Draft
8/30/88
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
ANTIMONY(III)
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
-------
NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division, Office
of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
11
-------
-------
FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act requires the Administrator of
the Environmental Protection Agency to publish water quality criteria that
accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of
all identifiable effects on health and welfare that might be expected from the
presence of pollutants in any body of water. Pursuant to that end, this
document proposes water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic life.
These criteria do not involve consideration of effects on human health.
This document is a draft, distributed for public review and comment.
After considering all public comments and making any needed changes, EPA will
issue the criteria in final form, at which time they will replace any
previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant.
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the Clean
Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of effects. Criteria
presented in this document are such scientific assessments. If water quality
criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted by a State as water
quality standards under section 303, then they become maximum acceptable
pollutant concentrations that can be used to derive enforceable permit limits
for discharges to such waters.
Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality standards could
have the same numerical values as criteria developed under section 304.
However, in many situations States might want to adjust water quality criteria
developed under section 304 to reflect local environmental conditions before
incorporation into water quality standards. Guidance is available from EPA to
assist States in the modification of section 304(a)(l) criteria, and in the
development of water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as
part of State water quality standards that the criteria become regulatory.
Martha G. Prothro
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
iii
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
(freshwater author)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Robert S. Carr
(saltwater author)
Battelle Ocean Sciences
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
IV
-------
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword i i i
Acknowl edgments i v
Tables vi
Introduction 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 4
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 5
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants 6
Bioaccumulati on 7
Other Data 7
Unused Data 8
Summary 9
National Criteria 10
Implementation 11
References 28
-------
TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicity of Antimony( 111) to Aquatic Animals 16
2. Chronic Toxicity of Antimony( 111) to Aquatic Animals 19
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 21
4. Toxicity of Antimony( 111) to Aquatic Plants 24
5. Bioaccumulation of Antimony(lII) by Aquatic Organisms 25
6. Other Data on Effects of Antimony(111) on Aquatic Organisms 26
VI
-------
Introduction
Antimony occurs naturally in the environment. Geologic formations and
minerals such as stibnik, kermesite, senarmonite, and jamesonite are comprised
in part of antimony. Water-borne antimony can result from natural weathering
of these formations or from anthropogenic sources such as effluents of mining,
manufacturing and municipal wastes. Important uses of antimony, as antimony
oxide, include its incorporation into various materials as a flame retardant.
There are no known biological functions for antimony (Wood and Wang 1985).
Oxidation states of antimony include -3, 0, +3, and +5. According to
Callahan et al. (1979), the -t-3 state occurs under "moderately oxidizing
conditions," whereas +5 predominates in highly oxidizing environments. Field
data from Andreae et al. (1981) indicated that in natural waters antimony(V)
greatly predominates, although their samples appear to have been taken from
't
wel1-oxygenated waters. The possible effect of dissolved oxyge'h levels
approaching or entering anoxia on the ratio of Sb(111)/Sb(V) is unknown.
Callahan et al. (1979) stated that important processes influencing the
/
fate of antimony in the aquatic environment include chemical speciation
(determined by ambient oxygen levels), volatilization, and sorption to
sediments. Andreae et al. (1981) indicated that biomethy1 ation is also an
$
important process which may, in addition to the volatilization of stibine
(SbHg) from reducing sediments, act to remobilize antimony from bed
sediments. These processes and reactions are similar to those found for
certain other metals and metalloids (e.g., arsenic, selenium, mercury) and are
important in assessing environmental impacts (Wood and Wang 1985).
Precipitation of antimony, primarily as antimony trioxide (SbgOg) or
antimony oxychloride (SbOCl) can be an important factor in limiting soluble
-------
antimony levels in natural waters, and can influence the results of toxicity
, n
tests. Antimony(III) does not occur as a free ion, Sb . In solution,
antimony(111) will occur as the cation antimony oxide (SbO*) or as antimony
oxychloride (SbOCl) (Burns et al. 1981), with the former predominating.
Soluble antimony will be the total antimony occurring in solution in either of
these forms. Antimony oxychloride transforms to antimony trioxide (SbgOg)
which precipitates, becoming less available to aquatic organisms. Brooke et
al. (1986) conducted a study of the effect of' chloride enrichment on
maintaining dissolved antimony concentrations in solutions. When the chloride
concentration was low, dissolved antimony concentrations in static exposures
were reduced by as much as 76% in 96 hours. When solutions were enriched with
sodium chloride, adjusting the chloride ion concentration to 1000 mg/L, the
maximum reduction in dissolved antimony in 96 hours was 13%.
Working with antimony trioxide, soluble antimony concentrations do not
reach levels high enough to produce mortalities for most aquatic organisms,
due to the low solubility of antimony trioxide. The highest dissolved
antimony concentration attained by Brooke et al. (198&) was 3,300 Mg/L when
antimony trioxide was added to lab water at a nominal concentration of
110,000 ng/L. When antimony trichloride (SbCl3) is used, higher soluble
antimony levels can be obtained, but this is limited by the transformation of
antimony oxychloride (SbOCl) to antimony trioxide (SbgOg). Ambient
chloride levels will have a strong influence on this precipitation and in turn
will influence the maximum soluble antimony levels which can be maintained.
Because antimony trioxide will not produce dissolved antimony!111)
concentrations high enough to result in acute mortality, toxicity tests using
this compound were not used in derivation of national freshwater criteria for
-------
antimony(III). Results from studies on freshwater organisms in which antimony
trioxide was used were placed in Table 6, if otherwise acceptable. In all
cases, toxicity tests utilizing antimony trioxide produced "greater than"
values. Only acute toxicity tests utilizing antimony trichloride were
included in the freshwater section of Table 1 and used to derive freshwater
criteria. Data from acceptable tests on both antimony trichloride and
antimony trioxide were used in the derivation of the saltwater criterion.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations of antimony(111) in water
reported herein from toxicity and bioconcentration tests are expected to be
essentially equivalent to acid-soluble antimony(111) concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as antimony, not as the chemical tested.
Although antimony(V) is expected to be the predominant oxidation state at
chemical equilibrium in oxygenated alkaline water (Andreae et al. 1981), it
was assumed that when antimony(111) was introduced into stock or test
solutions, it would persist as the predominate state throughout the test, even
if no analyses specific for the antimony(111) oxidation state were performed.
A comprehension of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereinafter referred to as the Guidelines, and the
response to public comment (U.S. EPA 1985a) is necessary in order to
understand the following text, tables, and calculations. Results of such
intermediate calculations as recalculated LC50s and Species Mean Acute Values
are given to four significant figures to prevent round-off error in subsequent
calculations, not to reflect the precision of the value. The criteria
presented herein supersede the aquatic life information in the previous .
criteria document for antimony (U.S. EPA 1980a) because these criteria were
derived using improved procedures and additional information. The latest
-------
comprehensive literature search for information for this document was
conducted in July, 1986; some more recent information was also included.
Acute Toticitv to Aquatic Animals
Acceptable data on the acute toxicity of antimony(111) to freshwater
organisms are available for seven species (Table 1). Five of those species,
an annelid, amphipod, caddisfly, the rainbow trout, and the bluegill, have
reported LCSOs greater than the highest soluble antimony(111) levels
attained. These values were greater than about 26,000 ng/L (Brooke et al.
1986; Spehar 1987).
Finite LCSOs were reported by Brooke et al. (1986), Kimball (Manuscript),
and Spehar (1987) for the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas. the cladocerans
Daphni a magna and Ceriodaphnia dub i a and a hydra, Hydra oli gacti s . The minnow
and cladoceran Species Mean Acute Values were 21,800 pg/L, 18,140 Mg/L,
and 3,470 Mg/L, respectively. The hydra was considerably more sensitive to
antimony(111) with a 96-hr LC50 of 500 ng/L. Antimony(111) was more toxic
to I), magna in tests in which the organisms were fed. The 48-hr EC50 was 33%
lower when the cladoceran was fed.
Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 1) were calculated as
geometric means of the available acute values, and then Genus Mean Acute
Values (Table 3) were calculated as geometric means of the available Species
Mean Acute Values. Of the nine freshwater genera for which mean acute values
are available, the most sensitive genus, Hvdra. is at least 51 times more
sensitive than the most resistant genus. The freshwater Final Acute Value for
antimony(111) was calculated to be 175.0 Mg/L, using the procedure
described in the Guidelines. The Final Acute Value is lower than the lowest
freshwater Species Mean Acute Value.
-------
The acute toxicity of antimony(111) to saltwater animals has been
determined with seven invertebrate and four fish species (Table 1). The range
of acute values extends from 3,780 Mg/L for adult sea urchins, Hvtechi nus
pictus (Bettelle Ocean Sciences 1987) to > 1,000,000 ng/L for the
mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus (Dorfman 1977). Acute values were similar
from tests with antimony trichloride and antimony trioxide with the sheepshead
minnow, Cvprinodon variegatus. and possibly with the mysid, Mysidoosi s bahi a
(Battelle Ocean Sciences 1987; Heitmuller et al. 1981; U.S. EPA 1978). Hughes
and Boothman (1987) reported unstable antimony in flow-through tests with
Menidia beryl Iina caused by the hydrolysis of antimony trichloride to antimony
oxychloride. The acute value of 7,830 jjg/L from their test differed little
from the acute value of 21,900 ng/L from a static test with the same
species (Battelle Ocean Sciences 1987), probably because most of the mortality
in both tests occurred during the first 24 hours of the 96-hr tests.
Acute values for the seven most sensitive species, four invertebrate
species from three phyla, and three fish species, differed by only a factor of
3.4! The saltwater Final Acute Value is 2,934 Mg/L, which is lower than
the lowest saltwater Species Mean Acute Value. The saltwater Final Acute
Value is much higher than the freshwater Final Acute Value, probably because
chloride reduces the toxicity of antimony(111).
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
The available data that are usable according to the Guidelines concerning
the chronic toxicity of antimony(111) are summarized in Table 2. Kimball
(Manuscript) conducted a life-cycle test with a cladoceran, Daphni a magna. In
relatively hard water (220 mg/L as CaCOg), survival of the cladoceran was
reduced to 40% at a concentration of 4,160 ng/L, although reproduction of
-------
the survivors was equal or better than that of the controls. Survival of
cladocerans exposed to 2,490 p,g/L was equal to that of the controls. The
chronic value for this test was 3,218 ng/L and the acute-chronic ratio was
5.633. The 28-day LC50 was 4,510 ng/L.
An early life-stage chronic exposure with the fathead minnow (Pimephales
promelas) was also conducted by Kimball (Manuscript). Growth of juveniles was
the most sensitive effect, and was reduced at a concentration of
2,310 ng/L. No significant reduction in survival or growth was observed at
1,130 Mg/L. The resulting chronic value and acute-chronic ratio were
1,616 ng/L and 13.51, respectively.
The chronic toxicity of antimony(111) has been determined in two early
life-stage tests with a saltwater fish, the inland silverside, Meni di a
beryl 1ina (Hughes and Boothman 1987). Results from the tests were similar,
with concentrations .> 8,770 ng/L reducing survival, and concentrations
.> 4,030 jUg/L reducing weights of surviving fish. No effects were detected
at < 2,230 MgA- Chronic values for the two tests were 2,874 and
/
3,016 Mg/L: tne acute-chronic ratios were 2.724 and 2.596, respectively.
The available Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios are 5.633, 13.51, and
2.659 (Table 3). The geometric mean of these three values is 5.871, which is
the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio. Division of the freshwater and saltwater Final
Acute Values by 5.871 results in freshwater and saltwater Final Chronic Values
of 29.81 and 499.7 ng/L, respectively.
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Data on the effects of antimony(111) on aquatic plants are summarized in
Table 4. In a 4-day exposure with the green alga Selenastrum capricornutum,
the EC50 (chlorophyll a.) was 610 /ug/L (U.S. EPA 1978). Within the obvious
-------
limitations of this restricted data set, this might indicate a high relative
toxicity of antimony(111) to freshwater algae compared to other freshwater
organisms. Brooke et al. (1986) reported the EC50 for duckweed (Lemna mi nor)
to be greater than solubility. No effects were observed at the highest
concentration attainable, 25,200 Mg/L.
Information on the toxicity of antimony(111) to saltwater plants is
limited to one 96-hr test with the diatom, Skeletonema costatum (U.S. EPA
1978). No effect was observed on chlorophylF a. at 4,200 ng/L.
A Final Plant Value, as defined by the Guidelines, cannot be obtained
because no test has been conducted with a sensitive aquatic plant species in
which the concentration of antimony(111) was measured.
Bioaccumulation
Barrows et al. (1980) studied uptake of antimony(111) in bluegills (Table
5). In a 28-day exposure, no antimony residues significantly greater than
those of the controls were found. Antimony is known to occur in the tissues
of saltwater organisms (Hall et al. 1978; Goldberg 1972; Chattopadhyay et al.
1979; Greig and Jones 1976). No data are available on the magnitude of
bioconcentration of antimony(111) in salt water. Antimony is one of several
elements known to form methyl-metal compounds in environmental exposures which
readily bioaccumulate (Wood and Wang 1985).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue, as defined in the Guidelines, is available for antimony(111), and,
therefore, no Final Residue Value can be calculated.
-------
Other Data
Additional data concerning the lethal and sublethal effects of
antimony(111) on aquatic species are presented in Table 6. Birge (1978) and
Birge et al. (1979,1980) conducted studies on the mortality and teratogenic
effects of antimony trichloride on embryo-larval stages of rainbow trout
(Salmo gai rdneri). goldfish (Carassius auratus). and a toad (Gastrophvrne
carolinensi s). ECSOs (death and deformity) were calculated at 4 days
post-hatch. The goldfish was significantly more resistant to antimony!111),
with an EC50 of 11,300 pg/L, than the rainbow trout and the toad, which had
ECSOs of 660 and 300 Mg/L, respectively.
Also included in Table 6 are results of toxicity tests on antimony
trioxide (SboOo). Results are available for a cladoceran (Daphnia magna).
fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and a bluegill (Lepomi s macrochi rus).
Presumably due to the low solubility of this salt, all results were reported
as "greater than" values. Independent of nominal concentrations, soluble
antimony(111) levels in all these tests were probably about 4,000 ng/L
(Brooke et al. 1986), which is below the known acute sensitivity of most
freshwater fish and invertebrates to antimony(111).
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of antimony on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in North
America (e.g., Juhnke and Ludemann 1978). Results were not used when the test
procedures (e.g., Amiard 1976; Knie et al. 1983) or test material (e.g.,
Woodiwiss and Fretwell 1974) were not adequately described. Results by .
Tamulinus (1979) were not used because the dilution water was renewed only
once a week. Data were not used when antimony was a component of an effluent „
-------
mixture, or sediment (e.g., Hildebrand and Carter 1976; Jay and Muncy 1979;
Payer and Runkel 1978; Seeleye et al. 1982; Thomas et al. 1980b). Tests
conducted with too few test organisms (e.g., Tarzwell and Henderson 1960) were
not used. Results of tests conducted on antimony(V) were not used (e.g.,
Hollibaugh et al. 1980; Thomas et al. 1980a).
Reports of the concentrations of antimony in wild aquatic organisms (e.g.,
Brezina and Arnold 1977; Chassard-Bouchard and Balvay 1978; Chattopadhyay et
al. 1979; Cherry et al. 1979,1980; DeGoey et al. 1974; Friant and Koerner
1981; Friant and Sherman 1980; Goldberg 1972; Greig and Jones 1976; Hall et
al. 1978; Hert and Klusek 1985; Korda et al. 1977; Lucas et al. 1970; Moller
et al. 1983; Payer et al. 1976; Shuman et al. 1977; Smock 1983a,b; Telitchenko
et al. 1970; long et al. 1974; Uthe and Bligh 1971) were not used to calculate
bioaccumulation factors when the number of measurements of the concentration
in water was too small.
Summary
Acute toxicity of antimony(III) to several freshwater species did not
occur below the limits of solubility of antimony salts. These species
included an annelid, an amphipod, a caddisfly, and rainbow trout. Four
species were reported to be acutely sensitive to antimony!111). Mean acute
values for the fathead minnow, Daphnia magna. Ceriodaphnia dubia. and a hydra
were 21,800, 18,140, 3,470, and 500 pg/L, respectively. Chronic toxicity
of antimony(111) to Daphnia magna and the fathead minnow has been studied.
Chronic values were 3,218 and 1,616 ng/L, respectively.
The freshwater alga Selenastrum capricornutum had an EC50 of 610 ^g/L
in a 4-day exposure to antimony!111). There was no effect on a freshwater
vascular plant, Lemna minor, at the highest concentration attainable in
-------
water. Negligible uptake of antimony( 1 1 1 ) was reported in the bluegill
( Lepomi 3 macrochi rus) .
Acute toxicity tests have been conducted on ant imony( 1 1 1 ) with eleven
genera of saltwater animals and the acute values range from 3,780 MgA for
the sea urchin, Lvtechinus pictus. to > 1,000,000 pg/L for the mummichog,
Fundulus heterocl i tus. The values for the seven most sensitive genera,
including representatives of four phyla, differed by only a factor of 3.4.
The chronic values from two early life-stage tests with the inland silverside,
Meni di a beryl 1 i na . were 2,874 and 3,016 Mg/L; the acute-chronic ratios were
2.724 and 2.596, respectively. The diatom, Skeletonema costatum. was not
affected by 4,200
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of antimony( 1 1 1 )
does not exceed 30 /^g/L more than once every three years on the average
and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 88 ng/L more
than once every three years on the average.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and
Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important species
is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses should not be
affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration of antimony! 1 1 1 )
10
-------
does not exceed 500 Mg/L more than once every three years on the average
and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 1,500 ng/L more
than once every three years on the average. Because sensitive saltwater
animals appear to have a narrow range in susceptibilities to antimony!111),
this criterion will probably be as protective as intended only when the
magnitudes and/or duration of excursions are appropriately small.
Implementat i on
Because of the variety of forms of antimony(111) in ambient water and the
lack of definitive information about their relative toxicities to aquatic
species, no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for
expressing aquatic life criteria for antimony(III). Previous aquatic life
criteria for metals and metalloids (U.S. EPA 1980b) were expressed in terms of
the total recoverable measurement (U.S. EPA 1983a), but newer criteria for
metals and metalloids have been expressed in terms of the acid-soluble
measurement (U.S. EPA 1985b). Acid-soluble antimony(111) (operationally
defined as the antimony( 111) that passes through a 0.45 p.m membrane filter
after the sample has been acidified to a pH between 1.5 and 2.0 with nitric
acid) is probably the best measurement at the present for the following
reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data concerning
toxicity of antimony(III) to, and bioaccumulation of antimony(111) by,
aquatic organisms. It is expected that the results of tests used in the
derivation of the criteria would not have been substantially different if
they had been reported in terms of acid-soluble antimony(111).
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111)
will probably measure all forms of antimony(111) that are toxic to
11
-------
aquatic life or can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural
conditions. In addition, this measurement probably will not measure
several forms, such as antimony(111) that is occluded in minerals, clays,
and sand or is strongly sorbed to particulate matter, that are not toxic
and are not likely to become toxic under natural conditions.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure antimony(111) in
aqueous effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble antimony(11 I) is expected
to be applicable to effluents. If desired, dilution of effluent with
receiving water before measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111) might be
used to determine whether the receiving water can decrease the
concentration of acid-soluble antimony(111) because of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement is expected to be useful for most metals and
metalloids, thus minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are
necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration of the sample at
the time of collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6. For the measurement of total acid-soluble antimony, the only treatment
required at the time of collection is preservation by acidification to a
pH between 1.5 and 2.0, similar to that required for the total
recoverable measurement.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not substantially affect
*o
'** the result of the measurement of total acid-soluble antimony. However,
acidification might not prevent oxidation or reduction of antimony(111)
and antimony(V). Therefore, measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111)
12
-------
and/or antimony(V) might require separation or measurement at the time of
collection of the sample or special preservation to prevent conversion of
one oxidation state of antimony to the other.
8. Ambient waters have much higher buffer intensities at a pH between 1.5
and 2.0 than they do at a pH between 4 and 9 (Stumm and Morgan 1981).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not affect
the result substantially.
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the
acid-soluble antimony, the analysis for total acid-soluble antimony can
be performed using either atomic absorption spectrophotometric or
ICP-atomic emission spectrometric analysis (U.S. EPA 1983a), as with the
total recoverable measurement. It might be possible to separately
measure acid-soluble antimony(111) and acid-soluble antimony(V) using the
methods described by Andreae et al. (1981).
Expressing aquatic life criteria for antimony(111) in terms of the acid-
soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. The U.S.
EPA is considering development and approval of just such a method.
Metals and metalloids might be measured using the total recoverable method
(U.S. EPA 1983a). This would have two major impacts because this method
includes a digestion procedure. First, certain species of some metals and
metalloids cannot be measured because the total recoverable method cannot
distinguish between individual oxidation states. Second, in some cases these
criteria would be overly protective when based on the total recoverable method
because the digestion procedure might dissolve antimony that is not toxic and
cannot be converted to a toxic form under natural conditions. Because no
13
-------
measurement is known to be ideal for expressing aquatic life criteria for
antimony(III) or for measuring antimony(111) in ambient water or aqueous
effluents, measurement of acid-soluble antimony(111), acid-soluble antimony,
and total recoverable antimony in ambient water or effluent or both might be
useful. For example, there might be cause for concern when total recoverable
antimony is much above an applicable limit, even though acid-soluble
antimony(111) is below the limit.
In addition, metals and metalloids might be measured using the dissolved
method, but this would also have several impacts. First, whatever analytical
method is specified for measuring antimonyf111) in ambient surface water will
probably also be used to monitor effluents. If effluents are monitored by
measuring only the dissolved metals and metalloids, the effluents might
contain some antimony(111) that would not be measured but might dissolve, due
to dilution or change in pH or both, when the effluent is mixed with receiving
water. Second, measurement of dissolved antimony(III) requires filtration of
the sample at the time of collection. Third, the dissolved measurement is
especially inappropriate for use with such metals as aluminum that can exist
as hydroxide and carbonate precipitates in toxicity tests and in effluents.
Use of different methods for different metals and metalloids would be
unnecessarily complicated. For these reasons, it is recommended that aquatic
life criteria for antimony(111) not be expressed as dissolved antimony!111).
As discussed in the Water Quality Standards Regulation (U.S. EPA 1983b)
and the Foreword to this document, a water quality criterion for aquatic life
has regulatory impact only after it has been adopted in a state water quality
standard. Such a standard specifies a criterion for a pollutant that is
consistent with a particular designated use. With the concurrence of the U.S.
14
-------
EPA, states designate one or more uses for each body of water or segment
thereof and adopt criteria that are consistent with the use(s) (U.S. EPA
1983c,1987). In each standard a state may adopt the national criterion, if
one exists, or, if adequately justified, a site-specific criterion.
Site-specific criteria may include not only site-specific criterion
concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific, and possibly
pollutant-specific, durations of averaging periods and frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985c). The averaging periods of "one hour" and "four
days" were selected by the U.S. EPA on the basis of data concerning how
rapidly some aquatic species react to increases in the concentrations of some
pollutants, and "three years" is the Agency's best scientific judgment of the
average amount of time aquatic ecosystems should be provided between
excursions (Stephan et al. 1985; U.S. EPA 1985c). However, various species
and ecosystems react and recover at greatly differing rates. Therefore, if
adequate justification is provided, site-specific and/or pollutant-specific
concentrations, durations, and frequencies may be higher or lower than those
given in national water quality criteria for aquatic life.
Use of criteria, which have been adopted in state water quality standards,
for developing water quality-based permit limits and for designing waste
treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate wasteload allocation
model. Although dynamic models are preferred for the application of these
criteria (U.S. EPA 1985c), limited data or other considerations might require
the use of a steady-state model (U.S. EPA 1986). Guidance on mixing zones and
the design of monitoring programs is also available (U.S. EPA 1985c,1987).
15
-------
IO
CO
01
to
oo
en
to
oo
en
«
U
e
0
oo
o>
o
o
o
o
o
o
n »
— « a
a
a
to
a
a
m
CM
a o _i
in 1*1 •«•.
a
a
m
a
a
a
•w
to
m
a
o
in
a
a
in
a
PS.
m
a
in
a
a
a
3
a
.5 « •» I *"
!Z it o —4 ~
^ • , „•" 2
-1 O
-o -.. «J
k, 01 a
o • o
en
to
e o
o —
o —
e -=
e o
o —
e o
o —
e o co
o — o —
E we E js
e o
o —
>• I-
e o
o —
e o
o —
E -=
e o
o —
E -=
— o
o —
e —
•
u
(/»
3
*»
O
9
4)
.»
V)
U
0
o
_•
o
0
L.
z
^
o
3
- 3
•o o
Ml k.
« -0
e E
e 3
.
.— ^.
o
.«
Q
3
•o
O
C C
O JI
W Q
« 0
o -^
o o
O i.
o u
u.
^m
ao
tl
u
« a
u •—
o e
-o -c
o a
— . o
CJ Gk
— ^ — ^.
u u
^f ^f
CM O4
NX 0
<— ' e
C 0
o E
u
4> 0
O —
o e
o a
<-> 0
tl
o E
« 0
o e
^5 ^S
o a
U 0
3
4)
0
e
E
^_
o
•o
3
4)
a
^3 (rt
O 3
a. k.
— a
JB E
o. E
& "
f 0
— ^ — .
• .M .M
— • in
^ a
— . k. CO —
e to- • — • a>
> <••«• •«
k. O. k.
O V)
— a
>• 0
mmf ^
»— tn
vt a
— o
•o e
•o u
0 >
3 C
o -o
k. k.
O
» <3
O
A O
e E
o o
QC OO
E
• o
O k.
e o
e
— in
E «
~_>
•o o
O -^
-------
CO
at
o
o
o
0
a.
ts>
o f*»
0 00
o u
CO I/I
o ao
o 0)
O —
0 v>
o u
CO
« 00
o o>
O —
« (n
— 0
— O
0 e
•«- 0
oo
^.
o>
0 OO
o O)
o —
0 ft
. g)
—• o
« CO
o 01
o —
0 in
O —
— 0
—• u
u •>-
0 3
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
CNI
10
a
a
o
a
in
a c*
vn u •>-.
u
_J t. 3
a —
a
a
8-J
0
a _i O
en a
• w
10
»
I
•o
a
0
•a
a o
o —
a o
o —
S -=
e o
o —
8 •«=
e o
o —
e o
o —
E J=
o •-
E x
•— o
e o
E ^
>> V.
e o
o —
k.
«•«
•
o
e
.S
S
« -w
0 o
.— 0
u -e
0 •-
a o
tSt kte
o
«•
0
E
o
w
a
V)
0
O
.e
0
0
E
CL>
-
_
C7f
0
3
.w
CO
3
U
^
U
o
u
o
E
to
E
o
a
0
~j
0 3
L. •*-
3 O
O —
E ^
— o
~~" >
•o o
._
_• M
0 3
e —
e •—
0 -C
.— o
J= O
u =
L. • —
-< 0
I/I
^
- c
— . — » o
•«- 0 .—
3 V)
-o e
O 0
*— • i_
—
E >
o n
• —
-o 0
e k.
0 0
f! Z
•— o
e -a
0
> V)
3 —
~i V)
~— a
o
._ ._
v) m
*• >
3 a
«i fc o
0 —
•— o
e j>
0
> VI
3 —
•-^ «
- Q
O
.— ._
in in
9* 9
a a
o
• *•
^" S
^* 0
3 V)
•o «
O k.
^.^
O
-0 0
o -e
o. •*•
0 O
v> -w
— -. o
•^ k.
3 O
19
O V)
~^ 3
,^
"O C
O >
O> X
•— o
-= 0
0. «
E -c
•< ce
o.
E
._
«-
(A 0
C
« • 0
^L -"^» *O
.1^ 4)
U — . (rt
-*. .— 3
(rt C —
c > -^
o a c
O •— t 0
(j ,_ , f^
17
-------
0 OO
o Ol
o —
0 in
— 0
— u
0 e
»- 0
o rv.
0 co
O —
E
u
o
in »
o o
— 0 a
o *•
4) 3
o
a
CO
a
a
a
o"
a
a
00
O)
o r«.
0 ao
o —
0
a
a
a
oo
a
a
a o —i
ui LJ
u
-l u 3
a
a
a
a
a
a
^
a
u
8
M
W
» i.
e o
o —
E -=
•Z .—
e u
< ^-
O
•^1
o
^
0
*
3
•
<••!»
^
>»W >• Q >» 0 >» 0 >• t. >k^ >«W
CO G "^ c"9 CT3 CO CO CO
O— O— O— O— O— 0— O —
E .= Ex ex Ex e j= 6 j= 6 j=
.-» w — O — O — O — u — ^«- ^-^ ^-^ ^-«K ^^*
-
*
3 333 3 3 2
• . • .
(/^ OO OO OO u.
V)
0 —
^ r*
3
00 _l
k. - 0
0 ~«. a
J= 0
— . in
u — o
• •• c 9
>— 0 e
— > 0
031-
O ~i 0
a. ^_- j=
i.
0
0
- .c
0>
o in
j™ 3
O —
•— 3
i i
3 3
a u.
(0
u
0
0
. ^
OV
o in
J= 3
U ^M
— 3
i =
3 3
a i—
3
0
• a
O 0
c —
e u
•— o
«
•w — » e
000
0 — -O
jr ._ o
« c c
o. 0 —
0 > u
0 3 O
JZ — ^ >
00 ~~ O
tn
3
O
* O
O 0
c —
C l_
— o
E >
•^ • — • c
O 0 O
0 — -o
-C — O
n c c
0. 0 .—
0 > U
030
00 —— <_)
0 0
in —
k. —
0 >
M« --M. 4)
.— 0 -a
v> -~
— 0
-0 C —
c a *o
9 > —
— 3 C
C 10
— — 2
0 O
•o c
« —
0 >
9 - ^
_ -~ 0
— 0 .0
• — o
-o c —
c 0 -a
0 > —
— 3 C
C — » 0
— — * a
ii
™j
-C
01
o
u
1
O 0
— ' W
"~ 'i
II 0>
JZ
U. .
— - o —
~ S
o — =
•*» -^ oo
in c
o •=
II 0
V) k.
OO < 1 —
%
o ^
18
-------
10
o>
CO
C7>
01 O
9 O
E
.c
"o
« 3
10
O
«
o
— *
^
5,
•
s
e
<
0
*™
u
M
O
u
2
o
^
-tf
^
-^
01
^
H"
a
u .•
'• *• 1H
0 .- •**
1. • a
vO
«v
1
a
i/>
u
u
u
a.
(/»
ac
u
>—
vf
in in 1
0 PO _«
« -1 0
k at o
X i °
^E
l_
C71
^
• U
e o
o —
S -=
•^ o
^— *^
C5 U
« -~
_ •
a
fO
CM
1
a
fO
—
u
a
CM
CM
*
"9
• mf
>• U
e o
o —
B -=
tmf o
^— •••
e i.
< -^
a
CD
a
^»
i
a
1/1
i*j
c^
UJ
o»
VI
^»
UJ
h-
s
h-
.J
^
i/k
CM
(M
•«
a
»*>
9
^>
.^
>• U
e o
o —
fi J=
^B .^
e ..
•< +-
a
"i
a
^
i
a
in
a
CM
^
a
>o
0
•o
•^
^ k.
e o
o —
S -=
— u
^— •«•
e u.
•*. •»-
0
o>
o
in
i
0
>-
h.
o
*
It
t/»
—I
UJ
. _
«
u
1
«
.-
^
c
o
E
e
o
o
V.
c
o
( -
a
u
e
a
o
o
•o
a
in 0
0 U
— o
u -o
0 0
a —
(^ C.9
O
0
» e
o| o u
i .i ^
1 -i s
o
.»
e
a
0
&..
•o o
0 -C
0 a
— E
0 —
u. a.
in —
u —
o •—
—. c
e 0
0 o
"9 e
o
0
0 —
in o
o
in E
••- oo
o
U. CO
19
-------
at
in
-------
m
o
O I —
— 90
« 3
a. o
a «
v a
— « a
0—3
O * •—
a. u
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
o
a. "*
"> —
2 "
*• a.
'• "»
!••»
v> 5
« Lt
3 5
— s
o 5
» 5
a £
^» Hfc
a tn *••
2
VI
3
k.
• _
f
U
O
k.
U
o
- e
u « — in
« .- — —
u o» S
e 0 00
a a 3 o
V k^l — 0
a oo _i
o
0
4)
.••
k.
O
^
VI
3
—
•o u
^ k.
« J3
e E
e 3
* J
3
O
e
E
• *
~v
O
•^J
3
*
Q
•
0 3
— 9
t. i
E o
«K 0
«
O
«_
4)
...
Ob - t-
M *^ 9
9
. ^
>. .f
.« o
^_ VI
M a
— o
•o e
•o u
o >
^^ ^^
a e
o -o
t» w
^. ...
a
• 9
O
.a o
e E
o o
QC (A
- e
» 0
o u
e Q
e
•~ VI
s «
•o o
O ^1
« a
j= «
— E
0 •-
i~ a.
o
._
^
3
^9
O
C
- a
a o
o 6
0 0
O e
•o js
o a
— 0
<-> Q
O
e c
a .c
k. a
0 Q
> o a
• o k.
-------
o
« —
a •
0 o
a u u
.• e
vi u —,
0 i —
— 0 O
o — ac
o>
l/l
lO
a
a
a
oe
UJ
t-
«
»
^
«
VI
VI
3
»•
_
U
O
u
0
0
- .C
Ol
o in
.e 3
u —
— 3
i i
3 3
a u.
VI
3
e
o
u
.a
e
VI
3
• •«
•o e
o >
0. X
— o
.e a
a. 0
S -=
« oc
•
g
0
o
u
V)
0
u
- o
•o 0
O JZ
Q. -~
o o
VI •«
.« o
u —
f 0
in e
0 0
a. -o
._
U VI
«• 3
VI —
o
c -o
o e
O 0
u 0.
j=
i/i
0
i.
• .^
e >
u
O VI
» —
-0 0
e u
0 0
ae
o
VI
.«
VI
a
- o
•& •«
VI VI
>• >
a a
O
V*
- o
9 0
T3 C
(rt — "
U —
9 »
» i.
— a>
.- J3
V>
O
TJ .—
e T3
o •—
— e
e a>
— - a
• o
o 9
e •—
— o
6 >
•o e
0 0
9 •O
.C O
w e
a. •-
9 U
9 0
^1 >
(/) u
trt
0
o
«
Ol trt
— 0
u c
U 0)
9 i.
J= 0
.£
i>
.— 0
Wm <9
— a
a 3
0 —
a- u
VI
3
O
.—
U
o
t_
- >
•o o
.0.
^ (rt
9 3
e —
e •—
a -c
.— a
.c o
>
IS* _J
a
o
0 u
-------
— .- o
CO
o>
a.
^
(rt «
o u «
.0 « I-
O
o
3
E
x
o
o —
i e
«
—• —• o
o •*•
6
O
u. u. o
23
-------
CO
C71
0
u
4)
0)
o
o
o
u
a
to
a
a
a
a
a.
o
o
u
o
a.
o
o
in
u
UJ
a.
(SI
u
Ul
a.
o —
— (/I
M tt I
n o —^
« tr
e _i o
^ ~». cj
U Ol O
ecu
a
lO
n>
= o
o —•
E -=
o —
E x
— o
O 3
C71 U
i_ 1)
O
- o
O 9
O
e
o
24
-------
a
co
o»
e
o
«- e
n o "3
— o a
« — a
e — u
•o
o
o
o
a
o
at
O
o
•
e
o
«• u
a «
a *•
u a
in
o
M M I
n a —4
« M
« _J O
•o -». o
u 01 a
o —
S x
— o
o
o
e
o
c
o
O 3
L. I/I
•~ in
c —
o —
o
o -o
25
-------
a
CO
en
CO
en
<£>
CO
en
E
x
«
en
o
o
o
CO
a
a
a
a
a
a
o
at
u
O
a
CO
en
a
a
a
«•>
u
— o
a a •_
m a «
o -o ^
•«• o
0 —
a
\n
a
Ul
o
o
n
10
en
in
o
in
o
I
o
IA 0>
O Vt
•^ *•
o
iO
en
O MM)
— M • —4
o 0 n
- -s• «
e -a
o —
• X S -C S
._ o — u •—
e u e u. e
e o
o —
e o
o —
c o
o —
E -=
— a
o —
S x
•— O
o —
E x
— o
o —
E x
— o
o —
E x
— o
o —
£ -=
U 0 M
j: — o
-«*» tn
o
e
- o
e o
o E
u
» 0
o •—
o c
-o .c
o a
— o
<_> a
-~ 0 «
a > e
OUT)
u o w
~«. 0
BOO
o »
-a t. o
e -a E
- 6 -
0 41 0
CC ~— VI
>. -^
k. 0
-O U
E a
« 0
M
A 3
« —
— V)
—
^H
«
- E
» 0
o w
c a
c
•— (rt
s ±
•o o
o -=
« a
.= «
— E
0 —
i— a.
>- n
U 0
1,^ MB
^_ a,
E
* o
o >.
e a
e
— trt
E «
"O 0
o .e
« a
-=
•w o
o .c
« a
-C 4)
— E
0 —
u. a.
in
a
_
«
- E
* — 0
o e> u
e > a
e u
— on
E — «
•o o o
0 >- J=
4> U o
-C -Q «
•» E E
0 « —
l_ — Q.
W
O
_M
4)
E
B O
0 U
<= a
c
g D
•^ 3 =
O 1 •-
U. Q-
26
-------
«
•
•
o
u
«J
^
O
O
^
4}
<•
.^
3
O
t
*
O
i.
L.
0
(A
e
e
-H
O
b.
* o
— * o
o
> 0
u. c
o >
o a
» o
U L.
•d ^K
E vi
a> o
• — • o
a
o
e
o
e
«
o
27
-------
REFERENCES
Amiard, J.C. 1976. Experimental study of the toxicity of salts of cobalt,
antimony, strontium and silver with some crustaceans and their larvae and some
teleosts. Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Med. 43:79-95
Anderson, B.C. 1948. The apparent thresholds of toxicity to Daphni a magna for
chlorides of various metals when added to Lake Erie water. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 78:96-113.
Andreae, M.O., J.F. Asmode, P. Foster and L. Vantdack. Determination of
antimony(111), antimony(V), and methylantimony species in natural waters by
atomic absorption spectrometry with hydride generation. Anal. Chem.
53:1766-1771.
Barrows, M.E., S.R. Petrocelli and K.J. Macek. 1980. Bioconcentration and
elimination of selected water pollutants by bluegill sunfish (Leoomi s
macrochi rus) In: Dynamics, exposure and hazard assessment of toxic chemicals.
Hague, R. (Ed.). Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI. pp. 379-390.
Battelle Ocean Sciences. 1987. Acute toxicity of antimony(111) to saltwater
organisms. Report to U.S. EPA, Criteria and Standards Division, Washington,
DC.
Birge, W.J. 1978. Aquatic toxicology of trace elements of coal and fly ash.
In: Energy and environmental stress in aquatic systems. Thorp, J.H. and J.
Gibbons (Eds.). CONF-771114. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. pp. 219-240.
28
-------
Birge, W.J". , J.A. Black and A.G. Westerman. 1979. Evaluation of aquatic
pollutants using fish and amphibian eggs as bioassay organisms. In: Animals as
monitors of environmental pollutants. Nielson, S.W., G. Migaki and D.G.
Scarrelli (Eds.). National Academy of Sciences, Washington. DC. pp. 108-118.
Birge, W.J., J.A. Black, A.G. Westerman and J.E. Hudson. 1980. Aquatic
toxicity tests on inorganic elements occurring in oil shale. In: Oil shale
symposium: Sampling, analysis and quality assurance. Gale, C. (Ed.). EPA-
600/9-80-022 or PB80-221435. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield. VA. pp. 519-534.
Brezina, E.R. and M.V. Arnold. 1977. Levels of heavy metals in fishes from
selected Pennsylvania waters. Publication No. 50. Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources, Bureau of Water Quality Management, Harrisburg, PA.
Brooke, L.T., D.J. Call, C.A. Lindberg and T.P. Markee. 1986. Acute toxicity
of antimony(III) to several species of freshwater organisms. Center for Lake
Superior Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Superior, WI.
Buccafusco, R.J., S.J. Ells and G.A. LeBlanc. 1981. Acute toxicity of priority
pollutants to bluegill (Lepomis macrochi rus). Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.
26:446-452.
Burns, D.T., A. Townshend and A.H. Carter. 1981. Inorganic reaction chemistry.
Vol. 2. Reactions of the elements and their compounds. Part A. Alkali metals
to nitrogen. Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, U.K.
29
-------
Callahan,-M.A., M.W. Slimak, N.W. Gabel, I.P. May, C.F. Fowler, J.R. Freed, P.
Jennings, R.L. Durfee, F.C. Whitmore, B. Maestri, W.R. Mabey, B.R. Holt and C.
Gould. 1979. Water-related environmental fate of 129 priority pollutants. Vol.
I. EPA-440/4-79-029a. pp. 5-1 to 5-8.
Chassard-Bouchard, C. and G. Balvay. 1978. Application of electron probe x-ray
microanalysis to the detection of metal pollutants in freshwater zooplankton.
Microsc. Acta (Suppl.) 2:185-192.
Chattopadhyay, A., K.M. Ellis and K. Desilva. 1979. Determination of trace
elements in fisheries samples by instrumental neutron and photon activation
analysis. Nucl. Act. Tech. Life Sci. Proc. Int. Symp. pp. 667-683.
Cherry, D.S., R.K. Guthrie, F.F. Sherberger and S.R. Larrick. 1979. The
influence of coal ash and thermal discharges upon the distribution and
bioaccumulation of aquatic organisms. Hydrobiologia 62:257-267.
Cherry, D.S., J.H. Rodgers, Jr., R.L. Graney and J. Cairns, Jr. 1980. Dynamics
and control of the asiatic clam in the New River, Virginia. Bulletin No. 123.
Virginia Water Resources Research Center, Blacksburg, VA.
Crecelius, E.A., M.H. Bothner and R. Carpenter. 1975. Geochemistries of
arsenic, antimony, mercury, and related elements in sediments of Puget Sound.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 9:325-333.
Curtis, M.W. and C.H. Ward. 1981. Aquatic toxicity of forty industrial
chemicals: Testing in support of hazardous substance spill prevention
regulation. J. Hydrol. (Amst.) 51:359-367.
30
-------
DeGoey, J.J.M., V.P. Guinn, D.R. Young and A.J. Mearns. 1974. Neutron
activation analysis trace-element studies of Dover sole liver and marine
sediments. Nucl. Sci. Abstr. 29:189-200.
Dorfman, D. 1977. Tolerance of Fundulus heteroclitus to different metals in
salt waters. Bull. N. J. Acad. Sci. 22:21-23.
Friant, S.L. and H. Koerner. 1981. Use of an in-situ artificial substrate for
biological accumulation and monitoring of aqueous trace metals. A preliminary
field investigation. Water Res. 15:161-167.
Friant, S.L. and J.W. Sherman. 1980. The use of algae as biological
accumulators for monitoring aquatic pollutants. In: 2nd interagency workshop
on in-situ water quality sensing: Biological sensing. National Marine
Pollution Program Office, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Rockville, MD. pp. 185-206.
/
Goldberg, E.D. (Ed.). 1972. Baseline studies of pollutants in the marine
environment and research recommendations. NSF-1DOE-74-26. pp. 231-273.
Greig, R.A. and J. Jones. 1976. Nondestructive neutron activation analysis of
marine organisms collected from ocean dump sites of the middle eastern United
States. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 4:420-434.
Hall, R.A., E.G. Zook and O.M. Meaberm. 1978. National Marine Fisheries
Service survey of trace elements in the fisheries resource. NOAA Technical
Report NMFS SSRF-721.
31
-------
Heit, M. and C.S. Klusek. 1985. Trace element concentrations in the dorsal
muscle of white suckers and brown bullheads from two acidic Adirondack lakes.
Water Air Soil Pollut. 25:87-96.
Heitmuller, P.T., T.A. Hollister and P.R. Parrish. 1981. Acute toxicity of 54
industrial chemicals to sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus). Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 27:596-604.
Hildebrand, S.G. and J.A. Carter. 1976. The potential toxicity and
bioaccumulation in aquatic systems of trace elements present in aqueous coal
conversion effluents. In: Trace substances in environmental health - X.
Hemphill, D.D. (Ed.). University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. pp. 305-312.
Hollibaugh, J.T., D.L. Seibert and W.H. Thomas. I960. A comparison of the acute
toxicities of ten heavy metals to phytoplankton from Saanich Inlet, B.C.,
Canada. Estuarine Coastal Sci. 10:93-105.
Hughes, M.M. and W.S. Boothman. 1987. SAI Corp., Narragansett, RI. (Memorandum
to D.J. Hansen, U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI. April 28.)
Jay, F.B. and R.J. Muncy. 1979. Toxicity to channel catfish of wastewater from
an Iowa coal beneficiation plant. Iowa State J. Res. 54:45-50.
Juhnke, I. and D. Ludemann. 1978. Results of the investigation of 200 chemical
compounds for acute fish toxicity with the golden orfe test. Z. Wasser Abwasser
Forsch. 11:161-164.
32
-------
Kimball, G. Manuscript. The effects of lesser known metals and one organic to
fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and Daphnia magna... Available from:
Charles E. Stephan, U.S. EPA, Duluth, MN.
Knie, J., A. Halke, I. Juhnke and W. Schiller. 1983. Results of studies of
chemical substances using four biotests. Dtsch. Gewasserkd. Mitt. 27:77-79.
Korda, R.J., I.E. Henzler, P.A. Helmke, M.M. Jimenez. L.A. Haskin and E.M.
Larsen. 1977. Trace elements in samples of fish, sediment and taconite from
Lake Superior. J. Great Lakes Res. 3:148-154.
LeBlanc, G.A. 1980. Acute toxicity of priority pollutants to water flea
(Daphnia magna). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 24:684-691.
LeBlanc, G.A. and J.W. Dean. 1984. Antimony and thallium toxicity to embryos
and larvae of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 32:565-569.
Lucas, H.F., Jr., D.N. Edgington and P.J. Colby. 1970. Concentrations of trace
elements in Great Lakes fishes. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27:677-684.
Moller, H., R. Schneider and C. Schnier. 1983. Trace metal and PCB content of
mussels (Mytilus edulis) from the southwestern Baltic Sea. Int. Revue ges.
Hydrobiol. 68:633-647.
Parrish, P.R., K.S. Buxton and J.R. Gibson. 1976. Oysters (Crassostrea
H
vi rginica) exposed to a complex industrial waste survival growth and uptake cu
antimony compounds. Proc. Natl. Shellfish Assoc. pp. 104.
33
-------
Payer, H.D. and K.H. Runkel. 1978. Environmental pollutants in freshwater algae
from open-air mass cultures. Arch. Hydrobiol. 11:184-198.
Payer, H.D., K.H. Runkel, P. Schramel, E. Stengel, A. Bhumiratana and C.J.
Soeder. 1976. Environmental influences on the accumulation of lead, cadmium,
mercury, antimony, arsenic, selenium, bromine and tin in unicellular algae
cultivated in Thailand and in Germany. Chemosphere 5:413-418.
Seelye. J.G., R.J. Hesselberg and M.J. Mac. 1982. Accumulation by fish of
contaminants released from dredge and sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol.
16:459-464.
Shuman, M.S., L.A. Smock and C.L. Haynie. 1977. Metals in the water, sediments
and biota of the Haw and New Hope Rivers, North Carolina. UNC-WRRI-77-124.
Water Resources Institute, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC.
Smith, L.L., Jr., D.M. Oseid, G.L. Kimball and E.M. El-Kandelgy. 1976. Toxicity
of hydrogen sulfide to various life history stages of bluegill (Lepomi s
macrochirus). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 105:442-449.
Smock, L.A. 1983a. The influence of feeding habits on whole body metal
concentrations in aquatic insects. Freshwater Biol. 13:301-311.
Smock, L.A. 1983b. Relationships between metal concentrations and organism size
in aquatic insects. Freshwater Biol. 13:313-321.
Spehar, R.L. 1987. U.S. EPA, Duluth, MN. (Memorandum to C. Stephan, U.S. EPA,
Duluth, MN. August 27.)
34
-------
Stephan, C.E., D.I. Mount, D.J. Hansen, J.H. Gentile, G.A. Chapman and W.A.
Brungs. 1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national water quality criteria
for the protection of aquatic organisms and their uses. PB85-227049. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Stumm, W. and J.J. Morgan. 1982. Aquatic chemistry. Wiley, New York, N. Y. pp.
176-177.
Tamulinus, S.H. 1979. The effects of antimony trioxide on channel catfish
Ictalurus punctatus. Ph.D. thesis. Texas A & M University, Bryan, TX.
University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI. Order No. 80-12005.
Tarzwcll, C.M. and C. Henderson. 1960. Toxicity of less common metals. Ind.
Wastes 5:12.
Telitchenko, M.M., G.V. Tsytsarin and Y.L. Shirokova. 1970. Trace elements and
algal "bloom." Hydrobiol. J. (Engl. Transl. Gidrobiol Zh.) 6(6):l-6.
Thomas, W.H., J.T. Hollibaugh and D.L.R. Seibert. 1980a. Effects of heavy
metals on the morphology of some marine phytoplankton. Phycologia 19:202-209.
Thomas. W.H., J.T. Hollibaugh, D.L.R. Seibert and G.T. Wallace, Jr. 1980b.
Toxicity of a mixture of ten metals to phytoplankton. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
2:213-220.
Tong, S.S., W.D. Youngs, W.H. Gutenmann and D.J. Lisk. 1974. Trace metals in
Lake Cayuga lake trout (Salvelinus namavcush) in relation to age. J. Fish. Res
Board Can. 31:238-239.
35
-------
U.S. EPA. '1978. In-depth studies on health and environmental impacts of
selected water pollutants. (Table of data available from Charles E. Stephan,
U.S. EPA, Duluth, MN.)
U.S. EPA. 1980a. Ambient water quality criteria for antimony. EPA-440/5-80-020.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1980b. Water quality criteria documents. Federal Regist.
45:79318-79379. November 28.
U.S. EPA. 1983a. Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes.
EPA-600/4-79-020 (Revised March 1983). National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983b. Water quality standards regulation. Federal Regist.
48:51400-51413. November 8.
/
U.S. EPA. 1983c. Water quality standards handbook. Office of Water Regulations
and Standards, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1985a. Appendix B - Response to public comments on "Guidelines for
deriving numerical national water quality criteria for the protection of
aquatic organisms and their uses." Federal Regist. 50:30793-30795. July 29.
U.S. EPA. 1985b. Water quality criteria. Federal Regist. 50:30784-30792. July
29.
36
-------
U.S. EPA. 1985c. Technical support document for water quality-based toxics
control. EPA-440/4-85-032 or PB86-150067. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield. VA.
U.S. EPA. 1988. Chapter I - Stream design flow for steady-state modeling. In:
Book VI - Design conditions. In: Technical guidance manual for performing waste
load allocation. Office of Water, Washington, DC. August.
U.S. EPA. 1987. Permit writer's guide to water quality-based permitting for
toxic pollutants. EPA-440/4-87-005. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
Uthe, J.F. and E.G. Bligh. 1971. Preliminary survey of heavy metal
contamination of Canadian freshwater fish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28:786-788.
Walz, F. 1979. Uptake and elimination of antimony in the mussel, Mvtilus
edulis. Veroff. Inst. Meersforsch. Bremerh. 18:203-215.
Wood, J.M. and H.K. Wang. 1985. Strategies for microbial resistance to heavy
metals. In: Chemical processes in lakes. Stumm, W. (Ed.). John Wiley and Sons
Publishers, New York. pp. 81-98.
Woodiwiss, F.S. and G. Fretwell. 1974. The toxicities of sewage effluents,
industrial discharges and some chemical substances to brown trout (Salmo
trutta) in the Trent River Authority Area. Water Pollut. Control 73:396-405.
37
------- |