamunkey
Rivers. However, large amounts of organic matter were present in these
waters, and as such, the areas appeared unsuitable for SAV. Ceratophyllum,
94
-------
which is tolerant of low light conditions, was the most common species
found associated with these wetland areas, but it was widely scattered and
in sparse amounts.
Downstream from the confluence of the Mattaponi and Pamunkey Rivers, at
West Point, to the town of Gloucester Point, no SAV was found along the
York River shoreline. Several of the larger creeks along this section (e.g.
Ware Creek, Poropotank River) did, however, contain small, dense beds of
submerged vegetation at their heads. Here numerous low salinity and
freshwater grasses occurred including Ceratophyllum, Elodea, Nitella,
Vallisneria, etc. Downstream portions of these and other creeks, where
salinities were higher, contained Zannichellia but in sparse amounts.
From Gloucester Point and Yorktown, downstream to the mouth of the
York River, scattered beds dominated by Zostera and Ruppia occurred. The
small creeks along this section of the river were generally devoid of
vegetation in their upstream portions. The region from the mouth of the
York River south to New Point Comfort at the mouth of the James River
contained extensive beds of Zostera and Ruppia which have been mapped and
described previously in this report. The two large creeks found along
this region, the Poquoson and Back Rivers, have Zostera and Ruppia near
their mouths, but little submerged vegetation within the creeks themselves.
The upper James River contained extensive areas of tidal freshwater
marsh and swamp from the Chickahominy River upstream to its fall line in
Richmond. Although no field work was conducted in this region during this
study, aerial reconnaissance combined with previous field investigations
here have failed to reveal significant areas of SAV. It would not be
unlikely to find scattered Ceratophyllum, as well as other freshwater
species associated with these wetland areas, however.
The submerged vegetation found within a portion of the Chickahominy
River, a major tributary of the James, has been described in detail earlier
in this report. Generally, it consisted of fringe and pocket areas of
Ceratophyllum and Najas associated with the adjacent Peltandra dominated
wetlands. Although only a portion of the Chickahominy was mapped for this
report, the remainder of the river system contained a similar distribution
of SAV species.
From the Chickahominy River downstream to the mouth of the James River
few SAV species were found. Several of the creeks along this region
contained submerged vegetation in very sparse amounts. Ceratophyllum was
recorded at the head of Grays Creek, while Zannichellia was found in
Skiffes Creek, Mill Creek and the Warwick River. In no place did they occur
in more than trace amounts.
The submerged vegetation found along Virginia's eastern shore has been
mapped and described previously in this report. The SAV consisted of large
beds of very sparce to very dense areas of Ruppia and Zostera located at
the mouths of the numerous creeks found along this region, as well as
adjacent to the necks of land separating these creeks. The greatest
concentrations of SAV were found in the vicinity of Hungar's and Cherrystone
95
-------
Creeks. The Vaucluse Shore area located at Hungar's Creek has been described
in detail earlier. Other creeks further north along this shoreline contained
large areas of SAV but in much reduced densities. No SAV was observed at
the heads of these creek systems, although it would not be unlikely if
scattered Zannichellia did occur.
Along the Maryland-Virginia border little SAV occurred in the vicinity
of the Pocomoke River. Further west in the shoal areas behind several
of the Bay islands including Tangier and Great Fox, large beds of SAV were
found. Here, as along the rest of the eastern shoreline of Virginia Zostera
and Ruppia predominated.
96
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11. Kelly, Mahlon G. and Alfred Conrod. Aerial photographic studies of
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15. Lukens, J. E. Color aerial photography for aquatic vegetation surveys.
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16. McRoy, C. P. and R. J. Barsdate. Phosphate absorption in eelgrass.
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17. McRoy, C. P. and J. J. Goering. Nutrient transfer between the
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19. Marsh, G. A. A seasonal study of Zostera epibiota in the York River,
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20. Marsh, G. A. The Zostera epifaunal community in the York River,
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23. Orth, R. J. Benthic infauna of eelgrass, Zostera marina beds.
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24. Orth, R. J. Destruction of eelgrass, Zostera marina by the cownose
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25. Orth, R. J. The role of disturbance in an eelgrass, Zostera marina
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26. Orth, R. J. The demise and recovery of eelgrass, Zostera marina in
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100
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APPENDIX A
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR MISSION PLANNING AND EXECUTION FOR
OBTAINING AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY OF SAV
1. Tidal Stage - Imagery will be acquired at low tide, ±1.5 feet, as
predicted by the National Ocean Survey (NOS) tables. Record tidal stage.
2. Plant Growth - Imagery will be acquired when growth stages ensures
maximum delineation of SAV, and when phenologic stage overlap is greatest.
Record plant growth stage (dormant, juvenile, mature, etc.).
3. Sun Angle - Imagery will be acquired when surface reflection from
sun glint does not cover more than 30% of frame. Sun angle should generally
be between 20° and 40° to minimize water surface glitter. At least 60? line
overlap and 30% side lap will be used to minimize image degradation due to
sun glint. Record sun angle and time of day of imagery acquisition.
4. Turbidity - Imagery will be acquired when clarity of water ensures
complete delineation of grass beds. Record water turbidity conditions.
5. Wind - Imagery will be acquired during periods of no or low wind
(no maximums have been established). Off-shore winds are preferred over
on-shore winds if wind conditions cannot be avoided. Record wind speed and
direction.
6. Atmospherics - Imagery will be acquired during periods of no or low
haze and/or clouds below aircraft. There should be no more than scattered or
thin broken clouds, or thin overcast above aircraft, to ensure maximum SAV to
bottom contrast. Record cloud cover and haze conditions.
7. Sensor Operation - Imagery acquired will be vertical with less than
5 degrees tilt. Scale/altitude/film/focal length combination will permit
resolution and identification of one square meter area of SAV (surface).
Record film/filter/camera/focal length combination and imagery scale.
8. Plotting - Each flight line will include sufficient identifiable land
area to assure accurate plotting of grass beds. Record compass direction and
aircraft speed and altitude.
101
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APPENDIX B
TOPOGRAPHIC QUADRANGLES SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAV
(1 = <10%; 2 = 10-40%; 3=40-70%; 4 = 70-100%)
102
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>, UStTED STATES
'*<; OEPAR1 MEN f OF THE INTERIOR
X GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RBOURCEB
JAMES L CAtVEH. STATE GEOLOGIST
NEWPORT NEWS SOUTH QUADRANGLE
>• iflapptd (ditto and puWtihK) by t*i« CtolofK*1
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE (NTERIOR
GEOLOOICA1 SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER, STATE GEOLOGIST
HAMPTON QUADRANGLE
VIRGINIA
TS MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC)
Figure B-2
104
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UNTIED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
NVWOH OP MINERAL KESOUKCES
JAMES L CALVER STATE OEOUXHST
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Figure B-3
105
-------
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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
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COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
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JAHE8 L. CALVER. STATE OEOLOOWT
POOUO8ON WEST QUADRANGLE
VuratKIA
TB MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC)
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVED. STATE OEOLOOiST
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Figure B-5
107
-------
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108
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UNiTED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE iNTERIOR
OEOLOOICAL SURVEY
r*^?*'".!"
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER STATE GEOLOGIST
NEW POINT COMFORT QUADRANGLE
VIRGINIA
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Figure B-7
109
NEW POINT COMFORT, VA
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UNITED STATES
^* DEPARTMENT Of THE INTERIOR
V GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
CHvmiON OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CACVttR, STATS GEOLOGIST
WARE NECK OUADRANOLi
VIRGINIA
?s MINUTE iSRmaB fropoosAPMtC)
Figure B-8
110
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UN!T£D STATES
',-, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
V GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH Of VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER, 8TATI GEOLOGIST
MATHEW8 OUADRANOLE
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Figure B-9
111
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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
AMEB L CALVER. STATE GEOLOGIST
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Figure B-10
112
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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVE*
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER, STATE GEOLOGIST
DELTAVIL.LE QUADRANGLE
VIRGINIA
75 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC)
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Figure B-ll
113
-------
'%„
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVES, STATE QEOUMIST
[RV1NOTON QUADRANGLE
VIRGINIA
7 9 MfNUTE SERIES (TOPOGRAPHIC)
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Figure B-12
114
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
OEOLOCICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER STATE GEOLOGIST
'
FICET3 BAY QUADRANGLE
VIRQIMA
'5 MINUTE SFRIES (TOPOGRAFM C
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Figure B-13
115
-------
UNITES STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L. CALVER. STATE QEQLOOI8T
REEOV1LLE QUADRANGLE
VIRGINIA
7 9 MINUTE SERIES {TOPOORAPHiq
Figure B-14
116
-------
UMTED STATES
DEPAfftWEKT OF THE INTEWOlt
GEOLOGICAL SUftVfiY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
D1T1WON Or MINERAL ftKSOURCES
JAMES L CALVES, STATE GEOLOGIST
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTSRlOf
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Figure B-16
118
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER, STATE GEOLOGIST
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Figure B-17
119
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMBS L CALVER, STATE GEOLOGIST
CHERITON QUADRANGLE
VIRQiNIA-MORTHAMPTOM CO
7 9 MINUTE SERIES (TOPOORAPH
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Figure B-18
120
-------
LIMITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE 1KTERKJR
OEOUXHCAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
or MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMBS t- CALVEK STATE GEOLOGIST
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73 MINITTC KEftlBB (TOPOQBAPHIC)
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RR*0UItCCa
JAMES L CALVEM. STATE OTOLOGIST
-------
UNrTED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVgR STATE OEOLOQIST
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Figure B-21
123
-------
COMMONWEALTH OF VJRGiNIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CALVER STATE QEOLOG'ST
PUNGOTEAO'tiF Q.IADRANO'-E
VIRGINIA *CCQM4C- ~
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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMEhTT OF THE INTERIOR
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Figure B-22
124
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION or MINERAL RESOURCES
JAME8 L. CALVER, STATE GEOLOGIST
TANGIER ISLAND QUADRANGLE
V1ROINIA-ACCOMACK CO
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TANGIER ISLAND. VA
-------
V*
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE 1KTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCE*
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CHESCONEB8EX QUADRANGLE
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Figure B-24
126
-------
UNITED STAGES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L CAUVER, STATE GEOLOGIST
PARKStEY QUADRANGLE
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Figure B-25
127
-------
% UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
EWELL QUADRANGLE
MARYLAND-VIRGINIA
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Figure B-26
128
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
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129
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"%** DEPARTMENT OF TH8 INTERIOR
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Figure B-28
130
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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
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COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
JAMES L. CALVER STATE QBOLOOI8T
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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
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COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA
DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES
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JAMES L CALVEH, STATE GEOLOGIST
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read [aarucnons on the reverse before completing)
1 REPORT NO.
EPA 600/8-79-029/SAV1
3, RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND 3U3TITLE
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SUBMERGED AQUATIC
VEGETATION IN THE LOWER CHESAPEAKE BAY, VIRGINIA
5. REPORT DATE Dat6 Of
August 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7 AUTHOR(S)
J. Robert Ortn, Kenneth Moore, hayden Gordon
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Virginia Institute of Marine Science
Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1 BA 711
1 1. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Grant No. R805951-01
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDR6SS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chesapeake Bay Program
2083 West Street
Annapolis, Maryland 21401
13. TYRE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final 6/1/78 - 8/15/79
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The distribution and abundance of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) in the lower
Chesapeake Bay was delineated with aerial photography and surface information. All
SAV were mapped from aerial imagery onto topographic quads (1:24000) with a zoom
transfer scope. Tne SAV beds were classified into 4 density categories based on
comparison with a crown density scale.
A comparison with earlier surveys indicates that the distribution of the SAV species
found in the saline portions of tne Bay have shifted from upriver and upBay sites to
the mouths of rivers and lower Bay sites.
SAV beds in six selected areas of the lower Bay were examined for historical changes
in the distribution and abundance of SAV. Aerial photographs examined show sparse
coverage of grass in most areas in 1937 with dense coverage in the 1950's and 1960's
continuing through 1971. Significant declines were noted in the period of 1971
through 1978.
The distribution of SAV species in Virginia's tidal waters was classified into three
groupings: (1) (Zostera and Ruppia) dominates the saline portions (2) (Potamogeton,
Zannichelia) Ologohaline regions (3) (Ceratophylum, Majas) fresh water.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSAT: Field/Group
Aerial Photography,
Submerged Aquatic Vege-
tation, Estuary, Distri-
bution, Abundance,
Survey, Topographic,
Tidal Water, Density
3. wl3TRi3UTiON STATE.VlElsn
Release unlimited
19 SECURITY CLASS T'us Reports
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS , This page)
Unclassified
219
22. PRICE
SPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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INSTRUCTIONS
1. REPORT NUMBER
Insert the EPA report number as it appears on the cover of the publication.
2. LEAVE BLANK
3. RECIPIENTS ACCESSION NUMBER
Reserved for use by each report recipient.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Title should indicate cleaxly and briefly the subject coverage of the report, and be displayed prominently. Set subtitle, if used, in smaller
type or otherwise subordinate it to main title. When a report is prepared in more than one volume, repeat '.he primary title, add volume
number and include subtitle for the specific title.
5. REPORT DATE
Each report shall carry a date indicating at least month and year. Indicate the basis on which it was selected (e.g., date of issue, date of
approval, date of preparation, etc.).
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
Leave blank.
7. AUTHOR(S)
Give name(s) in conventional order (John R. Doe, J. Robert Doe, etc.). List author's affiliation if it differs from the performing organi-
zation.
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER
Insert if performing organization wishes to assign this number.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME ANO ADDRESS
Give name, street, city, state, and ZIP code. List no more than two levels of an organizational hirearchy.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER
Use the program element number under which the report was prepared. Subordinate numbers may be included in parentheses.
11. CONTRACT/G RANT NUMBE R
Insert contract or grant number under which report was prepared.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Include ZIP code.
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Indicate interim final, etc., and if applicable, dates covered.
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
Leave blank.
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Enter information not included elsewhere but useful, such as: Prepared in cooperation with, Translation of, Presented at conference of.
To be published in, Supersedes, Supplements, etc.
16. ABSTRACT
Include a brief f200 words or less) factual summary of the most significant information contained in the report. If the report contains a
significant bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
fa) DESCRIPTORS - Select from the Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms the proper authorized terms that identify the major
concept of the research and are sufficiently specific and precise to oe used as index entries for cataloging.
ib) IDENTIFIERS AND OPEN-ENDED TERMS - Use identifiers for project names, code names, equipment designators, etc. Use open-
ended terms written in descriptor form for ihose subjects for which no descriptor exists.
ic) COSATI FIELD GROUP - Field and group assignments are to be taken from the 1965 COSATI Subject Category List. Since the TW-
;omy of documents are .Tiultidtsciplinary in nature, the Primary Field/Group assignment! s) will be specific discipline, area of 'urnen
endeavor, or type of physical object. The application^) will be cross-referenced with secondary Field/Group assignments that %vul follow
the primary postmg(s).
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Denote releasabtlity co the public or limitation for reasons other than security for example "Release Unlimited." Cite any avaihomty to
the public, with address and price.
19. & 20. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
DO NOT submit classified reports to the National Technical Information service.
21. NUMBER OF PAGES
Insert the total number of pages, including this one and unnumbered pages, but exclude distribution List, if any.
22. PRICE
Insert the price set by the National Technical Information Service or '.he Government Printing Office. ii known.
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73) (Rev««e)
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