United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air and Radiation
(6202 J)
EPA 430-R-93-006 B
October 1993
EPA
Options for Reducing Methane
Emissions Internationally
Volume II: International Opportunities
for Reducing Methane Emissions
Report to Congress
PROPERTY OF
DIVISION
OF
MFTEOROtOnv
nor
Recycled/Recyclable
Pnnted with Soy/Canola Ink on paper that
contains at least 50% recycled fiber
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Options for Reducing Methane
Emissions Internationally
Volume II:
International Opportunities for Reducing
Methane Emissions
Report to Congress
Editor: Kathleen B. Hogan
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Radiation
October 1993
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Disclaimer
This document has been reviewed in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's and the Office of Management and Budget's peer and administrative review policies
and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation.
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Table of Contents
VOLUME II
Foreword vi
Acknowledgements vii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES - 1
Introduction ES - 1
Volume II. International Opportunities For Reducing Methane Emissions ES - 2
Landfills ES - 3
Oil and Natural Gas Systems ES - 8
Coal Mining ES - 12
Ruminant Livestock ES - 13
Other Sources ES - 17
Summary ES - 20
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1-1
1.1 Background: The Importance of Methane 1-2
1.2 Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions 1-8
1.3 Financing of International Projects with Methane Reduction Potential ... 1-13
1.4 Methane Reduction Options in Countries of Interest 1-16
1.5 Overview of Report 1-18
1.6 References 1-20
CHAPTER Two
LANDFILLS 2-1
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Methane Emissions 2-2
2.3 Emission Reduction Opportunities 2-4
2.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions 2-8
2.5 Country Profiles 2-9
2.5.1 UNITED KINGDOM 2-9
2.5.2 BRAZIL 2-13
2.5.3 POLAND 2-18
2.5.4 INDIA 2-21
2.6 Summary 2-26
2.7 References 2-33
CHAPTER THREE
OIL AND NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS 3-1
3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 Methane Emissions 3-1
3.3 Emission Reduction Opportunities 3-3
3.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions 3-5
3.5 Country Profile: Commonwealth of Independent States 3-6
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3.6 Summary 3-16
3.7 References 3-20
CHAPTER FOUR
COAL MINING 4-1
4.1 Introduction 4-1
4.2 Methane Emissions 4-1
4.3 Emissions Reduction Opportunities 4-3
4.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions 4-6
4.5 Country Profiles 4-7
4.5.1 THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA 4-7
4.5.2 POLAND 4-12
4.5.3 CZECH AND SLOVAK REPUBLICS 4-17
4.5.4 RUSSIA 4-22
4.5.5 UKRAINE 4-25
4.6 Summary 4-28
4.7 References 4-35
CHAPTER FIVE
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5-1
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Methane Emissions 5-1
5.3 Emission Reduction Opportunities 5-2
5.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions 5-9
5.5 Country Profiles 5-10
5.5.1 INDIA 5-10
5.5.2 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA 5-17
5.5.3 TANZANIA 5-22
5.5.4 BANGLADESH 5-24
5.5.5 COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES & EASTERN EUROPE 5-26
5.6 Summary 5-28
5.7 References 5-35
CHAPTER Six
OTHER SOURCES 6-1
6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Livestock Manure 6-2
6.3 Wastewater Management 6-11
6.4 Rice Cultivation 6-15
6.5 Biomass Burning 6-18
6.6 Fossil Fuel Combustion 6-21
6.7 References 6-27
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List of Exhibits
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Exhibit ES-1 Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions
from Landfilling Waste ES - 5
Exhibit ES-2 Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Landfills ES - 6
Exhibit ES-3 Projects/Programs for Reducing Methane Emissions from Landfills . . ES - 7
Exhibit ES-4 Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions
from Oil and Natural Gas Systems ES - 9
Exhibit ES-5 Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Oil and Natural Gas
Systems ES - 10
Exhibit ES-6 Projects/Programs for Reducing Methane Emissions from
Oil and Natural Gas Systems ES - 11
Exhibit ES-7 Estimates of Potential Economically Viable Reductions in
Methane Emissions from Coal Mining ES - 13
Exhibit ES-8 Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Coal Mining ES - 14
Exhibit ES-9 Projects/Programs for Reducing Methane Emissions from Coal
Mining ES - 15
Exhibit ES-10 Estimates of Potential Economically viable Reductions in
Methane Emissions from Cattle and Buffalo ES - 17
Exhibit ES-11 Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Ruminant Livestock ES - 18
Exhibit ES-12 Projects/Programs for Reducing Methane Emissions from Ruminant
Livestock ES - 19
Exhibit ES-13 Estimates of Potential Global Methane Emission Reductions ES - 20
Exhibit ES-14 Project/Program Costs for Promoting Economically Viable
Reductions in Methane Emissions ES - 22
CHAPTER ONE
Exhibit 1-1 Global Methane Concentrations 1-5
Exhibit 1 -2 Global Contribution to Integrated Radiative Forcing by Gas for 1990
C02 Equivalent Basis Using IPCC 1990 GWPs for a 100-Year Time
Horizon 1-7
Exhibit 1-3 C02 and Methane Reduction Comparison 1-9
Exhibit 1 -4 Global Methane Emissions from Major Sources 1-9
Exhibit 1-5 Summary of Technologies for Reducing Methane Emissions 1-10
Exhibit 1 -6 Methane Emissions from Key Countries, by Source 1-17
CHAPTER Two
Exhibit 2-1 Key Emitters of Methane Emissions from Landfills 2-3
Exhibit 2-2 Summary of the Technical Options for Reducing Methane
Emissions from Landfills 2-5
Exhibit 2-3 Existing and Potential Landfill Gas Recovery Projects 2-7
Exhibit 2-4 United Kingdom 2-10
Exhibit 2-5 Brazil 2-14
Exhibit 2-6 Poland 2-18
Exhibit 2-7 India 2-22
Exhibit 2-8 Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane
Emissions from Landfilling Waste 2-27
HI
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Exhibit 2-9 Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Landfills 2-29
Exhibit 2-10 Summary of Project Types 2-31
CHAPTER THREE
Exhibit 3-1 Natural Gas Production and Estimated Methane Emissions from
Oil and Gas Producing Countries (1990) 3-3
Exhibit 3-2 Summary of Options for Reducing Methane Emissions from
Oil and Natural Gas 3-4
Exhibit 3-3 Natural Gas Production & Disposition in 1989 3-6
Exhibit 3-4 Dry Gas Production in the CIS (Tcf/year) 3-7
Exhibit 3-5 Gas Delivered to Consumers in the CIS in 1988 3-8
Exhibit 3-6 Major Natural Gas Pipelines in the Commonwealth of
Independent States 3-9
Exhibit 3-7 Estimated Methane Emissions from the CIS Natural Gas System ... 3-12
Exhibit 3-8 Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in
Methane Emissions from Oil and Natural Gas Systems 3-17
Exhibit 3-9 Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Oil & Natural Gas Systems . 3-18
Exhibit 3-10 Summary of Project Types 3-19
CHAPTER FOUR
Exhibit 4-1 Estimated Methane Emissions from Coal Mining in Ten Largest
Coal Producing Countries 4-2
Exhibit 4-2 Methane Recovery and Utilization Strategies 4-4
Exhibit 4-3 Estimated Degasification System Emissions in Ten Largest Coal
Producing Countries 4-5
Exhibit 4-4 Major Coal Basins in the People's Republic of China 4-8
Exhibit 4-5 Distribution of Energy Sources in Poland 4-12
Exhibit 4-6 Major Coal Basins in Poland 4-14
Exhibit 4-7 Distribution of Energy Sources in the Czech and Slovak Republics . . 4-18
Exhibit 4-8 Major Coal Basins in the Czech and Slovak Republics 4-19
Exhibit 4-9 Major Coal Basins in Russia 4-23
Exhibit 4-10 Major Coal Basins in Ukraine 4-26
Exhibit 4-11 Estimates of Potential Economically viable Reductions in Methane
Emissions from Coal Mining 4-30
Exhibit 4-12 Key Barriers and Possible Responses - Coal Mining 4-31
Exhibit 4-13 Summary of Project Types 4-32
CHAPTER FIVE
Exhibit 5-1 Animal Populations (thousands) 5-2
Exhibit 5-2 Regional Methane Emissions from Cattle, Buffalo, and Other
Ruminants (Tg/yr) 5-3
Exhibit 5-3(a) Summary of Options for Improved Nutrition through Mechanical and
Chemical Feed Processing 5-5
Exhibit 5-3(b) Summary of Options for Improved Nutrition through Strategic
Supplementation and Other Techniques 5-5
Exhibit 5-3(c) Summary of Production Enhancing Agents 5-6
Exhibit 5-3(d) Summary of Options for Improved Genetic Characteristics, Improved
Reproduction, and Other Techniques 5-7
IV
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Exhibit 5-4 Applicability of Emission Reduction Options to Animal
Management Systems 5-8
Exhibit 5-5 India 5-11
Exhibit 5-6 The People's Republic of China 5-18
Exhibit 5-7 Tanzania 5-23
Exhibit 5-8 Bangladesh 5-25
Exhibit 5-9 Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe 5-27
Exhibit 5-10 Estimates of Potential Economically Viable Reductions in Methane
Emissions from Cattle and Buffalo 5-30
Exhibit 5-11 Key Barriers and Possible Responses - Ruminant Livestock 5-31
Exhibit 5-12 Summary of Project Types 5-33
CHAPTER Six
Exhibit 6-1 Global Annual Methane Emissions from Various Sources 6-1
Exhibit 6-2 Global Methane Emissions from Livestock Manure 6-3
Exhibit 6-3 Summary of the Technical Assessments for Livestock Manure 6-4
Exhibit 6-4 Biogas Digesters in Asia and the Far East 6-8
Exhibit 6-5 Countries Adopting Biogas Promotional Programs (1970-1980) .... 6-10
Exhibit 6-6 Summary of Project Types 6-10
Exhibit 6-7 Global Rice Cultivation in Key Regions 6-16
Exhibit 6-8 Summary of Options for Reducing Methane Emissions
from Fossil Fuel Combustion 6-24
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Foreword
I am pleased to transmit the attached report. Potions for Reducing Methane Emissions
Internationally. Volume II: International Opportunities for Reducing Methane Emissions, in
partial fulfillment of the Congressional request in the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
for a series of methane-related reports. This report builds on a companion report
(Volume I) which describes an array of technologies and practices which are currently
available and well understood and which can profitably reduce methane emissions into the
atmosphere.
This report presents a number of key case studies and investigates how methane-
reducing technologies and practices could be employed in a more widespread manner
around the globe. The report assesses the most appropriate technologies for use in
different settings and the types of programs which may be most effective in accelerating
their adoption. The report shows how methane emissions can be reduced as part of the
efforts of many countries to stabilize their emissions of greenhouse gases.
The report will make a large international contribution in addition to providing up-to-
date information to Congress. The report will be presented to Working Group II of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for their consideration in furthering the
international understanding of options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Paul M. Stolpman
Acting Director
Office of Atmospheric Programs
Office of Air and Radiation
VI
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Acknowledgements
This report was made possible through the intensive efforts of a number of people.
As a direct result of prefeasibility studies conducted in countries around the world, the
chapters of this report were developed by Global Change Division staff as follows:
Natural Gas Systems Kathleen Hogan
Landfills Cindy Jacobs
Coal Mining Dina Kruger
Ruminant Livestock Mark Orlic
Livestock Manure (Other Sources) Kurt Roos
The staff specially designed these prefeasibility efforts to identify the most appropriate
methane reducing technologies for particular situations, any barriers that might hamper the
more widespread adoption of these technologies, and the potential solutions for
overcoming these barriers.
A number of other experts participated in gathering key information for this report.
This includes Carol Bibler (Raven Ridge Resources), Richard Bowman (AT International),
Michael Gibbs (ICF), Ron Leng (Australia), James Marshall (Raven Ridge Resources), Ray
Pilcher (Raven Ridge Resources), Al Soiled (Tufts University) and Gordon Weynand
(USAID). Substantial efforts were made by Jeff Fiedler, Jeff Ross, Eric Taylor, and Laura
Van Wie to synthesize the available information into the final chapters. Valuable
comments on the report were received from Bill Breed (DOE), A.D. Bhide (India), David
Gardiner (USEPA), Bill Hohenstein (USEPA), Susan Thorneloe (USEPA), Bill White (USEPA),
and Ted Williams (DOE).
VII
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VOLUME II
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
Methane currently accounts for over 15 percent of expected future warming from climate
change. While methane's concentration in the earth's atmosphere is small, it has a sizable
contribution to potential future warming because it is a potent greenhouse gas and because
methane's concentration in the atmosphere has been increasing rapidly. Its global
atmospheric concentration, which continues to rise, has more than doubled over the last two
centuries after remaining fairly constant for the preceding 2,000 years.
Methane's rising concentration is largely correlated with increasing human populations, and
currently about 70 percent of global methane emissions are associated with human activities
such as energy production and use (coal mining, oil and natural gas systems, and fossil fuel
combustion); waste management (landfills and wastewater treatment); livestock management
(ruminants and wastes); biomass burning; and rice cultivation.
Reductions in methane emissions of 30 to 40 million metric tons per year, or about 10 percent
of annual anthropogenic (human-related) emissions, would halt the annual rise in methane
concentrations. This report identifies technologies and practices which are currently available
for profitably reducing methane emissions from the major human-related sources of methane
and which are appropriate for many countries around the world. It also examines the potential
for reducing methane emissions from some key countries through further adoption and use
of these available technologies. This report has two volumes:
Volume I: Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions. This volume was
prepared in part for the Response Strategies Working Group of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) by the U.S./Japan Working Group on Methane. The
technology assessments were compiled from information and comments submitted by
IPCC participating countries and have been reviewed by government officials and technical
experts in these countries.
Volume II: International Opportunities for Reducing Methane Emissions. This volume
investigates the potential for applying or expanding the use of available technologies in key
countries around the world, for the major methane sources. Key barriers inhibiting the
further use of these technologies and practices are identified, and possible solutions, such
as targeted technology transfer programs, are suggested.
The report has been prepared in response to a Congressional request under Section 603 of
the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990:
Preventing Increases in Methane Concentrations: Not later than two years after
the enactment of this Act, the Administrator shall prepare and submit to the
Congress a report that analyzes the potential for preventing an increase in
atmospheric concentrations of methane from activities and sources in other
countries. Such report shall identify and evaluate the technical options for
reducing methane emissions from each of the activities listed in subsection (b),
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ES - 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
as well as other activities or sources that are deemed by the Administrator in
consultation with other relevant Federal agencies and departments to be
significant and shall include an evaluation of the costs. The report shall identify
the emission reductions that would need to be achieved to prevent increasing
atmospheric concentrations of methane. The report shall also identify
technology transfer programs that could promote methane emission reductions
in lesser developed countries.1
Another report. Options for Reducing Methane Emissions from Anthropogenic Sources in the
United States, was requested by Congress and is being prepared to examine the applicability
of available options in the United States.
Volume II. International Opportunities For Reducing Methane Emissions
Many technologies and practices are currently available which can profitably reduce methane
emissions from the major human-related sources including landfills, coal mining, natural gas
production and distribution, and animal husbandry. These technologies and practices can
profitably reduce methane emissions because methane (the major component of natural gas)
emissions are often wasted energy which can be cost-effectively captured and used. The
available technologies and practices are economically viable under a range of conditions and
have already been implemented to some extent (as discussed in Volume I).
Furthermore, these technologies are generally attractive due to the many other benefits that
they provide. These benefits include reduced risk of explosion and fire, improved air quality,
better protection of surface and groundwater, enhanced animal productivity, and increased
utilization of energy resources. These benefits are consistent with the development goals of
many countries.
There are large opportunities to expand the use of these technologies and practices in
different regions of the world. This volume summarizes the potential for expanding the use
of the available technologies and practices in some key countries, in terms of:
Promising Technologies and Practices: Although there are a range of technologies and
practices that are currently available, there are important country specific factors that may
limit the applicability of some of them. This volume identifies which among the available
technologies and practices are the most promising options for many of the countries which
currently emit substantial quantities of methane. The technologies and practices which
are identified in this volume are promising candidates for commercially viable projects and
for forming the basis of programs which could substantially enhance the productivity of
existing industries.
Possible Emission Reductions: Estimating the potential reductions in methane emissions
which may result from the implementation of these technologies and practices is a very
uncertain process. The uncertainty results both from uncertainty in the initial estimates
of methane emissions from particular facilities and practices and from uncertainty in the
effectiveness of technologies and alternative practices in reducing methane emissions
Section 603(c)(2) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES - 3
when applied at particular sites. However, the general understanding of the effectiveness
of various technologies and practices has advanced substantially over the last several
years. This volume uses up-to-date information to provide estimates of the reductions in
methane emissions that may be achieved through the more widespread use of available
technologies and practices. These estimates are provided for reductions in methane
emissions that may be achieved in the near term and the reductions that may be achieved
over the longer term. The near term reductions are those achievable over the next five to
ten years, as technologies and practices which are currently available, economically viable
in certain conditions, and generally consistent with country objectives and markets, are
employed to a greater extent at appropriate sites. The longer term reductions are those
which could be achieved profitably with available technologies but may require changes
in institutional, market, or technological conditions.
Activities Likely to Promote Technologies and Practices: While the available technologies
and practices may be profitable at particular sites and facilities and will help meet the
energy and/or agricultural development goals of a country, there are often a range of
barriers which are hindering their more widespread use. This volume identifies many of
these barriers and suggests activities which may be effective in overcoming them, based
on recent program development experience. Possible activities include the development
of targeted technology transfer programs for demonstrating economically viable
technologies and practices, the design of training programs necessary to support the
technologies and practices, and the development of institutional support, among others.
This volume also presents preliminary cost estimates for these types of technology
transfer activities. Many of the initial activities would also lead to better estimates of
methane emissions and potential reductions in emissions as prefeasibility studies are begun
for individual projects.
This volume examines the opportunities to expand the use of available technologies and
practices in different regions of the world for the following methane sources:
• Landfills;
• Oil and Natural Gas Systems;
• Coal Mining; and
• Ruminant Livestock.
These sources represent about 60 percent of methane emissions from anthropogenic sources
world-wide. The general findings of this report for these sources are summarized below.
Landfills
Landfills worldwide are estimated to produce 20 to 60 teragrams (Tg)2 of methane per year,
as a direct result of the natural decomposition of the organic component of waste streams.
About two-thirds of these emissions are estimated to come from the more developed
2 1 teragram (Tg) is equivalent to 1012 grams or 1 million metric tons.
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ES - 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
countries of the world, with eleven countries currently representing about 70 percent of global
emissions. The United States is by far the largest emitter, followed by the People's Republic
of China, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS). The relative contribution of the developing countries is rapidly changing,
however. With continuing trends in population growth and urbanization, developing countries
could account for 30 to 40 percent of methane emissions from this source by 2000. In
addition, economic growth may increase emissions from non-OECD countries.
Landfilling of wastes presents an opportunity for large reductions in methane emissions in
many countries around the world while also presenting opportunities for (1) the generation of
inexpensive domestic energy through energy recovery projects or (2) for the production of
useful products such as fertilizer through composting and recycling efforts. For example,
between 50 and 85 percent of landfill gas (generally about 50 percent methane) can typically
be recovered from covered landfills, with well-designed projects achieving almost complete
gas recovery (see Volume I). This gas can be profitably used as a medium quality fuel in
many applications, including electricity generation and co-generation, industrial uses, and
residential and commercial cooking and heating.
Although these options are already in use, to some extent, in both developed and developing
countries, there are substantial opportunities to expand their use worldwide. For example,
there are large opportunities for expanding existing methane recovery programs in countries
such as the United States and the United Kingdom. Emissions in these two countries could
be reduced by 50 percent or more over the next decades through efforts justified by the
economics of the energy recovery and reductions in emissions of air pollutants.
There is also potential to expand the existing methane recovery program in Brazil and to
promote appropriate technologies and practices in regions such as the CIS and Eastern Europe,
and in developing countries such as India and China where limited quantities of methane are
currently recovered. Recycling of organic materials, composting, and incineration may also
be large components of waste management programs over the coming decades and will result
in less landfilled waste and lower methane emissions. In general, many countries are
interested in the further expansion of these waste management practices because of their
associated benefits, which include: potential for significant energy recovery; reduced public
health hazards; reduced surface and groundwater pollution and air emissions; and the
production of compost material for use as fertilizer or soil amendments.
Based on currently available technologies, it is technically feasible to reduce annual methane
emissions from landfills globally by about 50 percent of current emissions or by more than 10
to 25 Tg per year. Not all of these reductions in methane emissions will be economically
viable, however. Estimates of the potential for economically viable emission reductions are
uncertain, and they depend upon the country and site-specific conditions of particular projects.
In general, economically attractive emission reductions are most common at larger waste
disposal sites located close to large urbanized areas, where the potential for recovering and
using large quantities of methane are most likely. Fortunately, in many countries these types
of sites represent the majority of methane emissions.
The portion of the technically achievable methane reductions that may be economically viable
has been estimated by examining waste management practices in several key countries, such
as Brazil, India, Poland, the United Kingdom and the United States. The estimated potential
economically viable reductions for these countries are presented in Exhibit ES-1. This exhibit
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ES-5
also presents estimates for potential reductions that may be achieved in countries that were
not examined explicitly; these estimates were derived by generally assuming that their waste
management practices are similar to other countries in their regions. Exhibit ES-1 shows that
global reductions in methane emissions of 9 to 14 Tg per year could be economically viable
in the near term. In the United States, an impending landfill rule is expected to reduce
emissions from landfills on the order of 50 percent, or 4 to 6 Tg per year.3 Global emission
reductions of 10 to 25 Tg per year may be feasible in the longer term, with even larger
Exhibit ES-1
Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from Landfilling
Waste
Country
United States2
United Kingdom
Brazil
India
Poland
Others
TOTAL3
Estimated
Emissions
1
8 - 12
1.0-3.0
0.7 -2.2
0.2-0.8
0.1 -0.4
11-39
21 -57
Near Term Reductions
Tg/yr
4- 6
0.2 - 0.5
0.2 - 0.6
0.1 -0.2
0.1
4- 7
9- 14
%
~ 50
15-20
25-30
25-40
~ 20
15-35
25-35
Longer Term Reductions
Tg/yr
4-6
0.5 - 1.4
0.2-0.6
0.1 -0.4
0.1 -0.3
4- 15
9-24
%
~ 50
40- 50
25-30
25-50
20-60
15-40
40- 50
1 These emissions estimates are based on recent drafts of the report to Congress Global Anthropogenic
Emissions of Methane (USEPA, 1 993b), currently in preparation, and will likely change as this report is
finalized.
2 USEPA, 1993a
3 Totals may not add up due to rounding.
potential for methane reductions over the next several decades as lower cost technologies are
developed.
A number of barriers to the expanded use of improved waste management practices and
methane recovery and utilization technologies must be overcome if the economically viable
emissions reductions are to be achieved in many countries. The general types of barriers are
summarized in Exhibit ES-2, and they include technical, financial, management and
informational barriers, among others. In addition. Exhibit ES-2 summarizes some of the
possible responses to these barriers.
This rule will be promulgated to reduce emissions of air pollutants such as toxics and non-methane
organic compounds from landfills. Methane will be reduced as a side-benefit.
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ES-6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Exhibit ES-2
Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Landfills
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Policy & Management issues
Unclear legal and regulatory framework
Many different groups responsible for different
parts of waste management
Different groups responsible for waste
management, energy generation, and fertilizer
supply
Policy reform assistance
Organize management groups overseeing all
elements of waste management
Organize joint management groups for waste
management and energy development
Organize joint management groups for waste
management and fertilizer supply
Information Issues
Lack of awareness on part of government and
others about value of fuel and fertilizer from
managed wastes
Lack of awareness on part of potential project
developers about potential in various countries
Provide information on potential near-term
value of resource and available technologies.
Provide information to potential project
developers and lending agencies regarding role
waste management projects can play in
meeting country goals
Technical Issues
Lack of access by waste managers to
technologies such as drills, composters, and
sorters
Lack of familiarity with methane recovery and
source reduction techniques
Lack of familiarity with power generation
technologies
Technical problems related to the corrosiveness
of landfill gas
Encourage joint ventures and the introduction
of new technologies
Establish technology demonstration projects to
act as training centers
Establish technology centers to provide
information on appropriate technologies and
techniques
Disseminate available information on best
technologies and maintenance practices for
addressing corrosion
Financial Issues
Lack of capital for investment
Subsidized energy prices for other energy
sources reduce attractiveness
Raise awareness on profitability of landfill
projects with development agencies
Raise awareness on appropriateness of landfill
projects for international loans
Assess financial needs for providing more
efficient waste management overall
Effectively encouraging economically viable methane reductions in individual countries will
require examination of a country's specific conditions and unique barriers. Using such
assessment information, specific programs and projects can be developed to overcome the
barriers. Some preliminary analyses of country-specific barriers and most appropriate
responses to them have been conducted for selected countries, as summarized in Exhibit ES-
3. This exhibit includes information about the actions that may be taken in countries such as
the United States as well as outlining possible technology transfer programs for developing
countries and countries with economies in transition. Importantly, as efforts continue in this
area a better understanding will develop for the potential for reducing methane emissions from
landfilling of wastes worldwide and the types of technology transfer programs that will be
most effective in response to specific country conditions.
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-------
ES - 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Oil and Natural Gas Systems
Significant methane emissions are associated with the various components of oil and natural
gas systems, such as production wells, processing and storage facilities, and transmission and
distribution systems. Emissions generally include fugitive emissions (leakage) and emissions
during routine operations and maintenance of the systems, as well as emissions from
unplanned events or system upsets. Estimates for worldwide methane emissions from this
source range from about 30 to 65 Tg per year.4 The countries that are the largest
contributors of these emissions are the countries with the largest production and use of
natural gas, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the United States. These
two countries represent over two-thirds of global emissions from this source.
Technological solutions are available to reduce methane emissions from different components
of oil and natural gas systems. These technological solutions include reduced venting and
flaring during production, improved compressor operation, enhanced leak detection and
pipeline repair, and greater use of low emission technologies and practices. They can be
accomplished through the replacement of existing equipment with equipment of newer design,
improved rehabilitation and repair, enhanced inspection and maintenance, and other changes
in routine operations. Use of these technologies and practices can reduce methane emissions
at particular sites by up to 20 to 80 percent (see Volume I). These efforts can also result in
other important benefits to natural gas systems such as enhanced overall efficiency and
economics, improved safety of the system, and improved local air quality.
While these technologies and practices are already in use to varying degrees throughout the
world, there is substantial opportunity to expand the use of these options. In the United
States, for example, methane emissions can be profitably reduced by about 20 percent or
more through the use of recently available technologies and practices.5 However, there are
much larger opportunities in other regions of the world such as the CIS, where lack of
equipment and capital has hindered the introduction of newer technologies. In addition, the
venting and flaring of natural gas during production can be reduced in many regions as
countries continue to expand their gas infrastructures which will allow more vented and flared
gas to be utilized.
Based on currently available technologies, it is technically feasible to reduce annual methane
emissions from oil and natural gas systems by about 60 percent of current emissions or by
roughly 15 to 40 Tg per year. Estimating the portion of these reductions that may be
economically viable is highly uncertain and requires assessment of country and site-specific
conditions for numerous individual projects. In general, however, economically attractive
emission reductions will be most common where old, out-dated, or difficult to maintain
equipment is being utilized to handle large quantities of natural gas. The largest opportunity
is likely to be in Russia which is the largest gas producer in the world and which has
4 It is estimated that 70 to 80 percent of this total is emitted from natural gas systems worldwide, and
20 to 30 percent from oil systems (including associated gas production).
5 See Report to Congress, Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in the United States (USEPA,
1993a).
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ES-9
developed much of its natural gas system under adverse environmental conditions and with
equipment shortages.
The portion of the technically achievable methane reductions that may be economically viable
has been estimated by examining the natural gas systems in the United States and CIS. The
estimated potential economically viable reductions for these countries are presented in Exhibit
ES-4. This exhibit also presents estimates for potential reductions that may be achieved in
countries that were not examined explicitly; these estimates were derived by assuming,
conservatively, that technologies and practices in their natural gas systems are similar to the
system in the United States. Exhibit ES-4 shows that global reductions in methane emissions
of 5 to 15 Tg per year could be economically viable in the near term. A large portion of these
reductions would be achieved in the CIS through high-impact projects such as pipeline leak
prevention and rehabilitation. Other reductions would be achieved through continuing
technological improvements in the West. Economically viable emissions reductions of 10 to
35 Tg per year may be achieved in the longer term as a wider range of more efficient
technologies and practices are introduced, including drilling and well maintenance practices,
gas processing technologies, metering, and end use equipment, as well as increased use of
associated gas.
Exhibit ES-4
Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from Oil and
Natural Gas Systems
Country
CIS
US
Others
TOTAL
Estimated
Emissions in
1990(Ta/yr)a
16-36
2.4- 5.3
14.5 - 27.0
33 - 68
Near Term Reductions
Tg/yr
3 - 10
0.3 - 1.2b
1 -5
4- 16
%
20 - 30
13-23b
10- 20
12-24
Longer Term Reductions
Tg/yr
5 - 25
0.3 - 1.3b
2-8
7 - 34
%
30 -70
13- 25b
20-30
21 - 50
Sources:
a USEPA (1993b)
b USEPA (1993a)
A number of barriers to the expanded use of low emission technologies and practices for
natural gas systems must be overcome if the economically viable emissions reductions are to
be achieved. The general types of barriers hindering technological improvements in these
systems are summarized in Exhibit ES-5, and they include legal, regulatory, technical,
financial, and informational barriers, among others. In addition, Exhibit ES-5 summarizes some
of the possible responses to these barriers.
-------
ES- 10
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Effectively encouraging economically viable methane reductions in individual countries will
require examination of a country's specific conditions and unique barriers. Using such
assessment information, specific programs and projects can be developed to overcome these
barriers. Preliminary analyses of country-specific barriers and appropriate responses to them
have been conducted for the United States and Russia, as shown in Exhibit ES-6. Currently
there are a number of efforts through the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and
others to assist in rehabilitating the Russian natural gas system and improve venting and
flaring practices. These efforts combined with key demonstration programs should greatly
increase the understanding of the potential for profitably reducing methane emissions. The
U.S. EPA is also working with the U.S. gas industry to encourage economically viable
reductions domestically.
Exhibit ES-5
Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Oil and Natural Gas Systems
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Legal & Regulatory Issues
Uncertain gas ownership
Unclear mechanisms for joint venture project
development
Project approval process unclear
Resolve ownership legally or legislatively
Develop system for foreign investment,
repatriation of profits, etc.
Streamline and clarify project approval process
Information Issues
Lack of awareness on part of government and
gas industry personnel about magnitude and
value of emissions reductions
Lack of awareness on part of potential project
developers about project opportunities in
various countries
Provide information to countries on emissions,
reduction options, and appropriate policies
Provide information to oil and gas companies
and lending agencies, regarding potential For
profitable projects
Technical Issues
Lack of access to existing technologies such as
low bleed valves, measurement techniques,
and processing technologies
Lack of familiarity with maintenance
procedures, such as wellhead work-overs
Lack of familiarity with pipeline repair and
control technologies, such as polyethylene pipe
replacement
Fund demonstration projects in key technical
areas
Organize study tours and training trips for key
gas industry personnel
Establish technology centers to disseminate
information on state-of-the-art technologies
and techniques
Financial Issues
Lack of capital for investment in methane
recovery projects
Dependence of gas organizations on subsidies
Low subsidized energy prices reduce economic
attractiveness
Absence of economic incentives to become
efficient
Encourage the development of joint ventures to
introduce new approaches
Foster free market pricing of gas at all stages
of the system
Introduce cost accounting of lost gas;
economic incentives for recovery
-------
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Recovery of dehydrator emissions
Directed inspection/maintenance progrc
Continued replacement/rehabilitation o1
"leaky" pipeline systems
Encourage use of turbines, where feasi
New technology demonstrations
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Improved gas metering/measurement
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ES - 12 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Coal Mining
Coal mining activities are estimated to produce about 22 to 36 Tg per year of methane per
year globally. This methane was trapped millions of years ago in the coal formations and
surrounding strata during the process of coalification and is emitted as mining reduces the
pressure on the trapped gas. Most of the methane emissions result from the mining of
underground coal in the major coal-producing countries. The People's Republic of China, the
United States, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (the former Soviet Union)
account for an estimated 70 percent of the emissions from this source.
Coal mining represents a promising opportunity to reduce methane emissions worldwide,
because of the availability of technologies to recover and use the methane emitted during
mining and because of the many benefits associated with such projects. Available
technologies for increasing methane recovery include enhanced gob well recovery and
degasification of coal seams in advance of mining using vertical or in-mine recovery methods.
When vertical pre-drainage is combined with in-mine recovery or the use of surface gob wells,
potential methane recovery efficiencies can reach 75 percent (see Volume I). The recovered
gas can then be used for power generation or for industrial and residential uses. In many
countries, this coalbed methane could make a large contribution to the primary energy supply.
In addition to the benefits of increasing the supply of a clean burning fuel and reducing
methane emissions, such projects may also improve coal mine productivity and safety.
Recovery of coal mine methane is already performed, to some extent, in the major coal-
producing countries. The degasification technologies have been employed by gassy
underground coal mines to maintain safe mining conditions. However, much of the gas
recovered at these operations is currently vented to the atmosphere, so there remain large
opportunities to collect and use the gas. In addition, there are large opportunities for
expanded methane recovery in many countries with large emissions from coal mining, such
as the United States, the People's Republic of China, Russia, Ukraine, Poland and
Czechoslovakia.
Based on currently available technologies, it is technically feasible to reduce annual methane
emissions from coal mining globally by about 40 percent of current emissions (i.e., 50 percent
of the emissions from gassy underground mines) or by about 10 to 16 Tg per year. While
estimates of the potential for economically viable emission reductions are uncertain, and they
depend upon the country and site-specific conditions of particular projects, a large portion of
these reductions in methane emissions may be economically viable due to the large quantity
of gas that can be produced from the gassy mining areas.
Economically viable reductions in methane emissions from coal mining were estimated by
examining current mining and degasification practices in the major coal producing countries.
As summarized in Exhibit ES-7, this examination indicates that economically viable reductions
of up to 7.2 Tg per year may be potentially achievable in the near term by developing uses
for currently recovered gas from coal mines, such as local heating or nearby industrial uses
(contributing about 1.5 - 2.6 Tg per year of the reductions) and by expanding methane
recovery and use, using existing technologies. Reductions of 7 to 11 Tg per year could be
achieved in the longer term through more aggressive gas drainage practices, perhaps
supplemented with the development of new technologies.
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ES- 13
Exhibit ES-7
Estimates of Potential Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from
Coal Mining
Country
China
United States
CIS2
Poland
Czechoslovakia
Others3
TOTAL
Estimated
Emissions
(Tg/yr)
8.5 -13.0
3.6 -5.7
4.3-5.8
0.6- 1.5
0.3-0.5
3.7 - 6.9
21.5 - 33.5
Near Term Reductions
Tg/yr1
1.2- 1.6 (0.1)
1.0- 2.2 (0.4- 1.5)
0.7- 1.1 (0.6)
0.1 -0.3 (0.1)
0.1 -0.2
0.9 - 1.8 (0.2)
4.0 -7.2 (1.5 - 2.6)
%
10- 15
35 -40
10-20
15-20
30-40
20-30
15-25
Longer Term
Reductions (Tg/yr)
Tg/yr
2.8-3.4
1.7 - 3.1
1.0-1.4
0.2-0.4
0.2-0.3
1.5-2.8
7.4- 11.4
%
25 - 35
45 -55
20-25
25-35
60-65
35 -45
30 -40
1 Emission reduction estimates in parentheses can be achieved by utilizing gas currently recovered and
vented to the atmosphere.
2 Emissions estimates are for entire CIS; reductions estimates include Russia and Ukraine.
3 Emissions estimates include several important coal-producers, such as Australia, Germany, India,
South Africa, and the United Kingdom.
A number of barriers to the expansion of methane recovery and utilization technologies must
be overcome if the economically viable emissions reductions are to be achieved in many
countries. The general types barriers are summarized in Exhibit ES-8, and they include
technical, financial, management and informational barriers, among others. In addition. Exhibit
ES-8 summarizes some of the possible responses to these barriers.
Effectively encouraging economically viable methane reductions in individual countries will
require examination of a country's specific conditions and unique barriers. Using such
assessment information, specific programs and projects can be developed to overcome these
barriers. Some preliminary analyses of country-specific barriers and most appropriate
responses to them have been conducted for the major coal-producing countries. The results
of these analyses are summarized in Exhibit ES-9. This exhibit includes information about the
actions that may be taken in countries such as the United States as well as outlining possible
technology transfer programs for developing countries and countries with economies in
transition. Many of these activities are well underway through a variety of U.S. programs,
so better information on achievable methane reductions and the components of the most
successful technology transfer programs can be expected over the next several years.
Ruminant Livestock
Domestic ruminant livestock, especially large ruminants (cattle and buffalo), produce methane
emissions as part of their normal digestive processes. Global emissions from ruminant
-------
ES- 14
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
livestock are estimated to be 65 to 100 Tg per year, with about 80 percent of these
emissions from the larger ruminants (i.e., cattle and buffalo). Roughly 20 percent of these
emissions are from animals raised under highly managed conditions in the U.S. and Western
Europe. As much as 30 percent of these emissions may come from developing countries in
Asia. An estimated 15 percent of emissions are from Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS) and about 30 to 35 percent from South America and Africa.
Exhibit ES-8
Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Coal Mining
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Legal Systems:
Unclear gas ownership
Undeveloped concession system
Unclear mechanisms for joint venture project
development
Resolve ownership legally or legislatively
Develop resource leasing mechanisms
Develop system for foreign investment,
repatriation of profits, etc.
Regulatory Issues:
Project approval process unclear
Appropriateness of mine safety regulations for
gas recovery
No produced water regulations for CBM
development
No specialized "field rules" for CBM
development
Streamline and clarify project approval/permit
requirements
Determine how to incorporate gas recovery
with mine safety regulations
Develop produced water regulations and
industry "field rules" specific to CBM
development
Information Issues:
Lack of awareness on pait of government,
mining personnel and others about magnitude
and value of resource
Lack of awareness on pait of potential project
developers regarding project opportunities in
various countries
Provide information to countries on resource,
appropriate policies, technologies, etc.
Provide information to development companies
and lending agencies regarding potential
attractiveness of projects
Technical Issues:
Lack of access to new technologies, such as
advanced drill rigs, reservoir simulators, etc.
Lack of familiarity with new methane recovery
approaches, such as vertical pre-mine drainage
or in-mine fracturing of longholes
Lack of familiarity with new methane utilization
technologies, such as power generation
Need to demonstrate utilization options for low-
concentration methane in ventilation air
Encourage the development of joint ventures to
introduce new approaches
Fund demonstration projects in key technical
areas
Organize study tours and training trips for key
personnel to advanced CBM projects
Establish technology centers to disseminate
information on appropriate technologies and
techniques
Financial Issues:
Lack of capital for investment in methane
recovery projects
Poor financial condition of coal mines and
historic dependence on heavy subsidies
Low subsidized energy prices reduce economic
attractiveness
Foster joint ventures
Raise awareness on pait of international
development agencies about coalbed methane
potential
Encourage development of methane recovery
and use projects that can improve coal
productivity and mining economics
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ES - 16 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A number of proven technologies and practices exist for reducing methane emissions from
ruminant animals. These technologies and practices improve animal productivity and thus
reduce methane emissions per unit of product (e.g., milk produced), or per unit of feed that
is consumed. Available options include: improving animal nutrition through enhanced feed
processing; improving nutrition by strategically supplementing current diets to address known
deficiencies; improving genetic characteristics; and improving animal reproduction. These
techniques have resulted in reductions in methane production per unit product of up to 60
percent, as well as significant increases in productivity, especially milk production (see
Volume I). Other benefits related to increased productivity include improved human diets,
increased animal health, increased farmer security, and reduced need for the importation of
animal products.
Increasing the productivity of large ruminant animals is economically and technically feasible
in many countries. For example, there continue to be opportunities to increase animal
productivity in the advanced animal production systems in North America and Western
Europe. While these systems have generally achieved low methane emissions per unit product
through management techniques developed over the last fifty years, a number of practices
remain to be implemented on a more widespread basis.
The largest opportunities for reducing methane emissions from large ruminant animals,
however, may be found in developing countries. In these countries, animals have not
experienced large changes in productivity over the preceding decades and increased demand
for animal products has been met by increasing the number of managed animals. Currently,
dairy herds present a large opportunity for productivity improvement programs in these
countries because the increased production of milk is a quickly and easily seen improvement
and the additional milk may be sold in cash markets. Furthermore, many of these countries
are striving to increase milk production to increase in turn the amount of protein in their
people's diets. Simultaneously, land is becoming more scarce and the past approach of
increasing the number of managed animals is becoming less feasible.
Opportunities for the expansion of projects and programs which enhance animal productivity
cost-effectively appear to exist throughout the developing world. This report examines
Bangladesh, China, and India to assess the opportunities in southeast Asia; examines Tanzania
to assess the opportunities in Africa; and takes a regional look at Eastern Europe and the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
Through efforts focused first on improving the productivity of dairy animals and then
expanded to include programs focussing on draft animals, it is estimated that currently
available technologies and management practices can cost-effectively reduce overall methane
emissions by about 4 to 10 Tg per year in the near term. These estimates of possible
reductions assume that animal populations will continue to grow to some extent over the next
decades to meet country development goals. However, more and more of the increased
production of animal products will result from increased animal productivity as opposed to
increased number of animals. Global methane reductions of 10 to 19 Tg per year may be
possible over the longer term through aggressive programs to increase animal productivity and
animal health in general. Exhibit ES-10 summarizes the estimated emissions and potential
emission reductions for large ruminants (i.e., cattle and buffalo).
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ES- 17
Exhibit ES-10
Estimates of Potential Economically viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from
Cattle and Buffalo
Country
CIS/E.Europe
India
United States2
China
Bangladesh
Tanzania
Others
TOTAL
Estimated
Emissions
(Tg/yr)1
7.5 - 12.5
7.2- 12.0
4.4-6.6
3.5-5.9
0.6 - 1.2
0.4-0.6
38-62
50-82
Near Term
Reductions (Tg/yr)
Tg/yr
up to 1
0.8 - 1.2
up to 1
0.5-0.7
0.1
0.1
2- 6
4- 10
%
5- 10
5- 10
~ 25
10- 15
10- 15
15-20
5 - 10
~ 10
Longer Term
Reductions (Tg/yr)
Tg/yr
over 1
1.2- 2.5
over 1
0.7- 1.5
0.2-0.3
0.1 -0.2
6 - 12
10- 19
%
5- 15
15-20
~ 25
20-25
25-30
25 - 35
15-20
20- 25
1 These estimates are for cattle and buffalo only.
2 Estimates being developed in USEPA (1993a), "Options for Reducing Methane Emissions in the United
States."
Recent efforts to investigate animal management practices in countries with large animal
populations indicate that various barriers may exist in different countries which hinder the full
implementation of efforts to improve animal productivity. These barriers, including
informational, technical, sociocultural and financial issues, are summarized in a general manner
in Exhibit ES-11 along with possible responses which may promote methane reductions.
Examination of the unique barriers within a country as well as other country specific
conditions will be necessary to effectively encourage economically viable methane reductions.
Using such assessment information, specific programs and projects can be developed to
overcome the critical barriers. Preliminary analyses of some country-specific barriers and most
appropriate responses to them have been conducted for selected countries. The results of
these analyses are summarized in Exhibit ES-12. This exhibit includes information on the
actions that may be taken in the United States as well as on technology transfer programs for
developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Some of this information will
be expanded and refined over the next several years as the success of activities which have
recently been initiated is monitored.
Other Sources
In many countries, potential may exist to reduce methane emissions from additional sources
of methane, including livestock manure, wastewater management, rice cultivation, biomass
burning, and fossil fuel combustion. Current estimates of methane emissions from these
-------
ES- 18
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
sources worldwide range from about 70 to 200 Tg per year. A number of technically and
economically feasible options have been identified to reduce emissions from some of these
sources. Options for the other sources are being researched, developed, and demonstrated,
and should be available in the future.
Exhibit ES-11
Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Ruminant Livestock
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Information Issues
Lack of knowledge about ruminant methane and
animal productivity on part: of government
officials, extension personnel, and producers
Institutional capabilities are weak at the
extension level
Appropriate literature is lacking for farmers with
varying levels of literacy
Lack of awareness of potential production
benefits on part of funding agencies
Provide information to countries on potential
benefits, resources, appropriate policies,
technologies, etc.
Provide information to international development
and lending agencies about benefits of ruminant
methane reduction efforts
Conduct training of extension personnel
Develop range of texts for farmers
Technical Issues
Access to remote, small-scale farms is difficult
Limited infrastructure for development,
production, and dissemination of technologies
Limited availability of land for production of
improved forages and feed supplement inputs
Inadequate field-testing of technologies; past
problems of improper application
Supplement formulation often does not address
specific deficiencies
Genetic improvement of production is hampered
by poor nutrition
Improve extension services through training,
increased mobility, and closer contact with
producers
Match technologies to existing infrastructure
and level of development within region
Maximize efficient use of existing resources,
including agro-industrial byproducts, crop
residues, and marginal land cultivation
Ensure field testing, and proper use of
technologies
Conduct forage analyses as part of project
assessments to determine nutritional imbalances
Sociocultural Issues
In many cultures, numbers of animals are more
important than liveweight
Religious and cultural factors may prohibit
slaughter of animals
Extension programs may facilitate
communication with men, but overlook women's
important roles in livestock management
The role of women should be addressed directly
in project development
Maintain an awareness of Sociocultural factors
and their impact on project development
Financial Issues
Lack of capital for investment in feed processing
facilities and other infrastructure and resource
improvements
Livestock traditionally kept for savings and
security, not production; reduced incentive for
increasing productivity
Direct economic incentives lacking for draft
animals
Artificially low milk prices
Raise awareness on part of international
development agencies and other sources of
capital
Encourage development of economically feasible
projects; emphasize economic sustainability
Use multi-purpose animals to increase value of
animals
Inform farmers of benefits of managing animals
for increased production; develop markets
-------
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_o
CD
E «,
Longer-ter
|| Reduction;
-------
ES-20
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Summary
While substantial uncertainty exists in estimates of methane emissions from the major sources
and the potential for reducing these emissions through economically viable projects and
programs, it is clear that there are a number of economically viable opportunities to reduce
methane emissions from these sources in countries around the world. In addition, there are
important accompanying benefits which often make options attractive for reasons other than
the reductions in methane emissions that may be achieved.
Based on a variety of analyses discussed in this report, it may be possible to employ existing
technologies and practices and cost-effectively reduce methane emissions from landfills, oil
and natural gas systems, coal mining, and ruminant livestock by about 23 to 47 Tg per year
over the next 5 to 10 years. These reductions represent about 5 to 15 percent of current
anthropogenic emissions, or 4 to 10 percent of total global methane emissions. Emissions
reductions of about 37 to 90 Tg per year (10 to 25 percent of current anthropogenic
emissions) may be possible in the longer term. Estimates of potential methane reductions
from these emission sources worldwide are summarized in Exhibit ES-13. Estimated potential
reductions from other methane sources require further investigation and are not included in
this report.
Exhibit ES-1 3
Estimates of Potential Global Methane Emission Reductions
Source
Landfills
Oil and Natural Gas Systems
Coal Mining
Ruminant Livestock
Other Sources1
TOTAL
Near-term Reductions
(Tg/yr}
1 0 to 1 5
5 to 15
4 to 7
4 to 10
?
23 to 47
Longer term
Reductions (Tg/yr)
1 0 to 25
10 to 35
7 to 11
1 0 to 1 9
?
37 to 90
1 Includes livestock manure, wastewater management, rice cultivation, biomass burning, and fossil fuel
combustion.
The possible near term reductions in annual emissions of 23 to 47 Tg per year are a large part
of the 30 to 40 Tg per year reduction required to stabilize atmospheric methane
concentrations. The possible longer term reduction could provide all of this amount, as well
as largely compensate for any emissions growth expected from these methane sources.
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES - 21
Importantly, the existence of economically viable technologies and practices alone will not
necessarily lead to the implementation of projects to reduce methane emissions. There are
numerous barriers that have been identified which can greatly inhibit the adoption of
economically viable technologies and practices. Assessment of the key barriers within a
particular country and the development of projects and programs to overcome these barriers
will require well designed efforts performed in cooperation with appropriate country officials
and experts to compile site specific project information. These efforts will include
screening and scoping studies to identify the best opportunities for economically viable
projects and to highlight the means for overcoming the most important barriers;
prefeasibility and feasibility analyses for individual projects;
• technology demonstration and pilot projects; and
institution building in the form of information clearinghouses and training programs;
These efforts will lead to commercialization of economically viable technologies and practices
as well as provide a large amount of information useful to U.S. industries. In addition, these
efforts will greatly refine our understanding of methane emissions and opportunities for
economically viable reductions.
The costs for carrying out these activities will vary greatly from country to country depending
upon the area of work, the current state of development, interest by potential investors, etc.
These costs have been generally estimated for some of the key countries and are presented
in Exhibit ES-14. This exhibit shows that for a cost of about $500,000 to $3,000,000 per
country, major progress would be made toward achieving the potential economically viable
methane reductions.
There are a variety of funding sources available to finance projects that result in economically
attractive methane emissions reductions. International sources include the World Bank., the
United Nations Development Program and regional development banks. In addition, the Global
Environmental Facility Fund, which is implemented by the World Bank and the UNDP, is
dedicated to funding global environmental projects including the reduction of greenhouse
gases. U.S. Government sources include programs implemented by the U.S. Agency for
International Development, the State Department, and other agencies. These programs
support economic development and U.S. business opportunities abroad. The U.S. government
also offers technical and financial assistance to developing countries through its Country
Studies program, with the aim of improving greenhouse gas inventories and identifying
feasible emission reduction options. There are also a variety of private foundations and
groups that support global environmental projects.
-------
ES-22
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Exhibit ES-14
Project/Program Costs for Promoting Economically Viable Reductions in Methane
Emissions
Methane
Source
Coal
Mining
Waste
Management
Natural Gas
Systems
Ruminant
Livestock
Costa of Major Technology Transfer Activities
Scoping:
Assessments
($K/Co«ntry>
100-1,000
100- 1,000
100-2,000
50-75
Feasibility
Analyses
(*K/project)
75 - 500
75 - 500
100 - 500
50-75
Demonstration/
Pilot Projects
<$K/project)
1,000- 15,000 +
500 - 1 5,000 +
500- 10,000 +
50 - 500
Institution
Building
($K/yr/ooimtry)
75 - 100
25 - 100
75 -100
25-75
Key Countries
China
CIS
Poland/Czech.
China
India
Brazil
CIS/E.Europe
CIS
CIS/E.Europe
China
India
Tanzania
Bangladesh
-------
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ES - 23
References
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1993a), Opportunities to Reduce
Methane Emissions in the United States. Report to Congress, USEPA/OAR (Office of Air and
Radiation), Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993b), Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane. Report to Congress (in
progress), USEPA/OPPE (Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation), Washington, D.C.
-------
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This report evaluates international options for reducing methane emissions from anthropogenic
(human related) sources through the use of technologies that are either currently in use or
under development. This report has been prepared in partial fulfillment of Section 603 of the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, which requires that the EPA prepare and submit to
Congress a series of reports on domestic and international issues concerning methane. As
one of this series of reports, EPA has been requested to evaluate opportunities to reduce
methane emissions in countries other than the United States:
Preventing Increases in Methane Concentrations: Not later than two years after
the enactment of this Act, the Administrator shall prepare and submit to the
Congress a report that analyzes the potential for preventing an increase in
atmospheric concentrations of methane from activities and sources in other
countries. Such report shall identify and evaluate the technical options for
reducing methane emissions from each of the activities listed in subsection (b),
as well as other activities or sources that are deemed by the Administrator in
consultation with other relevant Federal agencies and departments to be
significant and shall include an evaluation of the costs. The report shall identify
the emission reductions that would need to be achieved to prevent increasing
atmospheric concentrations of methane. The report shall also identify
technology transfer programs that could promote methane emission reductions
in lesser developed countries.1
This report has two volumes. The first presents technical assessments of the key
technological options for reducing methane emissions, and the second focuses on
opportunities to reduce emissions in some of the key emitting countries.
The first volume, Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions, was prepared in
part for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Response Strategies Working
Group (RSWG), by the U.S./Japan Working Group on Methane. The technology assessments
were compiled from information and comments submitted by IPCC participating countries.
The findings presented in this report indicate that technological options exist for reducing
emissions from most of the major methane sources, including oil and natural gas systems,
coal mines, landfills, ruminant livestock, and livestock manure.
The second volume, International Opportunities for Reducing Methane Emissions, investigates
the potential for applying or expanding the use of available technologies in key emitting
countries around the world,2 for the major methane sources. The key barriers in various
countries which are hampering the expansion of methane recovery projects are identified and
1 Section 603(c)(2) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.
2 These are countries other than the United States. Options for reducing methane emissions in the U.S.
are examined separately in US EPA (1993a), "Options for Reducing Methane Emissions from
Anthropogenic Sources in the United States," Report to Congress (in progress), U.S. EPA/OAR.
-------
1 - 2 INTRODUCTION
types of technology transfer programs which may address these barriers and achieve emission
reductions are discussed.
1.1 Background: The Importance of Methane
Methane is an important greenhouse gas and a major environmental pollutant. Methane is
also the primary component of natural gas and a valuable energy source. Methane emission
reduction strategies offer one of the most effective means of mitigating global warming in the
near term for the following reasons:
Methane is one of the principal greenhouse gases, second only to carbon dioxide (CO2)
in its contribution to potential global warming. In fact, methane is responsible for roughly
18 percent of the total contribution in 1990 of all greenhouse gases to "radiative forcing,"
the measure used to determine the extent to which the atmosphere is trapping heat due
to emissions of greenhouse gases (IPCC, 1992a).3
Methane concentrations continue to rise rapidly. The atmospheric concentration of
methane is currently increasing at a rate of about 0.6 percent per year (Steele et al., 1992}
(in contrast to CO2 concentrations, which are increasing by about 0.4 percent per year),4
and has more than doubled over the last two centuries (IPCC, 1992a). While methane
concentrations continue to rise rapidly, the rate of increase has slowed since the early
1980s when concentrations increased at a rate of about 1.0 percent per year
Methane is a potent contributor to global warming. On a kilogram for kilogram basis,
methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2 (about 60 times greater over a period
of 20 years, 21 times greater over a period of 100 years, and 9 times greater over a
period of 500 years).5
Reductions in methane emissions will produce substantial benefits in the short run.
Methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime than other greenhouse gases -- methane lasts
around 10 years in the atmosphere, whereas CO2 lasts about 120 years (IPCC, 1992a).
Due to methane's high potency and short lifespan, stabilization of methane emissions will
have a rapid impact on mitigating potential climate change.
Global contribution to radiative forcing by gas is estimated on a carbon dioxide equivalent basis using
IPCC (1990) global warming potentials for a 100-year time horizon, including direct and indirect: effects
of methane.
Based on measurements taken at Mauna Loa from 1970 to 1990 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1992).
Methane is reported to have a direct Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 11 over a one hundred year
timeframe, and to have indirect effects that could be equal in magnitude to its direct effect (IPCC, 1992).
Over a fifty year timeframe, the direct GWP would be on the order of 25 to 30. The GWP reflects the
effect that releasing a kilogram of methane would have over a specified time horizon, relative to releasing
a kilogram of carbon dioxide. While the GWP of methane continues to be uncertain, efforts by the IPCC,
EPA's Office of Research and Development, and others, should begin to resolve these uncertainties over
the next few years.
-------
INTRODUCTION 1 - 3
Methane stabilization is nearly as effective as stabilizing CO2 emissions at 1990 levels.
In order to stabilize methane concentrations at current levels, total anthropogenic methane
emissions would need to be reduced by about 10 percent. This methane concentration
stabilization would have roughly the same effect on actual warming as maintaining CO2
emissions at 1990 levels (Hogan et al., 1991).
In contrast to the numerous sources of other greenhouse gasses, a few large and gassy
facilities often account for a large portion of methane emissions. Therefore, applying
emission reductions strategies to these gassiest facilities would result in a substantial
decrease in estimated current and future methane emissions levels.
Because methane is a source of energy as well as a greenhouse gas, many emissions
control options have additional economic benefits. Methane emissions are usually an
indication of inefficiency in a system. In many cases, methane that would otherwise be
emitted to the atmosphere can be recovered and utilized, or the quantity of methane
produced can be significantly reduced through the use of economically viable management
methods. Therefore, emission reduction strategies have the potential to be low-cost, or
even profitable. For example, methane recovered from coal mines, landfills, and livestock
manure systems can be used as an energy source, and options for reducing methane
emissions from livestock can also improve the productivity of each animal.
Well-demonstrated technologies are commercially available for profitably reducing methane
emissions. For the major sources of anthropogenic methane emissions (except rice
cultivation and biomass burning), economically viable methane reduction technologies are
already commercially available. Additionally, a number of other technologies are under
development. While offering substantial emission reductions and economic benefits, these
technologies have not been implemented on a wide scale in the U.S. or globally because
of financial, informational, and institutional barriers.
The unique characteristics of methane emissions demonstrate the importance of promoting
strategies to reduce the amount of methane discharged into the atmosphere. Understanding
the sources of methane emissions, and in particular the emissions from systems that are
partially controllable, is the first step in identifying economically viable options for reducing
emissions.
What is Methane?
Methane (CH4) is a radiatively and chemically active trace greenhouse gas.6 Being radiatively
active, methane traps infrared radiation (IR or heat) and helps warm the earth. It is currently
second only to carbon dioxide in contributing to potential future warming. Being chemically
active, methane enters into chemical reactions in the atmosphere that increase not only the
A trace gas is a gas that is a minor constituent of the atmosphere. The most important trace gases
contributing to the greenhouse effect include water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, ammonia,
nitrous oxide, and sulfur dioxide.
-------
1 - 4 INTRODUCTION
abundance of methane, but also atmospheric concentrations of ozone7 and stratospheric
concentrations of water vapor, which are both greenhouse gases.
Methane is emitted into the atmosphere largely by anthropogenic sources, which currently
account for approximately 70 percent of the estimated 500 teragrams (Tg) of annual global
methane emissions.8 Anthropogenic sources of methane emissions include: natural gas and
oil systems; coal mining; landfills; domesticated ruminant livestock; liquid and solid wastes;
rice cultivation; and biomass burning. Natural sources of methane, which currently account
for the remaining 30 percent of global emissions, include natural wetlands (e.g., tundra, bogs,
swamps), termites, wildfires, methane hydrates, oceans and freshwaters.
The concentration of methane in the atmosphere is determined by the balance of the input
rate, which is increasing due to human activity, and the removal rate. The primary sink
(removal mechanism) for atmospheric methane is its reaction with hydroxyl (OH) radicals in
the troposphere. In this reaction, methane is converted into water vapor and carbon
monoxide, which is in turn converted into carbon dioxide (CO2). The atmospheric
concentration of OH radicals is determined by complex reactions involving methane, carbon
monoxide, non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), nitrogen oxides, and tropospherrc ozone. The
size of an OH sink can vary and may actually decrease in response to increasing levels of
methane (IPCC, 1992a). A small amount of methane is also removed from the atmosphere
through oxidation in dry soils. Compared to removal by reaction with OH, this oxidation
mechanism is believed to be relatively small. There are no significant anthropogenic activities
that remove methane from the atmosphere. Methane's atmospheric lifetime is presently
estimated to be about 10 years (IPCC, 1992a).
Atmospheric Levels of Methane Are Rising
The concentration of methane in the atmosphere has been steadily increasing. The rise in
methane concentrations has been well-documented in recent studies and corroborated by
measurements from different locations and several monitoring groups. The principal methods
for estimating methane concentrations over time have been analysis of ice core data and
direct atmospheric measurements.
Analyses of ice cores in Antarctica and Greenland have yielded estimates of atmospheric
methane concentrations of approximately 0.35 parts per million by volume (ppmv) to 0.65
ppmv for the period between 10,000 and 160,000 years ago. Similar analyses of air in ice
cores have placed atmospheric methane concentrations at approximately 0.8 ppmv for the
period between 200 and 2,000 years ago. The level of methane rose to about 0.9 pprnv at
the beginning of this century (IPCC, 1990a).
7 While methane does not contribute significantly to the formation of urban smog, methane is a major
concern in the formation of ozone in the free troposphere.
8 The portion of total methane emissions from anthropogenic sources is based on IPCC (1992a). Total
annual methane emissions is based on Crutzen (1991).
-------
INTRODUCTION
1 -5
Direct measurement of the global atmospheric methane concentration was begun in 1978.
At that time, the global atmospheric methane concentration was calculated to be 1.51 ppmv.
In 1990, the level was approximately 1.72 ppmv -- nearly double the concentration level
estimated for the beginning of this century (IPCC, 1990a). A summary of the ice core data
and direct measurement data showing the increase in atmospheric methane concentrations
is provided in Exhibit 1-1. In addition to ice core data and direct atmospheric measurements,
analysis of infrared solar spectra has shown that the atmospheric concentration of methane
increased by about 30 percent over the last 40 years (Rinsland et al., 1985).
Exhibit 1-1
Global Methane Concentrations
1800-
1300-
800-
O
300-
• Modvn record
• Slpte tea core
• Byrd tee core
« Dye tot core
° Voetok tee core
0« 10* 10» 10* 1
Years Before Present (1990 A.D.)
10°
ABDM! rtMcpherfc CH* <
ith
riac the part 160,000 ynn
(derived tnm toe c*m tmt the NOAA/CMDL lUnk iMpUag •cfamfc).
Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory/Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center,
August 1990
At present, the atmospheric level of methane of 1.72 ppmv is approximately 4,900 Tg (IPCC,
1990a). This amount is thought to be increasing by about 30 to 40 Tg per year (Steele et al.,
1992). Atmospheric methane concentrations are expected to continue to increase, although
global measurement programs indicate that the rate of increase appears to have slowed in the
last several years (WMO, 1990; Steele et al., 1992). The reason for this is currently not well
understood. Given a continuation of the current annual rate of increase of atmospheric
methane of about 0.0095 to 0.0133 ppmv, the atmospheric concentration of methane would
-------
1 - 6 INTRODUCTION
exceed 2.0 ppmv by the year 2020. Recent models of expected future emissions and
atmospheric processes indicate that without controls, atmospheric concentrations could range
from 3.0 ppmv to over 4.0 ppmv by the year 2100 (USEPA, 1989; IPCC, 1992a), although
these scenarios should be reinvestigated using the most recent information on methane
concentration trends.
Methane and Global Climate Change
Methane's increasing concentration in the atmosphere has important implications for global
climate change. Methane is very effective at absorbing infrared radiation (IR) reflected by the
earth's surface. By absorbing IR and inhibiting its release into space, methane in the
atmosphere contributes to increased atmospheric and surface temperatures. This process is
commonly referred to as the "greenhouse effect."
A gram of methane is about 35 times more effective at warming the surface of the earth than
a gram of CO2 over a 20 year timeframe (IPCC, 1992a). In addition to this direct radiative
forcing, methane's participation in chemical reactions in the atmosphere indirectly contributes
to global warming by influencing the amount of ozone in the troposphere and stratosphere,
the amount of hydroxyl in the troposphere, and the amount of water vapor in the
stratsophere; these reactions are discussed in more detail below. Methane's indirect effect
on global warming resulting from these chemical reactions could be equal in magnitude to its
direct effect, although considerable uncertainty remains (IPCC, 1992a).9
When compared to CO2/ methane's greater direct and indirect impacts per gram of emissions
is mitigated somewhat by its shorter atmospheric lifetime of around 10 years, compared with
approximately 120 years for CO2 (IPCC, 1992a). Considering methane's atmospheric lifetime
and its effect on tropospheric ozone, a gram of methane has a global warming potential (GWP)
21 times greater than a gram of CO2 over a 100 year time period (IPCC, 1992a). It has been
estimated that approximately 18 percent of the greenhouse effect is due to increasing
atmostpheric methane concentrations. The total contribution to radiative forcing of all
greenhouse gases in 1990 is shown in Exhibit 1-2.
Models of atmospheric chemical processes have indicated that increasing methane
concentrations result in net ozone production in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, and
net ozone destruction in the upper stratosphere. It has been calculated that methane's net
effect in these processes is to cause an increase in ozone (Wuebbles and Tamaresis,
1992).10
9 The uncertainty in the GWPs for methane result largely from the indirect effects of methane in the
atmosphere, which have not been fully characterized. Some of these uncertainties will be reduced over
the next several years through the efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as well as
others, including EPA's Office of Research and Development.
10 As described in IPCC (1990), "Ozone plays an important dual role in affecting climate. While C02 and
other greenhouse gases are relatively well-mixed in the atmosphere, the climatic effect of ozone depends
on its distribution in the troposphere and stratosphere, as well as on its total amount in the atmosphere.
Ozone is a primary absorber of solar radiation in the stratosphere, where it is directly responsible for the
increase in temperature with altitude. Ozone is also an important absorber of infrared radiation. The
balance between these radiative processes determines the net effect of ozone on climate."
-------
INTRODUCTION
1 -7
As the most abundant organic species in the atmosphere, methane also plays an influential
role in determining the oxidizing capacity of the troposphere. Through reactions with
hydroxyl, 80 to 90 percent of methane destruction occurs in the troposphere (Cicerone and
Oremland, 1988). Increasing methane levels could reduce hydroxyl, which would result in a
further increase in the methane concentration. A decrease in the oxidizing capacity of the
troposphere would increase not only the atmospheric lifetime of methane, but also the lifetime
of other important greenhouse gases, and would permit transport of pollutants over long
distances, resulting in atmospheric changes even in remote regions (Wuebbles and Tamaresis,
1992). For example, the atmospheric lifetimes of hydrogenated-CFCs (HCFCs) may be
increased, thereby reducing their desirability as substitutes for CFCs.
Exhibit 1-2
Global Contribution to Integrated Radiative Forcing by Gas for 19901
C02-Equivalent Basis Using IPCC 1990 GWPs for a 100-Year Time Horizon
CH4 18.0%
CO2 66.0%
Note: Estimated on a carbon dioxide equivalent basis using IPCC (1990a) global warming potentials
(GWPs) for a 100-year time horizon. Anthropogenic emissions only.
1 This chart is used to present a general understanding of methane's contribution to future warming
based on the GWPs presented in IPCC (1990a). However, these GWPs are constantly being revised
due to a variety of scientific and methodological issues. It is likely that the contribution of CFCs
presented will decrease and that the contribution of other gases will be about the same or greater
upon further investigation.
Source: IPCC 1990a
-------
1 - 8 INTRODUCTION
Finally, concentrations of stratospheric water vapor (one of the most important greenhouse
gases) should increase as concentrations of methane increase; methane oxidation reactions
roughly produce two moles of water vapor for each mole of methane that is destroyed
{Wuebbles and Tamaresis, 1992). In addition to the impact on global warming, increases in
stratospheric water vapor concentrations as a result of increased methane concentrations
could contribute to the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), which have been
identified as one factor that enables the chlorine and bromine from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and halon compounds to cause the severe seasonal loss of stratospheric ozone over
Antarctica (WMO, 1990),
Stabilization of Global Methane Levels and Further Reductions
Since atmospheric methane has been increasing at a rate of about 30 to 40 Tg per year,
stabilizing global methane concentrations at current levels would require reductions in
methane emissions of approximately this same amount. Such a reduction represents about
10 percent of current anthropogenic emissions. This percentage reduction is much less than
the percentage reduction necessary to stabilize the other major greenhouse gases: CO2
requires a greater than 60 percent reduction; nitrous oxide requires a 70 to 80 percent
reduction; and chlorofluorocarbons require a 70 to 85 percent reduction (IPCC, 1990b).
Because methane has a relatively short atmospheric lifetime as compared to the other major
greenhouse gases, reductions in methane emissions will help to ameliorate global warming
relatively quickly. Therefore, methane reduction strategies offer an effective means of
slowing global warming in the near term. Exhibit 1-3 compares the effects on future
temperature increases of stabilizing methane concentrations versus maintaining CO2 emissions
at 1990 levels. This exhibit illustrates that stabilizing atmospheric concentrations of methane
will have a virtually identical effect on actual warming as capping CO2 emissions at 1990
levels. The recent evidence that the rate of annual increase in methane emissions is slowing
(Steele et al., 1992) may mean that reductions on the order of 30 to 40 Tg per year could
reduce concentrations to the extent that they fall below the level of stabilization. This result
would also have large benefits for the global atmosphere.
1.2 Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions
Because methane released by anthropogenic activities is generally a wasted resource,
opportunities may exist for low cost, if not profitable, emission reductions. Estimates of
global emissions from these sources are listed in Exhibit 1-4, and an overview of these
emissions is provided below. Depending on the source, it is possible to reduce a significant
portion of the methane currently emitted to the atmosphere through the use of economically
viable technologies. In Volume I: Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions.
the key options for reducing methane emissions from the major sources are identified and
characterized. These options are summarized in Exhibit 1-5 and described below.
-------
INTRODUCTION
1 - 9
Exhibit 1-3
CO, and Methane Reduction Comparison
Actutl
Tumptntun
Roughly Uuittetl •ffitcte en tctual winning
- CO, wiriM/on* •(•MUzal/on
— GH
IPCC-BAU
CH4 stabilization
CO2 capped at1990
CH4 and CO,
1988
2000
2025
2050
2100
Yttf
Assume* 3° equilibrium warming
II111II Constitutes uncertainty rang* du« to NO.
Benefits of methane stabilization where methane emissions are capped at 540 Tg/yr as compared to
capping C02 emissions at 1990 levels (and concentrations grow to over 500 ppm by 2100).
Source: Hogan et al. (1991!
Exhibit 1-4
Global Methane Emissions from Major Sources
Source
Coal Mining, Natural Gas & Petroleum Industry
Ruminant Livestock
Livestock Manure
Landfills
Wastewater
Biomass Burning
Rice Cultivation
Estimated Emissions -
1990(Tg)
70 - 1 20
65-100
1 0 - 20a
20-70
20 - 25
20-80
20 - 1 50
Source: IPCC 1992a
a. Emissions from Livestock Manure reflect revised estimates. Emissions for all other sources
being updated by USEPA (1993b).
are currently
-------
1 - 10
INTRODUCTION
Exhibit 1-5
Summary of Technologies for Reducing Methane Emissions
Source/Technologies
Oil & Natural Gas
Venting & Flaring
Compressor Operations
Detection/Repair
Low Emission Technologies
Coal Mining
Enhanced Gob Recovery
Pre-mining Degasification
Ventilation Air Use
Integrated Recovery
Landfills
Recovery and Utilization
Aerobic Landfills
Source Reduction
Ruminant Livestock
Feed Processing
Strategic Supplementation
Production Enhancers
Improved Genetics
Improved Reproduction
Animal Wastes
Covered Lagoons
Advanced Digesters
Low-Technology Digesters
Availability
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Needs
Demonstration
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
Now
j
Applicability
Applicable for:
- Harsh Conditions
- Older Systems
- System Expansion
Dependent upon:
- Gassy Mines
- Nearby Gas Use
- Available Technology
- Available Capital
Dependent Upon:
- Landfill Design
- Nearby Gas Use
- Available Technology
- Available Capital
Dependent upon:
- Current Management
System
- Available Technology
- Available Capital
- Available Markets
Dependent upon:
- Waste Management
System
- Temperature
- Available Technology
- Available Capital
Benefits
• Improved Safety
• Reduced Gas Loss
• Improved Air Quality
•• Improved Mine
Safety
•• Increased
Productivity
• Clean Energy Source
• Improved Safety
- Improved Air & Water
Quality
• Clean Energy Source
- Improved Productivity
• Improved Health of
Animals
- Reduced Food
Imports
• Improved Water
Quality
• Reduced Health Risk
- Improved Productivity
• Clean Energy Source
Source: IPCC, 1992b
-------
INTRODUCTION 1-11
Oil and Natural Gas Systems
Methane is the primary component of natural gas, and significant methane emissions can
result during all the major phases of the natural gas systems operations: production,
processing, storage, transmission and distribution. Emissions result from normal operations
(including compressor exhaust emissions, emissions from pneumatic devices and fugitive
emissions); during routine maintenance (including equipment blowdown and venting, well
workovers and scraper operations); and during system upsets when methane is emitted due
to sudden, unplanned pressure changes or mishaps. Because natural gas is often found in
conjunction with oil, gas leakage during oil exploration and production is also a source of
emissions. Current global emissions from oil and gas systems are estimated to be 30 to 65
Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b).11
The technical nature of emissions from natural gas systems is well understood and emissions
are largely amenable to technological solutions, including reduced venting and flaring during
production, improved compressor operation, leak detection and pipeline repair, and installation
of pipeline control devices that reduce or eliminate venting. These technologies can lead to
large reductions in methane, some of which are economical and can also result in improved
safety, increased productivity (sales) through reduced losses, and improved air quality.
Coal Mining
Methane and coal are formed together during coalification, a process in which vegetation is
converted into coal by biological and geological forces. Methane is stored within coal seams
and surrounding rock strata and is released to the atmosphere during mining or through natural
erosion. In underground mines, methane is hazardous because it is explosive in low
concentrations (5 to 15 percent) when mixed with air. Therefore, underground mines use
ventilation and degasification systems to remove methane from mine workings; this methane
is usually vented to the atmosphere. In surface mines, methane is emitted directly to the
atmosphere as the rock strata overlying the coal seam are removed. The amount of methane
released from a mine depends mainly upon the type of coal and the depth of the coal seam.
For example, deeper coal can hold more methane. This means that emissions from coal
mining are likely to increase in the future as shallower reserves are depleted, and deeper coal
is mined. Current global coal mine emissions are estimated to be 24 to 40 Tg per year
(USEPA, 1993b).
Several technologies are available for recovering and utilizing methane that would otherwise
be released to the atmosphere during coal mining. Methane can be recovered before, during
and after mining using in-mine or surface recovery techniques. Where surface recovery
methods are used, methane recovery can begin ten or more years before mining occurs. The
recovered gas can vary in quality, depending on whether it has been contaminated with mine
air during the recovery process. Depending on its quality, quantity and local market
conditions, it can be used for power generation or injected into a pipeline system and used
directly by residential or industrial customers. Among the additional benefits of expanded
11 It is estimated that 70 to 80 percent of this total is emitted from natural gas systems worldwide, and 20
to 30 percent from oil systems.
-------
1-12 INTRODUCTION
recovery and use of methane at coal mines are improved mine safety and productivity
(because methane is explosive in low concentrations in air) and a larger domestic supply of
clean-burning natural gas.
Landfills
Methane is generated in landfills as a direct result of the natural decomposition of solid waste
primarily under anaerobic conditions (in the absence of oxygen). The organic component of
landfilled waste is broken down by bacteria in a complex biological process that produces
methane, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. Global emissions are estimated to be 20 to
60 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b).
Several options exist for recovering or reducing the methane produced from landfills. One
option is to recover and utilize the methane for electricity generation, for direct use as a fuel,
or for sale as natural gas. An emission reduction strategy of much greater technical
complexity is to design aerobic landfills so that less methane is produced. Aerobic designs
increase the rate of decomposition and reduce emissions of harmful and odorous trace gases.
Finally, emission reductions can be achieved through reducing the quantity of waste that is
landfilled by recycling material, incinerating solid waste and composting organic material.
Additional benefits that result from these emission reduction strategies include improved air
and water quality and reduced risk of fire and explosion.
Ruminant Livestock
Ruminant animals (cattle, sheep, buffalo, goats, and camels) produce significant quantities of
methane as part of their normal digestive processes. Ruminant animals are characterized by
a large "fore-stomach" or rumen, in which microbial fermentation converts feed into products
that can be digested and utilized by the animal. The microbial fermentation enables ruminant
animals to utilize coarse forages that monogastric animals, including humans, cannot digest.
Methane is produced by rumen methanogenic bacteria as a byproduct of normal rumen
fermentation, and then is exhaled or eructated by the animal. The amount of methane
produced is dependent upon both animal type and management practices. Global emissions
are estimated to be 65 to 100 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b).
Many opportunities exist for reducing methane emissions from ruminant animals. The most
beneficial emission reduction option for any given livestock system will depend on a number
of factors including: feeding practices; climate; economic and physical infrastructure; and
traditions and customs. In nearly all cases, however, methane emissions per unit of product
(e.g., methane emissions per kg of milk produced) can be reduced by improving animal
productivity. Options for reducing methane emissions from ruminant livestock include:
improved nutrition through mechanical and chemical feed processing; improved nutrition
through strategic supplementation; production enhancing agents; improved production through
improved genetic characteristics; and improved production efficiency through improved
reproduction.
-------
INTRODUCTION 1-13
Livestock Manure and Other Sources
In many countries, potential may exist to reduce methane emissions from additional sources,
including livestock manure, wastewater management, rice cultivation, biomass burning, and
fossil fuel combustion. Current estimates of methane emissions from these sources
worldwide range from about 70 to 200 Tg per year or more (USEPA, 1993b).
A number of technically and economically feasible options have been identified to reduce
emissions from livestock manure. Many developed countries manage the wastes from large
numbers of cattle, swine, and poultry using liquid waste management systems that are
conducive to anaerobic fermentation of the wastes and methane production. Global emissions
from livestock manure are estimated to be 10 to 18 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b). The most
promising option for reducing methane emissions from livestock manure is to recover methane
for use as an on-farm energy source to generate electricity, to provide heating, or to produce
cooling.
Technically and economically feasible options have also been identified to reduce emissions
from wastewater and fossil fuel combustion. Options for the other sources are being
researched, developed, and demonstrated, and should be available in the future. Some types
of actions to promote methane reduction from these sources worldwide may include
technology and information transfer programs, funding assistance, country planning studies,
and policy assistance. In addition to reducing methane emissions, controlling and recovering
methane from these sources can provide benefits such as: reduced ground and surface water
pollution; improved public health; odor reduction; and reliable renewable energy resources.
1.3 Financing of International Projects with Methane Reduction
Potential
An important factor in the implementation of international options for reducing methane
emissions is financing. Lesser developed countries and countries with economies in transition
present uncertain business environments to potential investors. Political instability, lack of
hard currency, uncertain legal and regulatory systems, poor infrastructure, and inadequate
information are some of the factors that increase the risks of investing in methane emissions
reductions overseas. Therefore, obtaining adequate financing often involves relying on various
combinations of private financing, donor assistance, or governmental support for exports.
Several potential sources of financing exist for international projects to reduce methane
emissions, though each has its specific focus. Major potential sources of direct project
financing include:
• World Bank;
• Regional Multilateral Development Banks;
• Global Environmental Facility (GEF);
• U.S. Government Agencies;
• Private Foundations; and
• Commercial Banks, Investment Firms, and Private Companies.
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1-14 INTRODUCTION
Other potential U.S. sources of support for international projects to reduce methane
emissions, though more indirect, are:
« U.S. Export-Import Bank (Exlm Bank);
• Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC);
• U.S. Country Studies Program; and
• U.S. Trade and Development Program.
World Bank
The World Bank supports projects by lending to governments, which in turn distribute funds
to organizations that undertake projects. To benefit from this funding, U.S. investors must
collaborate with governments and local counterparts in the host country. World Bank funds
support general development of agriculture and energy systems, both important sectors for
methane reduction options. It is thus likely that general development projects will overlap
with methane reduction opportunities.
Regional Multilateral Development Banks
The Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank, Inter-American Development Bank,
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and others, though smaller than the
World Bank, also fund development projects in their regions. In some regions and countries,
such as Central America, regional banks provide greater financial assistance than the World
Bank.
Multilateral development banks (including the World Bank) tend to fund projects that have
substantial local benefits for the country or region in question. Therefore, methane mitigation
projects most likely to be funded by these sources are those that will generate significant local
benefits in addition to the global environmental benefits of combating climate change.
Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
GEF was created in 1990 to provide incremental resources for projects that generate global
environmental benefits in four specific areas; greenhouse gases, biological diversity,
international waters, and (to a limited extent) ozone depletion. GEF is managed by the World
Bank, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP). In 1992, GEF was made the interim financial mechanism for
implementation of the Framework Convention on Climate Change.
GEF is the source of financing most directly aligned with the objectives of methane emissions
reduction projects. GEF has funded a technical assistance project to demonstrate methane
reduction opportunities at coal mines in China. GEF is currently initiating projects to reduce
methane leakage from natural gas pipelines in Russia and China and is considering additional
coal mine methane projects. In addition, GEF recently approved technical assistance to a
biogas facility in Tanzania. While GEF is an attractive funding source, it is intended to
demonstrate technologies and overcome implementation obstacles in new areas. Thus it will
likely not be able to fund all economically feasible methane reduction projects. GEF projects
will probably be most useful as demonstrations for technologies in specific regions (as in the
case of Tanzania biogas), and as sources of information on implementation obstacles.
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INTRODUCTION 1-15
U.S. Government Agencies
Many U.S. Government agencies finance international projects as part of their programs.
Among the most relevant for methane reductions are U.S. Agency for International
Development, Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Agriculture, Department of
Commerce, Department of Energy, Department of State, and Department of Treasury. Of the
multitude of programs housed in these agencies that are potential sources of support for
methane reduction projects, most have primary objectives unrelated or indirectly related to
climate change, such as promotion of U.S. exports, improvement of local environmental
conditions and creation of new energy sources. To the extent methane reduction projects can
meet these other objectives, they could be eligible for funding.
Private Foundations and Non-Profit Organizations
Many private foundations and non-profit organizations provide support for international
environmental protection and development projects, including W. Alton Jones Foundation, the
Ford Foundation, and the Rockefeller Foundation. The pool of money available through these
sources is relatively small and distributed among a wide variety of environmental and non-
environmental projects. Non-profit organizations, such as the Environmental Defense Fund,
the Natural Resources Defense Council, and the World Wildlife Fund, though directly
concerned and active on climate change, usually do not have sufficient resources to undertake
projects without foundation, government, or private sector support.
Commercial Banks. Investment Firms, and Private Companies
Commercial financing (banks, investment firms) for methane reduction projects or other
projects producing environmental benefits (e.g., energy efficiency) may be difficult to obtain,
especially when these projects demonstrate new technologies or when they are being
developed in countries with unstable economies. Debt or equity capital is often difficult to
attract, so companies are left to their own resources to finance projects. Smaller companies
manufacturing new technologies and providing new services may not have the resources to
absorb setbacks which can easily occur under changing economic conditions of developing
countries.
Demonstration projects funded by the GEF can provide important information on the
probability of success of some types of projects, and lending by multilateral development
banks and governments can directly support projects. Indirect support of private sector
initiatives is also supplied by Exlm Bank, OPIC, the U.S. Country Studies Program and the U.S.
Trade and Development Program.
U.S. Export-Import Bank (Exlm Bank)
The Exlm Bank is an independent government agency that facilitates exports of U.S. goods
and services, particularly in developing countries. Its main programs include direct loans to
foreign borrowers, export credit guarantees and insurance, and discount loans. Since it is not
a development assistance agency, it must have reasonable assurance of repayment.
-------
1-16 INTRODUCTION
Overseas Private Investment Corporation
OPIC is a public-private corporation created by Congress that directly oversees projects
sponsored by U.S. private investors in developing countries and provides insurance against
political risks for U.S. private investments in those countries. More than 90 percent of OPIC's
money goes to loan guarantees, with a small amount going to direct project financing,
including the funding of market assessments and pre-feasibility studies.
U.S. Country Studies Program
In February 1992, the United States announced an initiative to provide $25 million over 2
years to help countries prepare studies to address climate change. Under this new initiative,
the U.S. Government will provide financial and technical support to developing countries and
countries with economies in transition. These studies will enable countries to develop
inventories of their anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, assess their vulnerabilities
to climate change, and evaluate response strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate
change.
Preliminary work indicates that methane emissions reductions will be an important element
of the reduction strategies in several countries. By working with host governments and
helping them focus on the most promising areas for reductions, the Country Studies Program
will ease investments in all greenhouse gas mitigation projects in host countries.
U.S. Trade and Development Agency
U.S. Trade and Development Agency (TDA) is an independent agency that funds feasibility
and planning studies for projects involving export markets for U.S. goods and services. Its
focus is primarily on large public sector projects, and it must be confident that project
development will result in the procurement of U.S. goods and services before it commits
funds. TDA is currently funding a feasibility study of a methane reduction project at coal
mines in Poland. It has also funded a variety of natural gas projects in Russia.
1.4 Methane Reduction Options in Countries of Interest
This report examines how currently existing technologies for reducing methane emissions
could be employed in some of the key emitting countries for the various methane sources.
In many cases, several key countries account for most of the emissions from the major
methane sources. For example, three countries contribute over 70 percent of emissions from
global coal mining activities. Four countries contribute over 80 percent of global emissions
from the production and transportation of natural gas. In some cases, however, such as with
ruminant livestock, methane emissions are fairly evenly distributed worldwide. No individual
country is responsible for more than 10 to 15 percent of global emissions from this source.
In cases such as this, countries discussed in this volume were selected primarily according
to the feasibility of achieving reductions, or because they are representative of regions of
interest. The key countries of interest and their respective methane emissions from each of
the major sources are presented in Exhibit 1-6. This exhibit also shows the percentage of
-------
INTRODUCTION
1 -17
methane emissions (excluding the emissions from the U.S.) that are contributed by these key
countries.
Exhibit 1-6
Methane Emissions from Key Countries, by Source
Source/Country
-------
1-18 INTRODUCTION
1.5 Overview of Report
This report is organized as follows:
Volume i: Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions: Volume I presents
technical assessments of the principal methane recovery and utilization technologies available
for each of the major sources. The report has separate chapters dealing with technologies to
reduce methane from the following sources:
Landfills;
Oil and Natural Gas Systems;
Coal Mining;
Combustion: Mobile and Stationary Sources;
Ruminant Livestock;
Livestock Manure;
Wastewater Management;
Biomass Burning; and.
Rice Cultivation.
For each methane source, the available technologies for reducing emissions are described,
including technical characteristics, costs, availability, applicability, barriers to implementation,
and additional benefits of implementation. These categories were created by the IPCC
Response Strategies Working Group, and the information contained in this volume is a
compilation of submissions by IPCC member countries. These technical assessments have
been reviewed by government officials and experts in these countries.
Volume II: International Opportunities for Reducing Methane Emissions: This report
summarizes the particular conditions of key emitting countries, in terms of the most promising
options for reducing emissions, the possible emission reductions, and the types of technology
transfer programs which may increase the implementation of the economically viable emission
reduction technologies. This report has chapters on:
Landfills;
• Oil and Natural Gas Systems;
Coal Mining;
Ruminant Livestock; and.
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INTRODUCTION 1-19
Other Sources (including Livestock Manure, Wastewater Management, Biomass
Burning, Fossil Fuel Combustion, and Rice Cultivation).
For each of these sources, the overall emission reduction potential is discussed and case
studies of the key international sources are presented.
-------
1 - 20 INTRODUCTION
1.6 References
Cicerone, R.J. and R.S. Oremland (1988), "Biogeochemical Aspects of Atmospheric
Methane," in Global Bioqeochemical Cycles, vol. 2, p. 299-327.
Crutzen, P.J. (1991), "Methane's Sinks and Sources" in Nature No. 350 April, 1991.
Hogan, K. B., J.S. Hoffman, and A.M. Thompson (1991), "Methane on the Greenhouse
Agenda," in Nature No. 354 November 21, 1991 pp. 181-182.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1990a), Climate Change: The IPCC
Scientific Assessment. Report prepared for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change by
Working Group 1, eds. J.T. Houghton, G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums, Meteorological Office,
Bracknell, United Kingdom.
IPCC (1990b), Methane Emissions and Opportunities for Control, Workshop Results of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Response Strategies Working Group.
September, 1990.
IPCC (1992a), Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific
Assessment, report prepared for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. J.T.
Houghton, B.A. Callander and S.K. Varney, Great Britain: Cambridge University Press.
IPPC (1992b). Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions: Background Document
of the Response Strategies Working Group, prepared by the U.S./Japan Working Group on
Methane [Draft - January, 1 992]
Lashof, D. (1989), "The Dynamic greenhouse: Feedback processes that may influence future
concentrations of atmospheric trace gases and climate change," in Climate Change No. 14
pp. 213-242. As cited in IPCC, 1990a.
Oak-Ridge National Laboratory/The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (1990),
Trends '90. U.S. Department of Energy, Atmospheric and Climate Research Division. Oak
Ridge, Tennessee.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory/The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (1992),
Trends '91. U.S. Department of Energy, Atmospheric and Climate Research Division. Oak
Ridge, Tennessee.
Prinn, R., D. Cunnold, R. Rasmussen, P. Simmonds, F. Alyea, A. Crawford, P. Fraser, and R.
Rosen (1987), "Atmospheric trends in methylchloroform and the global average for the
hydroxyl radical," in Science No. 238 pp. 945-950. As cited in IPCC, 1990a.
Rinsland, C.P., J.S. Levine, and T. Miles (1985), "Concentration of methane in the
troposphere deduced from 1951 infrared solar spectra," in Nature No. 330 pp. 245-249. As
cited in IPCC, 1990a.
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INTRODUCTION 1-21
Steele, L.P., E.J. Dlugokencky, P.M. Lang, P.P. Tans, B.C. Martin, and K.A. Masarie (1992),
"Slowing Down of the Global Accumulation of Atmospheric Methane During the 1980's,"
Nature, vol. 358, July 23, 1992, pp 313-316.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1989), Policy Options for
Stabilizing Global Climate. Report to Congress, eds. Daniel A. Lashof and Dennis A. Tirpak,
Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation (OPPE), Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1990), Methane Emissions and Opportunities for Control: Workshop Results of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Coordinated by Japan Environment Agency and
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/Office of Air and Radiation, September 1990,
Washington, DC. EPA/400/9-90/007.
USEPA (1993a), Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in the United States.
USEPA/OAR (Office of Air and Radiation), Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993b), Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane, (in progress), USEPA/OPPE
(Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation), Washington, D.C.
Vaghjiani, G.L. and A.R. Ravishankara (1991), "New Measurement of the Rate Coefficient
for the Reaction of OH with Methane" in Nature. April 4, 1991 pp. 406-409.
WMO (World Meteorological Organization) (1990), Scientific Assessment of Stratospheric
Ozone: 1989. World Meteorological Organization Global Ozone Research and Monitoring
Project - Report No. 20. Geneva, Switzerland.
Wuebbles, D.J. and J.S. Tamaresis (1992), "The Role of Methane in the Global Environment,"
paper prepared for submittal to the NATO Advanced Research Workshop, NATO-ASI Book:
Atmospheric Methane. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, March 19, 1992.
-------
CHAPTER Two
LANDFILLS
2.1 Introduction
There are two primary options for reducing methane emissions from landfills:
1) Capture and use the methane to produce energy. The landfilling of organic wastes
presents an opportunity for energy recovery and substantial reductions in methane
emissions in many countries around the world. Landfill gas can be put to a number of
cost-effective uses, including electricity generation, industrial use, and residential cooking
and heating.
2) Reduce the quantity of waste that enters landfills. Waste management programs that
prevent or reduce the generation of methane, such as recycling programs for paper and
composting of other organic wastes, can reduce methane emissions and yield useful
products such as sanitized fertilizer for use in agricultural areas.
These options are in use, to some extent, in both developed and developing countries. There
are over 200 landfill gas recovery projects worldwide (providing roughly 50 million MBTU of
energy) and many source reduction and recycling projects (Richards, 1989; USEPA, 1993b).
There is substantial opportunity to expand the use of these options, however. For example,
there are thought to be more than 1000 potential new sites for landfill gas recovery in
developed countries alone (Richards, 1989).
Based on currently available technologies, it is technically feasible to reduce methane
emissions from landfills globally by over 50 percent (USEPA, 1990; Richards, 1989). If global
methane emissions from this source are 20 to 60 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b), then potential
reductions could be 10 to 25 Tg CH4 per year or more. A large portion of the potential
reductions is in the United States, which contributes about 20 to 35 percent of global
methane emissions from landfills (USEPA, 1993a). Furthermore, these reductions are likely
to be achieved by the end of the decade since the United States has recently proposed
regulations to limit air emissions (i.e., air toxics and volatile organic compounds) from landfills
which, when implemented, will reduce methane emissions significantly, while affecting just
a portion of existing landfills (Federal Register, 1992). The landfills affected by the rule will
tend to be larger landfills with substantial methane generation, which are the best candidates
for profitable energy recovery projects (USEPA, 1993c).
The potential for methane reductions will increase in the coming decades as more organic
wastes are generated and disposed of in landfills, particularly in landfills surrounding rapidly
growing urban centers in many developing countries. Furthermore, there is a trend toward
larger, more regionalized sanitary landfills, which tend to have higher methane emissions.
Thus, emissions in many countries may increase and additional opportunities for energy
recovery will be created.
This chapter describes the opportunities for reducing methane emissions to the atmosphere
from the disposal of municipal wastes. Importantly, such operations provide a range of
benefits in addition to reducing methane emissions, such as increased safety (reduced risk of
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2 - 2 LANDFILLS
fire) at landfills, economic production of a useful fuel, reduced emissions of air pollutants, and
improved water quality. The chapter first presents background information on global
emissions of methane from landfills and the available technologies for profitably reducing
these emissions. The use of these technologies in specific countries is then examined, with
an emphasis on the types of programs that could be designed and implemented to promote
the recovery of valuable materials and products. Although such programs are underway in
several countries, there are many opportunities to enhance these efforts through technology
exchange and assistance programs. This chapter examines the opportunities for reducing
methane emissions from landfills in Brazil, India, and Poland. Landfill gas recovery in the
United Kingdom is also discussed. Emissions reduction opportunities in the United States are
addressed in EPA's "Options for Reducing Methane Emissions in the United States" (USEPA,
1993c).
2.2 Methane Emissions
Until the early 1970s the majority of refuse generated was deposited and burnt in "dumps"
which were typically holes in the ground. This disposal method created numerous problems,
including: the lack of cover attracted flies; the burning led to uncontrolled fires and air quality
problems; and the lack of liners led to groundwater contamination. Although sanitary landfills
eliminated many of these problems, other problems persist. Landfills produce large quantities
of methane gas as the organic matter in the refuse decomposes in the anaerobic environment
of the landfill. Unless strict engineering principles are applied, groundwater contamination can
also result.
Emissions from the anaerobic decomposition of wastes disposed in landfills are a major global
source of methane, contributing between 20 and 60 Tg of methane annually (USEPA, 1993b).
The range of estimated emissions is based on a number of studies employing different
methodologies (Bingemer and Crutzen, 1987; Orlich, 1990; OECD, 1991; and USEPA,
1993b). The major uncertainties in these estimates include the amount of organic material
actually disposed of annually in landfills by different countries, the portion of the organic
wastes that decompose anaerobically, and the extent to which these wastes will ultimately
decompose.
About two-thirds of methane emissions from landfills come from the more developed countries
of the world, another 15 percent from countries with transitional economies, and 20 percent
from lesser developed countries (USEPA, 1993b). Ten countries represent about 60 to 70
percent of methane emissions from landfills. The country with the largest emissions, by far,
is the United States. The next largest emitters are China, Canada, Germany, the United
Kingdom, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (Exhibit 2-1).
The differences in emissions result primarily from the larger quantities of waste generated in
developed countries (1 to 2 kg/capita/day versus 0.4 to 0.9 kg/capita/day in developing
countries), as well as from a higher component of degradable organic matter in the waste of
developed countries (Orlich, 1990; Bingemer and Crutzen, 1987). Differences in waste
management practices between developed and developing countries also contribute to the
differences in the quantity of methane emitted. For example, while most generated waste in
developed countries is disposed of in landfills, wastes in many developing countries are
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LANDFILLS
2-3
Exhibit 2-1
Key Emitters of Methane Emissions from Landfills
Country
United States"
United Kingdom1*'0
Chinab
Germany1*
Canadab'd
ltalyb>e
Brazil*
C.I.S.b
Japanb
Australia13'*
Franceb
Spainb
lndiab
Poland6'8
Other
TOTALb
Waste Landfilled
Annually1
(To/vrt
189.0
25.0
166.3
159.3
21.3
18.3
22.0
53.7
11.4
12.3
6.7
8.7
124.6
11.5
-
-
Estimated Emissions2 (Tg/yr)
tow
8.0
1.0
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.1
5.1
21.0
High
12.0
3.0
3.9
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.2
2.5
1.0
1.5
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.4
22.4
57.0
a: USEPA, 1993a
b: USEPA, 1993b
c: Personal Communication, Liz Aitchison, ETSU, Harwell Laboratory, 1993
d: Jacques, 1992
e: Gaudioso etal., 1993
f: Australian Draft Inventory Preparation Group, 1991
g: Personal Communication, Mike Pyka, Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency, 1993
1 Based on per capita waste generation estimates and an estimated percentage of waste landfilled, as
in OECO, 1991, except where indicated. These estimates for landfilled waste typically are highly
uncertain. Developing country estimates are particularly uncertain as they typically use per capita
generation estimates from urban studies. In estimating emissions, this and other factors have been
taken into account.
2 Estimated upper and lower bounds are based primarily on recent drafts of the Report to Congress,
Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane (USEPA, 1 993b), as well as country specific data.
These estimates will likely change as the Report to Congress is finalized.
-------
2 - 4 LANDFILLS
extensively recovered and recycled on an informal basis. For example, it is estimated that
scavengers in Mexico City recover at least 25 percent of the mixed waste and about 70
percent of the industrial solid waste (Elkington and Shopley, 1989). In some cities in India,
50 to 100 percent of the waste may be recovered and diverted for use as animal fodder or
sent directly to agricultural farms outside the city for use as fertilizer (Rajabapaiah, 1989).
In the 1960s and 1970s, waste generation, and therefore methane emissions, increased
dramatically in the United States and other industrialized countries. While these emissions are
now leveling off, waste generation in lesser developed countries is expected to double by the
year 2000 (IPCC, 1990). In the near future, the developing countries will likely be the fastest
growing source of methane emissions from landfills, as urban populations grow and
industrialization continues. Based on projections of future emissions (Kresse and Ringeltaube,
1982), lesser developed countries may contribute 30 to 40 percent of global emissions from
landfills in 2000.
2.3 Emission Reduction Opportunities
There are two approaches to reducing methane emissions from landfills. First, the methane
generated in landfills can be recovered and used to produce energy. Landfill gas, which is
generally 50 percent methane, is a relatively inexpensive fuel. Furthermore, landfills are often
located near urban centers that need energy. Second, the quantity of landfilled waste can be
reduced through source reduction, recycling, and other waste management practices. These
approaches are discussed below in greater detail.
Recovery and Use of Landfill Gas: A number of options exist for cost-effectively
recovering methane from landfills. Recovery technologies have been demonstrated and
are in use, already reducing methane emissions in several countries. There is great
potential for expanding these technologies in developed countries, and there are many
opportunities to adapt technologies and practices to the conditions existing in developing
countries. The available technical options are summarized in Exhibit 2-2 and more fully
described in Volume I of this report.
The recovery and utilization of methane generated in landfills involves practices that can
be expanded throughout the world. Anaerobic conditions can be maintained in almost any
landfill, including landfills covered with thin layers of soil or clay as well as uncovered
landfills which are sufficiently dense or deep (Bhide et al., 1990). Between 50 and 85
percent of the landfill gas can typically be recovered from covered landfills, with well-
designed projects achieving almost complete gas recovery. Options for using the
recovered gas are discussed below.
Electricity Generation and Co-Generation. The recovered methane can be used to
power an electricity generator, with the generated electricity used on-site or sold to
others for use. The waste heat energy produced during electrical generation can also
be recovered and used for local heating needs. Electricity generation requires relatively
large amounts of landfill gas, and is therefore suitable for larger landfills. Economic
viability depends primarily upon the price at which the electricity can be sold.
Historically, over 50 percent of landfill projects worldwide have been for electricity
generation (Richards, 1989), including projects in the United States, United Kingdom,
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LANDFILLS
2-5
Exhibit 2-2
Summary of the Technical Options for Reducing Methane Emissions from Landfills
Considerations
Recovery /Red u ction
Techniques
Gas Use/Combustion
Options
Availability
Capital Requirements
Technical Complexity
Applicability
Methane Reductions2
Methane Recovery
and Utilization
• Recovery Wells
• Collection Systems
• Electricity Generation
• Natural Gas Supply
Flaring
Currently Available
• Medium
• Medium/High
Existing and New
Landfills
• Landfill Design
• Nearby Gas Use
Capital and Technology
Dependent
• 50-90%
Aerobic Landfill
Management
Semi-Aerobic Landfills
• Recirculatory Semi-
Aerobic
Aerobic Landfills
-
Currently Available
Under Development
• Medium/High
• High
Smaller Landfills
New Landfills
• Capital and Technology
Dependent
• Semi-aerobic: 50%
• Others: 80% in tests
Reduced Landfilling
of Waste
Source Reduction
• Incineration
• Composting
-
Currently Available
• Low/Medium
• Low/Medium
Widely Applicable
• Up to 100%
Source: USEPA, 1993d
1 All three options are currently available. Continued improvements over the next decades will improve
their efficiency and economic attractiveness.
2 These are reductions that may be achieved at individual landfills.
Germany, Brazil, India, and the Netherlands. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) Fund is
planning to undertake a project in Lahore, Pakistan that will recover over 14 million cubic
meters (m3) per year of landfill gas (over a period of five years) from a large sanitary landfill
designed to handle 730,000 tons of waste disposed of annually by the city's 5 million
inhabitants.
Medium BTU gas. Landfill gas can be used directly as a medium BTU fuel to provide
heating, cooling, or steam for industrial processes, or for other industrial purposes.
Recovered landfill gas is already profitably used as a boiler fuel and for other industrial
and residential applications in a variety of countries, including the United States, Brazil,
South Africa and Chile. For example, in a very low cost and low technology gas
recovery project operating in Manaus, Brazil, landfill gas is recovered with garden
hoses from hand drilled wells, compressed, and used without cleaning as a gas burner
fuel in a nearby communal kitchen (Monteiro, 1992).
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2 - 6 LANDFILLS
Natural Gas Supply. Landfill gas can be processed to produce "pipeline quality" gas
(over 95 percent methane1) with minimal impurities by removing moisture, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The gas must also be compressed at a certain minimum
pressure to be injected into a pipeline or distribution system. There are several such
projects in the United States that provide gas to local gas distribution systems, In
Brazil, landfill gas has been recovered and purified using local technology, and used as
a vehicle fuel for a fleet of natural gas powered garbage trucks and taxicabs (Monteiro,
1992).
Existing methane recovery projects represent only a small portion of the potential projects
worldwide. The United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands have
an estimated 1000 additional potential sites for profitable landfill gas recovery, and about
100 new project sites are already planned in these countries (Richards, 1989) (Exhibit 2-
3). Moreover, there are vast opportunities in Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS), where most waste has been disposed of in sanitary landfills and
open dumps. For example, electricity generation from landfills may play a large role in the
Ukraine where landfilled waste is reportedly over 90 percent paper (Rowland, pers.
comm.), and where there is a need to develop domestic sources of gas (the Ukraine
produces only 25 percent of its gas demand). In addition, there are many opportunities
for many developing countries, including India, Pakistan, China, and Brazil, to expand their
current programs.
Alternative Waste Management Strategies: Other technical options applicable in the near
and longer term can reduce the landfilling of wastes through source reduction and
recycling of organic materials. Paper products, for example, comprise a significant portion
of solid waste in developed countries (e.g., 40 percent in the U.S.) and a growing portion
of solid waste in some urban centers in developing countries (typically 5 to 20 percent)
(USAID, 1988; Vogler, 1984). Paper products can be easily recycled by paper mills into
a variety of products, and the markets for the recycled products are, in most cases,
identical to those for virgin paper products. Waste paper recycling processes range in
technical complexity, and include technologies as simple as hand-operated baling presses.
Composting is another promising waste management option that limits methane generation
by reducing the amount of waste landfilled. Composting is applicable in the near and
longer term, particularly in developing countries where the organic and moisture contents
of municipal wastes are sufficiently high. The economics of composting projects can be
favorable with appropriate levels of mechanization and labor-intensity, and if a market
exists for the compost. Markets often depend on the demand for fertilizer, and are
generally favorable in arid regions and other areas where organic soil supplements are
needed.
Incineration of wastes is increasingly used in developed countries to reduce quantities of
landfilled wastes, often combined with energy recovery from the combustion process.
The costs of incineration are justified based on the increasing costs of handling municipal
1 Gas from landfills must typically be over 95% methane to comply with minimum energy content
standards; natural gas, which often contains significant quantities of other gases such as ethane, propane
and butane, may contain less than 95% methane when supplied to pipelines.
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LANDFILLS
2-7
solid wastes. While there is potential for this technology to expand in developed
countries, there is a much lower potential in developing countries because the wastes are
frequently too moist for economically viable operations (USAID, 1988).
A number of countries are planning to incorporate recycling, composting and incineration
as part of their waste management programs over the next decades. These countries
include the OECD countries, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Brazil, and
some African countries (Thorneloe, 1992). Reductions in methane emissions will result
from these activities.
Exhibit 2-3
Existing and Potential Landfill Gas Recovery Projects
Country
United States
United Kingdom
Germany
Netherlands
Chile
Sweden
Italy
France
Japan
Denmark
Australia
Belgium
Others
TOTAL
Landfill Recovery Projects
Existing
Projects
(#)1
1142
24
70
6
1
20
6
4
1
4
3
1
15
242
Total
Energy
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2 - 8 LANDFILLS
2.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions
Reducing methane emissions from municipal wastes provides benefits to local communities.
These benefits vary for the different available technologies; in many cases, the benefits alone
are sufficient to justify a project.
Landfill Gas Recovery and Utilization: The benefits of recovering and using the gas
generated by landfilled waste include:
• increased supply of competitively priced and otherwise wasted non-fossil based
energy. This is particularly important in regions where the demand for energy
exceeds the available supply, and especially in developing countries where
commercial energy consumption is projected to triple in the next 30 years (OTA,
1992);
decreased safety hazards from the migration of potentially-explosive methane
beyond the landfill boundaries;
reduced odor problems from landfills; and
reduced emissions of air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
air toxics that adversely affect air quality and human health.
Source Reduction: Benefits resulting from reducing the amount of waste that is placed
in landfills include:
savings from the avoided cost of tipping fees (i.e., landfill charges);
delays or decreases in the demand for new landfill capacity;
reduced landfill management and other waste disposal costs; and
reduced environmental risk associated with landfills, such as surface and
groundwater pollution and air emissions.
Composting: Benefits resulting from the composting of waste include:
production of compost material for use as fertilizer;
production of compost material for use as a soil amendment to improve soil
porosity, water retention, erosion resistance, and tilth;
• prevention of plant disease (Kashmanian, 1991); and
reduced environmental risk associated with landfills, such as surface and
groundwater pollution and air emissions.
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LANDFILLS 2 - 9
Incineration: Benefits resulting from incinerating waste include:
volume reductions of up to 90 percent; and
potential for significant energy recovery.
In the long term, methane reduction programs may facilitate the more efficient management
of municipal solid waste in a manner consistent with the development goals of most
countries. Improved waste management will contribute to better health conditions in addition
to increased supplies of energy and fertilizer. The wastes that are currently uncollected in the
urban areas of many developing countries produce odors and can result in the spread of
disease. The substantial quantities of industrial waste disposed of in open dumps pose
serious health risks, as they typically contain 10 to 15 percent hazardous materials (Cointreau,
1982) that leach into the groundwater, contaminating drinking water and damaging nearby
aquatic life. Efforts to improve waste collection and expand the use of sanitary landfills will
thus reduce many health-related and environmental problems.
2.5 Country Profiles
Programs to improve waste management systems and to recover and use landfill gas are
successfully underway in many countries. Current methane recovery projects, however,
represent only a small portion of the potential projects worldwide, and many opportunities for
profitable landfill gas recovery exist in both developed and developing countries.
The countries profiled in this section include the United Kingdom, Brazil, India, and Poland.
The United Kingdom is discussed first, as an example of an industrialized nation where landfill
gas recovery and other practices have been successfully introduced. Brazil and India are
representative of lesser developed countries with large potential for reducing methane
emissions from landfills. Poland is an example of countries in transition from centrally planned
economies. These countries also have substantial potential for landfill methane reductions.
The country profiles characterize the waste management situation in each country, and the
role technical assistance from industrialized countries might have in encouraging landfill gas
recovery.
2.5.1 UNITED KINGDOM
Overview
The United Kingdom is an industrialized country that has extensive experience with landfill gas
recovery. The United Kingdom (Exhibit 2-4), with a population of over 57 million people,
generates approximately 21 to 28 million metric tons of municipal solid waste per year (OECD,
1991; Gendebien et al., 1992), or roughly 0.5 tons per capita. Although estimates vary,
between 70 and 90 percent of the waste is disposed of in landfills, over one third of it in
large landfills with over 200,000 metric tons of capacity (OECD, 1991; Mclnnes et al., 1990;
Gendebien et al., 1992). The majority of the remaining waste is incinerated, mostly without
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2- 10
LANDFILLS
heat recovery, and small amounts are disposed of in anaerobic digestion projects. The
recycling of paper, glass and metal wastes is increasing with government encouragement
(Gendebien et al., 1992), resulting in a waste stream relatively high in organics. Recent
estimates of total annual methane emissions from municipal solid waste landfills in the UK
range from about 1 to 3 Tg (Aitchison, 1993) accounting for more than 20 percent of
methane emissions from all sources in the United Kingdom (Mclnnes et al., 1990).
Exhibit 2-4
United Kingdom
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Northern
Ire land
NORTH SEA
N
ENGLISH CHANNEL
The United Kingdom has been actively recovering and using landfill gas since 1978, primarily
in response to rising oil prices that made alternative energy projects more competitive, as well
as growing problems caused by uncontrolled gas (e.g., explosions, odors, damage to
vegetation). Gas is currently recovered and used at about 35 sites (Richards and Aitchison,
1990; Gendebien et al., 1992) which, together with those that flare recovered gas, account
for 15 percent of the country's landfills. Gas is recovered but vented to the atmosphere at
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LANDFILLS 2-11
31 percent of the landfills in the United Kingdom, while landfill gas remains uncontrolled at
over half of the sites included in a recent study (Richards and Aitchison, 1990).
Projects in the UK have typically achieved gas recovery rates of up to 75 percent, with gas
yields averaging around 135 m3 per metric ton of waste in place (Richards, 1989; Lawson,
undated). Current operations in the United Kingdom recover and use a total of about 178
million m3 of landfill gas per year (Gendebien et al., 1992). However, there is potential to
further reduce landfill methane emissions by increasing the use of recovered but unused gas,
and also by developing additional recovery projects.
Landfill gas is an economically viable energy source in the UK under a wide range of
conditions and for a variety of end uses. In contrast to other countries, a high proportion of
individual sites provide gas for two or three different end uses (Gendebien et al., 1992). Of
the existing operations, roughly 40 percent provide gas for electricity generation, about 30
to 40 percent for kilns and furnaces, 15 to 25 percent for industrial boilers, and up to 10
percent provide some gas for other uses, such as commercial greenhouse heating (Richards
and Aitchison, 1990; Richards, 1989). About 13 electricity generation projects together
provide over 20 MW of generating capacity in the UK (Richards, 1989). Electricity generation
operations have achieved paybacks of 2.4 to 4.7 years, depending to a large extent on
electricity sales taxes. Other utilization options for landfill gas, such as industrial boilers, kilns,
and commercial greenhouse heating, have shown paybacks of 1 to 3 years (Energy Efficiency
Office, 1990).
The Aveley Landfill, which supplies gas to the Purfleet paper mill, is an example of a
successful gas recovery operation. The paper mill is a combined heat and power (CHP)
operation comprised of a gas turbine and water tube boiler coupled to a steam turbine. Both
the gas and steam turbines generate electricity, and exhaust gases from the gas turbine are
used as combustion air in the boiler, which produces steam to generate electricity. Most of
the energy generated by the CHP system is used in the plant itself, supplying 90 percent of
its needs, while excess electricity is sold to the electricity company. The mill has been
economically successful, achieving a payback of only 4 years (with an internal rate of return
of 27.8 percent). Similar opportunities may exist for saving energy through CHP installations
in any continuous process industry if electricity demand exceeds 2 MW and there is sufficient
process heat or steam demand {Gendebien et al., 1992).
Although soft oil prices slowed the development of the landfill gas sector in the 1980s,
government incentives for energy generation, along with regulations protecting safety and the
local environment, have increased the attractiveness of gas recovery projects (Richards, 1989;
Richards and Aitchison, 1990). In 1989, an estimated 20 sites were under research and
development (Richards, 1989).
Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in the United Kingdom
The substantial potential for methane emission reductions in the United Kingdom could be
realized by promoting the increased recovery and use of landfill gas at sites where it is
currently uncontrolled or vented to the atmosphere. Encouraging flaring at sites where gas
recovery does not appear to be economically viable could also reduce methane emissions.
Other options include expanding the use of alternative waste disposal and energy generation
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2-12 LANDFILLS
practices (e.g., anaerobic digestion), and continuing to minimize the amount of wastes
landfilled through recycling efforts.
Recovery and Use of Landfill Gas: Both the number of landfills with gas recovery
operations and the gas yield from each operation could be increased. The United Kingdom
currently utilizes landfill gas generated from only 4 percent of its municipal solid wastes,
which represents between 7 and 15 percent of the energy potential from landfills
(Gendebien et al., 1992). Recent studies suggest that there is a potential to develop
operations at 450 additional sites in the UK (Richards, 1989). Moreover, average gas
yields may be increased by around 45 percent to roughly 220 m3 of gas per metric ton of
waste. While estimates of the potential landfill gas resource range from 2.5 to 3.6 billion
m3 per year using current practices, the United Kingdom could generate an estimated 9.5
billion m3 per year by increasing both the number of projects and gas yields (Gendebien
et al., 1992; Richards and Aitchison, 1990).
Recent actions by the British government to promote landfill gas operations in the United
Kingdom create a favorable framework for increased gas recovery and utilization. For
example, the recent Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO), part of the Electricity Act of 1989,
requires electricity distribution boards to contract for a certain amount of non-fossil fuel
based generating capacity (Gendebien et al., 1992). Landfill gas projects have achieved
considerable success in the preliminary phases of the NFFO: of the 75 renewable power
generation schemes selected for inclusion, 25 are to be fueled by landfill gas. These
projects will provide 36 MW of installed capacity and are expected to be completed by
1994. Landfill gas projects are expected to make an even larger contribution under the
second phase of the NFFO (Landfill Gas Trends, 1991).
Other governmental actions to promote the expansion of the landfill gas industry include
a research program, instituted by the Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU) for the
Department of Energy (DEn) in coordination with the Department of Environment (DoE),
to promote the economically viable optimization of gas production and recovery. The
program includes research into assessing the national landfill gas resource, understanding
and enhancing the processes of gas production, and improving extraction efficiencies
(Richards and Aitchison, 1990). These two Departments have also cooperated to form
the nationwide Landfill Gas Monitoring, Modelling and Communication System database
(LAMMCOS) to facilitate the development and implementation of gas recovery and use
operations (Richards and Aitchison, 1990).
Recent regulations issued by the DoE may have mixed effects on the landfill gas industry.
These include Waste Management Papers 26 and 27, aimed at ensuring effective gas
controls, and the Environmental Protection Act of 1990, which mandates increased landfill
gas monitoring and tighter management of landfilled wastes. These regulations may
increase the incentive to develop economically viable gas recovery operations at landfills.
Alternative Waste Management Strategies: Substantial methane emissions reduction
potential also exists through waste minimization and recycling in the United Kingdom. The
Environmental Protection Act encourages these actions, and the DoE intends for 50
percent of recyclable wastes to be recycled each year by 2000. Because recycling
removes mostly non-organic material (i.e., glass, plastic and metal), the digestibility and
moisture content of the wastes is typically increased, making them even more suitable for
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LANDFILLS 2-13
biological processing (Richards and Aitchison, 1990). The use of anaerobic digesters for
both solid and liquid waste treatment with gas recovery is also being researched by the
government (Lawson, undated).
Emissions Reduction Potential
In the short term, it may be possible to profitably recover and use gas at those landfills with
over 200,000 metric tons of capacity (which receive over one third of annually generated
wastes), as well as at many of the larger closed landfills. Fifty percent reductions in methane
emissions from these large landfills may be feasible in the short term, resulting in potential
methane reductions of 0.2 to 0.5 Tg per year by the year 2000. Larger reductions on the
order of 0.5 to 1.4 Tg per year may be possible over the longer term, due to expanded landfill
gas programs, a trend toward larger landfills, and economic and regulatory incentives for
methane recovery.
In addition to municipal solid waste, the United Kingdom generates 50 million metric tons of
industrial solid waste per year. Although up to 80 percent of the industrial wastes are
disposed of in landfills, they are not included in estimates of landfill gas potential (Gendebien
et al., 1992). Efforts to recover gas from the non-hazardous portion of these wastes, expand
alternative disposal practices (e.g., anaerobic digestion, incineration) with gas or heat
recovery, or practice co-disposal with municipal and industrial wastes (Lawson, undated),
could significantly increase the potential methane emissions reductions in the United Kingdom.
2.5.2 BRAZIL
Overview
Brazil (Exhibit 2-5) is a large, rapidly industrializing country. About 75 percent of the
approximately 147 million Brazilians live in urban areas, and generate from 16 to 36 million
metric tons of solid waste per year. Most of this waste is collected and landfilled, and unlike
most other Latin American countries, Brazil has begun a successful program to recover gas
from its solid waste landfills. There is substantial opportunity to expand this program.
Waste generation in Brazil is estimated at between 0.4 and 0.9 kg per capita per day. This
is thought to be higher than in many lesser developed countries, consistent with the
relationship between a country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and its waste generation rate
(Richards, 1989). Wastes generated in Brazilian cities are typically dense and moist, with a
high organic content (Galvez von Collas et al., 1983). Brazil has a well-organized solid waste
management infrastructure, with curbside collection of waste in the urban areas. After the
economically valuable materials, such as metals, plastics, paper and glass, are manually
recycled, the majority of the waste is disposed of in nearby landfills. Between 0.7 and 2.2
Tg per year of methane may be emitted by these wastes (USEPA, 1993b).
Efforts to recover methane from landfills in Brazil have been in progress for over a decade.
During the world oil price increases of the 1970's, the Brazilian government began researching
and developing possibilities for utilizing energy from solid waste. By 1986, experimental
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2- 14
LANDFILLS
landfill gas recovery and utilization programs were implemented at various landfills, with
assistance from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank.
As a result, commercially viable gas recovery systems are now operating in cities such as Rio
de Janeiro, where the municipal sanitation authority (COMLURB) extracts gas and pipes it to
the City Gas Company; Sao Paulo; and Belo Horizonte, where landfill gas is produced and
distributed by the state energy company (CEMIG) and its subsidiary (Gendebien et al., 1992).
Exhibit 2-5
Brazil
GRENADA
JJ-^TR I N I DAD/ TOBAGO
GUYANA
Recent experience has shown that landfill gas recovery and use in Brazil can be economically
and technically viable. Methane collection rates at the major Belo Horizonte landfill, which is
managed for optimal gas recovery using a cover of soil over impervious clay, are over 8000
m3 per day. Total gas production rates from three Sao Paulo landfills range from 1500 to
4000 m3/hour (Gendebien et al., 1992), which would be sufficient to generate roughly 2 to
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LANDFILLS 2-15
6 MW of electricity.2 However, these extremely high gas production rates may limit
economic viability in some cases by reducing the period over which gas may be recovered.
A recent study predicted that a landfill in Sao Paulo will produce 56 percent of its total gas
output during its first year, and that significant gas production would end after about six years
(USAID, 1988). This is in contrast to landfill gas recovery projects in the United States,
which may have lifetimes of as much as 20 years. Nevertheless, observed recovery rates
indicate that, depending on the gas use, energy development projects at many large landfills
in Brazil could achieve payback periods of 2.5 years (Kessler, 1988).
A number of viable utilization options have been developed for landfill gas in Brazil. Gas from
the Belo Horizonte landfill is compressed, cleaned, and enriched for use as vehicular fuel in
city sanitation trucks and other fleet vehicles. Several operations upgrade landfill gas to
pipeline quality gas, and two landfills supplement municipal gas supplies to provide boiler fuel
for heating applications (Gendebien et a!., 1992; Richards, 1989), In addition, government
energy companies have developed the capability to replace liquid petroleum gas (LPG) with
landfill gas in industrial applications. More recently, recovered gas has been substituted for
acetylene in metal cutting. The potential also exists for the use of gas in electricity generation
as an alternative to hydroelectricity, currently Brazil's largest electric power source; landfill
gas compares favorably in this application, as potential new hydroelectric sites would require
long-distance electricity transmission. Developing gas recovery and use capability is given a
high priority in the Brazilian Government Natural Gas Plan (PLANGAS), due to the importance
of reducing petroleum imports. The expected removal of subsidies for diesel oil and LPG
should increase the economic viability of landfill gas recovery projects (Kessler, 1988).
The potential of landfills to provide economically viable biogas should increase in the near
future, as Brazil addresses health and odor problems related to solid waste management.
Current trends toward more sanitary landfills and more frequent use of soil covers over
intermittent layers of garbage and between landfill sections should increase methane recovery
rates (Kessler, 1988).
It may also be possible to reduce methane emissions by reducing the amount of waste that
is landfilled in Brazil. Several options for the use of solid wastes have been explored.
Experimental waste recycling and composting projects have existed since 1980, for example,
along with projects to use wastes as an auxiliary fuel source through direct incineration and
combustion of refuse-derived fuel (RDF) (Paraguassu de Sa, 1980). Government projects and
institutions, such as the research center in Rio de Janeiro, provide technical support for
recycling operations and testing of refuse as a source of energy. A national program on the
biodigestion of municipal sewage was established in 1979, with the Brazilian Enterprise for
Technical Assistance and Rural Extension taking the lead in research and oversight for projects
(Gunnerson and Stuckey, 1986). The experience gained from this program has more recently
been used in the area of solid wastes, and the economic viability of biodigesting municipal
solid wastes (MSW) with biogas recovery is being researched (Kessler, 1988).
Assuming 0.65 m3/hr of medium quality gas per kW of generating capacity (Volume I).
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2-16 LANDFILLS
Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions from Waste Management in Brazil
As the ongoing activities indicate, opportunities for methane emission reductions from solid
wastes in Brazil are substantial and will continue to grow. The major opportunities will be
through improving landfill disposal practices to enhance gas recovery, and substantially
increasing the number of sites at which landfill gas is recovered and utilized. In addition, there
is potential for increasing alternative solid waste disposal and utilization methods.
Recovery and Use of Landfill Gas: The limited use of sanitary landfilling practices in Brazil
currently limits the potential for landfill gas recovery The adoption of sanitary landfilling
techniques, which better seal the landfill and promote methane generation, could increase
recovery efficiencies, making gas recovery economically viable at more sites. The use of
sanitary landfills also reduces other important problems, such as groundwater
contamination and odors. Since growing public concern over odors released from open
landfills have already prompted the Brazilian government to cover some landfills (Kessler,
1988), further efforts in this direction are expected.
Although landfill gas recovery and use technologies are currently available in Brazil, only
a small number of projects exist relative to the potential for energy recovery. While the
development of gas recovery and use facilities has been a high priority, the resources of
the Brazilian government are limited, and great potential remains to increase the number
of energy recovery sites.
Alternative Waste Management Strategies: Increasing the use of alternative solid waste
disposal methods may also be feasible in Brazil. The use of available composting,
incineration and RDF technologies may be attractive in many areas, and the introduction
of appropriate techniques may make these processes more feasible throughout Brazil.
Municipal solid waste biodigestion is under development, and may serve as another
alternative for economically recovering the fuel value from wastes while reducing methane
emissions in Brazil.
Emissions Reduction Potential
Short term opportunities for reducing methane emissions from solid waste in Brazil include the
expansion of landfill gas recovery and use facilities in urban areas. Landfill gas operations are
most feasible in large city landfills, due to the high waste concentrations and the proximity
of available users for the gas (e.g., fleet vehicles, industry, and electricity generation
facilities). Although reductions in methane emissions from existing landfills are limited
because many of them are open or uncontrolled landfills, it may be possible to reduce
methane emissions from urban landfills by about 20 to 30 percent in the short term with
expanded efforts. This would result in methane emission reductions of roughly 0.2 to 0.6 Tg
per year.
Improving landfilling practices to enhance landfill gas recovery in many of the smaller and
medium-sized cities are longer term options in Brazil. Adoption of sanitary landfilling practices
where sufficient waste quantities are available should increase the number of economically
viable sites. The economic viability of gas recovery in Brazilian cities with fewer than 50,000
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LANDFILLS 2-17
inhabitants, which has previously been low (Galvez von Collas et al., 1983), could increase
with higher gas collection efficiencies.
Alternative waste management practices may yield benefits in rural regions with low waste
quantities. Solid waste biodigestion facilities may require less capital than landfill gas
operations, and could provide energy for local uses. Biodigesters and composting operations
could also produce fertilizer for agricultural applications.
Promoting Methane Recovery and Emission Reductions
Two key barriers hinder Brazil from promoting the more widespread use of methane recovery
techniques and methane reduction practices. These are the current landfilling practices used
in many parts of the country and the lack of resources with which to implement improved
practices and landfill gas recovery technologies. A number of activities could help to address
these barriers and significantly reduce methane emissions from solid waste management.
While some of the options are discussed below, the most useful activities could be better
delineated only through a series of detailed discussions with Brazilian policy makers and waste
management authorities.
Information Dissemination: Many existing landfills in Brazil are not designed to maximize
gas recovery. Because each municipality is responsible for its own landfills, local
authorities may lack access to the information and technologies necessary to develop
landfill gas projects. Providing technical, economic and environmental information on the
experiences of the U.S. landfill gas industry to Brazilian policy makers, landfill operators
and technical experts, could help resolve remaining technical issues and assist in the
expansion of methane recovery efforts.
Technical Assistance and Training: Technical assistance and training may be useful in
conjunction with the provision of informational materials. Possible areas of training and
technical assistance include the management of certain gas utilization technologies, as
well as assessing the economic and technical feasibility of various project options and
selecting the appropriate recovery and utilization approach for a particular situation.
Training could also be provided in alternative waste management options for situations
where landfill gas recovery is not appropriate or feasible.
Technology Demonstration: Additional demonstration projects may be desirable to assess
the applicability of different landfill gas recovery and use options, as well as the
attractiveness of alternative waste management practices.
Commercialization: The successful implementation of extensive waste management
projects may require joint ventures with private companies and/or international financial
assistance. Efforts to generate international interest in the potential of energy generation
from solid wastes in Brazil could be directed through existing Brazilian government
institutions or programs, such as the waste-to-energy research center in Rio de Janeiro,
national programs to research options for biodigestion of wastes, and PLANGAS.
Substantial cooperative potential may also be available in the future through the planned
Latin American Network of the Improvement of Waste Management (Kreese, 1992).
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2- 18
LANDFILLS
2.5.3 POLAND
Overview
Poland (Exhibit 2-6), with its population of approximately 38 million, generates an estimated
11.5 million metric tons of solid wastes per year (Pyka, 1993). Much of this waste is
generated in the urban areas, with average generation rates twice as high in the approximately
forty large cities as in the 440 towns of less than 10,000 people (Kempa and Jedrczak,
1990).
Exhibit 2-6
Poland
Waste collection services are reported to be available in most Polish communities, although
no detailed data are available. Most of Poland's collected wastes are disposed of in landfills.
Based on inventories in several provinces of Poland, there are approximately 700 registered
landfills and over 10,000 illegal dumping sites. Of the registered landfills, 12 are sanitary
landfills and about 120 are controlled semi-sanitary landfills. The rest of Poland's waste
disposal sites are uncontrolled dumps. Emissions of methane from these landfills are
estimated to range from 0.1 to 0.4 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b).
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LANDFILLS 2-19
Few alternatives to landfilling currently exist in Poland: about 1 percent of total generated
wastes are composted at two plants, and about 12 incineration plants exist for the disposal
of special wastes (Kempa and Jedrczak, 1990). However, through an informal recycling
system, paper, plastics, metal scrap and returnable bottles are collected at dumpsites for use
and resale. Several programs for formal, residential recycling in apartments also exist on a
small scale.
Landfills in Poland are generally chosen and reserved by the Bureau of Town Planning of each
province, in line with regional solid waste management plans, which are developed for 25 to
30-year spans and revised every 5 years. Despite their reported use of the World Health
Organization (WHO)'s Code of Practice for constructing landfills, landfill sites in Poland have
traditionally been chosen based on local road systems, with little consideration given to
geological and hydrological factors and, until recently, little effort to control or recover the
landfill gas (Kempa and Jedrczak, 1990). The current long-term aim for solid waste
management in Poland, however, is to develop plans for closing small and exhausted open
dumps and installing larger sanitary landfills to serve at least 150,000 people and receive 2
million m3 of waste over a period of 20 years or more (Kempa and Jedrczak, 1990).
Attempts have been made to control landfill gas for safety reasons. Landfills have traditionally
been built in old gravel pits with unsealed walls and bottoms, allowing the gas to migrate and
resulting in explosions in nearby buildings. The projects undertaken in response to such
incidents have focused on venting the gas from old landfills and ensuring that new landfills
are built to meet sanitary landfill standards (i.e., compacting and covering the refuse daily,
using soil or clay as a final layer). Although the newer landfills are designed for gas collection
and discharge, methane utilization has not been emphasized as a major goal. Nevertheless,
several attempts have recently been made to recover this energy resource from landfills.
The first two landfill gas extraction projects in Poland were unsuccessful for many reasons,
including improper construction of the facilities and high ground-water levels. Poland's third
and largest gas recovery project commenced near Lodz in May, 1990, with the drilling of four
trial wells into a large landfill. The project plans call for building a network of degasification
wells to prevent gas from migrating to nearby inhabited areas and to facilitate the recovery
of the gas. All gas wells are to be connected to a gas collection pipeline, using suction pumps
to collect the methane. Plans for the utilization of the gas include local water heating and
electricity generation, depending on the quality and volume of gas recovered (Kempa and
Jedrczak, 1990).
Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in Poland
There is potential for recovering and utilizing a large amount of methane from solid wastes in
Poland, due to the country's waste composition and disposal practices, as well as the
government's solid waste management planning system and growing interest in recovering
landfill gas. The success of existing and future programs to recover methane from Polish
landfills could be significantly enhanced through the use of improved gas recovery and
utilization techniques.
The expanded implementation of alternative solid waste disposal methods may also be feasible
in Poland. Composting technologies are available, and the extensive use of composting for
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2 - 20 LANDFILLS
urban solid wastes in Poland could provide significant benefits to the population, including the
production of high-quality fertilizer. Although this option may not be suitable for small towns,
where wastes appear to be poor in organics, studies of individual sites would be useful, as
the organic component in solid waste in Poland fluctuates by region and season (Kempa and
Jedrczak, 1990).
Incineration and anaerobic digestion of solid wastes may also be attractive options in some
cases. Advanced technologies could be introduced to enhance the economic viability and
reduce any negative environmental impacts of existing incineration plants. Development and
demonstration of biogas digesters may be useful to determine the feasibility of their use in
Poland.
Emissions Reduction Potential
The potential for short term emissions reductions in Poland is difficult to assess, because of
the large number of unregistered landfills and the preponderance of uncontrolled clumps.
Based on available information, however, it is estimated that up to 0.1 Tg per year could be
cost-effectively reduced by enhancing current efforts to recover methane from Poland's larger
landfills.
The longer term potential for Poland to recover more methane from its solid waste is
promising, as the government's interest in controlling and recovering landfill gas as an energy
source is growing. The current policy of closing small landfills and open dumps and
constructing larger, regional landfills may also facilitate the development of economically
viable programs for the recovery and utilization of landfill gas. Reductions could likely
approach 50 percent of emissions, or 0.1 to 0.3 Tg per year, over the longer term.
Promoting Methane Recovery and Emission Reductions
Several key barriers impede Poland from promoting the more extensive implementation of
improved solid waste management and gas recovery techniques. These barriers include the
large amount of waste managed in uncontrolled landfills in Poland, the lack of available
information on Poland's landfills, limited access to and experience with technologies for waste
minimization and landfill gas recovery, and the lack of a comprehensive policy framework for
the development of solid waste energy recovery projects in Poland. These barriers could be
addressed through domestic policy efforts, with possible international technical assistance.
Some specific activities that could encourage the development of projects to reduce methane
emissions in Poland are summarized below.
Policy Reform: Certain policy actions could be useful for implementing new technologies
for waste management and/or landfill gas recovery. These actions include:
• Examining existing regulatory frameworks and developing appropriate regulations
as necessary to effectively encourage project development;
• Assessing the potential contribution of such projects to the accomplishment of
various national energy or environmental sector objectives; and
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LANDFILLS 2-21
Providing incentives to encourage project development as appropriate.
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: The demonstration of gas recovery and
utilization technologies, as well as various waste minimization strategies (such as
composting and/or incineration), could be important components of efforts to encourage
project development.
Technical Assistance: Technical assistance and training may be useful to spread
knowledge of the technical aspects of sanitary landfilling and gas project development to
waste management personnel throughout Poland. Providing training to government and
technical personnel, in such areas as assessing the benefits and feasibility of available
options for improving waste management and reducing landfill methane emissions, could
also facilitate the expansion of methane recovery efforts.
Information Dissemination and Education: Informational programs for local communities
and government agencies in Poland could be useful for raising awareness about the
environmental, safety and economic benefits associated with reducing methane emissions
from landfills, and for gaining support for landfill gas recovery projects and other methane
reduction options.
Commercialization: Joint ventures by Polish entities and private companies may be useful
in facilitating widespread project development. International investment may also facilitate
project efforts. Information could be disseminated to private companies with experience
in gas recovery and use, as well as to international development agencies, to ensure that
the value of programs to reduce methane emissions from landfills in Poland is recognized.
2.5.4 INDIA
Overview
India (Exhibit 2-7), with 870 million inhabitants in 1991, is one of the most populated
countries in the world, and as such has potential to generate a large volume of solid waste.
Currently, the rate of waste generation varies widely throughout India, depending on such
factors as population density, income level, and the degree to which reusable refuse is
salvaged at the source. Most available data on waste generation in India describes urban
areas, in which about 22 percent of the total population currently lives. Based on calculations
of per capita waste generation in cities (0.3 to 0.6 kilograms per person per day), estimates
indicate that India's nine largest metropolitan areas produce about 8.5 million metric tons of
solid waste per year. Altogether, the almost 4000 urban centers in India may produce about
22 million metric tons per year (Bhide et a!., 1990). Methane emissions from these wastes
are estimated to be between 0.2 and 0.8 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b). These emissions may
increase over the next decades as India's population continues to increase and more people
reside in the urban areas.
While the majority of India's solid wastes (up to 95 percent) is reportedly disposed of in
landfills (Gendebien et al., 1992), site conditions vary widely and many "landfill" sites are
really uncontrolled dumps. Most of India's few sanitary landfills are located near the city of
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2-22
LANDFILLS
Delhi, which disposes of 90 percent of its daily collection of 1500 metric tons of urban solid
waste in four major sanitary landfilling sites. In contrast, 90 percent of Bombay's wastes are
dumped directly on coastal areas for land reclamation, and most of Calcutta's wastes are
disposed of through uncontrolled dumping on municipal land. In many smaller cities, wastes
are often dumped on private lands and in water. Studies indicate that the remaining, non-
landfilled waste, as well as some waste initially disposed of in uncontrolled dumps (Bhide,
1993), is either transported to farms for use directly as fertilizer (Rajabapaiah, 1989), or
composted to produce organic manure and soil conditioner; in some areas, up to 10 to 15
percent is composted. However, the use of raw garbage on fields may pose problems to
farmers who work barefoot, because the garbage contains metals and broken glass (Bhide,
1993).
Exhibit 2-7
India
In large cities, household wastes are swept up and collected by municipal workers, and
transported by handcarts or other means to large on-road collection points (open dumps or
storage chambers). The wastes are then transferred to trucks and taken to disposal sites.
Commercial and industrial wastes are stored in standardized containers and collected by
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LANDFILLS 2 - 23
municipal agencies or transferred by the facility to a community bin (owned and maintained
by civic authorities and provided at frequent intervals along a roadside). While large cities,
such as Delhi, Calcutta, and Bombay, collect about 90 percent of generated wastes, it is
estimated that in smaller towns only 20 to 40 percent of the wastes are collected (Bhide and
Sundaresan, 1984). At several points, the waste stream is intensively picked through by
informal collectors, who remove most of the paper, plastics, and metals in the refuse.
The energy potential of solid wastes in India is a virtually unutilized resource. While some
attempts have been made to produce biogas through the anaerobic digestion of solid wastes,
these projects have been impaired by a lack of support resources and many are inoperative
(Gunnerson and Stuckey, 1986). More recently, three experimental landfill gas utilization
plants have been constructed in Delhi and Nagpur (Gendebien et a!., 1992).
Recent projects to study gas recovery possibilities at existing landfills have had positive
results. At a controlled and covered landfill in Delhi, experimental collection wells have
yielded sustained gas flow rates of over 35 m3 per hour, and provide gas that is 50 to 55
percent methane. The gas collected from this landfill is used (with 20 percent diesel fuel) to
generate electricity in a 30 kilowatt (kW) generator. With the planned construction of about
80 wells, the gas from this landfill is expected to generate 8 megawatts (MW) of electricity
over a 10-year period (Bhide et al., 1990).
Projects have also been carried out at open, uncontrolled landfills that are more typical of
India's landfills. Although older landfills have been shown to produce limited amounts of gas
(about 0.25 m3 per hour), a newer landfill (completed in 1989) has produced gas at rates of
5 to 9 m3 per hour, with a 30 to 40 percent methane concentration. Gas recovery rates
increased substantially when plastic was laid on top of the landfill to prevent gas from
escaping (Bhide, 1990).
Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in India
The possibilities for reducing methane emissions from solid wastes in India appear to be
significant and are likely to grow in the future. A number of technologies exist that could
cost-effectively reduce methane emissions from solid waste in India while providing other
benefits, such as energy, fertilizers, and health benefits. Cooperation between the Indian
government and international entities to support current efforts to generate energy from solid
wastes in India could enhance the success of programs aimed at reducing methane emissions.
While the content of wastes in each area varies widely with socioeconomic circumstances and
climatic factors, the composition of Indian waste in general appears to be favorable for landfill
gas recovery and utilization, biogas production, and composting.
Recovery and Use of Landfill Gas: Sanitary landfilling with gas recovery and use may be
a feasible option for many areas of India. The costs of sanitary landfilling even without
gas recovery in India are estimated to be five times cheaper than some composting
operations, and as much as twenty-five times cheaper than incineration (Nath, 1984).
While sanitary landfills are currently restricted to large cities in India, studies indicate that
small, non-mechanized sanitary landfilling sites could be feasible for smaller communities,
costing less than 5 rupees per ton of waste (Nath, 1984). With the recent encouraging
results from tests of uncontrolled landfills, short term potential for methane recovery may
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2 - 24 LANDFILLS
also exist in open landfills no longer in operation. However, suburban areas and smaller
cities typically generate solid wastes with relatively low moisture, low organic content,
and a high percentage of ash and silt (as high as 30 to 50 percent), all of which reduce
the potential for methane generation. The most promising areas for gas recovery and
utilization will thus be the larger cities, which produce wastes with high percentages of
degradable matter (50 to 82 percent) and high moisture content (20 to 50 percent). Much
potential exists for promoting both methane reduction and energy generation from this
source.
Alternative Waste Management Strategies: Several alternative strategies for managing
solid waste are potentially applicable in India, including anaerobic digestion and
composting. Incineration may become a viable option if certain operational improvements
are made, as discussed below. Anaerobic digestion of solid wastes is a promising option
for economically viable waste management in India, producing biogas suitable for local
domestic consumption, to generate electricity, or to meet local peak energy needs
(Gunnerson and Stuckey, 1986). Moreover, the digester effluent can be used as valuable
fertilizer.
High levels of nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, sodium) make composting an
attractive option in India. Existing manual composting operations in India are largely self-
financing (Nath, 1984). However, mechanical composting plants have to date not been
sucessful (Bhide 1993). Recognizing that composting can produce good quality organic
manure and soil conditioner at much lower cost than artificial fertilizers, the Indian Ministry
of Agriculture has been subsidizing city compost plants and assisting in management and
marketing.
Incineration may not be a suitable option for the disposal of most Indian solid wastes. The
wastes generally have low calorific values, due to high levels of moisture and inert
materials (e.g., sand and silt), and as a result the operation of most incineration plants
would require auxiliary fuel (USAID, 1988). Methods for improving the economic viability
of incineration in India could include increasing the calorific value by the following means:
waste selection (burning only wastes from higher-income residential
areas/commercial/industrial areas); waste separation (separating and disposing of inert
wastes manually or with rotating screens); and co-firing solid wastes with other biomass
(e.g., rice husks or coconut shells) from nearby processing plants.
A combination of gas recovery and utilization, anaerobic digestion with biogas production, and
composting, could technically reduce landfill methane emissions in India by about 50 percent.
The most appropriate strategies for each area will depend on its waste characteristics and
needs, and on existing waste management strategies. The development of gas recovery
facilities at existing sanitary landfills could achieve large emission reductions in India, and the
construction of other facilities may be feasible, depending on their demonstrated costs and
benefits. Because of the substantial need for fertilizer in India, biogas production and aerobic
composting, with their nutrient-rich by-products, may be beneficial strategies.
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LANDFILLS 2-25
Emissions Reduction Potential
Urban areas offer the greatest potential for the short term improvements in waste
management techniques that could reduce methane emissions. Because urban waste is
geographically concentrated relative to rural solid waste, and the urban population is growing
at a rapid rate, these areas may also represent the most feasible and urgent opportunities for
energy generation from solid wastes. For the urban populations, it may be possible to reduce
methane emissions by about fifty percent (0.1 to 0.4 Tg per year) in the long term. Some
fraction of this could be achieved in the next decade or so.
Improving waste management and introducing energy recovery systems into suburban and
rural areas may be a longer term option, requiring new technologies and more field support
for small communities. Concern about the health problems associated with poorly managed
wastes is growing, however, and the Indian government is considering small scale
development of biogas projects and provision of extension services for waste handling. As
the population of India continues to grow, improved waste management techniques in these
areas could also contribute to reduced methane emissions.
Promoting Methane Recovery and Emission Reductions
India's implementation of available solid waste management and energy recovery techniques
may be hindered by a number of barriers. The largest of these include difficulties in
developing a uniform collection system, lack of available land for sanitary landfill siting in
urban areas, and lack of investment for new technologies. In addition, some new waste
management practices developed in more industrialized nations may involve inappropriate
technology, such as unnecessary mechanization (e.g., mechanized waste sorting, which does
not utilize available manual labor), scale (e.g., collection equipment which does not fit on city
streets), and equipment that is not designed for India's waste composition (e.g., incineration
equipment). Another barrier may include the possibility of disrupting existing lifestyles. One
urban mechanical composting plant was not successful, for example, because the compost
was not economically competitive with the traditional sale of the usable garbage by
scavengers.
Several types of activities could assist India in addressing these barriers and reducing methane
emissions from solid waste. Technological and information exchange with other governments
and international organizations could facilitate such efforts. Possible activities to encourage
the development of improved waste management techniques and energy recovery projects
are discussed below.
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: The transfer and demonstration of methane
recovery and utilization technologies could help to encourage expanded recovery projects
in India. Such projects could focus on the introduction of technologies appropriate for
each region, and the optimal utilization of local financial, material, and human resources.
Technical Assistance: Opportunities to broaden the technical information and training
programs available to national and local Indian government personnel and waste
management engineers may be useful as a complement to technology transfer programs.
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2 - 26 LANDFILLS
Possible areas of exchange could include resource assessment, cost and benefit analyses
of waste management options, and technological training.
Funding: Funding from other governments, foreign development agencies, and the private
sector may be useful in leveraging Indian government funds to facilitate studies of the
most appropriate waste management options, construction of solid waste energy recovery
facilities at demonstration sites, training of technical personnel, and public education
programs. Where appropriate, funding from international environmental and development
organizations may be helpful in initiating specific projects.
2.6 Summary
As can be seen in the country profiles, individual countries have different waste types and
management systems, different levels of support infrastructure, and different resources
available to them. While these differences require that policy responses for reducing methane
emissions from waste management be designed according to varying regional and national
factors, common characteristics can be identified to provide a broad understanding of:
potential emission reductions from landfills;
barriers hindering adoption of improved waste management techniques; and
possible solutions for overcoming these barriers.
Emission Reductions
Based on ongoing activities and the additional potential for profitable methane recovery
projects in the different regions represented by the case studies, as well as the plans of a
number of countries (e.g., OECD countries, CIS, Brazil, some African countries) to incorporate
recycling, composting and incineration into their waste management programs, significant
global reductions in methane emissions are possible. These reductions are described below.
Near-term Reductions: Methane reductions of 10 to 15 Tg per year could be economically
feasible in the near term by implementing landfill gas recovery operations at identified
potential sites, such as larger landfills in developed countries and large, urban landfills in
developing countries.
Reducing current emissions from the largest landfills in developed countries by 50 percent
will reduce total emissions in these countries by roughly 20 percent, or 5 to 10 Tg per
year. Even higher reductions may be possible in some cases: studies in Austria have
indicated that reductions of almost 40 percent of current total emissions from Austrian
landfills could be achieved over the next decade (Orthofer, 1991); large landfills in the
United States will be subject to an impending landfill rule, potentially reducing overall U.S.
emissions by 60 percent or more.
It may also be possible to reduce emissions from urban wastes in non-OECD countries by
about 20 to 25 percent in the near term, or roughly 5 Tg per year. In some countries in
the CIS and Eastern Europe, moreover, estimates indicate that landfill gas recovery
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LANDFILLS
2-27
operations could reduce current emissions from landfills by as much as one-third. In
addition to these landfill gas projects, currently planned programs for recycling,
composting, and incineration are expected to reduce methane emissions in the near term.
Longer-term Reductions: Larger reductions should be economically viable over the longer
term as waste generation continues to grow, energy demand exceeds the available supply,
and more countries implement programs to recover energy from landfills and divert organic
wastes toward other disposal practices. As a result of such trends, global reductions of
10 to 25 Tg per year may be possible.
Estimates of methane emissions and potential emission reductions from landfills are
summarized in Exhibit 2-8.
Exhibit 2-8
Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from Landfilling
Waste
Country
United States2
United Kingdom
Brazil
India
Poland
Others
TOTAL3
Estimated
Emissions
(Tg/yr)1
8- 12
1.0-3.0
0.7- 2.2
0.2 -0.8
0.1 -0.4
11-39
21 - 57
Near Term Reductions
Tg/yr
4-6
0.2-0.5
0.2-0.6
0.1 -0.2
0.1
4-7
9- 14
%
~ 50
15-20
25 -30
25-40
~ 20
15-35
25 -35
Longer Term Reductions
Tg/yr
4-6
0.5 - 1.4
0.2 - 0.6
0.1 -0.4
0.1 -0.3
4- 15
9-24
%
~ 50
40- 50
25-30
25-50
20-60
15-40
40- 50
1 ' These emissions estimates are based on recent drafts of the report to Congress Global Anthropogenic
Emissions of Methane (USEPA, 1993c), currently in preparation, and will likely change as this report is
finalized.
2 USEPA, 1993b
3 Totals may not add up due to rounding.
Promoting Methane Recovery
The largest emitters of methane from landfills are, with the exception of China, industrialized
countries that have relatively high per capita refuse generation rates. However, as the
standard of living and population of developing countries grows, their contribution to global
methane emissions will also grow. It is in non-OECD that programs to encourage better waste
management, which includes recovery and use of landfill methane, are likely to have the
greatest benefit.
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2 - 28 LANDFILLS
There are many opportunities for successful, integrated waste management projects—projects
that include landfill methane recovery as well as recycling, composting, and other source
reduction activities—in countries that are or will be major contributors to global methane
emissions from landfills. As the country profiles indicate, the ability to take advantage of such
opportunities is constrained by informational, organizational, and technical barriers.
Facilitating the development of integrated waste management will require an aggressive
program designed to overcome these barriers through information exchange and
dissemination, technical assistance, and technology transfer.
The near-term objectives of a program to encourage integrated waste management are to raise
awareness of existing opportunities, assist countries in building the necessary institutional and
policy frameworks, and demonstrate the most promising technologies. Obtaining these
objectives will require close cooperation with government agencies, waste management
personnel, and local communities. Once barriers are overcome and successful, economically
viable demonstration projects are in place, widespread use of the technologies should occur
rapidly and without extensive outside assistance.
Exhibit 2-9 summarizes the key types of barriers that exist to different degrees in different
countries, and which may have to be overcome to improve waste management and encourage
expanded methane recovery and use. Exhibit 2-9 also highlights the possible responses in
terms of the types of programs and activities that could be implemented to remove these
barriers. Of course, programs must be designed to meet the needs and circumstances of
individual countries and localities rather than impose "state of the art" technology where it
is not appropriate. Those attempting to reform or improve waste management systems in
non-industrialized countries face different constraints than waste managers in the United
States or western European countries. For example, because waste in developing countries
is often wetter and contains more inert material, incineration is usually a poor choice of waste
management. Official recovery and recycling programs must recognize the informal recovery
of materials that takes place in many countries before waste is landfilled. Recovery of landfill
gas for energy use will be a viable technology in many cases; in others, development of
sanitary landfills may be the first priority. Despite these differences, the overall types of
issues that can hamper development of landfill methane and waste management projects and
the most promising activities to address them can be generalized among countries.
When initiating a program to identify economically viable opportunities for improving waste
management and encouraging recovery and use of landfill methane, a number of key steps
will likely be necessary. Many of these activities have been mentioned briefly in the country
studies. The most likely components of an integrated waste management program are
described here in more general form, and summarized in Exhibit 2-10 in terms of phases which
reflect the natural sequence of the various components.
Initial Assessment: In many countries, preparing a national or regional assessment of the
waste management infrastructure and landfill methane resource will be a logical first step
in initiating a program. This assessment should evaluate the characteristics of the waste
and how it is currently managed, the magnitude of the landfill methane resource, the
potential role for landfill methane in the country's or region's energy economy, the
capacity of the economy for recycled materials and compost, and the types of barriers that
may be constraining development. Particular attention should be paid to the compatibility
of landfill methane development with the nation's energy and environmental goals. The
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LANDFILLS
2-29
current landfill methane recovery and use practices, if any, should also be assessed, and
some of the more promising project types identified.
Exhibit 2-9
Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Landfills
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Policy & Management Issues
Unclear legal and regulatory framework
Many different groups responsible for different
parts of waste management
Different groups responsible for waste
management, energy generation and supplying
fertilizer
Policy reform assistance
Organize management groups overseeing all
elements of waste management
Organize joint management groups for waste
management and energy development
Organize joint management groups for waste
management and fertilizer supply
Information Issues
Lack of awareness on part of government and
others about value of fuel and fertilizer from
managed wastes
Lack of awareness on part of potential project
developers about potential in various countries
Provide information on potential near-term
value of resource and available technologies.
Provide information to potential project
developers and lending agencies regarding role
waste management projects can play in
meeting country goals
Technical Issues
Lack of access by waste managers to
technologies such as drills, composters, and
sorters
Lack of familiarity with methane recovery and
source reduction techniques
Lack of familiarity with power generation
technologies
Technical problems related to the corrosiveness
of landfill gas
Encourage joint ventures and the introduction
of new technologies
Establish technology demonstration projects to
act as training centers
Establish technology centers to provide
information on appropriate technologies and
techniques
Disseminate available information on best
technologies and maintenance practices for
addressing corrosion
Financial Issues
Lack of capital for investment
Subsidized prices for other energy sources
reduce attractiveness
Raise awareness on profitability of landfill
projects with international development
agencies
Raise awareness on appropriateness of landfill
projects for international loans
Assess financial needs for providing more
efficient waste management overall
In several countries, such assessments have already been conducted, especially with
respect to waste management infrastructure. Therefore, future assessments will primarily
focus on the assessment of landfill methane recovery opportunities. Preparing such
assessments will require close cooperation among international experts in the landfill
methane recovery fields and in-country personnel, who are familiar with national goals,
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2 - 30 LANDFILLS
experiences, and conditions. Depending on the scope of the study, the number of regions
examined, and the degree of international and in-country participation, an initial
assessment should cost $100,000 to $1,000,000 ($U.S.). Assessments conducted for
larger countries or more detailed analysis and data collection would mean higher costs.
These assessments typically take place over the first one or two years of the project.
Policy and Management Assistance: One of the objectives of the initial assessment is to
identify institutional, policy, or other barriers to integrated waste management that
includes landfill methane recovery. Such barriers could include overlapping or undefined
institutional responsibility, unclear project development requirements, lack of a regulatory
structure, and uneconomic landfill methane or other energy source price controls. Since
waste management is such an important government activity in most countries, one that
involves many different functions, it is likely that existing institutional arrangements are
complex and highly decentralized. The institutional and policy barriers may be difficult to
overcome. Where barriers are identified, it will be necessary to assess the implications of
reforms and develop recommendations for removing the barriers.
Reforms generally must be undertaken by in-country government personnel. Institutional
and policy reform assistance, beginning several years into the project and continuing
throughout its duration, may be useful to such personnel to provide guidance and
information about how similar barriers have been addressed in other countries. Advice
could be provided through seminars organized in the country and conducted by expert
consultants, or through international or in-country training opportunities for the
government personnel. The costs of such programs will vary considerably depending on
their scope. Seminars may be provided for $25,000 or more, while long-running
consulting or training assistance could cost $100,000 or more. Several seminars and
training efforts may be necessary if the project includes several different waste
management entities.
Information Exchange: Creating institutional arrangements within countries to disseminate
information about domestic and international accomplishments in landfill methane recovery
and other aspects of waste management will be an important part of any program.
Actions may range from expanding and integrating the roles of existing organizations to
creation of independent information clearinghouses.
The cost of information exchange activities vary depending on their scope. Providing
information on an ad hoc basis is a relatively low cost activity. Establishment of
clearinghouses costs considerably more because of the staffing and equipment
requirements. Managing a clearinghouse may cost $75,000 to $100,000 or more
annually in developing or transitional countries, costs that would continue until the
clearinghouse could be managed internally (possibly after three years).
Technical Assistance: In conjunction with information exchange, technical cooperation
on projects can facilitate the development and dissemination of expertise. Technical
assistance may include training and cooperative work on studies and pre-feasibility
assessments for demonstration projects. Activities could include arranging in-country
seminars on technical issues taught by international experts, arranging international
training opportunities and study tours, and organizing domestic and international teams
to undertake project development activities, such as pre-feasibility assessments.
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LANDFILLS
2-31
Project Type
Initial Assessment
Policy and Management
Assistance
.
Information Exchange
.
Technical Assistance
Technology Transfer
o • r
Commercialization
Exhibit 2-10
Summary of Project Types
Phase 1 Phase 11 Phase 111
• •
••••••••
••••••
Cost
$100K-1M per country,
depending on scope of
study, number of regions
studied, and in-
country/international
participation
$25-100K per country,
depending on types of
activities
v/viriao. &"7K 1 r\r\\s +<•>
vanes; 9/o-iuuis.to
manage clearinghouse in
developing/ transitional
countries
$25-50K per country for
seminar; $50-200K for
prefeasibility study; $50K
or more for study tour
$500K-15M or more,
depending on scope
.
Varies, depending on type
& magnitude of project
(e.g., LFG: $2-30M)
The costs of technical assistance activities will vary according to the nature of the
assistance and the number of organizations or individuals involved. In-country seminars
could be arranged at relatively low cost, e.g., $25,000 to $50,000 per seminar.
Depending on the degree of detail and domestic participation, pre-feasibility study costs
can range from $50,000 to $200,000 or more. International training and study tours will
generally cost about $50,000 or more, depending on their duration and the number of
participants. Again, several technical assistance activities may be necessary if the project
includes different waste management entities.
Technology Transfer: In many cases, technology transfer is necessary to introduce and
demonstrate additional technologies. Technology transfer activities would include pilot
projects that demonstrate the appropriate technology for collecting and using landfill
methane, sanitary landfill practices, or methods for developing or improving recycling and
composting. Such projects could also demonstrate new technologies that may be suited
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2 - 32 LANDFILLS
for a particular country or region. These activities may begin several years into the project
and continue through the first decade.
Technology transfer projects will generally be relatively expensive because of the need to
purchase equipment. Depending on the scope, the costs of technology transfer projects
could range from $500,000 to $15 million or more. A small scale project could include
drilling of test wells for assessing gas flow. More expensive projects might include full-
scale waste management efforts that include collection, source reduction, sanitary
landfilling, and methane recovery/use components. A project of this scope would require
investment in infrastructure and equipment, such as trucks (for collection and landfilling),
drills, pipes, compressors, and turbines or other gas utilization devices.
Commercialization: Commercialization of landfill gas recovery projects and other waste
management practices will be the end result of international exchange programs and
assistance. Technology transfer, technical assistance, and information exchange are
designed to develop the necessary expertise for full-scale project development, beginning
about five years into the program. Commercialization will necessitate considerable
investments in gas recovery systems, purification equipment, gas supply infrastructure,
and end use equipment. The costs of commercial projects can vary significantly,
depending on their magnitude. In the United States, commercial landfill gas recovery
project costs have ranged from roughly $2 million to more than $30 million, with most
projects between $2 million and $10 million (GAA, 1992). Large scale waste management
projects are likely to cost significantly more, as they typically involve infrastructure
development and are broader in scope.
The expanded implementation of waste management projects could be facilitated through
joint ventures with domestic and foreign private companies and/or cooperation among
international governments. International interest in the potential of landfill gas recovery
in the United Kingdom has already motivated collaboration with the United States
Department of Energy and the USEPA on many aspects of landfill gas research and
development (Landfill Gas Trends, 1991).
-------
LANDFILLS 2 - 33
2.7 References
Aitchison, L. (1993), ETSU, Harwell Laboratory, England, Personal Communication, 1993.
Australian Draft Inventory Preparation Group (1991), Draft Australian Greenhouse Gas
Emission Inventory 1987-88. October 1991.
Bhide, A.D. (1993). Memorandum to Cindy Jacobs of Global Change Division, Office of Air
and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency from A.D. Bhide, Director and Head,
Solid Waste Management Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute,
Nagpur, India, May 3, 1993.
Bhide, A.D., S.A. Gaikwad and B.Z. Alone (1990), "Methane from Land Disposal Sites in
India," in International Workshop on Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Systems. Coal
Mining and Waste Management Systems, funded by Environment Agency of Japan, U.S.
Agency for International Development, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., April 9-13, 1990.
Bhide, A.D, and Dr. B.B. Sundaresan (1984), "Street Cleansing and Waste Storage and
Collection in India," in Managing Solid Wastes in Developing Countries. John R. Holmes, ed.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Bingemer, H.G. and P.J. Crutzen (1987), "The Production of Methane from Solid Wastes,"
in Journal of Geophysical Resources Vol. 92.
Cointreau, Sandra J. (1982), "Environmental Management of Urban Solid Wastes in
Developing Countries: A Project Guide," International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development/The World Bank, June, 1982.
Elkington, John and Jonathan Shopley (1989), "Cleaning Up: U.S. Waste Management
Technology and Third World Development," World Resources Institute, March, 1989.
Energy Efficiency Office (1990), "New Practice- Final Profile Papers No. 7 and 19", January
and August, Best Practice Programme, Energy Technology Support Unit, Department of
Energy, United Kingdom.
Energy Efficiency Office, "Energy Efficiency Demonstration Scheme," Project Profiles and
Expanded Project Profiles December 1987- February 1990, Energy Technology Support Unit,
Department of Energy, United Kingdom.
Federal Register (1992), 56FR 24470, May 31, 1992.
Galvez von Collas, Francisco, Guillermo Fernandez Versin, y Victor Casas Cordero Leon
(1983), Calculo de la Produccion de Biogas en Rellenos Sanitarios. Santiago, Agosto, 1983.
Gaudioso, D., C. Trozzi, R. Vaccaro (1993), Emissions from Landfills in Italy, ENEA/TECHNE,
(preprint) 1993.
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2-34 LANDFILLS
Gendebien, A., M. Pauweis, M. Constant, M.-J. Ledrut-Damanet, E.-J. Nyns, H.-C. Willumsen,
J. Butson, R. Fabry, and G.-L. Ferrero (1992), Landfill Gas: From Environment to Energy
(1992)- Final Report. Commission of the European Communities.
Governmental Advisory Associates (GAA) (1992), 1991-2 Methane Recovery from Landfill
Yearbook, prepared by Eileen Berenyi and Robert Gould, GAA, NY.
Gunnerson, Charles G. and David C. Stuckey (1986), "Anaerobic Digestion: Principles and
Practices for Biogas Systems," World Bank Technical Paper #9: Integrated Resource
Recovery.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1990), Climate Change: The IPCC
Response Strategies, World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment
Programme.
Jacques, A.P. (1992), Canada's Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimates for 1990. Environment
Canada, April, 1992.
Kashmanian, R.M. (1991, draft). Markets for Compost. Office of Policy, Planning and
Evaluation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Kempa, Edward S. and Andrzej Jedrczak (1990), "Sanitary Landfilling in Poland," in
International Perspectives on Municipal Solid Wastes and Sanitary Landfilling. Joseph S. Carra
and Raffaello Cossu, eds., London: Academic Press Limited.
Kessler, T. (1988), "The Brazilian Experience of Landfill Gas and Cleanup and Use," in
Proceedings. International Conference on Landfill Gas and Anaerobic Digestion of Solid Waste.
4-7 October 1988, Chester, UK Alston, Y.R.; Richards, G.E. (eds), 270-279. Oxfordshire,
UK: Harwell Laboratory.
Kreese, Klaus J. (1992), Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Gmbh,
personal communication.
Kresse, K. and J. Ringeltaube (1982), "How Resources Recovery and Appropriate
Technologies Can Cut Costs at Waste Management in Developing Countries," in Recycling in
Developing Countries, edited by K.J. Thome-Kozmiensky, E. Freitag, Berlin.
Landfill Gas Trends New Sheet (1991), Issue No. 2. March 1991, Biofuels. Energy Technology
Support Unit, Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire, UK.
Lawson, Patricia S. (no date), "The UK Department of Energy R&D (Biofuels) Programme for
Landfill Gas," ETSU for the Department of Energy, Energy Support Technology Unit, Harwell
Laboratories, Didcot, Oxon, England.
Mclnnes, G., J.C. Bailey, H.S. Eggleston and M.J. Woodfield (1990), "Emissions of Methane
and Other VOCs in the United Kingdom," paper to EMEP Workshop on International Emissions
Inventories held at Regensburg (FRG) in July 1990, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, UK: Warren
Spring Laboratory.
-------
LANDFILLS 2 - 35
Monteiro, Penido (1992), Coordinator of landfill gas projects in Rio de Janeiro and Manaus,
personal communication.
Nath, K.J. (1984) "Metropolitan Solid Waste Management in India," in Managing Solid Wastes
in Developing Countries. John R. Holmes, ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
OECD (1991), Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks. Final Report from the
OECD Experts Meeting, 18-21 February, 1991, prepared for Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change.
Orlich, J. (1990), "Methane Emissions from Landfill Sites and Wastewater Lagoons," in
International Workshop on Methane Emissions from Natural Gas Systems. Coal Mining and
Waste Management Systems, funded by Environment Agency of Japan, U.S. Agency for
International Development, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,April
9-13, 1990.
Orthofer, Rudolf (1991), Abscha'tzunq der Methan-Emissionen in Osterreich. Osterreichisches
Forschungszentrum Seibersdorf, Im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums fur Umwelt, Jugend und
Familie zl. 01 2943/3-I/7/89, unter Mitarbeit von Markus H. Knoflacher, Wolfgang Loibl, und
Gerhard Urban, April, 1991.
OTA (1992), Fueling Development: Energy Technologies for Developing Countries. Congress
of the United States Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
Paraguassu de Sa, Fernando (1980), "Solid Wastes Management in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,"
Companhia Municipal de Limpeza Urbana, Rio de Janeiro RJ Brasil, January, 1980.
Pyka, M. (1993), Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency, Personal Communication, 1993
Rae, G. (1988), UK Municipal Waste Management Options. Harwell Waste Management
Symposium (Waste Management in the UK- Are We On the Right Course?).
Rajabapaiah, P. (1989), "Energy From Bangalore Garbage- A Preliminary Study," ASTRA,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.
Richards, K.M. (1989), "Landfill Gas: Working with Gaia" from Biodeterioration Extracts no.4.
Energy Technology Support Unit, Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire, UK. December, 1989.
Richards, K.M. and E.M. Aitchison (1990), "Landfill Gas: Energy and Environmental Themes,"
Energy Technology Support Unit, Harwell Laboratory, presented at the Third International
Landfill Gas Conference (Landfill Gas: Energy and Environment '90) at Bournemouth, October
1990.
Rowland, William (1992), Natural Power, Inc, personal communication.
Thorneloe, Susan A. (1990) "Landfill Gas Recovery/Utilization - Options and Economics," in
Proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference bv the Institute of Gas Technology on Energy
from Biomass and Waste. March 1992.
-------
2 - 36 LANDFILLS
Thorneloe, Susan A. (1992) "Methane Emissions from Landfills and Other Waste Management
Facilities," in International Workshop on Methane from Natural Gas Systems. Coal Mining, and
Waste Management Systems, funded by Environment Agency of Japan, U.S. Agency for
International Development, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 9-13, 1990.
USAID (United States Agency for International Development) (1988), "Prospects in Developing
Countries for Energy from Urban Solid Wastes," a Bioenergy Systems Report. September
1988, Office of Energy.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1990), Methane Emissions and
Opportunities for Control: Workshop Results of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
coordinated by Japan Environment Agency and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/Office
of Air and Radiation, September, 1990.
USEPA (1993a), Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States: Report to Congress,
USEPA/OAR (Office of Air and Radiation), Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993b), Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane. Report to Congress (in
progress), USEPA/OPPE (Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation), Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993c), Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in the United States. Report to
Congress {review draft), USEPA/OAR, Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993d), Options for Reducing Methane Emissions Internationally, Volume I:
Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions. Report to Congress, USEPA/OAR,
Washington, D.C.
Vogler, Jon A. (1984), "Waste Recycling in Developing Countries," in Managing Solid Wastes
in Developing Countries. John Holmes, ed., John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
-------
CHAPTER THREE
OIL AND NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3.1 Introduction
There are large opportunities to reduce methane emissions by promoting the more widespread
use of available technologies and practices in the production, transmission, storage and
distribution of natural gas. There are additional opportunities to reduce methane emissions
during the production of oil. Methane is the primary component of natural gas, and significant
emissions are attributed to leakage and venting from various segments of the oil and natural
gas infrastructure. Currently, the practices and technologies applied in the field vary between
countries and regions, and thus the relative efficiencies of these regions' systems also vary.
Methane emissions can be reduced to some extent in all natural gas systems and to a much
greater extent in the less efficient systems. These efforts would provide other important
benefits such as increasing the overall efficiency of energy production and supply within a
country, in addition to economic, environmental, and safety benefits.
An estimated 33 to 68 Tg of methane is released annually to the atmosphere from oil and
natural gas systems worldwide (USEPA, 1993b). Natural gas systems are estimated to
contribute 22 to 52 Tg per year and oil systems (including associated gas production) the
remaining 11 to 16 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b). Initial investigations indicate that
substantial reductions, as much as half of the reductions necessary to stabilize global methane
concentrations, may be achieved through implementing available technologies and practices.
Furthermore, if this lost gas was recovered and sold it would increase trade revenues for
major producing and transporting countries. In addition, programs to improve the efficiency
of gas systems would create substantial export potential for durable goods and technical
services from countries which are technology leaders in this industry, like the United States.
In order to achieve these substantial emissions reductions and realize the associated benefits,
aggressive programs of technical assistance and technology transfer may be required. The
general components of such a program are outlined below, including estimates of potential
reductions in methane emissions from oil and natural gas systems, and descriptions of the
types of technology transfer actions that may be effective in achieving them. This chapter
describes a country program designed for the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),
and in particular Russia, which is the world's largest producer of natural gas and associated
gas (gas production associated with oil production), and the world's largest emitter of
methane from this source.
3.2 Methane Emissions
Methane emissions are released from processes and operations throughout the gas and oil
industries, including from gas and oil production wells, processing and storage facilities, and
transmission and distribution systems. Emissions result largely from both intentional and
unintentional leakage, during the normal operation and maintenance of these systems. This
includes emissions from compressors, gas-operated control devices, well work-overs, and
other routine gas system operations, as well as fugitive emissions.
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3-2 OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
Methane emissions from oil and natural gas systems may generally be divided between those
released during the production process and those from post-production processes such as gas
processing, transmission, and distribution. Venting and flaring emissions are the primary
component of production emissions. Venting and flaring are normal operations at production
well sites and are particularly common in cases where the infrastructure to use associated gas
produced from oil wells does not exist, or when oil and gas systems are operated as very
independent industries. Fugitive emissions and releases of gas from equipment used during
the production process are also a significant component of production emissions.
Post-production emissions include all other releases of methane from pipeline operations.
These emissions occur at a wide range of locations throughout the system, and result from
both intentional and unintentional releases of gas. Important locations and activities which
emit methane include venting during system upsets or repairs; leaking components; start up
and stopping of turbines and reciprocating engines at compressor stations; venting at pressure
reduction stations; and the disposal of waste gas from some gas processing systems.
Worldwide annual emissions of methane are estimated at about 33 to 68 Tg (1.7 to 3.5 Tcf)
from oil and natural gas systems (USEPA, 1993b). Emissions from production well sites may
account for as much as 15 to 27 Tg per year, or about 40 to 45 percent of the global
methane emissions. However, these emission estimates are highly uncertain due to small data
samples. This estimate assumes that about 20 percent of gas reported to be vented and
flared is in fact released (Barns and Edmonds, 1990) and is used due to the absence of
country-specific information. Post-production emissions from oil and gas systems likely
account for roughly 18 to 41 Tg per year, the remaining 55 to 60 percent of global methane
emissions from this source (USEPA, 1993b). These emissions are largely from the natural gas
industry.
The emissions estimates are based on a number of recent country studies for the CIS,
Germany, United States, and Norway. The estimate remains uncertain due to remaining
uncertainty in the existing studies and the lack of detailed studies for important regions of the
world. As country and regional data continue to be developed, these estimates can be
revised.
Emissions of methane may also be classified based on whether they come from oil or gas
systems. Thus, gas systems account for roughly 22 to 52 Tg per year of methane emissions,
or 66 to 76 percent of total emissions from oil and gas systems. Oil systems, including
associated gas production, account for roughly 11 to 16 Tg per year, or the remaining 24 to
33 percent of emissions (USEPA, 1993b).
The majority of the 33 to 68 Tg of methane emitted annually from oil and natural gas systems
comes from those countries with the highest gas production levels. The CIS and the U.S.
represented approximately 40 and 24 percent of gross gas production and roughly 50 to 53
and 7 to 8 percent of worldwide emissions in 1990, respectively. As shown in Exhibit 3-1,
methane emissions from the CIS and the U.S. primarily result from operations of their gas
systems, with emissions from oil systems making a relatively small contribution. A number
of other oil and gas-producing and consuming nations also contribute significant methane
emissions. In contrast to the CIS and the U.S., however, oil production accounts for a
relatively high portion of their methane emissions. This is typically because infrastructure for
gas use does not exist in many other countries.
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3-3
Exhibit 3-1
Natural Gas Production and Estimated Methane Emissions from Oil and
Gas Producing Countries (1990)
Country
CIS
- Russian Federation
U.S.
Other Countries
World Total6
1990 Gas
Production8
(Tcf)
28.3
22.6C
17.1
26.1
71.2
Total
Methane
Emissions'5
(Tg/yr)
16-36
2.4 - 5.3d
14.5-27
33-68
Natural Gas
Systems
Emissions
15.8-34.7
2.2 -4.3
4.5- 13.9
22.4 - 52.0
Oil Systems
Emissions
0.5- 1.3
0.2 - 1.0
10.0- 13.1
10.7 - 16.0
a From USEPA, 1993b, based on UN, 1992 (reported in pJ, and converted to Tcf)
b USEPA, 1993b
c Sagers, 1990; 1991
d USEPA, 1993a
e Totals may not add up exactly due to rounding.
3.3 Emission Reduction Opportunities
There are a number of available technologies and practices for reducing methane emissions
from oil and natural gas systems which could be implemented on a more widespread basis.
These technologies and practices are commonly used in a number of countries and have
resulted in significantly lower methane emissions.
For example, in the United States, the application of technologies and practices such as
routine pipeline maintenance, new piping materials, leak detection practices, and pipeline
rehabilitation and repair practices has reduced system losses to less than 1 percent of total
marketed gas. Furthermore, emissions from the gas system can be profitably reduced by an
additional 25 percent or more with increased efforts on enhanced inspection and maintenance,
replacement of some components with newer designs, capturing of gas vented from
dehydrators, use of better seals, and other changes in routine operations (USEPA, 1993c).
These techniques also result in improved safety, increased productivity, and improved air
quality. Emission reductions on the order of 20 to 80 percent are possible at particular sites,
depending on site specific conditions. The different technical options for reducing methane
emissions from oil and natural gas systems are summarized in Exhibit 3-2, and are discussed
in more detail in Volume I of this report.
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3-4
OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
Exhibit 3-2
Summary of Options for Reducing Methane Emissions from Oil and
Natural Gas Systems
Considerations
Reduction
Techniques
Support
Technologies
Availability1
Capital
Requirements
Technical
Complexity
Applicability
Methane
Reductions3
Reduced Venting and
Flaring During
Production
• Recover
Associated Gas
• Reinject
• Flare
• Well Work-overs
• Gas Infrastructure
• Reinjection Well
Drilling
• Efficient Flares
• On-site Gas
Utilization
• Currently
Available
• Low2
• Low
• Dependent Upon
Current Emissions
• Technology and
Capital
Availability
• Up to 50%
Improved
Compressor
Operation
• Reduced Fuel
Use
• Gas Turbines
• Reduce Starts/
Stops
• Lean Burn
Engines
• Integrated
Control
Systems
• Hydraulic
Starters
• Dynamic
Modelling
• Currently
Available
• Medium
• Low
• Large
Compressor
Stations
• Up to 90%
Improved teak
Detection and
Pipeline Repair
• Detection
• System
Monitoring
• Reduced Venting
at Slowdowns
• Repair/
Replacement
• Gas Analyzers
• Measurement
Devices
• Automatic
Shutoff Valves
• Portable
Compressors
• Currently
Available
• Low/Medium
• Medium
• Widely
Applicable:
- Older Systems
- Poor Conditions
• Up to 80%
tow Emission
Technologies and
Practices
• Capturing
Purged Gas
• Directed I/M
Programs
• Upgrade
Equipment
• Offtake Station
Design
• Low-Bleed
Devices
• Currently
Available
• Low
• Low
• Widely
Applicable
• Up to 80%
Source: USEPA, 1993d
1 Available with continuing improvements expected over the next decades.
2 Large capital investment will be necessary only if developing infrastructure for associated gas use is required.
3 These are reductions that can be achieved at appropriate individual sites or systems.
In general, the potential emissions reductions for a given natural gas system depend on
several factors, including the amount of gas produced and transported, the age of the system,
operating pressure, the soil conditions, the level of technology applied in the system, and the
market potential for increased gas supply. The most promising regions for reducing methane
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS 3 - 5
emissions from this source are those with high production, throughput and consumption, and
lower system efficiencies. Such regions have significant potential for introducing newer
technologies and practices. Lower-efficiency systems are typical of operating concerns that
have been constrained by capital shortages or have recently undergone massive expansions.
Both of these factors exacerbate the inefficiencies and, thus, methane leakage.
The region with the highest potential for emission reductions is the CIS, and especially Russia.
The gas system in the CIS may have leakage rates many times higher than the more efficient
systems in the West. Russia, which produced over 80 percent of total gas production in the
CIS in 1990 and which has a relatively large emission rate estimated at 3.0 to 6.7 percent of
production (Rabchuk et al., 1991), has the potential to achieve particularly large reductions.
While opportunities exist to reduce emissions from oil, the primary focus of efforts to reduce
emissions will be improvements in gas systems because global emissions in general are
predominantly from gas systems. The major emitters, the CIS and the United States have
relatively low emissions from oil systems. The combined emissions from the major oil
producing countries such as Saudi Arabia, Mexico, Iran and Venezuela are relatively small
compared to emissions from natural gas systems in the U.S. and the C.I.S.
Achieving technically feasible and economically viable reductions will depend upon accurate
assessments of opportunities, the development of implementation plans, government policies,
and the availability of financial and technical resources.
3.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions
The development of projects and programs that reduce methane emissions from oil and natural
gas systems will have many benefits, including improvements in energy supply and trade
balance, improved safety and system efficiency, and reduced local air pollution.
Energy Supply and Trade Balance: Achieving emissions reductions through the profitable
application of technologies and practices in a given country will have the benefit of cost-
effectively increasing domestic energy production, thereby either reducing imports or
increasing the amount of gas available for export. This can improve both energy supply
security and trade balances. In cases where fossil fuel exports are a country's primary
source of hard currency, like Russia, small increments in increased exports can have a
proportionately larger impact on the domestic economy.
Improved System Efficiency: Methane emissions represent a system inefficiency. Lost
gas is a cost which must be born by the system operator and consumer, and results in lost
economic benefits. In many cases, the economic benefits of improving efficiency will
cover the costs of making the improvements.
Improved Safety: Leakage and other releases of natural gas may pose a safety hazard to
workers, consumers, and the general public. As existing gas systems grow older,
emissions may be expected to increase, requiring increased use of detection and
rehabilitation techniques. The use of advanced construction materials and technologies
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3-6
OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
in new systems can reduce emissions and prevent deterioration. Reducing emissions from
oil and natural gas systems can improve the overall safety of these systems.
Reduced Local Air Pollution: The increased supply of natural gas, especially through the
reduction of venting and flaring, will allow natural gas to be used in place of other fossil
fuels such as oil and coal, which often create significantly worse air pollution. Natural gas
is also a more efficient energy source, particularly where there are fluctuating heating
demands. Other air pollutants from gas systems include NOX emissions in compressor
exhaust, and sulfur dioxide and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from
processing facilities. Improving system efficiency to reduce methane emissions will also
reduce these emissions.
3.5 Country Profile: Commonwealth of Independent States
Overview
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is the largest producer, transporter,
consumer, and exporter of natural gas in the world, producing almost 40 percent more gas
than the next largest producer, the United States. As shown in Exhibit 3-3, the CIS produced
about 30 Tcf of natural gas in 1990, as compared to about 22 Tcf in the U.S.
Exhibit 3-3
Natural Gas Production & Disposition in 1 989
Gross Production
Vented & Flared
Reinjected
Marketed Production
Dry Gas Production
Imports
Exports
Apparent Consumption1
CIS (Tcf}
29.8
0.11
0.09
29.10
28.78
0.05
3.94
24.96
U.S. {Tcf)
21.5
0.14
2.49
18.60
17.81
1.53
0.09
18.71
World (Tcf)
89.33
3.28
8.36
76.18
73.15
10.93
10.93
72.85
Source: US DOE, 1992
1 Defined as dry gas production plus stock changes, plus imports, minus exports
Within the CIS, Russia is the dominant natural gas producer, with some 66 percent of total
CIS production coming from the Tyumen region of Western Siberia (within Russia). Western
Siberia has become the center of Russian gas production over the last twenty years as
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3-7
production activity shifted from the European part of Russia (IEA, 1991). Accordingly, this
region has witnessed explosive growth in production levels (300 percent), compared to
modest growth in Turkmenia and Uzbekistan, and declining production in the Ukraine (U.S.
CIA, 1991). Exhibit 3-4 details the trends in production levels in the CIS.
Natural gas is an extremely important fuel for the CIS. As gas consumption has increased
over 75 percent in the last decade (US DOE, 1992), it has come to provide about 42 percent
of the 57.15 quads of primary energy consumed by the CIS in 1990. In comparison, natural
gas provides only about 24 percent of primary energy used by the United States. Most of the
natural gas consumed in the CIS is used by industrial facilities and power plants (see Exhibit
3-5). In addition, the CIS exports almost 13 percent of its dry gas production to Western
Europe and Eastern Europe. At a European border price of $2 to $3/Mbtu1 (IEA, 1991), CIS
exports have an estimated value of $7 to $10 billion.
Exhibit 3-4
Dry Gas Production in the CIS (Tcf/year)
State
Russia
- W. Siberia
Urengoy
Yamburg
Medvezhye
Vyngapur
- Eur. Russia
- Urals
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Ukraine
CIS Total
1970
2.93
0.35
-
-
-
-
2.40
0.14
0.46
1.13
2.15
7.00
1975
4.06
1.34
-
-
1.06
-
1.87
0.81
1.84
1.31
2.43
10.21
1980
8.97
5.65
1.77
-
2.51
-
1.34
1.80
2.51
1.24
2.01
15.36
1985
16.32
13.28
9.01
-
2.51
0.57
1.06
1.73
2.93
1.24
1.52
22.71
1986
17.76
14.8
10.31
0.14
2.47
0.60
1.02
1.70
3.00
1.38
1.41
24.23
1987
19.21
16.42
11.02
0.99
2.30
0.60
1.06
1.66
3.11
1.41
1.27
25.67
1988
20.84
18.05
11.48
2.47
1.87
0.60
1.02
1.66
3.11
1.41
1.13
27.19
1989
21.75
19.03
11.83
3.18
1.77
0.60
1.02
1.60
3.17
1.45
1.09
28.11
1990
22.6
20.02
-
-
-
-
0.92
1.55
3.11
1.45
1.02
28.78
Source: Sagers, 1990; 1991
Note: Dry Gas Production does not include associated gas.
1 Mbtu = million British thermal units (Btu's); 1 cubic foot of CIS gas = 932 Btu's of energy (US DOE
1992)
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3-8
OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
The former Soviet Union built up a sophisticated and complex system to provide natural gas
to industrial and urban centers throughout its territory and for export. The extensive
infrastructure currently includes2:
approximately 9,000 producing wells in 200 gas and condensate fields;
• 300 small gas handling facilities to process the gas at the field sites;
6 large gas processing complexes, 4 of which are in Russia; and
• over 136,000 miles (220,000 km) of pipeline in the gas supply system of the CIS
(Exhibit 3-6).
Exhibit 3-5
Gas Delivered to Consumers in the CIS in 1988
Gas Delivered (Tcf)
CIS
US
8.6
7.0
2.7
2.5
4.6
0.7
2.7
Source: CIS - Gorst, 1988; U.S. - DOE, 1991
Sources: Baudino & Volski, 1991; GAZPROM Personal Communication, 1991.
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3- 9
Exhibit 3-6
Major Natural Gas Pipelines in the Commonwealth of Independent States
MMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES
While GAZPROM (the state enterprise controlling the natural gas system) has achieved many
of its objectives for increasing the delivery of natural gas over time, it has done so with a
minimum of resources. A shortfall in equipment supplies combined with rapid construction
during the 1970s and early 1980s in the harsh conditions of Western Siberia, a lack of
advanced pipeline technologies, and conflicting incentives and policy frameworks, has
challenged the ability of GAZPROM to maintain and improve the system over time.
As a consequence of technical and operational difficulties the natural gas system has
significant emissions of methane. It is estimated that the CIS oil and natural gas system may
emit some 16 to 36 Tg per year (0.8 to 1.8 Tcf) into the atmosphere (USEPA, 1993b). This
corresponds to emitting from 3.0 to 6.7 percent of total gas production.3 Published
This includes methane emissions from oil systems. The gas system alone (i.e., not including
associated gas production, or other oil system emissions) from 2.9 to 6.5 percent of gas production.
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3-10 OIL & NATURAL GAS ESYSTEMS
estimates of total methane emissions from the natural gas system of the CIS have ranged
from as low as 2 percent to as high as 12 percent of production (Baudino & Volski, 1991;
Rabchuk et al., 1991; Foreign Scouting Service, 1989). The CIS could thus account for up
to 50 percent of the world's methane emissions from natural gas systems. Exhibit 3-7 shows
the results of one study estimating leakage from major stages of the CIS natural gas system.
Approximately 25 percent of these emissions are from production, and 75 percent are from
post-production emissions.
These estimates remain highly uncertain. Most of the uncertainty is due to three factors: the
lack of measured data from transmission and distribution systems; the scarcity of data
describing venting and flaring at production; and the lack of accurate accounting for gas lost
in accidents. A number of efforts, including multilateral and bilateral activities, currently being
initiated should begin to reduce this uncertainty over the next several years.
Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions
The current economic and political changes in the republics of the CIS have created a unique
opportunity to work with CIS enterprises to introduce a number of technologies and practices
that could cost-effectively improve the efficiency of the CIS natural gas system. These
technologies and practices include:
Drilling, Completion, and Down-hole Sand Control: Many of the gas contaminants
which cause difficulties with equipment downstream from the production fields are the
result of poor completion, drilling and down-hole particulate control. Introducing
technology in this area has large potential to improve system performance, and reduce
system and equipment failures.
Improved Well Maintenance ("Workover") Practices: Gas wells are occasionally shut
down and cleaned out, or "worked over", to maintain gas production at a desired level.
In the U.S., the flow from wells is closely controlled using chokes thereby reducing
formation damage, and as a result workovers are required only once every 10 years
on average. In contrast, wells in the GAZPROM system may be shut down for
maintenance or workovers and put back into operation two to three times per year;
These gas losses each year can be 1 to 4 Tg or more (70 to 212 bcf) of gas, or 0.3
to 0.8 percent of dry gas production (Rabchuk et al., 1991). In the U.S., only 500 to
8,000 cubic feet is vented per workover (PSI, 1990). If the production associations
were able to adopt western practices and technologies, methane emissions and
maintenance costs could be greatly reduced.
• Increased Gas Processing Capabilities: Expanding gas processing capacity would
prevent further internal damage to pipelines from corrosive impurities in the natural
gas. This includes greater removal of corrosive compounds such as sand, hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide, and especially water vapor (which facilitates corrosion).
Improving the gas processing technology and increasing its capacity would significantly
reduce pipe line degradation, extend valve and pneumatic service life, and reduce gas
loss from system upsets and repair blowdowns. The long term operating and
maintenance cost of gas transportation would be reduced similarly.
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS 3-11
The capacity of byproduct recovery units (especially sulfur/hydrogen sulfide) should
be increased. Byproduct processing would allow GAZPROM to produce raw materials
useful in the agriculture and chemical industries, in addition to reducing the local
environmental impact of byproduct dumping and/or disposal.
Improved Pipeline Leak Prevention & Rehabilitation: The deterioration of gas
transmission and distribution pipelines significantly contributes to methane emissions
from the CIS gas supply system. Accelerated deterioration has put some lines out of
service in as little as 5 to 7 years. The rate of reconstruction has increased but does
not meet the need for pipeline renovation. (GAZPROM communication, 1992). While
the problems encountered in the gas supply system of the CIS are not unknown in
other systems, the use of a wide variety of sophisticated techniques for preventing the
deterioration of buried pipelines typically prolongs the life of pipeline systems in many
other countries. Investing in the increased use of available technologies in the CIS,
could reduce methane leakage, increase throughput, and extend the life of many
pipelines throughout the CIS.
Increased Compressor Engine Fuel Efficiencies: Gas compressors used in the CIS have
fuel efficiencies of about 24 to 27 percent. About 12 percent of their total installed
power capacity is over 15 years old and technologically obsolete. Alternatively,
Western compressor units can attain fuel efficiencies of 33 percent or better.
Improving the efficiency of CIS compressor engines to match those of Western units
would significantly reduce fuel use, NOX emissions, and CH4 releases from engine
exhausts.
Improved Gas Measurement Technologies & Metering: GAZPROM officials have
indicated that the move toward a market-based economic system in the CIS will create
a need for improved gas measurement capabilities (GAZPROM Personal
Communication, 1992). This includes real-time monitoring of particular natural gas
characteristics: throughput, especially at transfer points (e.g., borders, consumers);
energy content; impurity content; and volume. Improving gas measurement
technologies will indirectly reduce methane emissions to the atmosphere by facilitating
effective analysis of system performance.
More Efficient End User Equipment: Commercial and industrial end user equipment,
especially power stations and industrial plants, is another significant leakage source.
Introducing U.S. technologies could reduce leakage losses and improve process
efficiencies, as well as provide potential business prospects for U.S. companies.
Improved efficiencies and advanced technologies will have trickle-down effects on
other sectors of both the American and CIS economies, such as bolstering the
manufacturing sector in components and finished goods, while creating the potential
for new ventures to export or manufacture equipment within the CIS. The
concentrated nature of end use equipment and the relatively inefficient energy
conversion in the CIS indicates large potential for efficiency gains and reductions in gas
demand.
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3- 12
OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
Exhibit 3-7
Estimated Methane Emissions from the CIS Natural Gas System
Gas System Segment
Emissions as a % of Gas Production
Low
High
Oil and Gas Production
Associated Gas
Non-Associated Gas
Oil
0.03
0.72
na2
0.15
1.62
na2
Processing, Transport, & Distribution
Cleaning, Drying, Compressing
Collection Networks
Underground Storage
Compressor Stations
Linear Part of Main Pipelines
Distribution Networks
Industrial Consumers3
Residential/Commercial Consumers3
0.18
0.09
0.09
0.18
0.81
0.14
0.68
0.07
0.45
0.23
0.26
0.45
1.49
0.45
1.49
0.17
Total Losses
2.99
6.68
Source: USEPA, 1993b
1 Assuming methane content of 90%. Pipeline gas may also include ethane, propane, butane, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen.
2 Emissions of methane from dedicated oil production (not including associated gas production) is
estimated to be 319 to 5,033 kg per Pj of oil produced (USEPA,1993b).
3 Emissions of methane from industrial consumers are calculated using the estimated leakage of 1 to 2.2
percent of consumption, as opposed to production, cited in Rabchuk (1991). Emissions of methane
from residential/commercial consumers are calculated using Rabchuk's assumption that emissions from
this sector are approximately half as much as in the industrial sector or 0.5 to 1.1 percent of
consumption. Based on the total production levels used in EPA 1993b, the percent of total production
emitted differs from the original estimate of emissions as a percentage of total production cited in
Rabchuk. That is, the percent of production and percent of consumption emitted, in Rabchuk, are not
self-consistent using current production and consumption data.
The need to implement available technologies and practices presents large opportunities for
the U.S. gas industry and equipment manufacturers, who can provide these technologies and
services. Moreover, state organizations responsible for gas systems in the new states
(especially the Russian Federation) are increasingly interested in joint ventures, technology
sharing, and cooperative efforts to improve various aspects of their existing systems. They
are also interested in the potentially significant economic and local environmental benefits that
would have a positive impact on the region's energy supplies and stability. These benefits are
both short-term and long-term.
Environmental Benefits: GAZPROM officials have expressed concern about the emission
of NOxfrom natural gas compressor stations (GAZPROM Personal Communication, 1991).
In 1990, NOX emissions from GAZPROM operations totalled 615,000 metric tons (Baudino
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS 3-13
& Volski, 1991). Improving the fuel efficiency of GAZPROM'S compressor engines could
significantly reduce NOX and methane emissions, in addition to contributing to the
economic benefits detailed below. Furthermore, according to GAZPROM officials, there
is an insufficient supply of gas processing equipment and, as a result, gas containing
highly-corrosive hydrogen sulfide is entering some transmission lines, shortening pipeline
lifetimes and causing critical equipment, such as safety shut-off valves, to malfunction
(GAZPROM Personal Communication, 1991). Increasing the capacity of processing plants
in the CIS would, therefore, reduce methane leakage and contribute to reducing pipeline
maintenance costs.
Economic Benefits: If two-thirds of current methane losses were recovered through
efficiency improvements, as seems possible, another 0.5 to 1.2 Tcf of gas could be made
available for export with a potential economic value of $1.1 to $3.8 billion. The potential
increase in export revenues could be used to increase investment in infrastructure and
technology, and to reduce GAZPROM debt. In addition to direct savings from recovering
lost gas, several GAZPROM operating costs can be reduced, including 1) system
maintenance and repair costs resulting from high impurity levels, and 2) the payment of
emissions fees. There is also the potential for reducing imports of sulfur.
Increasing the capacity of processing plants also provides a potential source of sulfur from
the hydrogen sulfide which is removed. The expansion of sulfur separation capacity would
allow the CIS to more economically satisfy domestic demand for sulfur, which is currently
met by expensive imports. Moreover, increasing gas processing and sulfur separation
capacity will reduce the environmental damages of sulfur dioxide produced when unused
hydrogen sulfide is flared, and solids are dumped.
A second indirect operating cost that might be reduced is the "pollution tax" on emissions
of methane, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides which GAZPROM must pay (GAZPROM
Personal Communication, 1991). The current CIS domestic gas price and the pollution tax
alone are not sufficient economic incentive to justify emission reduction projects.
Nevertheless, because the potential reductions discussed in this report are economically
justifiable in their own right (based on border prices), tax savings represent additional
savings. Expected moves towards market-based pricing and taxing should also improve
the cost-effectiveness of such projects.
Energy Supplies and Stability: Maintaining energy production and supply will be critical
to maintaining the economic and social stability of Russia and the new states. The current
losses from the ex-soviet gas system, which can be greatly reduced with available
technologies, represent a wasted energy resource. Therefore, improving the gas system
is, in effect, an economically viable method of increasing production and throughput
without increasing the draw on gas reserves. Taking advantage of the potential benefits
of more efficient production -- reduced operating costs, expanded export earnings and
domestic energy supply, improved safety, and reduced local air pollution -- can only have
a positive impact on the development and stability of ex-soviet republics.
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3-14 OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
Emissions Reduction Potential
While there is considerable uncertainty over the total emissions from the CIS gas system, the
system has large potential for emissions reductions. In comparison to the emission rates in
the CIS, methane emissions from natural gas systems in Western countries are estimated at
about 1 percent of production. Even at the low-end of these estimates, the potential for
economically viable emissions reductions in the CIS exists. Moreover, because of the large
production capacity of the CIS system, these reductions are larger than commensurate
percentage reductions in other systems.
There is potential for even larger emissions reductions if CIS emissions are at the higher end
of the emissions estimates. For example, using recent estimates of emissions of 3.0 to 6.6
percent of production, improving the efficiency of the CIS natural gas system by reducing
emissions to 2 percent of production would result in annual emissions reductions of roughly
5 to 25 Tg. This reduction results in an effective 1 to 5 percent increase in productivity.
Efforts to achieve these reductions and associated productivity increases are focused on the
gas system because the majority of emissions result from gas system operations.
Promoting Methane Reductions
GAZPROM and its associates have faced a number of barriers in their efforts to develop,
maintain, and recondition the gas system in the CIS. Many of the existing pipelines and other
facilities are reaching the end of their design lives. Replacement costs, combined with
continued growth, are placing a heavy demand on already scarce capital. While in the long
term the gas industry is expected to become financially independent, external suppliers of
capital and equipment may be necessary in the short term. Accurate assessments of the
technical needs for system improvements and the capital necessary to finance them are
required to begin addressing this problem.
The principal actions that could facilitate projects to reduce methane emissions are
summarized below:
Pre-feasibility Studies/Pilot Projects: Pre-feasibility studies and pilot projects are necessary
to complete technical and financial audits of technology transfer and service business
opportunities related to improving the Russian gas delivery system. The preliminary phase
of these studies would involve a technical inventory of the gas system, and the
measurement of emissions at key facilities. The technical inventory would describe the
physical state of each major component of the Russian gas pipeline system, including
production fields, pipeline segments, processing facilities, compressor stations, and large
end users of natural gas. Improved measurements of emissions from key sectors of the
gas system would improve the identification of problem areas and enhance the awareness
of the magnitude of the wasted resource.
Prefeasibility studies would significantly improve the information base for potential
investors, financing organizations, and governments. Studies and pilot projects will
demonstrate both the economic viability and environmental benefits associated with each
project, and will help to prioritize investment capital allocation by GAZPROM and also
direct the capital flow from international aid and financing organizations. Furthermore, the
-------
OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS 3-15
information base created in this phase will help reduce the project risk profile for
companies seeking Russian markets and for the financing institutions considering project
loans, hence lowering the economic hurdles for investment capital targeted for the Russian
gas system.
Working with the U.S. gas industry, feasibility analyses could be performed for a variety
of projects. These projects would range from well workovers and pipeline rehabilitation
to manufacturing of useful gas pipeline support equipment such as gas analyzers. These
analyses would identify short term (high impact) and long term (major overhaul) projects
for cooperative business opportunities, emphasizing the environmental and economic
benefits of these projects,
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: In many areas the CIS natural gas experts and
system operators are well versed in available technologies and practices. However, in
several key areas multilateral or bilateral assistance to transfer and demonstrate
technologies would greatly accelerate the path toward a more efficient system. These
areas include: production technology, reservoir recovery optimization, gas processing,
dehydration, compressor efficiency, compressor station design and equipment,
maintenance practices, pipeline design, pipeline and valve repair, accident response, city-
gate station equipment, and system modelling.
Project Financing: Market-based pricing, and a healthy gas industry in general, will be
particularly important in providing future investment funds. Currently, state controlled
prices result in operating losses, which make it difficult to fund infrastructure improvement
projects. Although the technology exists in many cases, there are often insufficient funds
to obtain the equipment necessary to make widespread improvements in the gas system.
Current economic plans call for the gradual establishment of market prices, which will
increase the availability of capital in the long-term. In the short-term, however, funding
projects will likely require external capital. An increase in export capacity and/or efficiency
will provide much-needed capital by increasing the CIS' share of the hard currency export
markets of Europe.
In particular, project financing could be developed to promote U.S. business efforts in the
Russian energy sector. Federal financing agencies could help build the strength of US
companies' bids for contracts in Russia by establishing loan guarantees, and feasibility
study pilot project grants which support the export activities of such US based technology
source companies. The US is somewhat slower to react than our European counterparts
in these promotional activities. American companies have the best available technology
and a strong reputation in Russia. There is a window of opportunity for US businesses to
gain significant market share in Russia. The US government can effectively advance US
technology exports and technology transfer to Russia by accelerating the flow of American
capital in these areas.
Institution Building - Establish Methane Recovery Technology Centers (MRTCs): The
establishment of clearinghouse type institutions to disperse technical information, financial
resources, and bilateral business contact information will greatly facilitate emission
reduction programs. At present, no single source is available where current
environmental, technical, financial, and business contact information is available.
Establishing the MRTCs in Moscow and Kiev would help disseminate information on the
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3-16 OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
full range of methane recovery and use technologies, publish journals, hold seminars, and
perform other related policy activities. The MRTCs could also support critical studies
conducted by in-country personnel on various technical, regulatory, and economic issues.
The MRTC could address methane recovery from natural gas systems, coal mining and
other methane sources, and could perform a vital role in making business opportunities in
these fields accessible to U.S. and Russian companies.
3.6 Summary
Emission Reductions
Potentially economically viable reductions in methane emissions from oil and natural gas
systems can be estimated based on the current range of methane emissions and estimates
of the portion of emissions that can be cost-effectively reduced as derived from examinations
of the CIS and the United States. Experience in the United States shows that 25 percent
reductions can be profitably achieved, while the CIS situation would imply reductions on the
order of 30 to 70 percent. These reductions may be as high as 10 to 35 Tg per year.
• Near Term Reductions: In the near term, there is potential to reduce annual methane
emissions by 4 to 16 Tg by identifying and implementing high-impact projects that
address larger leakage problems. Efforts would focus on potential improvements in the
West, and on the larger reductions that could be made in Russia. The United States
could likely contribute about 0.8 Tg per year of this near-term reduction (USEPA,
1993c). In addition, similar improvements made in other countries might achieve
reductions on the order of 10 to 20 percent, and would result in emission reductions
of 1 to 5 Tg per year or more. The remaining 3 to 10 Tg per year would be achieved
by efforts in the CIS.
• Long Term Reductions: In the long term, reductions of 7 to 34 Tg per year (21 to 50
percent of total emissions from gas and oil operations) can possibly be achieved
through applying available technology to recover gas and prevent leakage in gas and
oil operations worldwide.
Estimates of methane emissions and potential emission reductions from oil and natural gas
systems are summarized in Exhibit 3-8.
Promoting Methane Reductions
Further efforts may be needed to encourage the reduction of methane emissions from the oil
and natural gas system in the CIS and other regions of the world. Currently, the opportunities
for economically viable emissions reductions have not been adequately identified in many
countries. In some cases, the scope of emissions is not appreciated, or the costs of wasted
gas are not fully taken into account. Additionally, access to technologies, information,
equipment, training and other resources may be limiting factors. Aggressive programs to
identify opportunities and address the needs of different regions could encourage potential
emissions reductions. Typical barriers hindering the application of apparently economically
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3- 17
viable technologies for reducing emissions from oil and natural gas systems are summarized
in Exhibit 3-9.
Future activities should befocussed on expanding opportunities for U.S. industries, particularly
in the CIS and Russia. U.S. funding programs could facilitate the open involvement of U.S.
industry by reducing the risk associated with potential investments and providing critical
information to interested parties. These efforts could include establishing working
relationships with gas experts, assessing in detail the technical status of the system,
identifying sources of financing and the types of ventures that are feasible, and assisting in
policy development.
Exhibit 3-8
Estimates of Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from Oil and
Natural Gas Systems
Country
CIS
US
Others
TOTAL
Estimated
Emissions in
1990 (Ts/vr>*
16-36
2.4-5.3
14.5 - 27.0
33- 68
Near Term Reductions
Tg/yr
3- 10
0.3- 1.2b
1 - 5
4- 16
%
20-30
13- 23b
10- 20
12-24
Longer Term Reductions
Tg/yr
5 - 25
0.3- 1.3b
2-8
7-34
%
30-70
13-25b
20- 30
21 -50
Sources:
a USEPA (1993b)
b USEPA (1993c)
Specific activities, focussed on opportunities in the CIS, but likely applicable to other regions
of the world include:
Pre-feasibility Studies/Pilot Projects: These studies, which include the preparation of
a technical inventory of the gas system and measurement of emissions from key
facilities, improve the information available to both in-country organizations, as well
as to potential foreign business and institutional investors.
• Technology Transfer and Demonstration: These types of projects can speed the
implementation of available technologies and practices, as well as introduce new
methods for improving system efficiency.
Project Financing: The sustainable improvement in a country's gas system ultimately
relies upon the availability of finances to maintain and improve the gas system. In the
long term conditions which frequently result in operating losses, such as heavily
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3- 18
OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
subsidized energy prices, should be addressed. In the shorter term, it is often
necessary to obtain external capital to finance improvements in the gas system.
Institution Building: The establishment of institutions to develop and disseminate
technical and information, as well as bilateral business contacts, can play a vital role
in facilitating projects.
Exhibit 3-9
Key Barriers and Possible Responses for Oil & Natural Gas Systems
Key Barriers
Types of Actions
Legal & Regulatory Issues
Uncertain gas ownership
Unclear mechanisms for joint stock/venture
project development; tax issues
Project approval process difficult
Resolve ownership legally or legislatively
Develop system for foreign investment,
repatriation of profits, etc.
Establish low or zero tax rates on foreign direct
investment to encourage western business.
Utilize concession or production sharing type
agreements to preserve national cashflow
interests.
Streamline and clarify project approval process
Information Issues
Lack of awareness on part of government and
gas industry personnel about magnitude and
value of emissions reductions
Lack of awareness on part of potential project
developers about potential in various countries
Provide information to countries on emissions,
reduction options, and appropriate policies
Provide information to oil and gas companies,
and lending agencies regarding potential for
profitable projects
Technical Issues
Lack of access to existing technologies such as
low bleed valves, measurement techniques,
and processing technologies
Lack of familiarity with maintenance
procedures, such as wellhead work-overs
Lack of familiarity with pipeline repair and
control technologies, such as polyethylene pipe
replacement
Fund demonstration projects in key technical
areas
Organize study tours and training trips for key
gas industry personnel
Establish technology centers to disseminate
information on state-of-the-art technologies
and techniques
Financial Issues
Lack of capital for investment in methane
recovery projects
Dependence of gas organizations on subsidies
Low subsidized energy prices reduce economic
attractiveness
Absence of economic incentives to become
efficient
Encourage the development of joint ventures to
introduce new approaches
Foster free market pricing of gas at all stages
of the system
Introduce cost accounting of lost gas;
economic incentives for gas recovery
These activities are outlined in Exhibit 3-10 below.
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3- 19
Project Type
Prefeasibility Studies
Technology Transfer
& Demonstration
Project Finance
•
Institution Building
Exhibit 3-10
Summary of Project Types
Phase I Phase 11 Phase III
• •••
• •••
• •••
Cost
$100K-2M per
country
$100K-10M
depending on scope
of project
Varies, depending
on size of project
A-?C 1 f\f\¥ v\r\v ««;t**ri
9/O- iuui\ per year;
1 or 2 per country
or region
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3 - 20 OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS
3.7 References
American Gas Association (1989), 1989 Gas Facts. Arlington, Virginia.
American Gas Association (AGA) (1991), Gas Facts - 1990 Data. Arlington, Virginia.
Barns, David W. and J.A. Edmonds (1990), An Evaluation of the Relationship between the
Production and Use of Energy and Atmospheric Methane Emissions. U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, DOE/NBB-0088P.
Baudino, Mario and Edward Volski (1991), Abating Methane Emissions by Reducing Natural
Gas Leakages, presented at the International Symposium on Environmentally Sound Energy
Technologies and their Transfer to Developing Countries and European Economies in
Transition, Milan, Italy, 21-25 October, 1991.
Belyi, Nikolai I. (1991), "Huge Soviet Gas Industry Set for Participation, Major Expansion" in
Oil & Gas Journal. Oct. 21, 1991; pp. 53-57.
Foreign Scouting Service (1988), Review of Soviet Oil. Vol. XXIII, No. 12, p.48, December
1988.
GAZPROM Personal Communication (1991) - November visit by personnel of the Global
Change Division of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to GAZPROM offices in
Moscow and Saratov, Russia; CIS.
Gorst, Isabel (1988), "Soviet Union - Continuing Gas Boom" in Petroleum Economist. May,
1988.
International Gas Union (IGU) (1991), Gas - The Solution: A Route to Sustainable
Development." Paris, France.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (1991), Natural Gas - Prospects and Policies. OECD, Paris,
France.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1992), Climate Change 1992: The
Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment, prepared for the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, eds. J.T. Houghton, B.A. Callander and S.K. Varney, Great Britain:
Cambridge University Press.
Korchemkin, Michail B. (1988), "Soviet Union - Energy Strategy Based on Gas" in Petroleum
Economist. Oct., 1988.
Korchemkin, Michail B. (1989), Energy Aspects of Perestroika. Erasmus University,
Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Oil & Gas Journal (OGJ) (1991), "Worldwide Gas Processing" in Oil & Gas Journal. July 22,
1991; pp. 54-70.
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OIL & NATURAL GAS SYSTEMS 3-21
Pipeline Systems Incorporated (PSD (1989), Annual Methane Emissions Estimates of the
Natural Gas and Petroleum Systems in the U.S.
PSI (1990), Annual Methane Emissions Estimates of the Natural Gas Systems in the U.S. -
Phase II.
Rabchuk, V. I., N. I. Ilkevich, & Y. D. Kononov (1991), A Study of Methane Leakage in the
Soviet Natural Gas Supply System, prepared for U.S. DOE/EPA, November 1991;
Washington, DC.
Rich, J. (1992), Current Status of Gas Delivery Systems in Ukraine, prepared by Pipeline
Technology Group, Bechtel, for USEPA, May 7, 1992.
Sagers, Matthew J. (1986), PlanEcon Energy Report.
Sagers, Matthew J. (ed.) (1991), "Soviet and East European Energy Overview through the
First Three Quarters of 1991," in PlanEcon Energy Report. Dec., 1991; Vol. 1,No. 3); p. 12.
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (U.S. CIA) (1991), International Energy Statistical Review,
U.S. CIA; Washington, DC.
U.S. Department of Energy (1992), International Energy Annual - 1991. DOE/EIA-0219OD,
Dec. 1992, Washington, DC.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1993a), Anthropogenic Methane
Emissions in the United States Report to Congress, USEPA/OAR (Office of Air and Radiation),
Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993b), Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane (in progress), USEPA/OPPE
(Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993c), Opportunities to Reduce Methane Emissions in the United States. Report to
Congress (review draft), USEPA/OAR, Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993d), Options for Reducing Methane Emissions Internationally. Volume I:
Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions. Report to Congress, USEPA/OAR,
Washington, D.C.
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CHAPTER FOUR
COAL MINING
4.1 Introduction
Coal mining represents a promising opportunity to reduce methane emissions because of the
availability of technologies to expand methane recovery and use at coal mines, and the many
benefits associated with such projects. In many countries, methane recovery could be greatly
increased by degasifying coal seams in advance of mining, using proven vertical or in-mine
recovery methods. This degasification can occur well in advance of mining activities and can
be fairly independent of coal production. This gas can then be used for power generation or
industrial and residential uses. In addition to reducing the amount of gas wasted during the
mining operation, such projects should also improve coal mine productivity and safety, which
are of great importance to the coal industry. In many countries, there is potential for coalbed
methane to make a large contribution to primary energy supply.
Currently, many countries use degasification technologies to maintain mine safety, but only
a portion of the recovered methane is used as fuel. In 1990, for example, an estimated 2.8
to 3.9 Tg per year of methane was recovered by mine degasification systems but only about
1.3 Tg per year was used (USEPA, 1993b). The remaining 1.5 to 2.6 Tg per year of methane
was vented to the atmosphere, thereby wasting a medium to high quality fuel. This currently
vented degasification methane represents a major near-term opportunity for reducing methane
emissions in many countries. Developing uses for this gas will require investments in
improved methane recovery as well as gas utilization equipment and infrastructure.
A general program for encouraging expanded methane recovery and use is outlined below,
including potential reductions, technologies that are likely to be most applicable and
economically viable, and activities that need to be undertaken to encourage project
development. Specific opportunities and programs are also outlined for several countries with
large methane emissions from coal mining. These countries include the People's Republic of
China, Poland, former Czechoslovakia, Russia, and Ukraine.
4.2 Methane Emissions
Methane and coal are formed together during coalification, the process in which swamp
vegetation is converted by geological and biological forces into coal. Methane is stored in
large quantities within coal seams and also within the rock strata surrounding the seams.
Two of the most important factors determining the amount of methane that will be stored in
a coal seam and the surrounding strata are the rank and the depth of the coal. Coal is ranked
by its carbon content; coals of a higher rank have a higher carbon content and generally a
higher methane content. Pressure, which increases with depth, tends to keep methane in coal
seams and surrounding strata from migrating to the surface. Thus, within a given coal rank,
deep coal seams tend to have a higher methane content than shallow ones.
Most of the methane emitted from coal mining comes from a small number of the major coal-
producing countries. As shown in Exhibit 4-1, the three highest methane emitters from coal
mining--the People's Republic of China, the United States, and the Commonwealth of
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4-2
COAL MINING
Independent States (the former Soviet Union)--are estimated to account for about 70 to 75
percent of global methane emissions from this source (USEPA, 1993b). The top ten emitting
countries constituted about 90 percent of total methane emissions from coal mining.
Exhibit 4-1
Estimated Methane Emissions from Coal Mining in Ten Largest Coa! Producing
Countries, in 1 990
COUNTRY
People's Republic of China
United States
CIS
Poland
South Africa
India
Germany
United Kingdom
Australia
Former Czechoslovakia
SUBTOTAL - TOP 1 0
GLOBAL TOTAL
1990 Coal Production
(million tons)
UNDERGR.
1,023
385
393
154
112
109
77
75
52
22
2,401
SURFACE
43
548
309
58
63
129
359
14
154
85
1,762
4,740
Estimated Methane
Emissions (Tg/yr)
LOW
9.5
3.6
4.8
0.6
0.8
0.4
1.0
0.6
0.5
0.3
22.1
24.4
HIGH
16.6
5.7
6,0
1.5
2.3
0.4
1.2
0,9
0.8
0.5
35.9
39.6
Source: USEPA, 1993b.
Approximately 80 to 90 percent of global methane emissions from coal mines are liberated
by underground mining activities. Emissions per ton of coal mined range from about 5 m3/ton
to as much as 85 m3/ton in some of the world's gassiest mines (USEPA, 1993a; Pilcher et
al., 1991; Marshall, 1993). These emissions include both the methane released from mined
coal and from surrounding strata.
Most of the methane liberated by mining is currently being emitted to the atmosphere at
concentrations of less than 1 percent in mine ventilation air {USEPA, 1993b). However, a
significant amount of methane is currently being released from mine degasification systems.
In 1990, an estimated 1.3 Tg per year of mining emissions was recovered by mine
degasification systems and used instead of being vented to the atmosphere. It is estimated
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COAL MINING 4 - 3
that this represented only 30 to 50 percent of total degasification emissions, however, and
that between 1.5 and 2.6 Tg per year of medium and high-quality gas was vented by
degasification systems during the same year (USEPA, 1993b).
4.3 Emissions Reduction Opportunities
Increasing methane recovery and use is technically feasible at many coal mines, but may
require a shift in the traditional perception that coal companies and government authorities
have of mine degasification. Techniques for removing methane from mines have been
developed primarily for safety reasons, because methane is highly explosive in air at
concentrations between 5 and 15 percent. At mines throughout the world, these same
techniques have been successfully adapted to recover methane so that the energy value of
this fuel is not wasted. However, many additional opportunities exist to expand the use of
these technologies and reduce worldwide emissions of methane to the atmosphere. The
principal methane recovery techniques are summarized in Exhibit 4-2, and are discussed in
more detail in Volume I of this report.
The identification and design of technically feasible, economically viable projects to recover
and use methane from coal mines is determined by several factors, such as:
Coal and Geological Characteristics: In general, the methane content of coal and the
associated methane emissions tend to increase as mines become deeper and higher ranked
coals are mined (USEPA, 1993a). Geological conditions are important because they
influence the liberation of gas from the coal and surrounding strata;
Mining Method: Different mining methods can result in different methane emission levels,
depending on the degree of caving of the mined areas. In general, longwall mining tends
to cause greater caving, and these mines frequently have higher methane emissions
(USEPA, 1993a);
Current Methane Recovery and Use Practices: Many mines around the world currently
employ degasification techniques to maintain safe mining conditions. In some cases, the
recovered gas is used as a fuel, but many mines vent some or all of the recovered gas to
the atmosphere. An evaluation of the opportunities to expand or modify existing practices
can provide valuable information about the near- and longer-term potential to increase
methane recovery and use;
Potential Methane Recovery Techniques: There are many different methane recovery
techniques, including surface or in-mine methods which recover methane before, during,
or after mining (ICF Resources, 1990). The applicability of the full range of techniques in
different countries and mining conditions should be fully assessed;
Local Conditions: The most appropriate methane recovery and use techniques can be
heavily influenced by local conditions. For example, current or planned surface uses can
affect the attractiveness of surface methane recovery technologies. Similarly, the
characteristics of local infrastructure and industry will influence the selection of
appropriate gas utilization options; and
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4-4
COAL MINING
Exhibit 4-2
Methane Recovery and Utilization Strategies
Considerations
Recovery Techniques
Support Technologies
Gas Quality
Use Options
Availability
Capital Requirements
Technical Complexity
Applicability
Methane Reductions1
Enhanced Gob
Well Recovery
• In-Mine
Boreholes
• Vertical Gob
Wells
• In-Mine Drills
and/or Basic
Surface Rigs
• Compressors,
Pumps, and
other support
facilities
• Medium Quality
(11-29,000
kJ/m3)
(30O-800 Btu/cf)
(approx. 30-
80% CH4)
• On-Site Power
Generation
• Gas Distribution
Systems
• Industrial Use
• Currently
Available
• Low
• Low
• Widely
Applicable
• Site Dependent
• Up to 50%
Pre-Mining
Degasffication
• Vertical Wells
• In-Mine
Boreholes
• In-Mine Drills
and/or Advanced
Surface Rigs
• Compressors,
Pumps, and
other support
facilities
• High Quality
(32-37,000
kJ/m3)
(900-1000
Btu/cf)
(above 90%
CH4)
• Chemical
Feedstocks
in addition to
those uses listed
for medium
quality gas
• Currently
Available
• Medium/High
• Medium/High
• Technology,
Finance, and
Site Dependent
• Up to 70%
Ventilation Air
Utilization
• Fans
• Surface Fans
and Ducting
• Low Quality
(1% CH4;
usually below
1%)
• Combustion Air
for On-
Site/Nearby
Turbines and
Boilers
• Likely to be
Demonstrated
by 1 995
• Low/Medium
• Low/Medium
• Nearby
Utilization
• Site Dependent
• 10-90%
recovery
Integrated
Recovery-
Combined
Strategies
• All Techniques
• All
Technologies
• Ability to
Optimize
Degasification
Using
Combined
Strategies
• All Qualities
• All Uses
• Currently
Available
• Medium/High
• High
• Technology,
Finance, and
Site Dependent
• 80-90%
recovery
Source: USEPA, 1993c
1 These are reductions that can be achieved at an appropriate individual site.
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COAL MINING
4-5
Project Requirements: Different types of methane recovery and use projects will require
varying levels of capital, imported equipment, infrastructure, and experience. Depending
on available resources of capital, equipment and expertise, particular projects may be more
or less attractive in various countries.
For those mines where methane recovery is technically feasible and local market conditions
ensure that the recovered gas will be used, it may be possible to develop profitable projects
to reduce methane emissions. In the near-term, these projects are likely to employ well-
demonstrated mine degasification techniques, as well as common methane utilization options,
such as power generation or industrial use.
As mentioned previously, degasification technologies are employed by many gassy
underground coal mines throughout the world to maintain safe mining conditions. Exhibit 4-3
summarizes the available information on the use of these systems at coal mines in key
countries, and it also provides important information about the potential to reduce methane
emissions associated with coal mining. In most countries, mine degasification systems
currently recover around 25 percent of the methane emitted by the underground mines
(Pilcher et al., 1991; Bibler et al., 1992; Marshall, 1993; USEPA, 1993a). As the exhibit
shows, anywhere from 25 to more than 80 percent of this recovered gas is used.
Exhibit 4-3
Estimated Degasification System Emissions in Ten Largest Coal Producing Countries
COUNTRY
People's Republic of China
United States
CIS
Poland
South Africa
India
Germany
United Kingdom
Australia
Former Czechoslovakia
TOTAL -TOP 10
COUNTRIES
Degasification System Methane Emissions (in Teragrams)
Total Recovered
0.29
0.7-1.8
0.83
0.19
n/a
n/a
0.35
0.21
0.1
0.09
2.75-3.85
Amount Used
0.18
0.25
0.19
0.14
n/a
n/a
0.25
0.14
0.05-0.08
0.08
1.28-1.31
Amount Wasted
0.11
0.45-1.55
0.64
0.05
n/a
n/a
0.10
0.06
0.02-0.05
0.01
1.44-2.57
Sources: Williams, 1989; UNDP, 1992; Zabourdyaev, 1992; Coal Mining Research Company, 1990;
Pilcher et al., 1991; Bibler et al., 1992; Zimmermeyer, 1991; British Coal, 1991
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4-6 COAL MINING
Programs to reduce emissions from coal mining must focus on both expanding the recovery
of methane at coal mines and developing additional uses for the recovered gas, as indicated
in Exhibit 4-3. In the near-term, efforts should be undertaken to increase the utilization of the
gas that is currently being recovered by mine degasification systems. In many countries, such
as the United States, various barriers to utilization cause a large amount of high-quality gas
to be emitted to the atmosphere after being recovered (USEPA, 1992). In the longer-term,
efforts should focus on improving the recovery efficiency of mine degasification systems,
particularly through the transfer of additional recovery techniques, and on the development
of economically viable utilization options for methane in very dilute form.
With the exception of mines in the United States, for example, few countries currently use
surface methane drainage techniques to degasify coal mines (Pilcher et al., 1991; Bibler et al.,
1992; Marshall, 1993; JP International, 1990). The application of vertical drilling 10 or more
years in advance of mining can significantly reduce methane emissions, however, perhaps by
as much as 60 percent or more (Diamond et al., 1989). When vertical pre-drainage is
combined with in-mine recovery or the use of surface gob wells, moreover, potential methane
recovery efficiencies can reach 75 percent (Pilcher et al., 1991). The applicability of methane
pre-drainage using vertical wells should be evaluated in key countries, and technologies
transferred as appropriate.
In addition, utilization options for low concentration methane contained in mine ventilation air
need to be demonstrated and publicized. Two mines, one in Poland and one in Germany, have
been reported to use some of their ventilation air, although detailed information on these
projects is not currently available. Because of the large volumes of such air, developing such
utilization strategies would have a dramatic impact on methane emission levels.
4.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions
Developing projects to reduce methane emissions from coal mining will have many benefits.
As summarized below, expanded methane recovery from coal mines can improve mine safety
and productivity, increase domestic supplies of a clean-burning, versatile fuel, and improve
local and global environmental air quality.
Mining Safety and Productivity: The accumulation of methane gas in underground mines
has always posed a great risk of explosion, threatening both miners' lives and mine
productivity. Ventilation of mines with large quantities of air can also be a large operating
expense for deep underground mines. In the future, as coal is mined from increasingly
deeper and gassier seams, the economically viable removal of methane from coal mines
will become more important. By using recovered gas, both methane emissions to the
atmosphere and the costs associated with ensuring safe mining conditions can be reduced.
In some cases, the ability of a mine to generate revenue through gas sales may also
provide a source of much-needed investment capital. In this way, coalbed methane
recovery can spur future improvements in mine productivity and profitability.
Energy Supply and Trade Balance: In many countries, coalbed methane has the potential
to be an important domestic energy source. Several countries, such as Poland and the
former Czechoslovakia, have few other domestic sources of gas, and increasing the
recovery and use of coalbed methane can reduce their need to import gas from Russia or
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COAL MINING 4 - 7
other countries (Pilcher et al., 1991; Bibler et al., 1992). Because most energy imports
must be purchased with hard currency, increasing the production of domestic reserves can
improve energy security and reduce trade imbalances.
Clean, Efficient, and Convenient Energy Source: Natural gas has several advantages over
other fossil fuels. Emissions of S02, NOX, and particulates can be reduced through the
displacement of coal (and to a lesser degree oil) with gas (USEPA, 1986). Natural gas
combustion produces no SO2 or particulate emissions, and lower NOX emissions.
Therefore, a 10 percent increase in gas use (e.g., in a retrofitted coal-fired burner) would
result in a 10 percent decrease in SO2 and particulate emissions.
Natural gas is also a more efficient energy source, particularly where heating demands
fluctuate, such as in residential cooking and heating applications. Coal combustion cannot
respond efficiently to low load operation, nor is it easy to start and stop operation as the
heating load swings. In comparison, gas can respond instantaneously to heat demand and
can be used for low load operation, thereby providing a more efficient fuel source.
In China, the government has sought to improve the quality of life for coal miners by
providing recovered methane to nearby mine communities for residential cooking and
heating, which has the added benefit of displacing coal and reducing local air pollution (JP
International, 1990).
4.5 Country Profiles
The following country profiles outline specific opportunities and programs for coalbed methane
recovery in the People's Republic of China, Poland, the former Czechoslovakia, Russia, and
Ukraine. These countries are profiled because of the large opportunity each one presents for
methane recovery, due to the magnitude of their current emissions from coal mining.
4.5.1 THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
Overview
The People's Republic of China is the world's largest coal producer, producing over 1 billion
tons in 1990 (Sinton, 1992). China's economy is heavily dependent on coal, which satisfied
almost 75 percent of total domestic energy consumption in 1990. Large amounts of coal are
used for industrial purposes, as well as for residential cooking and heating. By contrast,
natural gas represented less than 2 percent of China's energy use in 1990, with consumption
of about 15 billion cubic meters (bcm) (Sinton, 1992). China's current plans for energy sector
development continue to rely heavily on coal production, moreover, with production predicted
to increase to 1.2 billion tons in 1995 and perhaps 1.4 billion tons in 2000. Over this same
period, natural gas production is expected to reach only 20 bcm (UNDP, 1992).
Not surprisingly, China is the world's largest emitter of methane from coal mining; its
estimated coal mining emissions of 8.5 to 13.0 Tg per year are about one-third of the world's
total emissions from this source in 1990 (USEPA, 1993b). More than 97 percent of China's
coal is mined in underground mines, and many of them are extremely gassy. Of the roughly
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4-8
COAL MINING
600 state-owned coal mines, for example, more than 300 were classified as gassy and/or
outburst mines (UNDP, 1992). The state-owned mines produced about half of China's coal
in 1990, and the remaining production came from more than 60,000 local or provincial mines,
about which there is little information. China's major coal basins are shown in Exhibit 4-4.
Exhibit 4-4
Major Coal Basins in the People's Republic of China
Chinese officials and miners have begun to realize the importance of coalbed methane as a
separate energy source, and a recent Chinese estimate concluded that the resource could
exceed 30 trillion cubic meters (tcm) (MOE, 1991 a). Currently, about 110 coal mines have
mine degasification systems, and they recovered about 434 million cubic meters (mem) of gas
in 1990 (MOE, 1991a). This represented less than 5 percent of estimated total methane
emissions from underground mines, however, with the rest being emitted by ventilation
systems. The government's plans call for this recovery level to increase to 500 micm by
1995, but gas production could far exceed these projections with a more aggressive methane
recovery program.
About 65 percent (270 mem) of the methane recovered by Chinese mine degasification
systems was used in 1990 (MOE, 1991 a). Thus, more than 160 mem of medium-quality gas
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COAL MINING 4 - 9
was vented to the atmosphere, in spite of China's energy shortage. Most of the used gas
was provided to residences in the vicinity of the mining enterprises, although in a few cases
local industries used some of the recovered methane. There is currently one gas turbine
operating on methane recovered by a Chinese coal mine, and the government is interested in
developing additional electricity generation projects (JP International, 1990).
Opportunities to Expand Methane Recovery and Use
There are enormous opportunities in China to increase the recovery and use of methane from
coal mines. Currently, the recovery efficiencies of many degasification systems are very low
and could be significantly increased with the introduction of new technologies. In addition,
there are numerous opportunities to increase methane utilization, particularly in the
displacement of coal currently being used for residential cooking and heating.
Methane recovery could be significantly improved in China through the introduction of
additional methane recovery techniques and the transfer of advanced technologies. Currently,
Chinese coal mines use in-mine pre-mining degasification from the working and adjacent
seams, as well as in-mine gob recovery, for most of their recovery operations. Some mines
have experimented with recovery from vertical surface wells, but the results have largely been
disappointing and additional technical assistance and technology transfer is needed to fully
exploit this recovery option. Overall, Chinese methane recovery operations tend to be
hampered by low permeability in the coal and technical problems related to inadequate drilling
and pumping technologies (MOE, 1991b).
Thus, the methane recovery operations at most Chinese mines tend to be small and do not
recover large amounts of methane. The demonstration of certain new recovery techniques-
including vertical pre-drainage, in-mine pre-drainage using longholes or in-mine fracturing, and
surface gob wells-could dramatically increase methane recovery efficiencies. Access to
higher-powered drill rigs and other advanced equipment would also be very useful.
There is strong interest in the expanded use of methane within Chinese government agencies
and among key municipalities. Many regions of China currently confront serious coal
shortages and would benefit from access to additional local energy sources. In addition, the
use of coal for cooking and heating has contributed to profound local air pollution in many
cities, and has sparked a high level of interest in developing clean-burning natural gas
resources. In fact, some of the most advanced coalbed methane projects in China have been
initiated by municipalities interested in providing natural gas to their citizens (MOE, 1991b).
Despite the many existing uses for recovered methane, however, the Chinese are currently
using only about 70 percent of the methane collected by their recovery systems. Most of the
recovered gas is used in the mining communities, and the venting of recovered methane is
common during periods of low gas demand (i.e., at night and during the summer) (JP
International, 1990).
Given this situation, the key project opportunities will involve the increased substitution of
methane for coal, particularly in residences and industries. In many cases, gas utilization
could be improved by expanding gas storage facilities and the pipeline infrastructure necessary
to transport methane to additional residential or industrial users (MOE, 1991b).
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4-10 COAL MINING
Opportunities also exist to use recovered methane to generate electricity. Although there is
extensive interest in this area, natural gas is not widely used for electricity generation in
China, primarily because of the lack of funds for turbine investment. One mine is currently
generating electricity from a turbine using recovered methane, however, and several others
are interested in developing similar projects (MOE, 1991b).
Emissions Reduction Potential
One set of promising short-term methane reduction opportunities in China involves developing
projects to fully utilize the methane currently recovered in existing degasification systems.
There are numerous projects underway to improve gas storage facilities and the pipeline
infrastructure at key mines, which should help to improve utilization (MOE, 1991b). Using
the estimated 160 million cubic meters of methane currently being vented by mine
degasification systems would reduce emissions by more than 0.1 Tg per year.
Over the mid-term, China is interested in the development of projects to recover additional
amounts of gas in conjunction with mining, using advanced mine degasification techniques
and technologies (MOE, 1991 b). These projects could improve mine degasification at those
mines with existing systems, and assist additional gassy mines in the development of such
systems. Through the widespread implementation of such technologies, China should be able
to increase its average methane recovery efficiency from less than 5 percent to 25 percent
at state-owned mines, which would reduce emissions by an estimated 1.2 to 1.6 Tg per year
(1.8 to 2.4 bcm).
Given the gassinsss of Chinese mines, it may be possible to achieve even higher recovery
efficiencies and larger emission reductions over the longer term. Average recovery levels of
40 percent at state mines could be achieved in the long term with an aggressive program to
promote coalbed methane and a Chinese government commitment to recovery. Such a
program could result in emission reductions of 2.8 to 3.4 Tg per year (4 to 5 bcm).
Promoting Methane Recovery
Several significant barriers currently hinder China from achieving the full potential of its
economically viable methane reductions from coal mining. The most important barriers include
the lack of an appropriate policy framework, limited capital for project investments and
equipment purchases, and limited information and experience with techniques and
technologies (MOE, 1991b). In addition, because of factors such as the artificially low gas
price set by the government and the difficulty with repatriation of profits, joint venture
development to produce domestic energy resources can be very difficult.
A number of activities could help to address these barriers in China. Technical assistance
from other governments, for example, could help with efforts to remove barriers through
domestic policy activities. Opportunities also exist in the areas of information exchange and
technology transfer, through international cooperation among governments, the international
development agencies, and potential joint-venture partners. The specific types of activities
that could be undertaken to develop China's coalbed methane resources are summarized
below.
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COAL MINING 4-11
Policy Reform: China's Ministry of Energy (MOE) should continue its efforts to establish
the necessary policy framework for coalbed methane recovery and use. Within the
context of the current planning process, this means that MOE could be assisted in
developing and implementing a "conversion factor" policy, under which coalbed methane
recovered during coal mining is counted toward each mine's coal production quota.
Further, coal displaced by methane recovery should be sold at negotiated or free-market
prices, as opposed to government-established, subsidized prices.
Comprehensive Planning: Incorporating coalbed methane into China's planning framework
could effectively encourage the development of this resource in China. Such efforts may
require the preparation of a detailed country program for development of the resource,
which includes: a resource assessment; a detailed evaluation of the best utilization
opportunities and potential gas markets in key mining areas; a comprehensive assessment
of the role coalbed methane can play in China's energy sector; and an analysis of the
necessary investments to support its development. This type of country program could
assist the Chinese government in allocating appropriate funds and enacting policies which
would encourage project development. It could also guide investments by international
development agencies and others.
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: One of the major components of a program to
reduce China's methane emissions from coal mining should be the demonstration and
transfer of key methane recovery and utilization technologies, through the implementation
of demonstration projects. Currently, one such project is underway, supported by funding
from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) Fund and managed by the United Nations
(UNDP, 1992). This project will demonstrate a variety of methane recovery technologies,
including vertical pre-mining drainage, enhanced in-mine recovery, and surface gob wells,
at three mines in China. Upon completion of this project, additional demonstrations of
other recovery technologies may be desirable. In addition, it may be useful to assist in the
demonstration of some of the emerging utilization technologies, such as gas enrichment
or the use of low-concentration methane for combustion.
Technical Assistance: In conjunction with the implementation of demonstration projects
and technology transfer activities, training and technical assistance programs should be
implemented. Such efforts should include training Chinese government and technical
personnel in areas such as resource assessment, resource recovery and utilization
technologies, and economic and financial feasibility analyses. This technical assistance
could take the form of in-country training, fellowships to international project sites, and
study tours.
Information Dissemination: The creation of mechanisms to transfer information within
China, regarding both domestic activities and international accomplishments in the areas
of methane recovery and use at coal mines, will also be important. One means of
accomplishing this could be through the creation of a clearinghouse, which would hold
technical seminars, publish a journal, and conduct research and studies.
Commercialization: Ultimately, methane recovery and use projects at coal mines must be
commercially attractive in order to be sustainable. Given the many benefits to the mining
enterprises, the existing energy shortages, and the environmental need for natural gas as
fuel, it is likely that many projects will be economically viable under a market system.
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4- 12
COAL MINING
Sources of investment capital will still be required, however, and if joint ventures are to
be undertaken, the fundamental needs of international investors must be addressed.
4.5.2 POLAND
Overview
Coal dominates Poland's fuel mix, as shown in Exhibit 4-5, satisfying 80 percent of the
nation's energy demand in 1988, and 78 percent in 1989 (EIA, 1990 and 1991). Although
all Central and Eastern European countries rely heavily on coal, Poland is more dependent on
this resource than any other nation in the region (Pilcher et al., 1991). Most of Poland's coal
is produced domestically, and it has historically been one of the world's largest hard coal
exporters. In contrast, the country produces only small amounts of natural gas and oil and
is heavily dependent on imports of these fuels (Pilcher et al., 1991).
Exhibit 4-5
Distribution of Energy Sources in Poland
HARD COAL 69%
LIGNITE 11%
OTHER 1%
OIL 12%
GAS 7%
Source: USEPA, 1991
Poland's energy economy is currently undergoing a dramatic shift from a high level of energy
intensity and coal use to a more efficient, less polluting system. Among the goals of the
-------
COAL MINING 4-13
Polish government are to: (1) improve energy efficiency; (2) reduce the use of low-grade coal,
particularly lignite; and (3) increase the use of clean-burning fuels such as natural gas (Szpunar
et al., 1990). As part of the transition, government subsidies for coal production and energy
prices are being removed, and several of Poland's hard coal mines are expected to close
(Warsaw Rzeczpospolita, 1992).
In 1988, Poland was the world's fourth largest producer of hard coal, producing about 200
million metric tons (EIA, 1990). Hard coal production has declined in recent years, however,
primarily due to increasing extraction costs and a deep economic recession. By 1991, hard
coal production was less than 140 million metric tons (Warsaw Rzeczpospolita, 1992). This
ongoing decline in Poland's hard coal production has had severe economic and environmental
implications for Poland. Not only is there less hard coal for export, but domestic hard coal
shortages are increasing domestic demand for low quality, high sulfur lignite.
Declining hard coal production has also increased demand for natural gas and oil. Unlike
lignite, however, known domestic reserves of oil and conventional natural gas are small. In
1988, domestic oil production in Poland accounted for less than 1 percent of the amount
consumed; domestic gas production accounted for only 45 percent (Pilcher et al.,1991). The
gap between consumption and production is expected to widen as dependence on these fuels
increases. Thus, imports of these fuels -- primarily from Russia - are increasing, which is
resulting in serious balance of payments problems.
Hard coal is produced in three Polish basins: the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (USCB), Lower
Silesian Coal Basin (LSCB), and the Lublin Coal Basin (LCB) (Exhibit 4-6). Poland currently has
65 active underground mines, most of which are located in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin
(Pilcher et al., 1991). For the most part, these mines are very deep and gassy. More than
35 of Poland's underground mines have been classified as hazardous by the Polish Central
Mining Institute, because they either have high levels of gas emissions or have suffered from
outbursts of gas or rock.
The Polish government officially estimated its methane emissions from underground coal
mining in 1989 to be 0.7 Tg per year (slightly more than 1 bcm) (Pilcher et al. 1991). This
estimate only included emissions from the 35 gassy mines classified as hazardous, however,
and emissions may have been underestimated even for these mines. Estimated emissions in
1990, including all coal sources, ranged from 0.6 to 1.5 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b). At
these levels, Poland's coal mining emissions represent about 3 to 4 percent of global
emissions from this source.
About 18 Polish coal mines currently have mine degasification systems in place, and in 1989
these mines recovered an estimated 286 mem (0.2 Tg per year) (Pilcher et al., 1991).
Depending on the level of emissions from mining, the recovery efficiencies of these systems
averaged 5 to 25 percent. Approximately 70 percent of this gas was used, and the remaining
86 mem was emitted to the atmosphere. The principal uses were for industrial purposes and
on-site coal-drying plants or boilers (Pilcher et al., 1992).
Currently, Polish mines rely primarily on in-mine degasification techniques to recover methane.
The principal methods are in-mine drainage of methane from the coal and surrounding strata
in advance of mining, as well as in-mine drainage from gob areas and abandoned mine
workings. Drainage of methane from gob areas using surface wells and vertical pre-drainage
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4- 14
COAL MINING
has not yet been employed by Polish mines, although there is a great deal of interest in these
techniques.
Exhibit 4-6
Major Coal Basins in Poland
Opportunities to Expand Methane Recovery and Use
Coalbed methane represents an attractive option for increasing domestic natural gas supplies,
thereby improving mine safety, the nation's balance of payments, and local and global
environmental quality. The magnitude of Poland's coalbed methane resource has been
estimated to range from 0.4 to 1.3 tcm, which is large in comparison to its conventional
natural gas resources (Kotas, 1992; Pilcher et al., 1991).
There are significant opportunities to expand methane recovery and use at Polish coal mines,
both in advance of mining and in conjunction with active mining activities. In Poland,, there
are two possible types of methane recovery projects, involving either coal reserves or mining
areas. These types of projects could have different impacts on methane emissions from
mining.
Coal Reserves: The first type of project involves coalbed methane production in non-
mining, coal reserve areas. In order to undertake such projects, companies have been
invited to bid on coalbed methane concessions by the Polish government (Hoffman, 1992).
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COAL MINING 4-15
The first bidding round closed in October 1992 and awards are expected in upcoming
months. These projects will involve vertical drilling into the coal seams to produce gas.
Because there are currently no plans to mine the coal, the expected impact on methane
emissions will be low.
Mining Areas: The second type of project involves coalbed methane production in active
mining areas, and these projects could be undertaken as joint ventures with mining
operations. Companies interested in developing these types of projects do not need to
participate in the concession bidding round, but must develop partnerships with the
entities that hold the rights to mine the coal (Wysocki, 1992). These projects could
include vertical pre-drainage as well as the recovery of methane in conjunction with
mining, using in-mine methods or surface gob wells. Because these projects would be
developed in active mining areas, they could reduce methane emissions over the near-
term.
For either type of project, Poland could benefit from the transfer of advanced technologies,
additional information about state-of-the-art methane recovery and use opportunities, and
technical assistance.
Emissions Reduction Potential
There is large potential for expanded use of coalbed methane, as well as for improved
recovery techniques, in Poland. In the near-term, opportunities exist to promote projects to
improve the recovery efficiencies of existing degasification systems and fully use the methane
recovered by these systems. The Polish Central Mining Institute reports that about 30 percent
of the recovered gas, or more than 85 mem, was vented to the atmosphere in 1988 (Pilcher
et al., 1991). Developing uses for this gas would reduce methane emissions by 0.1 Tg per
year.
Poland's gassy mines have an average methane recovery efficiency of 27 percent. If these
mines improve their recovery efficiencies to 30 percent on average, 0.1 to 0.3 Tg per year
(0.2 to 0.4 bcm) of methane could be recovered.
Over the longer-term, projects could be developed to degasify coal reserves in advance of
mining. These projects could use either in-mine or vertical pre-drainage techniques, and could
potentially result in methane emission reductions of 40 percent at the gassy mines. It is
estimated that these projects could recover 0.3 to 0.6 bcm of methane, corresponding to
emission reductions of 0.2 to 0.4 Tg per year. The recovered coalbed methane would
represent approximately 5 percent of current Polish gas demand, and does not include the
coalbed methane that could be produced in coal reserve or non-mining areas.
In order to reduce emissions, expanded recovery of coalbed methane from mines must be
coupled with utilization projects. Many options exist for using coalbed methane in Poland,
including direct use in industrial or residential distribution systems, power generation, and
district heating. Poland has multiple natural gas pipelines in the Upper Silesian area, some of
which carry imported gas from the CIS, and others which carry low-quality methane or coke
oven gas (Pilcher etal., 1991). These pipelines could potentially transport methane recovered
from coal mines, depending on its quality and quantity. One Polish-U.S. joint venture,
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4-16 COAL MINING
Elektrogaz, currently is developing a district heating project that will use coalbed methane
produced from coal reserves, and possibly several coal mines, as fuel (Hobbs, 1991).
Promoting Methane Recovery
Coalbed methane development in Poland could be encouraged by a focused program by Polish
government and industry, as well as extensive investment by outside investors, such as U.S.
companies with resource development experience. Currently, several barriers may exist which
impede Poland's coalbed methane development (U.S.-Polish Working Group, 1992). These
barriers include:
Limited experience with advanced methane recovery technologies;
Technical concerns about various development issues;
Uncertain project approval, regulatory and legal processes;
Lack of information on the resource and its benefits; and
Lack of information on the part of potential investors with respect to the project
opportunities.
Several types of actions should be undertaken to address these barriers (U.S.-Polish Working
Group, 1992). In particular, technical assistance will be useful for: (1) applying more
advanced technologies and practices for methane recovery and use; (2) developing appropriate
legal and regulatory frameworks to facilitate project development, and (3) creating joint
ventures and obtaining investment capital. The actions undertaken should focus on technical
personnel at Polish coal mines, as well as government personnel on the national and local
levels who will be involved in project approval and management. The activities should also
involve the participation of potential investors, including private companies and international
development agencies.
The principal actions are summarized below:
Policy Actions: Poland's coalbed methane policies are becoming increasingly clear, and
few additional policy activities should be needed in the future to encourage coalbed
methane development. Principal additional policy activities could include:
Ensuring that the competitive bidding process for non-mining coal reserve areas
proceeds in a timely fashion, in order to maintain investor interest and facilitate
development of coalbed methane resources;
Clarifying the required project approval processes for development of projects in
conjunction with mining enterprises will also be useful to encourage the development
of joint ventures. In particular, investors have expressed interest in better
understanding issues such as the roles of different agencies on the national and local
level, and the applicable regulations concerning coal mine safety and disposing of
produced water;
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COAL MINING 4-17
Efforts to ensure that methane recovered from coal mines can be sold at the market
price for natural gas, as opposed to the former practice of selling this methane at an
artificially low subsidized price, are critical. Without a rationalization of the coalbed
methane price structure, it may be difficult for investors to develop economically viable
projects.
Technology Transfer: Transferring technologies for various advanced methane recovery
and utilization options will facilitate resource development. For the most part, it is
anticipated that this technology transfer could occur through the development of joint
venture projects at Polish coal mines and in coal reserve areas. These projects will
demonstrate the feasibility of methane recovery projects and familiarize Polish experts with
state-of-the-art technologies and the technical aspects of project development.
Technical Assistance: In conjunction with the implementation of technology transfer
activities, training and technical assistance programs are recommended to assist in coalbed
methane development. Technical assistance could be useful to Polish experts in areas
such as: resource assessment; the design of advanced methane recovery and use projects;
the preparation of economic and technical feasibility analyses for such projects; and the
design and implementation of effective programs to treat or dispose of produced water.
Such assistance should be provided to technical personnel from coal mines, government
agencies, and municipalities, in the form of in-country training, fellowships, and study
tours.
Information Dissemination: A clearinghouse on coalbed methane has been established in
Katowice, Poland, to disseminate information about domestic activities and state-of-the-art
international technologies and projects. The clearinghouse is organizing seminars,
publishing a journal, and conducting outreach with the Polish industry and the international
private sector. It is anticipated that the clearinghouse will serve an important function in
supporting the development of Poland's coalbed methane industry.
Commercialization: Ultimately, methane recovery and use projects at coal mines will be
developed by Polish mines either independently or through joint ventures with private
companies. Technical assistance and investment capital, from a source such as an
international development agency, could enhance the ability of the mine operations to act
independently. Private companies interested in joint ventures will need information about
Polish project opportunities, a stable investment environment, and perhaps some financial
support for initial pre-investment activities and feasibility studies. Programs to support
joint venture activities are in place (such as AID's Capital Development Initiative); their
expansion in Poland could be enhanced by efforts to publicize coalbed methane
opportunities and reduce the actual and perceived risks associated with investing in
Poland.
4.5.3 Czech and Slovak Republics
Overview
Coal provides about 56 percent of the former Czechoslovakia's primary energy, and the
former Czechoslovakia is more dependent on lignite than any other nation in Europe, as shown
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4- 18
COAL MINING
in Exhibit 4-7 (Bibler et al., 1992). In 1990, the former Czechoslovakia produced about 84
million tons of lignite, primarily from surface mines, and almost 22 million tons of hard coal
from underground mines (IEA, 1991). Unlike coal, which is largely produced domestically, the
oil and gas on which the former Czechoslovakia is heavily dependent are imported. In 1988,
the former Czechoslovakia imported more than 13 bcm of natural gas, producing less than 5
percent of its total demand domestically. In fact, the republics' natural gas reserves would
satisfy only one year of gas demand (Bibler et al., 1992).
The former Czechoslovakia's underground coal has been produced in 15 mining concessions,
all of which are located in the Ostrava-Karvina region in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (see
Exhibit 4-8) (DPB, 1991). Hard coal production has dropped in recent years, from 28 million
tons in 1980 to 21 million tons in 1991 (Bibler et al., 1992). Production is likely to continue
to decline, moreover, as one mining concession was closed in 1991 and there are plans to
close four more mining concessions by 1995 (Bibler et al., 1992). In the Czech Republic,
natural gas and electricity, largely imported from neighboring countries, are expected to
replace coal as an energy source. Such a shift is not expected in the Slovak Republic,
however, because of its poor economic conditions (Pilcher, 1993).
Exhibit 4-7
Distribution of Energy Sources in the Czech and Slovak Republics
GAS 12%
Ol L 21%
OTHER 9%
HARD COAL
22%
LIGNITE 36%
Source: Bibler etal., 1992
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COAL MINING
4- 19
The former Czechoslovakia's hard coal mines are uniformly deep and gassy, with reported
methane emissions of 0.4 Tg per year (524 mem) in 1990 (DPB, 1991). All of these mines
have degasification systems in place, and these systems recovered an estimated 141 mem
(more than 25 percent of total emissions) in 1990 (DPB, 1991). As in other Central and
Eastern European countries, the existing mine degasification systems utilize in-mine recovery
methods, which include pre-mine drainage and gob recovery. Almost 90 percent (126 mem)
of the recovered methane was used in 1990. For the most part, this gas was used by the
mines and by nearby industries, including a steel mill, metallurgical plants, and powerplants
(Bibler et al., 1992).
Exhibit 4-8
Major Coal Basins in the Czech and Slovak Republics
Opportunities to Expand Methane Recovery and Use
Significant opportunities exist in the former Czechoslovakia to expand the recovery and use
of coalbed methane in conjunction with mining. The Czech coalbed methane resource has
been estimated to range from 50 to 370 bcm, which represents a 5- to 30-fold increase over
the former Czechoslovakia's estimated conventional gas reserves (Bibler et al., 1992).
It is likely that coalbed methane development in the former Czechoslovakia will occur both in
non-mining coal reserves and in conjunction with mining enterprises. Several joint ventures
have already been established or are under development with private companies from the
United States and Canada to develop coalbed methane in coal reserve areas. These projects
will use vertical wells to produce methane from areas that are not currently slated for mining.
Additional project opportunities exist for companies to cooperate with mining concessions to
improve the recovery and use of methane liberated during mining activities. In the near term,
the primary Czech hard coal mining company is planning to expand its coalbed methane
pipeline infrastructure in order to reduce the emissions of recovered gas to the atmosphere
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4 - 20 COAL MINING
(DPS, 1991). Over the longer term, the Czech mines that remain open will seek to improve
their recovery efficiencies and develop additional gas uses.
Emissions Reduction Potential
The near-term potential to reduce methane emissions from coal mines in the former
Czechoslovakia is relatively small because of the current effectiveness of gas utilization. At
the ten coal mines that are expected to remain open, gas recovery efficiency averages 35
percent and almost 95 percent of the recovered gas is used (Bibler et al., 1992). As
mentioned previously, however, the Czech hard coal mining company is currently expanding
the pipeline infrastructure that carries coalbed methane from the mines to the Nova Hut steel
manufacturer in Ostrava (DPB, 1991). This steel company has expressed a willingness to
purchase as much coalbed methane as the mines can recover. The mining company plans to
upgrade the system and improve methane recovery so that additional methane can be sold
to the steel company. If the Czech mines are able to sell all of their available gas and increase
their methane recovery efficiency to 45 percent over the next few years, it is estimated that
methane emissions could be reduced by 0.1 to 0.2 Tg per year (150 - 300 mem).
Finally, it is possible that methane emissions could be reduced even more significantly in the
long term if techniques for using or enriching mine ventilation air could be demonstrated.
Czech and Slovakian coal mines may have particular interest in these technologies because
of the high price of imported gas from the CIS, and because they can be fined for their
methane emissions under the 1991 Hydrocarbons Law (Czech Ministry of Environment,
1992). By 1997, the fines for methane emissions could reach almost $50 per thousand cubic
meters (about $1.50 per mcf), which could provide a significant economic incentive for
developing uses even for gas of very low concentration. If uses for mine ventilation air can
be demonstrated, it might be possible to reduce methane emissions by as much as 65 percent
(0.2 - 0.3 Tg per year or 300 - 450 mem) in the long term.
Types of Actions to Promote Methane Recovery
Coalbed methane development in the former Czechoslovakia could be facilitated through the
implementation of a comprehensive program to assess and develop the resource. As in other
countries, some key barriers which may currently limit coalbed methane development in the
former Czechoslovakia include: limited experience with advanced methane recovery
technologies; technical concerns about various development issues; lack of information on the
resource and its benefits; and uncertain project approval and regulatory processes. Some
utilization options, particularly for mine ventilation air, also remain to be demonstrated.
The principal actions that could facilitate projects to reduce methane emissions are
summarized below:
Policy Actions: Many of the former Czechoslovakia's coalbed methane policies are still
being developed, although the government has demonstrated a strong commitment to the
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COALMINING 4-21
rapid development of joint ventures. The principal policy activities that may be helpful
could include:
Clarifying the required project approval processes for development of projects, in order
to encourage the development of joint ventures. In particular, this could include
defining the roles of different agencies and the applicable regulations concerning issues
such as maintaining coal mine safety and disposing of produced water;
• Evaluating the potential for coalbed methane development to help the Ostrava-Karvina
region meet its energy and environmental goals, through the preparation of a
comprehensive impact assessment;
Assessing the infrastructure required to facilitate the development of the resource,
incorporating any required infrastructure improvements into the regional environmental
master plan, and ensuring that the most efficient uses for the recovered coalbed
methane are identified.
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: The transfer of various advanced methane
recovery and utilization technologies will be an important part of programs to encourage
coalbed methane recovery. The Czech hard coal mining company has expressed particular
interest in gob recovery from the surface and pre-mining drainage using vertical wells and
longholes. Technologies for gas enrichment and the use of mine ventilation air could also
be demonstrated in the former Czechoslovakia to determine if they could be technically
and economically feasible.
Technical Assistance: In conjunction with the implementation of technology transfer
activities and demonstration projects, training and technical assistance programs should
be promoted. It is anticipated that Czech experts will be trained in various aspects of
methane recovery and utilization, as well as environmental impact assessment, and
economic and technical feasibility analysis. Technical assistance should be provided to
technical personnel from coal mines, local and national government agencies, and
municipalities.
Information Dissemination: A clearinghouse on coalbed methane has been established in
Katowice, Poland, to disseminate information about regional coalbed methane projects and
state-of-the-art international technologies. The activities of the clearinghouse could be
expanded to include the Ostrava-Karvina region of the former Czechoslovakia. Seminars
and outreach activities undertaken by the Polish clearinghouse could also be directed
toward technical experts in the neighboring former Czechslovakia.
Commercialization: The former Czechoslovakia is already moving forward with the
commercialization of coalbed methane production in the Ostrava-Karvina region. Full-scale
development could be encouraged with large investments from international development
agencies or joint venture partners. Programs that are being developed by international
agencies to finance environmental and energy sector projects, as well as programs aimed
at creating business opportunities for the private sector, could have a large impact if
directed toward the development of coalbed methane resources.
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4 - 22 COAL MINING
4.5.4 RUSSIA
Overview
Russia has abundant resources of coal, oil and natural gas, and has historically produced large
quantities of all of these fuels. In addition, Russia is one of the few former Soviet republics
that is a net energy exporter, providing natural gas and oil to Western and Eastern Europe, as
well as to other former Soviet republics (e.g., Ukraine) (Marshall, 1993).
In 1990, Russia produced about 640 bcm of natural gas and about 260 million metric tons
of hard coal (PlanEcon, 1992). This republic accounted for almost 80 percent of the total gas
produced in the CIS, and more than 50 percent of the coal. Most of the coal was consumed
in Russia, but about 25 percent of the natural gas (170 bcm) was exported to Western and
Eastern Europe (Marshall, 1993).
Russia's coal is produced in several coal basins, the major ones including the Kuznetz, the
Pechora and the Eastern Donetsk Basins (Exhibit 4-9). The Kuznetz basin is the largest coal-
producing region in Russia, in terms of both surface and underground coal production. It is
located in Western Siberia and is a center of heavy industry. The Donetsk basin is located
primarily in Ukraine, but extends into Russia. It has several underground mines and is another
very industrialized area. The Pechora basin is located in the far north of Russia, far from
major population and industrial centers.
Natural gas is produced predominantly in Western Siberia, in the Urengoi field. Major
transmission pipelines have been constructed to move the gas to the more populous regions
of the CIS, as well as through Ukraine for export to Europe.
Altogether, there are about 70 to 90 underground mines in the Kuznetz and Pechora coal
basins, and about 20 surface mines in Kuznetz. Many of the underground mines are deep and
gassy. In 1990, reported methane emissions were about 1.7 Tg per year (2.5 bcm), of which
more than 80 percent was emitted in ventilation air and about 20 percent was recovered in
mine degasification systems (Marshall, 1993).
Opportunities to Expand Methane Recovery and Use
There are many opportunities for expanded methane recovery and use at mines in Russia,
particularly in the Kuznetz and Eastern Donetsk coal basins. There may also be opportunities
in Pechora: the cold climate and high energy demands have in this area already resulted in
some methane recovery and utilization programs. As in Central and Eastern Europe, coalbed
methane development is likely to be attractive both in advance of mining and at operating coal
mines. The most potential for coalbed methane development may be in facilities located in
coal mining regions, given the abundant supply of conventional natural gas in other regions.
The development of coalbed methane projects is particularly important in coal mining regions
because of the uncertain future of the coal industry. Many of Russia's coal mines may not
be profitable enough to operate in a free market economy, and several are likely to close over
the coming years. Without alternative sources of energy and employment, the economic and
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COAL MINING
4-23
social costs of closing coal mines may impose unacceptable burdens on the residents of the
mining communities.
In the near term, opportunities exist to reduce emissions of methane recovered in
degasification systems by developing additional gas uses. Over the longer term, it is likely
that larger projects to capture methane in advance of mining will be developed. As Russia's
economic system continues its transition to a market economy, it is likely that many
opportunities will arise for these projects to be undertaken in conjunction with the private
sector.
Exhibit 4-9
Major Coal Basins in Russia
Emissions Reduction Potential
The near-term potential to reduce methane emissions from coal mines in Russia could include
expanding methane recovery and use at certain mines in the Kuznetz, Eastern Donetsk and,
potentially, Pechora basins. Currently, the Pechora basin has the only mines that use methane
recovered by degasification systems. These mines recovered about 0.3 Tg per year (441
mem) in 1990 and used about 0.1 Tg per year (100 mem) (Skochinsky Mining Institute,
1992). The remaining 0.2 Tg per year (350 mem) is vented to the atmosphere (Skochinsky
Mining Institute, 1992) but could be recovered in the near-term with appropriate investment.
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4 - 24 COAL MINING
Developing uses for this recovered methane would reduce emissions by at least 0.3 Tg per
year (388 mem).
Over the longer term, even larger emission reductions could be obtained if methane recovery
programs were expanded. According to Russian data, methane recovery efficiency is about
23 percent at gassy mines (Zabourdyaev, 1992). If recovery efficiencies were improved to
an average of 30 percent at gassy mines by improving existing methane recovery techniques,
0.3 - 0.5 Tg per year (0.5 - 0.8 bcm) of methane could be recovered.
Introducing advanced methane recovery systems, such as pre-mine drainage using vertical
wells, could result in even larger emission reductions, perhaps reaching 40 percent of
emissions at gassy mines, Overall, the longer-term emission reduction potential associated
with extensive mine degasification using pre-drainage could approach 0.4 - 0.6 Tg per year
(0.6 -0.9 bcm).
Promoting Methane Recovery
The promotion of rapid coalbed methane development in Russia could be facilitated by
providing technical assistance, demonstrating additional technologies, and encouraging private
investment. As in other countries, the current barriers to coalbed methane development
include limited experience with and information on advanced methane recovery technologies.
In addition, the high degree of uncertainty in the Russian legal and regulatory frameworks is
currently limiting private sector investment.
The principal actions that would help facilitate projects to reduce methane emissions are
summarized below:
Policy Actions: Russia is currently developing new policies and regulations in many areas,
which creates a changing and uncertain environment for investors. Several policy
activities could help address these uncertainties and encourage private investment in the
coalbed methane sector:
Clarifying the required project approval processes for development of projects, in order
to encourage the development of joint ventures. In particular, this should include
defining the roles of different agencies and the applicable regulations concerning
certain issues (e.g., maintaining coal mine safety) and environmental regulations; and
Clarifying key business issues, including relevant tax regulations and joint venture
requirements. To the extent that Russia can formalize its legal and regulatory
frameworks for business investment, the development of joint ventures will be
expedited.
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: The transfer of technologies for various
advanced methane recovery and utilization options will contribute to improved methane
recovery and use in Russia. The technical capabilities of Russian scientists and engineers
are excellent, and a great deal of research has been conducted on innovative recovery and
use options. There have only been limited demonstrations, however, due to lack of
funding. In addition, providing mining personnel with access to both Russian and foreign
advanced technologies would be useful. It is likely that vertical pre-drainage, surface gob
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COAL MINING 4 - 25
wells and longhole in-mine gas recovery will be of particular interest to Russian mining
associations.
Technical Assistance: In conjunction with the implementation technology transfer
activities and demonstration projects, training and technical assistance programs could be
beneficial for the development of coalbed methane. It is anticipated that Russian experts
will be trained in various aspects of methane recovery and utilization, as well as
environmental impact assessment, and project feasibility analysis. Technical assistance
should be provided to technical personnel from coal mines, local and national government
agencies, and municipalities.
Information Dissemination: Establishing a coalbed methane clearinghouse in Russia could
assist in the communication of results of methane recovery projects in Russia and
internationally, and could facilitate important analyses. This institution could also provide
independent input to the Russian government on coalbed methane policy, and serve as a
contact point for international investors interested in developing coalbed methane joint
ventures.
Commercialization: Full-scale development of Russia's coalbed methane resources will
require large investments from international development agencies or joint venture
partners. Coalbed methane projects should be included in programs that are being
developed by international agencies to finance environmental and energy sector projects,
as well as programs aimed at creating business opportunities for the private sector.
4.5.5 UKRAINE
Overview
Although Ukraine is one of the largest coal producing republics of the CIS, it imports large
amounts of oil and natural gas from Russia. In 1991, Ukrainian coal mines produced 127
million tons of coal, down from 155 million tons in 1990 (PlanEcon, 1992). Most of this coal
was produced in the Donetsk coal basin. Ukraine also produced about 30 bcm of natural gas
and imported another 90 bcm of Russian gas in order to satisfy its gas demand {PlanEcon,
1992). Most of the natural gas exported by Russia to Eastern and Western Europe also
passed through the Ukraine in large transmission pipelines.
Ukraine's coal is produced in 319 underground coal mines, of which 298 are located in the
Donetsk basin and the remaining 21 in the Lvov-Volyn basin along the Polish border (Exhibit
4-10) (Marshall, 1993). The Donetsk coal basin is the oldest and largest basin in the CIS, and
its future is currently uncertain due to the difficult economic and mining conditions. The
closure of several Ukrainian coal mines is likely.
Most Ukrainian coal mines are very deep and gassy, and mining conditions are quite
dangerous. In 1990, reported methane liberations were 2.3 Tg per year (3.4 bcm)
(Zabourdyaev, 1992). About 100 mines have degasification systems, and these systems
recovered an estimated 600 mem of methane in 1990 (Zabourdyaev, 1992). Only 170 mem
of this gas was used, however, mostly in industrial boilers located near the mine
(Zabourdyaev, 1992; Marshall, 1993). As in other Central and Eastern European countries,
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4-26
COAL MINING
the existing mine degasification systems utilize in-mine recovery methods, which include pre-
mine drainage and gob recovery.
Opportunities to Expand Methane Recovery and Use
Ukraine has significant opportunity to expand its recovery and use of coalbed methane in
conjunction with mining. Given its dependence on imported natural gas and the likelihood that
coal production will continue to decline, there will be a growing need for additional domestic
gas resources. Ukraine has relatively limited conventional gas reserves, but its coalbed
methane resources are estimated to be very large.
Exhibit 4-10
Major Coal Basins in Ukraine
It is likely that coalbed methane development in Ukraine will occur both in non-mining coal
reserves and in conjunction with mining enterprises. Before these projects can proceed,
however, it is likely that the political and economic situation in the country will need to
stabilize, and additional definition of relevant laws and regulations will be necessary.
The principal project opportunities will probably involve the introduction of methane recovery
from virgin coal reserves or at mining areas several years in advance of mining. Surface gob
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COAL MINING 4 - 27
wells and improved in-mine longhole drilling may also be used in conjunction with mining. The
recovered gas will likely be used for additional industrial applications, as well as power
generation. If the quality is high enough, moreover, it may be possible to export the gas to
Eastern or Western Europe.
Emissions Reduction Potential
The near-term potential to reduce methane emissions from coal mines in Ukraine includes both
developing uses for the recovered gas that is currently vented, and improving methane
recovery at certain mines. As mentioned previously, Ukrainian mines are currently using less
than 30 percent of the gas recovered by mine degasification systems, and venting the
remaining amount (430 mem) to the atmosphere. Developing additional uses for this
recovered gas could reduce emissions by 0.3 Tg per year.
The average recovery efficiency for Ukrainian coal mines with degasification systems is about
23 percent, moreover, and could be improved in the near term with the introduction of new
and advanced methane recovery methods (Zabourdyaev, 1992). If the recovery efficiency
were improved to 30 percent at gassy Ukrainian mines, as much as 0.4 - 0.6 Tg per year (0.6
- 0.9 bcm) of gas could be used.
Over the long term, the introduction of advanced pre-mining drainage and other technologies
could enable gassy Ukrainian coal mines to achieve recovery efficiencies of 40 percent.
Recovery of this level of methane at mines with existing methane recovery systems would
result in the capture of 0.9 - 1.2 bcm, and could reduce methane emissions by 0.6 - 0.8 Tg
per year.
Promoting Methane Recovery
Coalbed methane development in Ukraine will be facilitated through the removal of existing
barriers to project development, which include limited experience with advanced methane
recovery technologies, technical concerns about various development issues, lack of
information on the resource and its benefits, and uncertain project approval and regulatory
processes.
The principal actions to facilitate projects are summarized below:
Policy Actions: Because its economy is in transition, Ukrainian regulations and legal
frameworks are changing rapidly and are uncertain. The principal activities that may be
required include:
Clarifying the required project approval processes for development of coalbed methane
projects, which may include defining the roles of different agencies and explaining the
applicable regulations concerning issues such as maintaining coal mine safety and
disposing of produced water;
Evaluating the potential for coalbed methane development to help the Donetsk region
meet its energy and environmental goals, and the potential relationship between
improving coalbed methane recovery and use, and restructuring the coal industry.
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4 - 28 COAL MINING
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: The introduction of new recovery technologies
(e.g., higher-powered drills) and utilization technologies (e.g., gas turbines) could greatly
improve methane recovery and use. There is strong interest in Ukraine in utilization
options, as well as in surface methane recovery technologies.
Technical Assistance: Training and technical assistance programs may also be valuable
in Ukraine. Ukrainian experts may desire training in various technical aspects of methane
recovery and use, the development of appropriate regulatory frameworks, and the
preparation of economic and technical feasibility analyses. Technical assistance should
be provided to technical personnel from coal mines, local and national government
agencies, and municipalities.
Information Dissemination: It may be desirable to establish a coalbed methane information
center in Ukraine to disseminate information on new technologies, modeled on the Coalbed
Methane Clearinghouse in Katowice, Poland.
Commercialization: The full-scale development of Ukraine's coalbed methane resources
will require large investments either from international development agencies or from joint
venture partners. Programs that are being developed by international agencies to finance
environmental and energy sector projects, as well as programs aimed at creating business
opportunities for the private sector, should be directed toward the development of coalbed
methane resources, with the goal of creating a stable investment climate.
4.6 Summary
As can be seen in the profiles of key coal mining countries, individual countries have different
coal mining practices, different levels of associated technologies and different resources
available to them. However, common characteristics can be identified to provide a broad
understanding of:
potential emission reductions from coal mining;
barriers hindering the recovery and use of methane emitted from coal mines; and
possible solutions for overcoming these barriers.
Emissions Reductions
The potential for economically viable reductions in methane emissions from coal mining can
be roughly estimated based on information about current methane emissions from
underground coal mines throughout the world, existing mine degasification practices, and
available technologies. The reduction estimates are shown in Exhibit ES-7 and are based on
these factors where they are known worldwide, and on feasible reductions estimated in the
country profiles in this chapter. These reductions assume the implementation of programs
which focus on both improving the recovery efficiency for mine degasification systems (e.g.,
through the transfer of additional recovery techniques), and developing additional uses for the
recovered gas. Additional, country-specific research is warranted to improve these estimates.
-------
COAL MINING 4 - 29
Near-Term Reductions: In the near-term, it appears that emissions could be reduced by
as much as 1.5 to 2.6 Tg per year through the efficient use of the methane that is
currently being recovered by degasification systems but vented to the atmosphere. The
principal uncertainty in this estimate concerns the effectiveness of efforts to remove key
barriers to methane utilization in the United States (USEPA, 1993a). Developing uses for
this gas will require investments in improved methane recovery as well as gas utilization
equipment and infrastructure.
Mid-Term Reductions: Over the near to mid-term, reducing methane emissions from coal
mining will require additional investments in equipment and infrastructure for methane
recovery and use and the introduction of advanced technologies for coalbed methane
production. By 2000, an aggressive program to encourage recovery and use at the
world's gassiest coal mines could yield emission reductions of 4.4 to 6.4 Tg per year.
Such a program would include the improvement and wider application of commonly used
mine degasification technologies, the introduction of advanced pre-mining in promising
areas, and the wider scale introduction of technologies (such as turbines) for using
medium quality fuel. These reduction estimates assume that gassy underground coal
mines will achieve an average methane recovery efficiency of 25 percent and that all of
the recovered methane is used. In practice, these emission reductions would likely result
from more aggressive degasification programs at the gassiest mines and smaller reductions
at less gassy mines. These estimates may be conservative, moreover, in that they assume
that methane emissions remain constant between 1990 and 2000, while it is likely that
emissions will increase.
Longer-Term Reductions: Even greater methane reductions could be achieved over the
longer-term if additional technologies are widely introduced and new technologies are
developed. Of particular importance is the demonstration of technically and economically
feasible uses for the low concentration methane contained in mine ventilation air. With
these types of advances, methane recovery efficiencies of 40 percent or more could be
achieved at gassy underground coal mines, which would result in emission reductions of
8 to 11 Tg per year. For comparison, total methane emissions from coal mining in 1990
were estimated to be 25 to 40 Tg per year, not including the methane that was used by
mines (USEPA, 1993b). Significant technical advances may be required to achieve
reductions of this magnitude, however, and they are thus considered longer-term and more
uncertain.
Estimates of methane emissions and potential emission reductions are summarized in Exhibit
4-11.
Promoting Methane Recovery
As indicated in the country studies, a number of barriers have constrained the widespread
development of coalbed methane recovery and use projects at coal mines throughout the
world. For centuries, methane has been perceived as a safety hazard in underground mining
that can be most effectively addressed by venting to the atmosphere. In addition, many of
the key methane emitting countries are heavily dependent on coal as their major energy source
and may not be fully prepared to exploit the methane recovered from coal mines for fuel.
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4-30
COAL MINING
Facilitating the development of projects to encourage expanded methane recovery and
utilization at the world's gassy underground coal mines will require aggressive programs
directed at removing barriers by exchanging information, providing technical assistance, and
transferring technology. Because of the likely favorable economics, the widespread
development of projects should proceed rapidly once initial barriers are removed and the key
technologies are demonstrated in the major countries. Over the next few years, however, it
will be necessary to work closely with government agencies, mining personnel and local
communities to raise their awareness of existing opportunities, assist in the development of
appropriate policy frameworks, and demonstrate the most promising technologies.
Exhibit 4-1 1
Estimates of Potential Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from Coal
Mining
Country
China
United States
CIS2
Poland
Former
Czechoslovakia
Others3
TOTAL
Estimated
Emissions
(Tg/yr)
9.5 -16.6
3.6- 5.7
4.8 - 6.0
0.6- 1.5
0.3 - 0.5
3.3-5.6
22.1 -35.9
Near Term Reductions
Tg/yr1
1.2 - 1.6 (0.1)
1.0-2.2 (0.4- 1.5)
0.7- 1.1 (0.6)
0.1 -0.3 <0.1)
0.1 -0.2
0.9- 1.8 (0.2)
4.0-7.2 (1.5-2.6)
%
10- 15
35-40
10-20
15-20
30-40
20-30
15-25
Longer Term
Reductions (Tg/yr)
Tg/yr
2.8-3.4
1.7-3.1
1.0-1.4
0.2 - 0.4
0.2-0.3
1.5-2.8
7.4- 11.4
%
25-35
45-55
20-25
25 -35
60 - 65
35 -45
30-40
1 Emission reduction estimates in parentheses can be achieved by utilizing gas currently recovered and
vented to the atmosphere.
2 Emissions estimates are for entire CIS; reductions estimates include Russia and Ukraine.
3 Emissions estimates include several important coal-producers, such as Australia, Germany, India,
South Africa, and the United Kingdom.
Exhibit 4-12 summarizes the key types of barriers that may exist to different degrees in
different countries, and which may have to be overcome to encourage expanded methane
recovery and use at underground coal mines. Exhibit 4-12 also highlights the types of
programs and activities that could be implemented to remove these barriers. Of course, the
conditions in a specific country or at a specific coal mine will be unique, and the programs
developed would need to address the particular conditions and needs of that country.
However, the overall types of issues that can hamper coalbed methane development and the
most promising activities to address them can be generalized among countries.
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COAL MINING
4-31
Exhibit 4-12
Key Barriers and Possible Responses - Coal Mining
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Legal Systems:
Gas ownership uncertain
Concession system undeveloped
Joint venture project requirements unclear
Resolve ownership legally or legislatively
Develop resource leasing mechanisms
Develop system for foreign investment,
repatriation of profits, etc.
Regulatory Issues:
Project approval process unclear
Mine safety regulations inappropriate for gas
recovery
No produced water regulations for CBM
development
No specialized "field rules" for CBM
development
Streamline and clarify project approval/permit
requirements
Determine how to incorporate gas recovery
with mine safety regulations
Develop produced water regulations and
industry "field rules" specific to CBM
development
Information Issues:
Lack of awareness on part of government,
mining personnel and others about magnitude
and value of resource
Lack of awareness on part of potential project
developers regarding potential in various
countries
Provide information to countries on resource,
appropriate policies, technologies, etc.
Provide information to development companies
and lending agencies regarding potential
attractiveness of projects
Technical Issues:
Lack of access to new technologies, such as
advanced drill rigs, reservoir simulators, etc.
Lack of familiarity with new methane recovery
approaches, such as vertical pre-mine drainage
or in-mine fracturing of longholes
Lack of familiarity with new methane utilization
technologies, such as power generation
Need to demonstrate utilization options for low-
concentration methane in ventilation air
Encourage the development of joint ventures to
introduce new approaches
Fund demonstration projects in key technical
areas
Organize study tours and training trips for key
personnel to advanced CBM projects
Establish technology centers to disseminate
information on appropriate technologies and
techniques
Financial Issues:
Lack of capital for investment in methane
recovery projects
Poor financial condition of coal mines and
historic dependence on heavy subsidies
Low subsidized energy prices reduce economic
attractiveness
Foster joint ventures
Raise awareness on part of international
development agencies about coalbed methane
potential
Encourage development of methane recovery
and use projects that can improve coal
productivity and mining economics
When initiating a program to identify economically viable opportunities to reduce methane
emissions and encourage coalbed methane recovery, a number of key steps will likely be
necessary. Many of these activities have been mentioned briefly in the country studies. The
most likely components of a methane recovery program are described here in a more general
form, and are summarized in Exhibit 4-13. These programs would be most effective if some
of the components are implemented sequentially, as indicated in Exhibit 4-13.
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4-32
COAL MINING
National or Basin Assessment: In many countries, preparing a national or basin level
assessment of the coalbed methane resource will be a logical first step in initiating an
emission reduction program. Thjs assessment should evaluate the magnitude of the
coalbed methane resource, the potential role for coalbed methane in the country or
region's energy economy, and the types of barriers that may be constraining development.
Particular attention should be paid to the compatibility of coalbed methane development
and the nation's energy or environmental goals. Current practices with respect to coalbed
methane recovery and utilization should also be assessed and some of the more promising
project types identified.
1
Project Type
National or Basin Assessment
Policy Analysis and Assistance
Information Exchange
Technical Assistance
Technology Transfer
Commercialization
Exhibit 4-1 3
Summary of Project Types
Phase 1 Phase2 Phase 3
• •
•••••••••••••••
••••••
••••••••••
Cost
$100K-1M per country
$25-1 OOK per country,
depending on types of
activities
Varies; $75-100K/year
to manage clearinghouse
in developing/
transitional economies
$25-50K per country for
seminars; $25-1 50K for
prefeasibility studies;
$50K or more for study
tours
$1-15M or more,
depending on scope of
project
Varies, depending on
magnitude of project
($25-300M in U.S.I
Preparing such studies will require close cooperation among international experts in the
coalbed methane field and in-country personnel, who are familiar with national goals,
experiences, and conditions. Depending on the scope of the study, the number of coal
basins or regions examined, and the degree of international and in-country participation,
a national assessment should cost $100,000 to $1,000,000 ($U.S.). Higher costs would
be associated with larger countries (such as China) and/or more detailed analysis and data
collection efforts. These assessments will typically take place over the first one or two
years of the project.
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COAL MINING 4 - 33
Policy Analysis and Assistance: One of the objectives of the national assessment is to
identify policy, regulatory or other barriers to coalbed methane development. Examples
of such barriers could include uncertain coalbed methane ownership laws, unclear project
development requirements, undeveloped regulations regarding coalbed methane
development, or uneconomic state-mandated prices for coalbed methane produced by
mines. Where such barriers are identified, it may be necessary to assess the implications
of policy reforms and develop recommendations for removing the barriers.
For the most part, policy reform activities will need to be undertaken by in-country
government personnel. Policy reform assistance, beginning several years into the project
and continuing throughout its duration, may be useful to such personnel to provide
information about how such barriers have been addressed in other countries. Such advice
could be provided by expert consultants, through seminars on various issues organized in
the country, or by arranging for training opportunities for the government personnel either
internationally or in-country. The costs of such programs will vary significantly, depending
on their scope. Seminars may be provided for $25,000 or more, while long-running
consulting or training assistance could cost $100,000 or more.
Information Exchange: Creating institutions within countries to disseminate information
about domestic and international accomplishments in coalbed methane will be an
important part of any program to encourage coalbed methane recovery. One effective
means of exchanging information may be through the creation of coalbed methane
clearinghouses in target countries. The clearinghouse concept has been modelled on a
domestic U.S. information exchange program that was initiated by the Gas Research
Institute to support the U.S. coalbed methane industry in the early 1980s. A coalbed
methane clearinghouse has also been supported by U.S. EPA in Katowice, Poland and is
serving an important function in organizing the coalbed methane industry and transferring
information about accomplishments.
Information exchange activities can range from low cost to higher cost, depending on their
scope. Low cost activities would include the provision of public domain information on
an ad hoc basis. Higher costs are associated with actually creating clearinghouses,
because of the costs associated with staffing and equipment requirements. As a rough
estimate, managing a clearinghouse may cost about $75,000 to 100,000 annually in
developing countries or countries in transition. An appropriate approach might be to fund
such centers for a three-year period, after which time they would be responsible for
securing funding from internal sources.
Technical Assistance: Technical assistance includes many activities, such as training and
cooperative work on studies and pre-feasibility assessments. Typical activities could
include arranging in-country seminars on technical issues taught by international experts,
arranging international training opportunities and study tours, and organizing domestic and
international teams to undertake project development activities, such as pre-feasibility
assessments.
The costs of technical assistance activities will depend on their nature. Arranging in-
country seminars can be relatively low cost, at $25,000 to $50,000 per seminar. Often
these seminars can be coupled with pre-feasibility studies, moreover, to save funding.
Depending on the degree of detail and domestic participation, pre-feasibility study costs
can range from $25,000 to $150,000 or more. International training and study tours will
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4 - 34 COAL MINING
generally cost about $50,000 or more, depending on duration and number of participants.
With these types of activities, it is critical that participants be selected who will receive
maximum benefit from the international experience.
Technology Transfer: Technology transfer activities can include necessary research
activities and pilot projects. In the research area, possible activities could include drilling
and mining through vertical wells to test the impact of hydraulic fracturing on coal mine
safety. Pilot projects could be implemented to demonstrate advanced mine degasification
technologies, new utilization options, water disposal technologies, and innovative uses of
mine ventilation air. These activities may begin several years into the project and continue
through the first decade.
Technology transfer projects will generally be more expensive because of the need to
purchase equipment and other hardware. Depending on the scope, the costs of these
projects could range from $1 million to $15 million or more. At the low end, small-scale
test wells could be drilled and evaluated. The more expensive projects might include
drilling several wells, as well as investments in surface facilities, infrastructure, or gas
utilization devices, such as turbines.
Commercialization: The commercialization of coalbed methane development, beginning
about five years into the project, will necessitate large investments in vertical wells, more
aggressive in-mine degasification, infrastructure for gas processing and transportation, and
gas utilization devices. The costs of commercial projects can very significantly, depending
on their magnitude. In the U.S., project costs have ranged from $25 million to more than
$300 million.
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COAL MINING 4 - 35
4.7 References
Bibler, C.J., J. Marshall, and R. Pilcher (1992), Assessment of the Potential for Economic
Development and Utilization of Coalbed Methane in Czechoslovakia, prepared by Raven Ridge
Resources for U.S. EPA Global Change Division (in press).
British Coal (1991), Quantification of Methane Emissions from British Coal Mine Sources.
Technical Services and Research Executive, produced for the Working Group on Methane
Emissions, the Watt Committee on Energy.
Coal Mining Research Company (1990), Methane Emissions from Canadian Coal Operations:
A Quantitative Estimate. Coal Mining Research Company Report no. CI8936, March 1990,
Devon, Alberta.
Czech Ministry of Environment (1992), personal communication, March, 1992.
DPB (Dulni Pruzkum a Bezpecnost) (1991), Coal production data and related information
supplied to Raven Ridge Resources during visit to DPB headquarters in Paskov,
Czechoslovakia, in November, 1991.
Diamond, W.P., W.R. Bodden, M.D. Zuber, and R.A. Schraufnagel (1989), Measuring the
Extent of Coalbed Gas Drainage After 10 Years of Production at the Oak Grove Pattern.
Alabama, 1989 Coalbed Methane Symposium Proceedings, Tuscaloosa, AL, pp. 185-195.
EIA (Energy Information Administration) (1990), International Energy Annual. DOE/EIA-0484
(92), Washington, D.C.
EIA (Energy Information Administration) (1991), International Energy Annual. (91),
Washington, D.C.
Hobbs, G. Warfield (1991), Ammonite Resources, personal communication, March, 1992.
Hoffman, Marek (1992), Licensing of Coalbed Methane in Poland, prepared by Polish Bureau
of Geological Concessions, Ministry of Environmental Protection, Natural Resources, and
Forestry, presented to Gas Daily's "Coalbed Methane in Europe" Conference, May 20, 1992,
London, UK.
ICF Resources (1990). A Technical and Economic Assessment of Methane Recovery from Coal
Seams, prepared for U.S. EPA.
IEA (International Energy Agency) (1991), Coal Information.
JP International (1990), Opportunities for Coalbed Methane Recovery and Utilization in China.
prepared for the U.S. EPA Global Change Division.
Kotas, Adam (1992), The Upper Silesian Coal Basin: A Challenging Frontier of Coalbed
Methane Resource Development in Europe, presented to Gas Daily's "Coalbed Methane in
Europe" Conference, May 20, 1992, London, UK.
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4 - 36 COAL MINING
Marshall, J.S., et al. (1993), Assessment of the Potential for Economic Development and
Utilization of Coalbed Methane in Russia and Ukraine, prepared by Raven Ridge Resources,
for the U.S. EPA Global Change Division (in preparation).
MOE (Ministry of Energy) (1991 a), Coalbed Methane Recovery in China: An Information
Report for the Consultants of UNDP. November, 1991.
MOE (Ministry of Energy) (1991b), personal communications from meetings held during
November, 1991.
Pilcher, R.C., C.J. Bibler, R. Glickert, L. Machesky, J. Williams, D. Kruger, and S. Schweitzer
(1991), Assessment of the Potential for Economic Development and Utilization of Coalbed
Methane in Poland, prepared by Raven Ridge Resources for U.S. EPA Global Change Division,
EPA400/1-91/032 August, 1991.
Pilcher, R.C., et al. (1992), Profiles of Selected Gassy Mines in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin
of Poland, prepared by Raven Ridge Resources for the U.S. EPA Global Change Division
(draft).
Pilcher, R.C. (1993), Personal communication with Ray C. Pilcher, Raven Ridge Resources,
Grand Junction, Colorado, August 26, 1993.
PlanEcon (1992), PlanEcon Energy Report. Vol 2, No. 1, Washington, D.C., 84 pp.
Sinton, J.E., ed. (1992), China Energy Databook. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories, LBL-
32822/UC-350
Skochinsky Mining Institute (1992), "Summary of Estimates of Annual Methane Emissions
from Coal Mining in the CIS," personal communication with Raven Ridge Resources, April,
1992.
Szpunar, C.B., N. Bhatti, W.A. Buehring, D.G. Sheets, and H.W. Balandynowicz (1990),
Poland-- Opportunities for Carbon Emissions Control, prepared by Pacific Northwest
Laboratories, Richland, WA, 22 pp.
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (1992), Project of the Government of the
People's Republic of China: Development of Coalbed Methane Resources in China, project no.
CPR/92/G32/A/IG.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1986), Supplement A to a
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors: Volume I: Stationary and Point Sources, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency/Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research
Triangle Park, N.C.
USEPA (1992), The Environmental and Economic Benefits of Coalbed Methane Development
in Appalachia. USEPA/GCD (Global Change DivisionMdraft).
USEPA (1993a), Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States Report to Congress,
USEPA/OAR (Office of Air and Radiation).
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COAL MINING 4 - 37
USEPA (1993b), Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane. Report to Congress (in
progress), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/OPPE.
USEPA (1993c), Options for Reducing Methane Emissions Internationally. Volume I:
Technological Options for Reducing Methane Emissions. Report to Congress, USEPA/OAR.
U.S.-Polish Working Group (1992), "Barriers and possible responses to encourage coalbed
methane development at coal mines in Poland," prepared by the U.S.-Polish Working Group
on Methane from Coal Mines.
Warsaw Rzeczpospolita (Economy and Law) (1992), "Coal Industry Production Reviewed;
Forecast Made," in Polish, July 28, 1992.
Williams, D. (in press), "Australian Methane Fluxes," Paper for CSIRO Conference
'Greenhouse and Energy' December 4-8, 1989.
Wysocki, Ryzard (1992), remarks made to members of U.S.-Polish Working Group on Methane
from Coal Mines, October 23, 1992.
Zabourdyaev, Dr. Victor S. (1992), Skochinsky Institute of Mining, Moscow, Russia, personal
communication.
Zimmermeyer (1991), Recovery and Use of Coalbed Methane. Gesamtverband des Deutschen
Steinkohlenbergbaus, United Nations Economic and Social Committee.
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CHAPTER FIVE
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5.1 Introduction
Ruminant livestock contribute large quantities of methane worldwide and present a large
opportunity for methane reductions through increases in the efficiency and productivity of
animal herds. These animals are characterized by a large fore-stomach, or rumen, in which
microbial fermentation converts feed into products that can be utilized by the animal. It is the
microbial fermentation of feeds that allows ruminants to digest coarse plant material which
monogastrics, including humans, cannot digest. Methane is produced by rumen bacteria as
a byproduct of this normal digestive process and is exhaled or eructated to the atmosphere.
Increasing the efficiency and productivity of ruminant animals is economically and technically
feasible in many countries, under a variety of conditions. Cattle and buffalo, in particular,
have shown large increases in productivity through improved management practices. In
addition to the economic and social benefits resulting from increased productivity, methane
emissions are reduced per unit of production as more of the carbon in the feed is converted
to useful product such as meat or milk, as opposed to being wastefully emitted to the
atmosphere as methane. Methane emissions can thereby be reduced for a particular level of
milk or meat production, or per unit of feed that is consumed. Methane produced per unit
product can be reduced by up to 60 percent in some animal management systems with
available options (USEPA, 1993a).
Opportunities exist to expand productivity enhancing programs in a variety of countries.
Recent assessments indicate that the largest opportunities for both reducing methane
emissions and achieving development goals are found in developing countries, where livestock
are typically raised in conditions which constrain animal productivity to well below genetic
potential (Leng, 1991; ATI, 1992; Soiled and Walters, 1992).
This chapter describes the possibilities for improving the productivity of livestock worldwide
and the implications for reducing methane emissions. It assesses in detail the potential
expansion of economically viable options in several key countries, including India, China,
Tanzania, Bangladesh, Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),
and it outlines technology transfer programs that would be useful in promoting these options.
5.2 Methane Emissions
Methane is produced as part of the normal digestive processes of animals. Referred to as
"enteric fermentation," these processes produce emissions that have been estimated to
account for a significant portion of the global methane budget, about 65 to 100 teragrams
(Tg) annually (IPCC, 1992). About 80 percent of these emissions are from the large
ruminants: cattle and buffalo (USEPA, 1993c; Reuss et al, 1990). The extent of this range
results from uncertainties in estimates of the emissions from individual animals, as well as
uncertainties about animal populations. Due to a growing body of knowledge on the numbers
and conditions of animals worldwide, more accurate estimates are becoming available.
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5-2
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
In general, methane emissions from a given region depend upon the animal population and
both the quantity and quality of feed consumed. Therefore, although animal populations for
a particular region (shown in Exhibit 5-1) provide some information about the magnitude of
methane emissions for the region, it is also important to know the conditions under which
animals are managed. For example, cattle in developed countries which are relatively large,
and consume large quantities of high quality feed, typically emit from 50 to 130 kg of
methane per year (USEPA, 1993b). In comparison, cattle from developing countries, which
are typically 30 to 50 percent as large and consume low quality feed, can emit 20 to 60 kg
of methane per year (USEPA, 1993c; Reuss, 1990). Estimates of methane emissions from
ruminants (particularly cattle and buffalo) are shown by region in Exhibit 5-2.
In addition to total regional methane emissions, a second important measure of methane
production is methane produced per unit product. For example, while a highly productive cow
can emit 120 kg of methane per year, it may also produce 7000 kg of milk, resulting in a
release of 17 grams per kg of milk produced. In comparison, a cow on a straw based diet can
emit 50 to 60 grams of methane per kg of milk produced (Leng, 1991). The measurement
of methane produced per unit product emphasizes that increasing the productivity of ruminant
animals can substantially reduce overall methane emissions.
Exhibit 5-1
Animal Populations (thousands)
Region
Africa
N. America
Latin America
Asia
W. Europe
Oceania
E.Europe/CIS
Total
Cattle
187,771
110,449
313,502
364,863
99,831
30,858
154,171
1,279,257
Buffalo
2,500
-
1,209
135,335
653
-
682
140,758
Sheep
205,094
12,123
119,731
233,977
141,043
225,577
179,672
1,190,500
Goats
1 73,944
1,927
35,302
282,938
25,771
2,064
9,257
557,030
Camels
14,509
-
-
3,739
-
-
300
19,450
Humans
628,507
422,703
290,904
3,049,930
498,373
26,075
288,750
5,205,242
Source: FAO Yearbook, 1991
5.3
Emission Reduction Opportunities
There are a number of available methods for cost-effectively improving ruminant animal
management systems so that livestock utilize the energy in their feed more efficiently, and
hence convert a smaller portion of their feed to methane. These methods have largely been
developed through research and development efforts over the last fifty to one hundred years.
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5-3
as a direct result of the interest of governments and other organizations in increasing the
supply of animal products.
Continued improvements in animal productivity can reduce methane emissions across a range
of country-specific conditions. In many developed countries, for example, the market for
animal products has been saturated and demand is therefore relatively constant. In these
cases, improvements in animal productivity result in the ability of livestock managers to meet
demand with fewer animals, and thus less methane is produced. Alternatively, in many
developing countries there is great disparity between supply and demand of animal products,
and production is therefore constrained by feed resources and other conditions. In these
cases, efficiency improvements allow greater production, and consequently less methane is
produced from relatively constant feed resources. The principal emission reduction options
are summarized in Exhibits 5-3(a-d), and are discussed in detail in Volume I of this report
(USEPA, 1993a).
Exhibit 5-2
Regional Methane Emissions from Cattle, Buffalo, and Other Ruminants (Tg/yr)1
Region
Africa
N. America
Latin America
Asia
W. Europe
Oceania
E.Europe/CIS
Total
Cattle
6.1
6.0
15.7
11.8
6.4
2.0
9.8
58.1
Buffalo
0.1
0.0
0.1
7.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.7
Sheep
1.0
0.1
0.6
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.4
7.0
Goats
0.9
0.0
0.2
1.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
2.8
Camels
0.7
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.9
Other2
0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
0.2
0.0
0.3
2.7
Total
9.1
6.3
17.2
22.8
7.9
3.1
11.7
79.1
Source: USEPA, 1993c
1 These emissions estimates are based on recent drafts of the report to Congress, Global Anthropogenic
Emissions of Methane, currently in preparation, and will likely change as this report is finalized. These
estimates represent the middle of a range of estimates where the range is on the order of ± 25%.
2 This category includes swine, horses, and mules, which are all monogastrics.
Identifying the most promising opportunities for promoting the available methods requires an
examination of the current productivity of an animal management system and the feasibility
of implementing the methods. Importantly, the magnitude of emissions from a region is not
necessarily a good indicator of potential emission reductions. The largest potential reductions
are in those regions where animal management systems are inefficient -- and thus where
-------
5 - 4 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
methane per unit of production is highest. Furthermore the largest potential reductions are
with animal management systems where:
the animals are accessible through weekly, if not daily contact with their managers;
markets and related infrastructure necessary to sell the additional products are
available; and
programs can be developed to address local economic and cultural factors, and gain
the acceptance of farmers.
The applicability of available methods in different systems are discussed in more detail below
and summarized in Exhibit 5-4.
Roughly 20 percent of the emissions from large ruminants come from animals which are
raised under intensive or other highly managed conditions in the developed countries of North
America and Western Europe, and to a limited extent in other countries. These advanced
animal production systems have generally achieved low methane emissions per unit product
through the use of high quality feeds, selective breeding, and other management techniques
as they became available. These systems have seen large efficiency gains over the last fifty
years. For example, the U.S. now produces more milk with less than half the dairy cows than
in the 1940s, and similar improvements have been seen in the beef industry. The current
level of high productivity leaves room for relatively marginal improvements, although there
remain opportunities to develop and implement new techniques. Programs appropriate for
these management systems include the development and application of production-enhancing
agents, improved reproduction, and targeted nutrient supplementation technologies.
Significant improvements may be made in animal management systems in the CIS and Eastern
Europe, which account for 15 to 20 percent of the emissions from large ruminants. Animals
in this region are typically raised on large collective or state-run farms, where unbalanced and
relatively low quality feed contribute to low productivity compared to large intensive systems
in developed countries. The accessibility of animals on these large farms suggests that
opportunities may exist to introduce improved management practices, such as nutrient
supplements, productivity enhancing agents, and improved reproductive methods.
Substantial increases in productivity may also be made in the developing regions of the world,
such as the Indian subcontinent, China, and Subsaharan Africa. About half of the world's
cattle and buffalo, representing perhaps as much as 30 percent of emissions from large
ruminants are raised in these countries in conditions which result in extremely low
productivity. In the past, increasing demand for animal products has been met by increasing
the number of animals rather than increasing productivity.
Alternatively, opportunities are likely much lower in South (Tropical) America, which
represents about 20 to 25 percent of total global emissions, since the majority of emissions
is from cattle which are predominantly managed on extensive ranches. Although these
animals are fed mostly on grasses (i.e., grazed), which is generally associated with high
methane yields and technical potential for methane reduction, the relative inaccessibility of
these animals makes the application of technologies less feasible. Compared to management
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5-5
Exhibit 5-3(a)
Summary of Options for Improved Nutrition through Mechanical and Chemical Feed
Processing
GoRBidBffttian*
Reduction Techniques
Support Technologies
and Services
Availability
Capital Requirements
Technical Complexity
Applicability
Methane Reductions2
A&di/Ammaw
Tra«tnw?t of tow
digestibility Sfriwwa
alkali/ammonia treatment
lignm removal/separation
handling and supply of
caustic material
currently available
low
low
widely applicable
crop byproducts
10% or more
Chopping of low :
D$a**tffctliiy Straw*
chopping/grinding
lignin removal/separation
grinding equipment
currently available
low/medium
low
widely applicable
crop byproducts
10% or more
Traat and; W*a» J8e*
Straw1^
wrapping
ensilation
wrapping material
demonstration needed
low/medium
medium
crop byproducts
grasses
10% or more
Exhibit 5-3(b)
Summary of Options for Improved Nutrition through Strategic Supplementation and
Other Techniques
CoflftW«»aB ProtM"
microbial growth
protein/energy
ration
block production
protein
processing
extension
services
currently available
low/medium
low
low digestibility/
low energy diet
cash markets
Up to 60%
Dftfautrwrtton .;..;.
protozoa
removal
defaunation
agents
not available
commercially
low
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grazing
animals
low energy
diets
Up to 25%
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Significant research remains to be done before this strategy can be made available. Therefore, it is
premature to assess many aspects of this strategy, such as cost and potential methane reductions.
2 Methane reductions are calulated on a per unit product basis, and can be achieved at an appropriate
individual site.
Estimated range of reductions.
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5 - 9
systems where animals are confined continually (e.g., feedlot) or at regular intervals (e.g.,
dairy), there is smaller scope for widespread implementation of reduction options.
In developing regions of the world, small-scale dairy and draft animal management is an
important component of a predominantly subsistence type agricultural system. The
integration of animal husbandry with crop production efficiently utilizes agricultural by-
products as the basal feed for cattle and buffalo which provide milk and meat for
consumption, draft power for plowing, transportation and other work, and manure for fertilizer
and fuel. It is important to recognize the overall efficiency of these traditional management
systems although the methane produced per unit of feed intake is high. Within the current
resources and conditions of developing countries, existing management systems are often
more efficient than is realized (Preston and Leng, 1987). Thus, experts in the field advocate
approaches to improving productivity which match production systems with locally available
resources.
Major constraints on traditional systems are mainly related to low inputs including insufficient
quantity and poor quality feeds, inefficient draft implements, and limited infrastructure to
handle increased production levels. Large ruminants rarely receive high quality grains, which
are grown for human consumption, and subsequently exist on maintenance levels of energy
and protein intake. Competing uses for scarce arable land largely preclude the cultivation of
high quality fodders.
Programs to improve animal productivity would have a large impact on reducing methane
production under these conditions. Furthermore many of the benefits resulting from improved
animal productivity can contribute to meeting both the increase in demand for animal products
due to increasing populations and government development goals to improve the conditions
of rural populations. These benefits are discussed below.
5.4 The Benefits of Emissions Reductions
Programs that reduce methane emissions and increase animal production will have numerous
important benefits, including increased production, animal health, farmer security, and reduced
animal product imports.
Increased Production: In many developing countries, milk and meat produced on small
scale farms are a major protein source in an otherwise largely vegetarian diet. Improved
production of animal products can increase the nutritional quality of the diet, and will be
necessary to meet the demand from a rapidly increasing human population. These
programs will be an economically viable alternative to increasing the numbers of animals,
since feed resources are scarce in many regions. Additional benefits can be expected from
the increased production of other animal products: draft power, which may increase
agricultural productivity; and products such as wool, hides, and excess milk and meat,
which can be sold in cash markets.
Increased Animal Health and Farmer Security: A secondary effect of increased
productivity is the ability of small farmers, often living at subsistence levels, to better meet
their needs and to sell excess production where adequate infrastructure exists. In
-------
5-10 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
addition, programs which increase the efficient utilization of poor-quality forage will
decrease the pressure on land use, and improve the health and reduce the mortality of
animals. These changes will improve the economic security of small farmers in developing
regions.
Reduced Animal Product Imports: Improving the productivity and supply of animal
products will reduce expensive food imports, which currently drain scarce foreign
exchange.
5.5 Country Profiles
Programs to improve animal productivity are successfully underway or successfully
demonstrated for certain animal populations in a number of countries. Recent assessments
of some programs indicate that the largest opportunities for both reducing methane emissions
and achieving development goals are found in developing countries, where animal productivity
remains well below genetic potential. The primary approach of programs in developing
countries is to improve the nutrition available to animals through supplementation of feed with
locally available products, and through processing of currently available feeds, such as rice
straw, to improve their digestibility. A follow-on approach, applicable where adequate
nutrition is available, introduces genetically superior traits through cross-breeding programs.
These techniques have shown significant increases in productivity, especially milk production,
and reductions in methane production per unit product of up to 60 percent (USEPA, 1993a).
For programs to be successful, it is necessary to design them to meet the particular needs and
conditions of individual countries because of the different animal ownership and management
systems that exist. Potential programs for improving animal productivity in India, China,
Tanzania, Bangladesh, Eastern Europe, and the CIS are discussed in the following sections.
These non-OECD countries were chosen because several major types of animal management
systems are represented.
5.5.1 INDIA1
Overview
India (Exhibit 5-5) has a large population of ruminant livestock, with around 200 million cattle
and 75 million buffalo, or roughly one quarter of the world's population of large ruminants
(Mitra, 1991; FAO, 1991). As in most developing countries, livestock are managed
predominantly on smallhold farms (e.g., 1 to 5 animals), where they meet a number of needs.
The religious prohibition of the slaughter of cattle in India precludes the existence of a market
for beef, and as a result large ruminants mostly provide draft power, milk, and manure for fuel
and fertilizer. About 30 percent of India's large ruminants are used for draft power. These
animals, therefore, are integral to the system of mixed farming practiced in India, where they
are fed crop residues and provide important agricultural inputs. Moreover, livestock ownership
This assessment is drawn primarily from AT International, 1992.
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5- 11
and the sale of excess animal products is often the only source of income at the village level.
Milk is also a vital component of the diet of India's rural population, providing as much as 70
percent of the daily protein intake.
Exhibit 5-5
India
Many of India's ruminants are fed nutritionally inadequate diets as a result of seasonal
fluctuations in the availability of forages and crop residues. For example, during the crop
planting period, grazing is extremely limited and both dairy and draft animals are fed almost
exclusively on residues such as rice straw, hulls and sugarcane processing wastes. Overall,
the feed is low in digestibility, crude protein and bypass protein, and lacking in minerals and
vitamins. Poor nutrition causes inefficient rumen digestion and, in the case of dairy animals,
there is therefore less digestible energy available to the animal for lactation; in general, less
energy is available for growth, production, and work. As a direct result of inefficient rumen
function, the fermentation process produces more methane for a given level of feed intake.
-------
5-12 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
The efficiency of digestion is greatly reduced by inadequate levels of dissolved ammonia in
the rumen fluid, a condition which can easily be corrected. Dissolved ammonia provides
rumen microbes with non-protein nitrogen, a nutrient that is essential to a healthy microbial
population and a well balanced rumen. To correct an ammonia deficient rumen, nitrogen can
be supplied by supplementing the diet with urea in the form of a molasses-urea multinutrient
block (MUB). Government agencies in India have shown a strong interest in introducing MUBs
and other technologies to increase the production of animal products. State agencies, non-
governmental organizations and cooperatives have been involved in successful demonstrations
of the technology since the early 1980s, but further work is needed.
Experience feeding dairy animals has shown that a basal diet supplemented with MUBs
increases both milk yields and butterfat content. Milk production may be increased by up to
30 percent in some cases (Leng, 1991). Other benefits include increased liveweight gains,
reduced mortality, earlier maturation and reduced calving intervals. For example, the age of
first calving in India is typically 5 years and the calving interval is 2 years, whereas first
calving at 2 to 3 years and calving every 12 to 15 months can be achieved with available
nutritional supplements (Leng, 1991).
As a result of the constrained nutritional management of ruminant livestock that is common
in India, most animals have higher methane yields2 than genetically similar animals raised on
properly balanced diets, in addition to being significantly less productive. Methane yields for
these animals may reach as high as 15 percent of the digestible energy of the feed consumed,
compared to 5 to 8 percent for animals that are raised on complete diets (Leng, 1991), Cattle
in India are estimated to produce 4.2 to 7 Tg of methane per year, and buffalo an additional
3 to 5 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993c).3 This represents 70 percent of emissions from South
and East Asia.
Increasing the productivity of livestock is an important part of India's development goals.
Increased production is necessary to meet the demands of a rising population, and to achieve
the government's goal of increasing daily per capita milk consumption from around 160 grams
per capita to 200 grams per capita. Moreover, because livestock constitute a major portion
of the wealth of the rural population, increasing animal productivity can greatly contribute to
raising the living standards and security for much of India's population.
During the mid-1980s, India's National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) initiated several
programs to help improve the standard of living of small farmers in rural areas by improving
dairy production. One of these programs, called Operation Flood, was designed to "flood" a
major portion of Gujarat State with new technologies to increase milk production. Major
efforts were made to produce molasses urea multinutrient blocks (MUBs) and distribute them
for general application to straw fed animals. Although they were not developed specifically
for drought feeding, farmers discovered the advantages of their use during the severe drought
2 Methane yield is the percentage of feed energy intake that is converted to methane in the rumen.
3 Recent country-specific data indicates that emissions may in fact be lower than these estimates,
especially for buffalo. The lower emission estimates result from lower animal weight and feed intake
values.
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5-13
of the mid-1980s. In seven of India's territories, processing plants were set up and operated
by local District Dairy Unions under the guidance of the NDDB.
Although the shortage of feedstuffs resulting from the harsh drought made the use of MUBs
(which maximize the efficient use of scarce feed resources) potentially highly beneficial,
several problems hindered widespread adoption of the new technology. In many cases the
MUBs were not used appropriately and farmers did not fully benefit from their investment.
A major problem was encountered in the formulation of the MUBs: a high salt content and
scorching from the heat used in preparation seemed to reduce their palatability, and many
animals ignored the blocks. Also, a poorly trained extension service was unable to properly
instruct farmers on the details of their use, such as their placement (cows and buffalo often
have preferences as to whether the blocks are placed on the ground or on a post). In cases
where the extension agents were trained, the target audience was primarily men, when in fact
the women of the village were largely responsible for the management of the animals.
Another important problem was that the cooperative feed mills which produced and sold
concentrated feeds were responsible for commercialization of the MUBs, and probably had
little incentive to promote the sales of the MUBs that were meant to replace their main
product. As a result of these and other factors, MUB use during the early 1980s never
reached the levels that the NDDB had targeted, and from 1987 to 1988 declined sharply.
More recently, the use of bypass proteins in addition to MUBs has proven to greatly increase
dairy production (Leng, 1992). In 1988, the NDDB began to produce bypass proteins on a
large scale. The AMUL feed mill in Anand, once a major producer of MUBs with a capacity
of 100 metric tons per day, converted to producing only bypass proteins. The bypass
proteins produced by AMUL are used in feeding approximately 500,000 animals which raises
the milk production of these animals by over 50 percent. In Ghandinagar, the NDDB is
planning to build a plant capable of producing 1000 metric tons of bypass proteins per day
(Leng, 1992).
Overall, these potentially beneficial technologies have not been successfully introduced on a
wide scale into the animal management systems which could most benefit: smallhold farms
managed primarily by resource poor farmers and women, which account for roughly 85
percent of India's dairy herds (FAO, 1989; Reuss et al., 1990). Currently, only larger and
centralized, state-run dairy farms use properly balanced feeds and other advanced
management techniques. Subsequently, it is only these operations which have significantly
increased their productivity. The success of larger farms, and the lessons of Operation Flood
and other programs indicate that there is significant potential to expand the use of these
technologies if aggressive and appropriate programs are developed.
Opportunities to Expand Methane Reductions
There are a number of opportunities in India to enhance current efforts to improve the
productivity of ruminant livestock, thereby reducing methane emissions from this source.
India's large ruminant population and the importance of their animal products provide
incentives to increase productivity. Furthermore, current feed resources and management
practices have not allowed many animals to achieve their genetic potential. Experience with
productivity improvement programs, as well as availability of feed resources and infrastructure
-------
5-14 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
within India, suggests that there is a large potential to expand the use of appropriate
technologies.
In the near term, efforts to improve the productivity of dairy animals will likely be most
successful where there are already established milk markets. Currently, inadequate nutrition
is the primary factor limiting dairy animal productivity, and nutrition could be greatly improved
with the expanded use of supplements such as MUBs or by processing the feeds to increase
their digestibility. Examples of feed processing techniques include grinding, chopping and
ammoniation of straw. Other technologies for improving productivity could include the use
of bypass proteins, the promotion of breeding programs, and expansion of improved animal
health programs.
Most regions of India are capable of producing molasses-urea blocks, and feed mills
throughout India currently produce a variety of animal feed supplements. There is, therefore,
sufficient infrastructure and technical experience to produce MUBs and to implement other
feed processing technologies. Moreover, economic analyses show that MUB production has
a high degree of commercial feasibility, with small capital investments and short payback
periods. The initial capital investment for a small feed mill equipped to produce MUBs is
generally $70,000, with a payback period of 3 to 4 years. The raw materials for production
are also readily available.
While improved nutrition in the dairy herd could provide sustainable gains in the short term,
there are several longer term approaches which could also yield significant benefits. One
approach would be to use these techniques with those animals raised for draft power. This
approach is less likely to be introduced in the short term because increased draft power is a
less quantifiable benefit than increased milk production, and because draft power is typically
not a directly marketable product. Nevertheless, successful application in the dairy herd
leading to improved reproductivity will encourage the extension of MUBs into the draft herd.
Additionally, improved animal health practices can be introduced into both dairy and draft
herds. There is also continuing opportunity for larger state dairies and research stations to
develop improved breeding programs to increase the genetic potential of livestock. Such
programs could be especially successful with buffalo, which are better adapted to the climate,
do not require as high-quality concentrate feeds, and produce milk that is preferred because
of its high butterfat content. In order for these techniques to be successful, however, it is
first necessary that the basic nutritional needs of the animals are met.
Emissions Reduction Potential
In the short term, programs encouraging MUB production and use could reach a significant
portion of the animal population. These programs could focus on milk-producing animals
where the productivity increases will be most visible, and the milk can be sold in existing
markets. These animals include dedicated (i.e., single use) dairy herds, as well as dual-
purpose animals. These programs should concurrently address the need for increased
collection, processing and marketing of milk, to ensure that excess production can indeed be
sold. In some cases, other options including feed processing technologies could be
implemented. Previous experience in western India (e.g., Gujarat) suggests that conditions,
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5-15
available resources, and government interest make this region particularly suitable for
implementation in the short term.
The portion of the animal population that can be reached by these technologies may be less
in India than most developing countries because of India's unique cultural and religious
restrictions that prohibit the slaughter of cattle. This prohibition increases the portion of old,
unproductive cows and bulls, which would otherwise be slaughtered for meat. Since
productivity increases are not achievable (or do not provide any benefits) for these animals,
they would not be included in methane reduction efforts. In spite of this fact, the overall
number of animals that could be affected by these technologies is high because of the
extremely large animal population. Because buffalo are not subject to restrictions on
slaughter, the proportion of female to male buffalos is higher (because males are selectively
slaughtered for meat), and a greater portion of the total population would be amenable for
methane reduction strategies. Considering these factors, aggressive nation-wide extension
programs may reach 40 to 50 percent of the total animal population, or about 110 to 135
million animals (primarily lactating cows). By supplementing traditional diets, methane
reductions on the order of 0.8 to 1.2 Tg per year are possible.4 Further reductions could be
achieved in the longer term by eliminating the need for some animals through increased
production and reproductivity.
In the longer term, improvements in animal nutrition could be extended to other sections of
the animal population (i.e., draft animals). Further assessments will help to identify
technologies appropriate for the various types of animal management systems found in other
regions of the country. Once efficient rumen function has been achieved, the use of bypass
protein feeds, disease control, and improved breeding programs could successfully be
introduced.
Promoting Methane Reductions
There is large potential for improving animal productivity and reducing methane emissions in
India, through the expansion of proven options. A number of barriers exist, however, which
currently hinder India's widespread use of these technologies and practices, despite the
potential benefits and successful past projects.
One key barrier is the current need for expanded extension services to provide necessary
information on animal nutrition to small farmers, primarily the women who are responsible for
the care of the dairy animals. Other barriers include the need to adapt technologies to local
conditions and resources, the limited funds available to small farmers to invest in feed
supplements, and the need for a guaranteed outlet for increased production.
Addressing these barriers will require extensive cooperation between local institutions, the
Indian government, international development agencies, and other non-governmental
organizations with experience in this area. A strong focus on domestic activities could allow
This estimate assumes that emission reductions of 20 to 25 percent are achieved for 40 to 50 percent
of the population. This estimate may be conservative as it does not take into account the fact that the
targeted animals have relatively high methane emissions factors.
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5-16 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
individual projects to be customized to local conditions. International assistance may be
useful, however, for the coordination of project planning, technology demonstration, the
development of regional infrastructure, and investment. The specific types of activities which
may be helpful in realizing the benefits of improving India's agricultural productivity are
summarized below.
Policy Support: The actions described in this report are primarily development projects,
with benefits including increased productivity, financial security, and welfare of both rural
and urban populations. It may be useful to focus domestic policy support on these
primary benefits, which could contribute to India's current development plans, rather than
on the additional benefit of methane emission reductions.
Project Planning and Evaluation: The effective introduction of these types of projects
could be facilitated through efforts to plan and evaluate opportunities at the national,
regional, and local level. In addition to the inclusion of livestock productivity goals in
India's national development plans, these actions could include assessments of regional
resources and animal management practices, selection of demonstration sites, adaptation
of technologies to local conditions, and the evaluation of dissemination opportunities and
extension services.
Technology Transfer and Demonstration: Additional efforts to demonstrate appropriate
technologies may be particularly useful. A number of projects have successfully
demonstrated certain technologies and practices to reduce methane emissions in various
regions of India. There is a need for demonstration of these proven technologies, such as
MUBs, under different conditions to show their adaptability. Also, projects could be
undertaken to test additional technologies, including bypass protein feeds and longer term
developments such as breeding programs, in these same regions. Technology transfer and
demonstration projects may also be useful to help develop adequate production and
marketing infrastructure.
Training and Extension Services: Along with demonstration projects to prove the
suitability of certain technologies, well-designed local extension services could help
introduce new practices into rural animal management systems. These extension services
would be most useful if they met a number of criteria. Extension workers need access to
adequate technical assistance and training to be able to implement different technologies,
and especially to be able to present a range of choices for farmers rather than delivering
a set technology. Extension workers should also be trained to reach and educate those
actually responsible for livestock management (typically women), if technologies are to be
adopted by small farmers. Finally, extension services and the local efforts they support
should be self-sustaining. Without extension services or a similar infrastructure for
promoting new technologies, the lack of widespread knowledge and experience with new
technologies could present a barrier to the widespread implementation of these
technologies.
Production and Marketing Infrastructure Development: India's current development plans,
which are focused on the introduction and adoption of new technologies, could be
enhanced by developing an expanded infrastructure to support these technologies and the
increased production they will create. Toward this goal, feed supplement production and
the capacity of feed processing facilities could be expanded. These efforts would require
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5-17
capital investment in addition to the technical assistance described previously. Successful
projects may also need to address the need for improved milk storage, processing, and
distribution capabilities, to ensure that excess production can reach the market.
Financial Sustainability: Economic analysis indicates that the production and use of feed
supplements is an economically viable method of increasing the production of animal
products, and should be financially self-sustaining. Nevertheless, it will be necessary to
identify sources of initial investment funds.
5.5.2 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA5
Overview
The People's Republic of China (Exhibit 5-6) has approximately 100 million large ruminant
animals (cattle, buffalo, and yaks), accounting for approximately 7 percent of the world's
large ruminant population. The vast majority of these animals are managed on smallhold
farms and used primarily for agricultural draft power and transportation purposes, as well as
for providing dung for fertilizer and fuel. The production of meat and milk, when it occurs,
has traditionally been a secondary activity. Smallhold traditional farming systems account for
50 million draft cattle (indigenous yellow cattle), most of the 21 million buffalo, and a portion
of the 15 million purebred yak and cattle-yak hybrids. The second largest portion of the
animal population is raised on semi-arid grasslands in north China, and comprised of 10 million
pastoral cattle, as well as some 10 million yak and associated hybrids.
In addition to animals on smallhold farms and pastoral grasslands, there are roughly 4.5 million
head of dairy and beef breeds imported from Europe and the U.S., which are mainly being
raised on state dairies and privately-owned small farms. (Crossbreeds are also raised in some
traditional and pastoral systems in limited numbers). The state dairy sector comprises 32
percent (800,000 head) of the dairy population, and has been instrumental in introducing
imported breeds. Total methane emissions are estimated to be about 3.5 to 5.9 Tg per year;
2.5 to 4.3 Tg per year from cattle, and 1 to 1.6 Tg per year from buffalo (USEPA, 1993c).
After the cultural revolution ended in 1976, agricultural policy shifted from favoring collective
farms to favoring privatization. This resulted in the emergence of small farms which integrate
animal husbandry into their crop production activities, or specialize in a certain type of animal
husbandry. These types of enterprises constitute China's small but rapidly growing
transitional agricultural sector. Management of ruminant animals in this sector is oriented
towards a diverse range of activities, including the production of meat, milk, live animals for
sale, and draft power. Over half of China's dairy cattle, which until very recently were raised
almost entirely by state-run or collective operations, are now raised on these transitional
farms.
This assessment is drawn primarily from Soiled, 1992.
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
Exhibit 5-6
The People's Republic of China
THE PEOPLE S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
Large ruminants in China generally are fed an unbalanced diet inadequate in digestible
nutrients, and especially lacking in protein and energy. Typical diets are based on straws,
with varying attempts to supplement the diet with bran and concentrate meals depending on
the animal management system. Except in state dairy operations and a few transitional farms,
animals fail to achieve their genetic potential and in some cases are permanently stunted from
lack of nutrition. For example, average milk production in China is 1,500 kg per lactation
which is slightly less than half of the production achieved in forage based systems in areas
such as Australia and New Zealand (Leng, 1992). Meat production per head is less than 5
percent of production levels in the United States. Moreover, poor nutrition results in
inefficient rumen digestion, causing less energy to be made available to the animal, and more
methane to be produced for a given levei of feed intake. (A notable exception are some of
the well managed state dairies which have production levels in excess of 6000 kg per
lactation, equivalent to those in the U.S.).
There is currently a large agricultural extension network throughout China, but the emphasis
of these services and other improvements has been on animal health and crossbreeding using
European breeds. In the past, relatively little attention has been paid to improving feed
resources or educating small farmers about the value of improved nutrition, and there is a lack
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5-19
of awareness on the part of small farmers about nutritional requirements and possible
techniques to increase animal productivity.
Milk and beef are not traditional components of the human diet in China. Nevertheless, there
is a rising level of consumption of both these products, especially in urban populations.
Meeting the increasing demand for ruminant animal products through increasing the numbers
of animals would place unrealistic strains on land use and feed resource availability. A more
logical way to meet this demand would be to increase animal productivity and to better utilize
the potential productivity of draft animals.
Opportunities to Expand Methane Reductions
There are several possible strategies to meet the increasing demand for non-traditional animal
products in China through increasing productivity rather than increasing animal populations,
presenting significant opportunities to reduce methane emissions from this source. These
strategies seek to encourage the use of the improved nutritional management techniques
already being adopted in the more production-oriented transitional sector, and to extend these
techniques to incorporate increasing numbers of draft animals currently managed in traditional
systems. These strategies require an increase in the energy ruminants receive from their base
diet.
It is unlikely, however, that the animals' base diet of straw and other low-quality agricultural
by-products will change, due to the more efficient use of high quality feeds by monogastric
animals (e.g., swine and poultry), and due to the pressure on land use for other crops. There
is, therefore, a strong incentive to improve the digestibility of these straws by expanding the
use of existing technologies. Treating straw with urea is one method to improve the
nutritional quality of the diet, and is well suited to available resources and experience in China.
Other possible options for increasing livestock productivity include improving forage
production and continuing efforts in improved breeding and veterinary services.
Although there are a number of possible straw treatment methods, the most appropriate
option for promotion in China may be the use of urea to ammoniate straw. Not only is urea
less caustic than alternative chemicals, such as ammonia or sodium hydroxide, but urea is
familiar to small farmers as an agricultural fertilizer. Moreover, urea is relatively inexpensive
and widely available in China.
When urea is applied to straw, a portion of the urea is converted to ammonia. The coarse
lignin straw fibers are chemically broken down by the ammonia, exposing the plant's internal
components. This process increases the digestibility of the straw by allowing microbes
greater access to the structural carbohydrates for fermentative digestion. The portion of
unconverted urea is also a valuable nutritional supplement, providing rumen microbes with a
source of non-protein nitrogen. The combined effect increases digestion efficiency and,
therefore, increases animal productivity. Using urea, methane produced per unit product can
be reduced by up to 10 percent or more (USEPA, 1993a).
The primary cost of this treatment method is the urea itself. The estimated cost of treating
straw is 150 yuan ($25) per ton of straw, based on a state-controlled price of 600 to 700
yuan ($100- $120) per ton for urea. The low cost and large benefits make this economically
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viable if milk or beef is produced. Currently, however, urea is predominantly applied to the
land as an agricultural input, with less than 1 percent used in the feed sector; state price
controls in China currently encourage the use of urea for agricultural rather than feed
purposes.
A second strategy which may be used to supplement the base diet of straw is the cultivation
of improved forages, such as legumes. The cultivation and use of legumes has gained
acceptance in other tropical and temperate regions because they can provide a necessary
source of protein for large ruminants, but farmers in China have little experience with
improved forages because draft animal management has generally minimized nutritional inputs.
Although using dedicated agricultural land for growing forages is unlikely to be competitive,
it may be possible to identify legumes which can grow on marginal sites where other crops
are not cultivated, including roadsides and river banks.
There are a number of other strategies which may be applicable in some regions of China, but
do not appear to be widely feasible based on current studies. Additional research would be
useful to identify and assess these options. For example, feeding ruminants agro-industrial
byproducts, such as plant and fish processing wastes, can provide valuable protein and
increase the utilization of low quality feeds. However, many of these byproducts are more
efficiently utilized by monogastric animals. Nevertheless, there are potentially large quantities
of underutilized low-quality process wastes which could be used as animal feed. For other
strategies, such as the use of molasses-urea blocks (MUB) common in India, the resources are
often not available or would have a greater economic return if used in swine or poultry feed.
In particular, China is not a large sugar producer, and molasses production is insufficient.
Although most molasses in China is used for alcohol production, however, distillery wastes
could be used for the production of MUBs in place of molasses. There is some experience
using distillery waste as a cattle feed, but its feasibility in China needs to be studied further
(Leng, 1991).
Emissions Reduction Potential
In the short term, ammoniation of straw and perhaps the cultivation of high-protein legume
forage on marginal sites could be introduced and expanded in regions with a rapidly growing
transitional farm sector. These strategies primarily target the roughly 24 million cattle in the
central agricultural region of China where extension services are strongest and straw as a feed
resource is most available. In addition, farmers in this area have experience producing milk
and meat, and are relatively close to urban markets.
In the long term, these techniques could be expanded to include draft cattle, accounting for
almost half of China's ruminant population (50 million animals). Another 17 million animals
may also be included if milk production increases from buffalo in southern China.
Less opportunity exists in other regions of China. There is little potential for improvement in
the state-run dairies, due to small animal numbers and the current use of good management
practices, and the extensive grazing of herds makes it difficult to implement options in
pastoral regions.
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Implementation of these programs could reach 50 to 60 percent of China's animal population
in the long term. Potential methane reductions achievable in the near-term may be 0.5 to 0.7
Tg per year, with methane reductions of up to 1.5 Tg per year possible in the long term
through improved nutritional management of the existing herd, resulting in lower methane
yields.6 Reduction of the animal population size, as draft animals are slowly replaced by
mechanization, would reduce potential future methane production.
Promoting Methane Reductions
The introduction and dissemination of certain technological options, notably the ammoniation
of widely available wheat and rice straw, has a large potential to increase animal productivity
while offsetting or reducing methane emissions from large ruminants in China. A number of
important barriers may exist, however, which currently impede the widespread adoption of
these technologies and practices. These barriers include: the lack of awareness of
technologies among small farmers; the focus of extension services on breeding and health (as
opposed to productivity); the current predominance of draft management systems; and the
small (although rapidly growing) quantity of ruminant livestock products sold in cash markets,
which provide the immediate incentive for increasing productivity.
These barriers may best be addressed through a combination of China's domestic actions to
introduce and support new practices, and international assistance by development agencies
and other international organizations. These combined efforts may facilitate many of the
areas of action required to achieve productivity improvements. The specific types of activities
useful for overcoming these barriers are summarized below.
Policy Support: While the concept of increasing animal productivity is supported in China
on the national level, the widespread expansion of practices to improve nutrition and
productivity in China's ruminant population may be limited without coordinated action on
many levels. China's eighth five-year plan (1991-95) includes the goal of increasing meat
production through the increased utilization of improved feed resources, rather than the
number of animals, thereby reducing the competition for land and agricultural inputs. In
conjunction with this national support, strong local and regional policy support could help
to successfully train and prepare an effective extension service. Additional policy support
could involve removing price disincentives for the use of urea as a feed resource.
Project Planning and Evaluation: The effective introduction of these types of projects
could be facilitated through efforts to plan and evaluate opportunities at the national,
regional, and local levels. In addition to the inclusion of livestock productivity goals in
China's national development plans, these actions could include assessments of regional
resources and animal management practices, selection of demonstration sites, adaptation
of technologies to local conditions, and the evaluation of dissemination opportunities and
extension services.
This estimate assumes that emission reductions of 20 to 25 percent are achieved for 50 to 60 percent
of the population. This estimate may be conservative as it does not take into account the fact that the
targeted animals have relatively high methane emissions factors.
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Technology Transfer and Demonstration: The ammoniation of straw is practiced in China
to a limited extent, but additional demonstration projects may be desirable on a wider
scale and under a variety of conditions. A number of other mechanical and chemical feed
processing technologies could also be introduced and evaluated for use in China.
Technology transfer and demonstration projects could also be useful for the dissemination
of the types of legumes which have proven successful in similar temperate and tropical
regions.
Training and Extension Services: In order to spread awareness among small farmers of
the potential benefits of producing additional animal products, such as meat and milk, it
may be beneficial to incorporate practical nutrition and feeding aspects into the training
of China's agricultural extension service. Adding these topics to the existing program of
improved breeding and animal health could help to familiarize farmers with the nutritional
needs of large ruminants and the types of technologies and practices which lead to
increased productivity. Strategies could include training extension workers in these
technologies and methods and introducing them at the grass roots level, as well as using
agricultural schools as training institutions, with the cooperation of the Ministry of
Agriculture.
Market Development: The increased production and sale of meat and milk provide a direct
incentive for small farmers worldwide to increase animal productivity through improved
nutrition. Transitional private farms in China, which have a generally more innovative and
entrepreneurial approach to livestock management, have realized the potential for
increasing the production of a diverse range of animal products by improving animal
management techniques. Continued growth of this transitional sector is an important step
in strategies to improve ruminant management, and could be enhanced by the
development of markets for non-traditional products. In the short term, efforts to
introduce technologies could focus on central agricultural regions with access to urban
markets. Long term success may require the development of more extensive markets for
milk and meat products.
Funding Development: In the long term, increasing the productivity of milk and meat
production is commercially viable. However, the introduction, demonstration, and
dissemination of new practices may require funding for initial action.
5.5.3 TANZANIA
Tanzania (Exhibit 5-7) has the third largest cattle population in Africa, with nearly 14 million
head, accounting for roughly 8 percent of the cattle in Subsaharan Africa (a region comprised
of 38 countries). There are currently two systems of small-scale dairy production in Tanzania,
intensive and extensive, with the vast majority of farmers practicing the extensive system.
The intensive system is characterized by crossbred animals from local Zebu stock crossed
with Jerseys or Friesians and managed in herds of 1 to 7 cows. The animals are confined at
all times and are fed cut and carry forages. Milk production can vary from 5 to 30 liters per
day. Intensive dairy production is practiced mainly in the highland areas where cash crop
production dominates agricultural activity. Assuming an annual methane production rate of
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5-23
32.7 kg per head (USEPA, 1993c), approximately 0.4 to 0.6 Tg per year of methane are
produced by large ruminants in Tanzania.
Exhibit 5-7
Tanzania
The extensive system is characterized by the husbandry of a pure stock of traditional Zebu
cattle managed in larger herds of 10 to 30 head. Confinement of the animals only occurs at
night. The basal diet consists almost entirely of grazing low quality grasses with very few
supplementary nutritional inputs. These cows are milked regularly, yielding approximately one
liter per day. The extensive system is practiced primarily in the lower lying areas of central
and southern Tanzania (Bowman, 1992).
Current per capita annual consumption of milk and meat is 22 liters and 5.7 kg, respectively.
The Tanzanian government intends to increase this consumption level to 30 liters of milk and
9 kg of meat per capita by the year 2000. Because the population of Tanzania is expected
to increase by over 50 percent by the year 2000, an increase in milk consumption of just over
30 percent (as planned) will require milk production to roughly double. If production remains
constant, however, simply maintaining current consumption levels will require imports valued
at over US $100 million per year.
Increasing production levels by increasing animal numbers will be severely constrained by the
availability of feed resources, as already most cattle are not adequately fed. Moreover,
increasing the demands on relatively poor agricultural land may exacerbate environmental
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degradation. Increasing the efficiency of feed utilization may thus be the most feasible way
to achieve production increases within the constraints of feed and financial resources.
A number of factors indicate that opportunities exist to improve animal productivity and
reduce methane emissions in Tanzania. Tanzania has one of the largest populations of
ruminants in Africa, and these animals have a technical potential for large productivity
improvements because of their currently inadequate diet. Moreover, the small-scale mixed
farming systems which are most prevalent provide ready access to the animals, and the high
ratio of female to male animals indicates that animals are managed intensively for dairy
production. As with many developing countries, improving animal management techniques
in Tanzania can contribute towards the existing development goals of the government.
Although further study is needed to fully assess the potential improvements, it is expected
that existing and proven methods can be adapted to the specific conditions within Tanzania,
with a reduction in methane emissions per unit product on the order of 30 to 40 percent likely
achievable. Developing institutional resources could be an important part of efforts in this
country, as extension services in Tanzania are more limited than those in India and China.
In addition to Tanzania, a number of other countries in Subsaharan Africa could possibly
benefit from similar programs. Small-scale mixed farming systems are the predominant
management system throughout subhumid, semi-arid, and highland regions of Africa, and may
account for as much as 70 percent of all cattle in this region. Methane emissions from cattle
and buffalo in Subsaharan countries may be about 4.5 to 7.5 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993c).
5.5.4 BANGLADESH
Bangladesh (Exhibit 5-8) has a significant population of large ruminants, estimated at 22.5
million cattle and 0.7 million buffalo, accounting for 5 to 10 percent of the large ruminant
population in the Indian Subcontinent (Ahmed, 1992). The management of livestock and the
role they play in Bangladeshi society is similar to the Indian situation, where livestock are
raised as an integral part of smallhold farms. Large ruminants provide 98 percent of the
agricultural draft power and large amounts of manure for fuel and fertilizer, and in turn are fed
primarily crop residues. Meat and milk are an important supplement to the diet of the rural
population, and when sold, are often the sole source of cash. It is estimated that livestock
management accounts for over 6 percent of the Bangladeshi Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
(Ahmed, 1992; Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, 1992), and that these animals may emit
between 0.6 and 1.2 Tg of methane per year (USEPA, 1993c).
The poor performance of large ruminant animals in Bangladesh is directly related to the
inadequacy of the quantity and quality of feed resources. The average large ruminant diet in
Bangladesh, which typically consists of rice straw, poor quality grasses, and leaves, is usually
deficient in critical nutrients and by-pass proteins. Productivity is therefore low: native cows
typically produce 180 liters of milk per lactation, and cattle reach a liveweight of 150 to 200
kg. Productivity is higher for cows at the few larger dairies and for the small number of
crossbreeds which account for roughly 4 percent of the animal population. However, without
improvements in nutrition, higher productivity cannot be sustained across the entire animal
population (Ahmed, 1992).
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5-25
Exhibit 5-8
Bangladesh
BOORA
R/USHAM
BANGLADESH
A number of recommendations for improving ruminant nutrition appear to be applicable to the
situation in Bangladesh, based on the concept of matching the ruminant production system
with the available resources, and aiming for efficiency and economic optimization rather than
biological maximization. In particular, the use of molasses-urea blocks has been demonstrated
in Bangladesh with significant productivity improvements including longer lactation times,
increased daily milk yields, and better reproductive performance (Saadullah, 1991). Moreover,
large quantities of molasses, for which there are currently few local markets, are apparently
available from agro-industrial processing byproducts. Other studies indicate that there may
be potential for chemical processing of straw such as ammonia treatment (Davis et al., 1983).
Potential also exists for increasing the protein supply for ruminant diets, in addition to other
methods of improving ruminant nutrition. There are a number of existing ruminant feed
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sources that are currently unused, undeveloped, or poorly utilized, that could significantly
increase livestock output. Examples of these feed sources include sugarcane tops, banana
leaves or pseudostems, unused molasses, and stillage (distillery wastes). High-protein crops
may also be available from other unconventional sources. One possibility could involve
utilizing the country's estimated 500,000 hectares of abandoned wastewater ponds, which
currently contribute to disease problems, to grow high-protein plants such as duckweed
(Robson, 1991). In addition, there may be large potential to cultivate mixed-use trees, using
forage-producing trees to provide fuelwood, instead of traditional varieties. Alternative
options may include growing fodder on marginal land areas and expanding the joint cultivation
of forages such as cowpea with existing crops (e.g., maize), although the considerable
pressure on land use in Bangladesh makes it unlikely that arable land available to farmers
could cost-effectively support the cultivation of forages. Other potential crops to grow on
marginal land that is poorly drained, or even with standing water, include german grass and
para (Ahmed, 1992).
Potential emissions reductions in Bangladesh may be around 0.1 Tg per year in the short term,
and as high as 0.3 Tg per year in the longer term. There is a need, however, to assess the
feasibility of various methane reduction strategies, with special attention given to the
applicability of different methods, the availability of local resources, and the barriers which
must be overcome. Initial actions could involve establishing contacts among international
organizations, government institutions, and regional experts to initiate demonstration projects
and promote the eventual dissemination of appropriate methods.
5.5.5 COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES & EASTERN EUROPE?
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Eastern Europe (Exhibit 5-9) support a
population of over 150 million large ruminants, the vast majority of which are cattle. The CIS
accounts for 120 million animals, or 80 percent of this population. Despite these large
numbers, there is a general shortage of animal products throughout the region. Government
policy has been to increase production through centrally-planned promotion of collectives and
large-scale farms. Although agricultural policy is likely to change due to recent political
changes, it is not clear what the rate of change will be, how far production will be
decentralized, and what the overall effect will be. While the prospect of change offers new
opportunities, economic dislocations and institutional rebuilding are likely to pose obstacles
to rapid, short-term action.
The most prominent agricultural regions are the lowland and central zones, which include all
of Eastern Europe and stretch through the Ukraine and into much of southern Russia
(excluding Siberia). Animals in these regions are typically raised on large collective or state-
run farms with forage-based diets, supplemented with hay and grain. However, total diets
are often unbalanced, lacking in digestible protein and important micro- and macrominerals.
Productivity is low, compared to large intensive animal systems in developed countries: milk
yields average around 2,200 liters per year; and liveweight for slaughter averages 350 kg.
Methane emissions for the region may be about 7.5 to 12.5 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993c).
This assessment is drawn primarily from Reuss et al., undated; and Reuss et al., 1990
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RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5-27
The accessibility of animals on these large farms suggests that opportunities may exist to
promote improved management practices, such as nutrient supplements, productivity
enhancing agents, and improved reproductive methods. In addition, some studies suggest
that large contributing factors to the nutritional inadequacy of the average diet are poor feed
harvesting and storing technologies, and an increasing shortfall in grain production. Moreover,
at this time, it is not clear which regions possess the agricultural and infrastructural resources
to improve ruminant nutrition. Thus, further study is needed to ascertain the specific situation
facing each region, and to identify appropriate technologies. Despite the uncertainty as to the
shape of future programs to improve productivity in these regions, it is clear that there is a
large technical potential for achieving emission reductions, perhaps in excess of 1 Tg.
Exhibit 5-9
Commonwealth of Independent States and Eastern Europe
ARCTIC OCEAN
COMMONWEALTH OP INDEPENDENT STATES
Yakutsk
St. Petersburg
• Moscow
.Minsk
A PACIFIC
OCEAN
ROMANIA
AFRICA
-------
5 - 28 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5.6 Summary
As can be seen in the country profiles, individual countries have different livestock
management systems, different levels of support infrastructure, different resources available
to them, and different production incentives. While these differences lead to varying regional
and national abilities to increase animal productivity and thereby reduce methane emissions,
particularly in the near term, common characteristics can be identified to provide a broad
understanding of:
potential emissions reductions from ruminant livestock;
barriers hindering adoption of improved management techniques; and
possible solutions for overcoming these barriers.
Emission Reductions
Large ruminant livestock in many developing countries can be characterized as animals with
diets that are often deficient in nutrients critical for efficient fermentative digestion.
Depending on the extent of these deficiencies, improving nutritional management can actually
reduce the production of methane per unit of product by 10 to 60 percent (USEPA, 1993a;
Leng, 1991). In many of the densely populated countries of the world, the amount of
livestock feed is strictly limited because arable land is too scarce and valuable to plant forages
and other feeds for livestock. With limited feed resources, feed intake per animal is often
restricted. In this case, an improvement in the feed conversion efficiency translates directly
into a reduction in methane emissions on a per animal basis.
In addition, by reducing the amount of feed energy that is converted to methane, livestock
productivity can be significantly increased. For example, using supplements such as
molasses-urea multinutrient blocks and bypass proteins can double liveweight gains and milk
yields. Moreover, the age at first calving and the calving interval for cows can be greatly
reduced. These reductions of unproductive periods lead to substantial increases in the lifetime
productivity of cows, both in terms of calves and milk. Calf survivability can also be
improved, with the herd becoming more productive overall.
Given these increases in productivity, the reduction in methane emissions per unit product will
be larger than the absolute reductions achieved from improving the feed conversion efficiency.
Because production must increase to feed growing human populations, improvements in
animal nutrition would not only reduce emissions from current levels, but would prevent
increases in emissions that would result from the expansion of animal production (and animal
populations) using current management practices.
Near Term Reductions: Dairy herds present the greatest opportunity for achieving
emission reductions, with reductions in annual emissions of 4 to 10 Tg possible in the near
term. A large proportion of the methane produced by dairy animals on poor diets comes
from the unproductive time that animals spend in reaching maturity and the long inter-
calving periods. Improved nutrition can reduce the age of first calving from 4 to 3 years
and reduce the calving interval from 2 years to 1.5 years, thereby increasing the number
of calves and the number of lactations over a 14 year lifetime by 33 percent. Calf
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5-29
survivability would also improve and milk production per lactation could double, further
increasing production and reducing methane emissions per unit of milk produced.
The expansion of agricultural extension services to promote nutrient supplementation,
improved health and reproductive performance with dairy animals is likely to succeed in
the short term because increased production of milk is an easily seen improvement, and
because the excess milk may be sold in cash markets. The additional cash generated by
daily milk sales would enable poor farmers to afford the necessary inputs to maintain
elevated production levels. Furthermore, dairy animals are readily accessible for
application of technologies.
Longer-Term Reductions: In the longer term, projects could lead to a reduction in annual
methane emissions from ruminant livestock on the order of 10 to 19 Tg below present
levels. For example, improvements may be made in draft and beef animal management
systems, in addition to continued improvements with dairy herds. In some cases,
however, the lack of direct economic benefits (e.g., cash markets) may hinder the
adoption of improved management techniques for draft animals. Longer term projects
would continue to emphasize nutrition as well as to implement breeding and animal health
programs, and other technologies.
Estimates for methane emissions and potential emission reductions from ruminant livestock,
which are mostly achieved from cattle and buffalo, are summarized in Exhibit 5-10.
Promoting Methane Reductions
Meeting the challenge of livestock development with the introduction of new technology alone
is not sufficient. In order to be sustainable in developing countries, livestock development
programs must be consistent with country development goals including improving the welfare
of the rural poor, who are the major producers of food for the world, and for whom animal
ownership plays an important economic and cultural role. Moreover, development projects
must take account of the unique conditions of each region and site, with particular attention
paid .to the available technical, financial, human and natural resources.
Future development efforts will also have to incorporate lessons of the past. The experience
of livestock development programs suggests several important considerations for future
programs. These lessons include the limitations of direct transfer of agricultural technology,
the difficulty and importance of information and technology transfer among developing
countries, and the artificially low milk prices common in developing countries. Failure to
address these issues may create serious obstacles to the successful introduction of
sustainable productivity improvements. In the past, failure to address these issues has in ome
cases harmed the economic welfare of rural peoples and created distrust of new technologies.
These issues are discussed below, and are summarized with other more site-specific barriers
in Exhibit 5-11.
-------
5-30
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
Exhibit 5-10
Estimates of Potential Economically Viable Reductions in Methane Emissions from
Cattle and Buffalo
Country
CIS/E.Europe
India
United States2
China
Bangladesh
Tanzania
Others
TOTAL
Estimated
Emissions
fTg/yr)1
7.5- 12.5
7.2 - 12.0
4.4-6.6
3.5 -5.9
0.6 - 1.2
0.4-0.6
38 - 62
50-82
Near Term
Reductions {Tg/yr}
Tg/yr
up to 1
0.8 - 1.2
up to 1
0.5 -0.7
0.1
0.1
2-6
4- 10
%
5 - 10
5 - 10
~ 25
10- 15
10 - 15
15-20
5- 10
~ 10
Longer Term
Reductions (Tg/yr)
Tg/yr
over 1
1.2 - 2.5
over 1
0.7- 1.5
0.2-0.3
0.1 -0.2
6- 12
10- 19
%
5 - 15
1 5 - 20
~ 25
20- 25
25 -30
25 -35
15-20
20 - 25
1 These estimates are for cattle and buffalo only.
2 Estimates being developed in USEPA (1992), "Options for Reducing Methane Emissions in the United
States."
First, direct transfer of agricultural technology to developing countries from industrialized
countries has often created problems rather than solutions. For example, past programs
focused on increasing animal productivity through the introduction of high energy feed grains
and specialized breeds, which was simply not feasible over the long term in many areas.
Developing countries, especially in tropical regions, are not capable of producing highly
nutritious feed grains and forages such as those produced relatively inexpensively in
industrialized nations. In addition, many countries do not have the financial means to
purchase the inputs necessary to maintain production levels attained by the specialized dairy
and beef herds of western countries. The conditions which supported the evolution of this
specialization either do not exist or are extremely difficult to reproduce and maintain in most
developing countries.
Furthermore, the introduction of exotic breeds of cattle to tropical countries may have resulted
in the neglect of better adapted, disease-resistant indigenous breeds. Also, temperate breeds
can be physically stressed by tropical climate, decreasing productivity and increasing calving
intervals. It has been suggested that, instead of importing technologies directly, developing
countries should import sound scientific principles to be used in research and development of
local technologies (Preston and Leng, 1987). In general, caution should be exercised when
attempting to transfer non-indigenous technologies and practices to developing countries.
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5-31
Exhibit 5-11
Key Barriers and Possible Responses - Ruminant Livestock
Key Barriers
Possible Responses
Information Issues
Lack of knowledge about ruminant methane and
animal productivity on part of government
officials, extension personnel, and producers
Institutional capabilities are weak at the
extension level
Appropriate literature is lacking for farmers with
varying levels of literacy
Lack of awareness of potential production
benefits on part of funding agencies
Provide information to countries on potential
benefits, resources, appropriate policies,
technologies, etc.
Provide information to international development
and lending agencies about benefits of ruminant
methane reduction efforts
Conduct training of extension personnel
Develop range of texts for farmers
Technical Issues
Access to remote and small-scale farms is
difficult
Limited infrastructure for development,
production, and dissemination of technologies
Limited availability of land for production of
improved forages and feed supplement inputs
Inadequate field-testing of technologies; past
problems of improper application
Supplement formulation often does not address
specific deficiencies
Genetic improvement of production is hampered
by poor nutrition
Improve extension services through training,
increased mobility, and closer contact with
producers
Match technologies to existing infrastructure
and level of development within region
Maximize efficient use of existing resources,
including agro-industrial byproducts, crop
residues, and marginal land cultivation
Ensure field testing, and proper use of
technologies
Conduct forage analyses as part of project
assessments to determine nutritional imbalances
Sociocultural Issues
In many cultures, numbers of animals are more
important than liveweight
Religion and cultural factors may prohibit
slaughter of animals
Extension programs may facilitate
communication with men, while ignoring women
who play important roles in livestock
management
Address the role of women directly in project
development
Maintain an awareness of sociocultural factors
and their impact on project development
Financial Issues
Lack of capital for investment in feed processing
facilities and other infrastructure and resource
improvements
Livestock traditionally kept as savings and
security, not production; reduced incentive for
increasing productivity
Direct economic incentives lacking for draft
animals
Artificially low milk prices
Raise awareness on part of international
development agencies and other sources of
capital
Encourage development of economically feasible
projects; emphasize economic sustainability
Use multi-purpose animals, increasing value of
animals
Inform farmers of the benefits of managing
animals for increased production; develop
markets
-------
5 - 32 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
Second, the sharing of successful technologies and practices among developing countries is
often constrained by language barriers and poor communication infrastructure. This is in
contrast to the rapid transfer of technology between industrialized nations, aided by good
communication, competitive open markets for both products and inputs, as well as
infrastructural, environmental, economic and sociocultural similarities. Technology transfer
among developing countries is also much less common than the direct transfer of agricultural
technology from North to South. The creation of regional livestock research and information
centers could perform the valuable function of allowing developing countries with similar
economic situations, environmental conditions, and feed and animal resources, to freely share
locally-developed technologies and ideas, thus expanding the potential for adoption of new
technologies within a region.
Third, the price of milk in developing countries is often very low, both reducing the incentive
to produce milk, and limiting the income which small-scale milk producers could use to invest
in production inputs. Often, countries strictly control the price of their locally produced milk
to make it more available to poor people. Also, inexpensive imports from western countries
marketed in developing countries compete with locally produced milk, keeping prices low.
Deregulation of milk prices and an assessment of imports would allow prices to increase and
would stimulate domestic production. Higher milk prices would provide an economic stimulus
and the financial means to increase the efficiency of production, resulting in a reduction of
methane per unit of feed consumed.
In addition to these more general obstacles, there are numerous barriers which may affect
individual programs on a site-specific basis. These might include weak in-country institutional
capabilities, limited access to rural regions, limited infrastructure, a lack of product markets,
and severely limited potential feed resources. In addition, financial and sociocultural issues
can often be key barriers to development programs.
In light of these potential barriers, criteria can be outlined for selecting regions where
increased implementation of technologies in the near term is likely to be most successful.
These regions should have large numbers of ruminants, a high percentage of which are raised
to produce marketable products, but where typical animal diets limit animal productivity.
Infrastructure, available resources, and product demand must be such that there is no major
missing or weak link in the chain of production, from feed sources and supplement raw
materials, to feed processing, local markets, collection and storage, processing, delivery, and
final consumption. Furthermore, near-term programs will be most successful where there are
nearby institutions with experienced agricultural extension programs.
Specific programs to improve animal productivity and reduce methane emissions will involve
conducting regional and local feasibility studies, followed by designing and implementing
technology demonstration and extension projects. Extension projects would be backed up by
research at local institutions as well as by "village based" research of appropriate
technologies. Eventually, these types of options are expected to be financially self-sustaining,
although funding and organizational support from external sources could facilitate
demonstration and pilot projects, and catalyze technology adoption. Investments in education
and research are long-term options that would increase the expertise of future policy planners
and livestock specialists. The components of a program to reduce methane emissions from
ruminant livestock are described below, and summarized in Exhibit 5-12. These programs
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
5-33
would be most effective if some of the components are implemented sequentially, as indicated
in Exhibit 5-12.
Prefeasibility Studies: A prefeasibility study is a preliminary step in designing and
implementing a country program. These studies should identify potentially appropriate
methane reduction options, and assess the locally available resources, the needs for
project implementation, as well as the types of barriers and other factors which may
interfere with development. The identification of options should include an assessment
of the compatibility of project development with the country's broader development goals.
Prefeasibility studies should assess existing livestock management practices and propose
suitable pilot demonstration projects. In addition, current emissions and potential
reductions should be estimated. Prefeasibility studies may range from $50,000 to
$75,000 per country, with higher costs associated with larger countries such as India and
China, and with more detailed assessments. These studies may typically involve one
month in-country and one month of follow-up analysis.
Demonstration/Pilot Projects: Demonstration and pilot projects provide an assessment of
the potential impact, replicability, and cost of implementing options in full scale
development projects. New or improved technologies and management practices,
identified in prefeasibility studies, are first demonstrated with individual animals or small
herds. Once these management options have been adapted to local conditions, extension
pilot projects can promote proven technologies and practices in the farming community
(within a limited geographical area) in order to establish successful methods for larger
Project Type
Prefeasibility
Demonstration/Pilot
Project
Full Scale
Development
Project
Education
Research
Exhibit 5-1 2
Summary of Project Types
Phase 1 Phase II Phase III
• •••
• •••
• •••
Cost
$50-75K per project
$50-500K per country,
depending on area,
technologies and economy.
Depends on area, economy,
etc.
Varies
bman grants ?o-2oK.
-------
5 - 34 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
scale efforts. Extension pilot projects must identify and overcome any existing barriers
to program implementation. Pilot projects typically involve training for extension personnel
and project managers.
The cost of implementing pilot projects in specific countries may be $50,000 to
$500,000, but will vary considerably depending on the area covered, the particular
technologies being used, and other country and site specific conditions. Demonstration
and pilot projects may take place over 6 months to 3 years or more.
Full Scale Development Projects: Full scale development projects are designed to
introduce proven technologies throughout a wider geographical area (e.g., regional,
national as appropriate) using the extension and training methods developed in pilot
projects. These development projects should address the broader development goals of
increasing food supply and improving the welfare of rural populations. These activities
should be coordinated with both field research and research at local and regional
institutions. As with pilot projects, project costs will vary widely depending on the scope,
area, and duration, which may be several years or more. Successful development projects
will lead to the widespread adoption of effective technologies and practices.
Education: Education can play a crucial role in developing the knowledge and expertise
of local animal research scientists, project managers, and policy makers. Expanding
educational opportunities may include providing higher education for experts, developing
regional training centers for livestock specialists, study tours between other developing
countries with similar conditions, and the development of educational material suitable for
a range of literacy levels.
Research: In conjunction with increased educational opportunities, additional research is
necessary to develop and assess the impact of various feeding strategies and other
technologies and practices. This research should include quantification of productivity
gains, gains in rural living standards, and methane emissions reductions. Small research
grants may range from $5,000 to $25,000.
To be successful the projects at all levels must be supported by national policies and
institutions. In some cases this may require modifying existing agriculture and trade policies.
Assistance for the analyses of these issues and support for the development of the necessary
institutions may be warranted.
-------
RUMINANT LIVESTOCK 5 - 35
5.7 References
Ahmed, Nazir (1992), "Livestock Production and Forage Development Prospects in
Bangladesh," in Asian Livestock. Vol. XVII, No.1, January, 1992.
ATI (AT International) (1992), Assessment of the Pre-feasibilitv of Strategic Supplementation
as an Opportunity for Reducing Methane Emissions in Gujarat. India, prepared for the US
Environmental Protection Agency, Global Change Division, Washington D.C., June, 1992.
Bowman, Richard (1992), ATI, personal communication, concerning preliminary findings of
an assessment of livestock management in Tanzania, 1992.
Davis, C.H., M. Saadullah, F. Dolberg and M. Hague (1983), "Ammonia Treatment of Straw
for Cattle Production in Intensive Agrarian Agriculture," in Maximum Livestock Production
from Minimum Land - Proceedings of the 4th Seminar, Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Mymensingh, Bangladesh, 1983.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (1991), FAQ Yearbook. Food
and Agriculture Organization, 1991.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1992), Climate Change 1992: The
Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment. World Meteorological
Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, eds. J. T. Houghton, B.A. Callander and
S. K. Varney, Cambridge University Press.
Leng, R.A. (1991), Improving Ruminant Production and Reducing Methane Emissions from
Ruminants bv Strategic Supplementation, prepared for the US Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., May, 1991. EPA/400/1-91/004.
Leng, R.A. (1992), personal communication with Mark Orlic, GCD/OAR of EPA, September
1992.
Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (1992), personal communication, Mark Orlic, USEPA.
Mitra, A.P. ed. (1991), Global Change: Greenhouse Gases Emissions in India. Preliminary
Report, prepared under the auspices of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, New
Delhi, June, 1991.
Preston, J.R. and R.A. Leng (1987), Matching Ruminant Production Systems with Available
Resources in the Tropics and Sub-Tropics. Penambul Books, Australia.
Reuss, Sharren, James Ellis, Gerald Ward and David Swift (n.d.), Global Ruminant Livestock
Production Systems, prepared by the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State
University, for the US Environmental Protection Agency.
Reuss, Sharren, James Ellis, Gerald Ward and David Swift (1990), Global Ruminant Livestock
Production Systems: Estimated 1988 Methane Emissions, prepared by the Natural Resource
-------
5-36 RUMINANT LIVESTOCK
Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, for the US Environmental Protection Agency,
November, 1990.
Robson, Emma (1991). "Duckweed: A Lowly Plant Finds a Richer Role Cleansing Waste and
Creating Protein," in Source. UNDP, December, 1991.
Saadullah, M. (1991). "Importance of Urea-Molasses Block Lick and By-Pass Protein on
Animal Production," presented at the International Symposium on Nuclear and Related
Techniques in Animal Production and Health, IAEA/FAO, Vienna, Austria, April 15-19, 1991.
Soiled, A.E. and M.J. Walters (1992), Reducing Ruminant Methane Emissions in China.
prepared for the US Environmental Protection Agency, Global Change Division, Washington
D.C., June, 1992.
USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (1993a), Options for Reducing
Methane Emissions Internationally. Volume I: Technological Options for Reducing Methane
Emissions, report to Congress in preparation, USEPA/OAR (Office of Air and Radiation).
USEPA (1993b), Anthropogenic Methane Emissions in the United States Report to Congress,
prepared by USEPA/OAR, Washington, D.C.
USEPA (1993c), Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane: Report to Congress, (in
progress), EPA/OPPE (Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation), Washington, D.C.
-------
CHAPTER Six
OTHER SOURCES
6.1 Introduction
In many countries, there is potential to reduce methane emissions from sources in addition
to the ones discussed in other chapters of this report. These sources include livestock
manure, wastewater management, rice cultivation, biomass burning, and fossil fuel
combustion. For some of these sources, knowledge of reduction options and country-specific
data are relatively limited. In these cases, potential reductions are difficult to quantify and are
likely to be achieved over a longer timeframe. A number of reduction options exist for some
sources which have proven technically and economically feasible, however, and others are
being researched, developed, and demonstrated and should be available in the future.
The magnitude of current annual emissions of methane from these sources is uncertain. Best
emissions estimates to date are summarized in Exhibit 6-1.
Exhibit 6-1
Global Annual Methane Emissions from Various Sources
Emissions Source
Livestock manure8
Wastewater management
Rice cultivation15
Biomass burning15
Fossil fuel combustion8
Emissions Estimates
(Tg/yr)
10 - 18
20- 25
20-150
20 -80
2-3
Proven Reduction
Options
yes
yes
no
no
yes
a USEPA, 1993b
b IPCC, 1990b; IPCC, 1992
Potential emission reductions vary for each of these sources, and depend to a large extent on
the magnitude of the emission source and the conditions and types of operations in each
country. The economic viability of each reduction option is also dependent on many country-
specific variables.
These emissions estimates are based, where possible, on the Report to Congress Global Anthropogenic
Emissions of Methane, which is still in preparation. Emission estimates will likely change as this report
is finalized.
-------
6 - 2 OTHER SOURCES
This chapter briefly describes the options for reducing global methane emissions from these
five sources. Each section contains the following information:
discussion of methane emissions;
outline of available options for reducing emissions;
regional potential;
benefits provided by methane reduction options; and
types of actions to promote or identify economically viable reduction options.
For each source, regions with the highest potential for large reductions are identified, along
with possible actions which could assist in reduction efforts. These actions include:
improved assessments of methane sources and emissions reduction potential;
technology transfer and demonstration of key technologies and practices;
information transfer and training;
development of funding mechanisms; and
assistance in policy development.
6.2 Livestock Manure
Methane Emissions
Methane is produced during the anaerobic decay of organic material in livestock manure.
Current estimates of methane emissions from livestock manure worldwide range from 10 to
18 teragrams (Tg) per year (approximately 2 to 5 percent of global annual anthropogenic
methane emissions). Three animal groups account for more than 80 percent of total
emissions: swine account for about 40 percent; non-dairy cattle account for about 20 percent;
and dairy cattle account for about 20 percent (USEPA, 1993b).
Manure management systems which promote anaerobic conditions produce the most
methane. In particular, these include liquid/slurry storage systems, pit storage systems, and
anaerobic lagoons. While a relatively small percentage of livestock manure worldwide is
managed in this manner, these types of systems are responsible for about 60 percent of
global livestock manure methane emissions (USEPA, 1993b). In contrast, management
techniques which involve contact of the manure with air (e.g., uncollected on the range or
spread directly on crops or pastureland) have limited methane production potential.
The precise amount of methane emitted from livestock manure is determined by many factors.
These include:
• quantity of manure;
• characteristics of manure (percentage of volatile solids);
• biodegradability of manure;
• management practices (e.g., degree of anaerobic conditions, water content); and
• climatic variables (e.g., temperature, moisture).
-------
OTHER SOURCES
6-3
The estimated distribution of regional worldwide emissions, taking into account the above
factors, is summarized in Exhibit 6-2. Three regions are estimated to account for nearly 90
percent of emissions from livestock manure: Europe; Asia and the Far East; and North
America. While current estimates indicate that developed countries account for the largest
percentage of total methane emissions, emissions from developing countries are substantial,
and their share of emissions is expected to rise along with industrialization and population
growth (USEPA, 1993b; Safley et al, 1992).
Exhibit 6-2
Global Methane Emissions from Livestock Manure
Region
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
Oceania
Latin America
Africa
Near East and Medit.
Asia and Far East
North America
WORLD
Emissions (Tg/yr)
2.3-3.9
2.0 - 3.5
0.2 - 0.4
0.7 - 1.1
0.2-0.4
0.2 - 0.4
2.9-4.9
1.7-2.9
10- 18
% World Emissions
22
20
2
6
2
2
28
17
100
Source: USEPA, 1993b
Emission Reduction Opportunities
The potential for reducing methane emissions from livestock manure in different regions
depends on several factors, the most important of which are the characteristics of existing
manure management systems (e.g., percent total solids in manure, and storage/handling
practices). Other factors include climatic and economic conditions, as well as technical and
regulatory factors, and the varied needs of the livestock farmers for developing biogas as an
energy resource and/or slurry as a fertilizer.
Methane recovery technologies have been successfully used and demonstrated under a variety
of conditions. These technologies are designed to improve anaerobic decomposition and
methane recovery and, when introduced in areas generating large amounts of methane, have
been shown to reduce emissions by up to 70 or 80 percent (USEPA, 1993a). The available
technologies are described in USEPA (1993a), discussed below, and summarized in Exhibit
6-3.
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OTHER SOURCES 6 - 5
Covered Lagoons: Covered lagoons store manure along with the large quantities of water
used to wash the manure solids out of livestock housing facilities. The manure is treated
under anaerobic conditions, resulting in the production of significant amounts of methane,
which is recovered using impermeable floating lagoon covers and the application of
negative pressure. The methane generated from these systems is often sufficient for the
energy needs of large scale, intensive farm operations common in developed countries.
Because their technology and capital needs are relatively low, covered lagoons may also
be appropriate for some farm operations in developing countries, especially those which
need the high quality liquid fertilizer that lagoons produce. The use of lagoons in arid
regions, however, may be constrained by their high water requirements.
Small Scale Digesters: Digesters are designed to enhance the anaerobic decomposition
of organic material and to maximize methane production and recovery. Small scale
digesters typically require a small amount of manure and are relatively simple to build and
operate. As such, they are an appropriate strategy for small to medium confined or semi-
confined farm operations. These digesters are also well-suited for regions with technical,
capital, and material resource constraints, and have already met with great success in
countries such as China and India (United Nations, 1984; see Exhibit 6-4). The digesters
offer additional benefits in agricultural regions where manure is currently burned for fuel,
as the generated methane is a cleaner and more efficient fuel. In addition, digested
manure retains its fertilizer value, which is important due to increasing prices for artificial
fertilizers in many areas. Small scale digesters generally operate well with manure
containing 7 to 15 percent total solids and, as they are not heated, are most appropriate
in temperate and tropical areas. Three common types of these digesters include the fixed
dome, floating gas holder, and flexible bag.
Larger Scale Digesters: These digesters are also designed to enhance anaerobic
decomposition and maximize methane recovery, but have larger capacities and are often
more technologically advanced. They are generally heated, and can operate in relatively
cold regions. Because larger scale digesters require greater capital investment, are more
complex to build and operate, and require large concentrations of manure, they are best
suited for large livestock operations in industrialized countries. These technologies are
especially suitable at operations which handle manure as liquids (less than 10 percent
solids) or slurry (10 to 20 percent solids). The type of digester used (e.g., complete mix
or plug flow) depends on the manure quantity and characteristics.
The potential for reducing methane emissions from livestock manure depends mainly upon the
current manure management practices in an area, with the greatest potential in areas where
manure is managed anaerobically in liquid or slurry form or stored over time as a solid.
Substantial opportunities for methane reduction likely exist in developed countries. Eastern
Europe, Western Europe, and North America contribute about 60 percent of global emissions
from this source. Livestock in these regions are often managed in confined areas, with some
method for collecting and managing the resultant concentrated quantities of manure. Much
of the manure in these regions is either handled in liquid systems (25 to 75 percent of many
types of manure) or stored as a solid (USEPA, 1993b; Safley et al, 1992). Although
technologies for methane recovery are available, only small amounts of methane are currently
recovered for use. The most promising methane recovery technologies for these regions are
larger scale digesters and covered lagoons.
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6 - 6 OTHER SOURCES
The specific regional opportunities to reduce methane emissions through expanded methane
recovery and utilization in developed countries are summarized below:
Eastern Europe: Due to this region's current emissions of 2 to 3.5 Tg per year (20 percent
of world emissions), there is large methane reduction potential in Eastern Europe. The
methane recovery potential is also high because most livestock are managed in
confinement, and substantial amounts of manure are handled in liquid systems (about 10
to 40 percent of non-dairy cattle, poultry and swine manure). Substantial amounts of
manure are also stored as solids (USEPA, 1993b; Safley et al., 1992). In addition, many
Eastern European countries are interested in developing new, clean-burning domestic
energy sources to displace low-quality coal and imported natural gas. Electricity
generation with recovered methane could thus be extremely economically viable for farm
operations.
Western Europe: This region also offers potential for methane reduction, as current
emissions are about 2.3 to 3.9 Tg per year (22 percent of world emissions) and large
amounts of manure are managed as liquids (about 50 percent of cattle and 75 percent of
swine manure) (USEPA, 1993b). In addition, ground and surface water pollution and odor
problems have raised concern about livestock manure management in many parts of
Western Europe. This concern, compounded by the dearth of cropland for spreading
manure, has resulted in longer storage times for the manure (Safley et al., 1992).
Promoting energy recovery from digesters and covered lagoons could solve the
environmental and odor problems while providing an extra energy source for farm
operations.
North America: Large methane reduction potential exists in this region due to the current
emissions of about 1.7 to 2.9 Tg per year (17 percent of world emissions). In addition,
about 33 percent of manure from dairy cattle and 75 percent of swine manure in this
region is handled in liquid systems (USEPA, 1993b; Safley et al., 1992). Implementing
improved management and methane recovery techniques could result in a number of
benefits, including odor control, improved ground and surface water quality, and energy
production.
Oceania: Methane emissions from livestock manure in Australia, New Zealand and other
countries in this region are estimated to be about 0.2 to 0.4 Tg per year or 2 percent of
world emissions from this source (USEPA, 1993b). In a number of swine operations in
this region, a large fraction of manure is already managed in anaerobic lagoons.
Recovering and utilizing the methane generated from these operations could result in
substantial environmental and economic benefits to the area. Limited potential exists,
however, for the large populations of non-confined sheep raised in this region.
Developing countries, in contrast, are generally characterized by few livestock confinement
facilities and little concentrated manure production. The majority of the livestock manure in
these regions decomposes on the range, producing little methane and offering limited potential
for implementing recovery technologies.
Certain types of livestock manure do, however, offer some potential for methane recovery in
some developing countries. Confined management practices are used in some instances, and
certain types of livestock manure (e.g., swine and poultry) are managed as liquids or in solid
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OTHER SOURCES 6 - 7
storage. These areas of potential methane production are likely to expand in the future,
increasing the benefits of introducing available recovery technologies in these regions now.
A lesser area of potential methane reduction may exist in areas characterized by small-scale,
semi-confined livestock operations. Although manure managed under these conditions
accounts for relatively small methane emissions, the use of recovery techniques is possible
and could result in substantial other benefits for the farmers involved.
The most suitable methane recovery technologies for each area should be chosen according
to many factors, and certain technologies (e.g., small scale digesters and covered lagoons)
are likely to be more appropriate for developing regions. Current opportunities for methane
recovery and utilization may exist in the following areas:
Asia and the Far East: The majority of livestock manure-related methane emissions from
developing countries is likely released from Asia and the Far East (about 2.9 to 4.9 Tg per
year or 28 percent of world emissions). About 55 percent of this methane is emitted from
liquid/slurry systems and anaerobic lagoons (USEPA, 1993b), which are chiefly used to
manage dairy cattle and swine manure. Some solid storage systems, used for non-dairy
cattle and swine manure, may also offer potential for methane recovery. In addition, this
region is characterized by a large number of semi-confined family operations.
Achieving widespread acceptance of methane recovery technologies may be possible in
Asia and the Far East because of the relative scarcity of other types of fuel, and because
biogas produced by digesters is a more efficient form of fuel than the dried manure patties
commonly used in the region. For this reason, a number of biogas digesters have already
been introduced in the region (see Exhibit 6-4). Since these digesters represent only a
small percentage of farms in most of these countries, there is substantial potential to
expand the use of digester technologies, as well as to increase the number of existing
digesters in use by improving operation and maintenance practices.
Latin America: Methane emissions from livestock manure in Latin America are estimated
to be about 0.7 to 1.1 Tg per year (6 percent of world emissions); this region supports
about one third of the world's cattle population and 20 percent of the world's swine.
Although most livestock manure in the region is currently deposited on pasture and
rangelands, methane recovery potential exists in some countries, including Brazil, where
ten percent of the manure from swine operations is managed in liquid systems and
anaerobic lagoons are used in some poultry operations. In addition, half of Latin America's
swine manure is managed in solid storage, and are thus feasible candidates for digester
technologies (Safley et al., 1992). These technologies are already available in Brazil, and
their use could be expanded.
Africa: Although methane emissions from livestock manure in Africa are only about 0.3
Tg per year (2 percent of world emissions) and most cattle manure is deposited on the
range, potential for methane recovery exists from swine manure, which is managed either
as a liquid or in solid storage (USEPA, 1993b; Safley et al., 1992). Potential also exists
in South Africa, where conditions differ from those in the rest of Africa because large
numbers of both cattle and swine are managed under confined conditions, and much of
their manure is stored as a solid.
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6-8
OTHER SOURCES
Exhibit 6-4
Biogas Digesters in Asia and the Far East
Country
China
India
North Korea
South Korea
Thailand
Pakistani
Nepal
Number Built
7,000,000
700,000
50,000
31,400
7,500
4,000
1,600
Number in Us*
over 4,500,000
525,000
37,500
1 1 ,470
5,625
3,000
1,200
Source: Safley et al., 1992
The Benefits of Emissions Reduction
The livestock manure management strategies discussed above can result in important
benefits, in addition to reducing methane emissions to the atmosphere. Recovered methane
from livestock manure can be used to generate electricity for sale or on-site use, and the
slurry remaining after digestion can be utilized as livestock feed, an aquacultural supplement,
or fertilizer. These benefits can increase the self-sufficiency of farms of all sizes. The
techniques discussed above can also reduce environmental and health risks, such as ground
and surface water contamination or eutrophication from manure runoff, and the spread of
pathogens and diseases. Finally, anaerobic decomposition virtually eliminates odors from
livestock manure.
Identifying and Promoting Emission Reductions
Domestic energy sources are frequently the cheapest ones to develop and are an intrinsic part
of every country's efforts to reduce energy supply costs, as well as a potentially important
means of achieving greater energy independence. The events of the 1970's reminded many
countries of their vulnerability to external shocks, due to their dependence on imported oil,
and many countries have been seeking greater control over the supply and cost of energy as
a matter of national security (Baum and Tolbert, 1985). The livestock and agricultural sectors
are closely tied to these energy issues. For example, the production of crops, grains, meat,
and milk are primarily based on fossil energy resources (e.g., mechanical energy from diesel
and gasoline fuels); electrical energy (e.g., from coal, nuclear, lower grade liquid fuels, and
natural gas) is the primary ingredient for commercial fertilizer manufacturing.
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OTHER SOURCES 6 - 9
The livestock and agricultural sectors can potentially be large contributors to energy
development efforts. The resource potential of livestock manure offers a promising alternative
to fossil fuels, through the use of proper anaerobic treatment processes and technologies that
recover and utilize methane for on-farm energy. This energy potential and many other
benefits offer large incentives for developed and developing countries to promote the
widespread use of the livestock manure management systems discussed in this chapter.
While international transfer and development programs could greatly increase the
understanding and use of these energy systems, it is important for such programs to be
appropriately designed and implemented. During an international effort to promote manure
management systems in the mid-1970's in numerous countries (Exhibit 6-5), only China and
India achieved significant success in transferring sustainable technologies. Many failed efforts
may have resulted from insufficient consideration of local variables (e.g., management
practices, economic limitations, energy needs, and educational level) in identifying the
technologies appropriate to meet the needs of livestock farmers. In many cases, technical
designs were chosen based on their success in other regions of the world, and replicated at
government or university-owned farms. These types of farms were often not representative
of typical farms in the country, which did not have the resources or experience to successfully
introduce complex technologies. In addition, much of the infrastructure essential to promote
the widespread use of these technologies was never established. Some essential mechanisms
include: locally available expertise in design, construction, and maintenance of the systems;
effective communication methods between the project implementation teams and farmers, in
order to promote and evaluate technology; and networks for distributing goods, services, and
information. The lessons learned from this international effort can be used to develop some
important guidelines in designing high-impact programs for key countries, with long-term
sustainability. The components of a program to reduce methane emissions from livestock
manure are described below, and summarized in Exhibit 6-6. These programs would be most
effective if implemented sequentially in phases, as indicated in Exhibit 6-6.
Prefeasibility Studies: As a first step in the development of a country program, these
studies should identify typical livestock manure management practices (solid or liquid)
across various farm sizes for swine, dairy and poultry. The compilation of information on
climatic conditions in targeted areas, farm energy sources, and available construction
materials and expertise across farm types will also be helpful. Prefeasibility studies should
include market analyses, surveys, and meetings with livestock producers to evaluate
potential demand for new technologies. The cost of such studies may range from
$50,000 to $75,000 per country, depending on the size of the country and the level of
detail in the assessments. These studies may typically involve one month in-country and
one month of follow-up analysis.
Demonstration/Pilot Projects: Demonstration and pilot projects provide an assessment of
the potential impact, replicability, and cost of implementing options in full scale
development projects. Technology demonstrations, performed at individual sites, help to
identify the best project design for a site or region in terms of costs, benefits, construction
materials and energy requirements, daily manure input, climatic conditions, farm
management practices, and available markets. Following the demonstration projects,
evaluations should be conducted at each site, with the participation of livestock producers,
to assess the larger impact of each project. Extension pilot projects can then be
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6- 10
OTHER SOURCES
implemented to promote proven technologies and practices in the farming community and
to establish successful methods for larger scale efforts.
Exhibit 6-5
Countries Adopting Biogas Promotional Programs (1970-1980)
Asia and Pacific Region
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Burma
China
India
Indonesia
Iran
Japan
Korea
Laos
Malaysia
Nepal
Pakistan
Papua New
Guinea
Philippines
Singapore
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Latin America
Argentina
Brazil
Chile
Columbia
Costa Rica
Guatemala
Mexico
Peru
Trinidad and Tobago
European and Other Countries
Austria
Belgium
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
France
Germany
Hungary
Italy
Poland
Spain
Switzerland
Russia
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland
United States
Source: United Nations, 1984.
Exhibit 6-6
Summary of Project Types
Project Type
Prefeasibility
Demonstration/Pilot
Project
Full Scale
Development
Project
Education
Research
Phase i Phase II Phase III
• •••
• •••
• •••
Cost
$50-75K per country
$50-500K per country,
depending on climate, livestock
density, and energy needs
Depends on climate, livestock
density, numbers of farms, and
energy needs
Varies
Small grants $5-25K
The cost of implementing demonstration and pilot projects in specific countries may range
from $50,000 to $500,000, depending on the climate, farm-specific livestock density, and
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OTHER SOURCES 6-11
energy needs. Demonstration and pilot projects may take place over 6 months to 3 years
or more.
Full Scale Development Projects: Full scale development projects are designed to
introduce locally proven technologies throughout a wide geographical area, using extension
and training methods developed in pilot projects. These projects should address the
broader development goals of enhancing the supply of fertilizer and improving the welfare
of rural populations. These goals can be pursued through the expanded development of
indigenous end-use technologies (e.g., locally manufactured generator sets, refrigerators,
lights, etc.). As with pilot projects, program costs will vary widely depending on climate,
farm specific livestock density, numbers of farms targeted, energy needs, and duration,
which may be several years or more.
Education: Education can play an important role in developing the knowledge and
expertise of local farmers, agricultural engineers, and policy makers. Efforts to expand
educational opportunities may include creating regional centers for training in manure
management, and developing broader educational materials on system benefits and
product utilization. In addition, programs may include the development of an international
network for the effective transfer of scientific, technical, and economic information.
Education program costs will vary widely depending on the types and scope of program
activities.
Research: In conjunction with increased educational opportunities, additional research is
necessary to lower the costs and improve the performance of technologies in applicable
areas, and to develop and improve on effluent applications in agricultural systems (e.g.,
aquaculture, enhancing fertilizer quality). Small research grants may range from $5,000
to $25,000.
6.3 Wastewater Management
Methane Emissions
Wastewater and sludge, its residual solids byproduct, produce methane emissions if they are
stored or treated under anaerobic conditions (in the absence of oxygen). In some cases this
methane is flared, but in others the gases produced are released to the atmosphere. Although
data are very limited, current global estimates of methane emissions from the management
of residential, commercial and industrial liquid and water-carried wastes range from 20 to 25
teragrams (Tg) per year (based on calculations of the organic content of wastewater in
different regions). The majority of these methane emissions originate in developing countries,
where domestic sewage and industrial waste streams are often unmanaged or maintained
under anaerobic conditions without control of the methane (Bartone, 1992). These emissions
are expected to increase with population growth.
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6-12 OTHER SOURCES
Emission Reduction Opportunities
Methane emissions can be virtually eliminated if wastewater and sludge are stored and treated
under aerobic conditions. Alternatively, wastewater can be treated under anaerobic conditions
and the generated methane can be captured and used as a fuel or flared, preventing its release
to the atmosphere. The following methane reduction technologies are in widespread use, and
are described in greater detail in USEPA (1992b):
Prevention of Methane Production During Wastewater Treatment and Sludge Disposal:
Options for this strategy include aerobic primary and secondary treatment, and land
treatment. Aerobic primary wastewater treatment is achieved by sustaining sufficient
oxygen levels during the primary phase of wastewater treatment (i.e., in oxidation ponds
or in primary ponds in treatment plants), using controlled organic loading techniques or
providing oxygen to the wastes through mechanical aeration. Aerobic secondary
treatment consists of stabilizing wastewater by prolonging its exposure to aerobic
microorganisms which are either suspended (due to mechanical aeration) or attached to
a fixed bed or a rotating cylinder. Finally, land treatment involves applying wastewater
to the upper layer or the surface of soil, which acts as a natural filter and breaks down the
organic constituents in the wastewater.
Recovery and Utilization of Methane from Anaerobic Digestion of Wastewater or Sludge:
This is an alternative to preventing methane production. If the wastes are treated
(digested) under controlled anaerobic conditions, the resulting emissions of methane and
other gases can be recovered and utilized as an energy source to heat the wastewater or
sludge digestion tank, produce power in other parts of the plant, or sell to nearby homes,
industrial plants or utilities. Flares are frequently used as part of these operations to
dispose of excess methane.
The largest potential for reducing current emissions from wastewater and sludge may exist
in developing countries. Although very little specific data exists on wastewater management
in these regions, it appears that in many areas up to 60 percent of municipal wastewater is
unmanaged (Escritt, 1984; Bartone, 1992). In addition, much of the managed wastewater
receives only partial treatment, and the wastes are often stored under anaerobic conditions.
Despite a widespread awareness of the health risks caused by poorly-managed waste
streams, many countries lack the resources with which to build treatment infrastructure. Two
broad options for assisting in the reduction of this source of methane are discussed below.
Promote and Assist in the Development of Comprehensive Wastewater Management
Policies, Infrastructure and Treatment Systems: In areas where no wastewater treatment
systems exist, assistance could include policy development, funding and technological aid
for the development of municipal collection and drainage systems, construction of
municipal and industrial wastewater and sludge treatment facilities, and operation training
programs. For areas with wastewater treatment systems in place, assistance could
include promoting the improvement or expansion of existing facilities, and the
development of methane recovery and use technologies. This option may be most
appropriate for large cities and densely populated areas, where the large quantities of
waste will justify such efforts.
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OTHER SOURCES 6-13
An additional incentive for these efforts may be provided by the increasing amount of
responsibility placed on industries for treating and disposing of industrial wastewater in
many countries (e.g., China, Colombia) (Maber, 1992). In these cases, demonstrating the
economic viability of recovering and utilizing methane could benefit the industries while
preventing methane emissions.
Assist in the Design and Development of Smaller-scale, Community Wastewater
Management Systems: Small communities, where domestic wastes are often washed into
streams or allowed to collect in gutters, latrines or ponds, may account for a large part of
methane emissions from developing countries. While complex treatment systems may not
be feasible in such areas, smaller scale projects designed to divert wastestreams into
designated ponds and maintain aerobic or facultative (aerobic in the upper layers)
conditions could reduce both methane emissions and health risks. Additional incentives
for such projects may include reduced odors and the potential for using stabilized sludge
as fertilizer.
Potential economic benefits may also exist for constructing small-scale digesters. In India,
for example, community digestion tanks are used to stabilize domestic wastes, with the
methane providing energy to heat and light households and the digested sludge providing
fertilizer for the community (Escritt, 1984). International technology transfer programs
and additional funding could assist in the widespread expansion of such technologies.
While many developed countries (e.g., the U.S., most of western Europe, and Japan), utilize
advanced wastewater management systems and release little methane to the atmosphere
from these activities, the following strategies may have some potential for further reducing
emissions in these areas.
Expand Management Infrastructure to Serve Entire Population: Some regions and
population segments in developed countries may not be served by regulated waste
management infrastructures. The expansion of treatment systems to these regions could
potentially result in decreased methane emissions, as well as providing the benefits of
improved wastewater management.
Improve Operation of Existing Aerobic Treatment Facilities: Many communities depend
on aerobic or facultative oxidation ponds for primary treatment of wastewater; these
ponds tend to become partly or completely anaerobic if overloaded with wastes. Efforts
to reduce methane emissions could include the promotion of techniques to ensure aerobic
conditions, such as adjusting waste inflows, following proper loading techniques or
utilizing mechanical aeration.
Increase Utilization of Methane from Anaerobic Digestion Facilities: A large part of the
methane generated is not utilized because of the impurities and/or relatively low energy
value of the gas, or because of the absence of storage or use facilities. Most of this
methane is flared (burned off) and not released to the atmosphere, and it represents a
wasted energy source. Efforts to increase rates of methane use could make advanced
digestion systems more economically viable, thus avoiding greenhouse gas emissions from
conventional power generation systems.
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6 -14 OTHER SOURCES
The Benefits of Emissions Reductions
In addition to reducing the amount of methane which is released to the atmosphere,
wastewater management and treatment techniques can result in a variety of environmental,
health-related and economic benefits, including the following:
• reduction in the risk of water-borne diseases (Loehr, 1984) such as hepatitis,
giardiasis, cholera, etc;2
• reduced eutrophication of receiving waters, which can be caused by high levels of
phosphorus and/or nitrogen;
• production of valuable methane from anaerobic digestion;
• elimination of odors from standing wastewater; and
• production of treated wastewater and sludge for various uses (e.g., recharging ground
water, irrigation, soil enrichment, production of potting mixes and topsoil, turf
production and maintenance, reclamation of disturbed lands).
Identifying and Promoting Emission Reductions
Some potential actions to promote the use of suitable technologies for reducing methane
emissions from wastewater management include:
Country Planning Studies: Country-specific research could help to determine the most
favorable combination of wastewater management options for each region. Strategies
could be developed based on the location of the operation, the quantity and characteristics
of the waste, the degree of treatment required, environmental and health factors, and
technical and economic feasibility.
Policy Assistance: Assistance may be useful to facilitate the implementation of policies
aimed at developing comprehensive wastewater management systems in regions without
existing infrastructure, and improving existing wastewater treatment systems. Policy
assistance may also be effective for setting minimum treatment standards for wastewater
and sludge, and assigning responsibility for their treatment.
Technology Transfer: The transfer and demonstration of efficient wastewater and sludge
treatment technologies to countries with potential for reductions could facilitate the
widespread adoption of these technologies.
2 In 1991 there reportedly were 594,694 cases and 19,295 deaths worldwide due to cholera (WHO, 1992).
Recent statistics indicate that annual incidence of hepatitis A infection range from about 113,000 to 564,000
cases in industrial countries and about 2,056,000 to 12,386,000 cases in developing and Eastern European
countries (WHO, 1993).
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OTHER SOURCES 6-15
Information Transfer and Training: The transfer of information regarding domestic
wastewater and sludge management needs and international treatment practices could
facilitate the introduction of management techniques and the development of beneficial
projects. Training could also be provided to government and technical personnel in regions
adopting new technologies for the construction, operation and maintenance of wastewater
and sludge treatment systems, and assessing the most suitable treatment options.
Financing: International assistance may be useful for financing the demonstration of
wastewater and sludge treatment systems, and providing the initial capital for constructing
facilities in many countries.
6.4 RICE CULTIVATION
Methane Emissions
Wetland rice cultivation is likely the largest anthropogenic source of methane. Current
estimates of methane emissions from flooded rice fields worldwide range from 20 to 150 Tg
per year, accounting for up to 20 percent of global methane emissions from all sources (IPCC,
1992). Emissions from rice fields may increase by 20 percent in the next decade, as cropping
areas are expanded and cultivation is intensified to meet production demands which are
increasing along with population growth (IPCC, 1990b).
Most of the methane associated with rice cultivation is produced in irrigated and rainfed
wetland rice fields, which comprise over 75 percent of the area of global cultivated rice fields.
Neither dry upland rice fields nor deepwater rice are believed to produce significant amounts
of methane. Because 90 percent of worldwide rice production occurs in Asia (Braatz and
Hogan, 1991), this region accounts for the majority of methane emissions from rice
cultivation. Estimates of regional distributions of rice croplands are summarized in Exhibit 6-7.
The emission of methane from rice fields is a very complex process. Methane is produced in
the soils of flooded rice fields during the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials. The
methane which is not oxidized (in the upper layers of soil or inside the plant itself) is released
into the atmosphere by plant-mediated transport or diffusion through the flood water. The
amount of methane which is released is affected by the following factors:
• soil factors (temperature, pH, redox potential);
• nutrient management;
• water regimes; and
• cultivation practices.
Current estimates of global methane emissions are based on laboratory studies and
measurements from individual rice fields which have been extrapolated to a global scale. The
numbers are highly uncertain, as very little data has been available from Asia, where most of
the world's rice is produced.
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6- 16
OTHER SOURCES
Exhibit 6-7
Global Rice Cultivation in Key Regions
Region
East Asia8
Southeast Asiab
South Asia0
South/Central Amer.,
Caribbean, USA
Africa
World
Irrigated
(10* ha)
34.0
13.9
19.4
2.5
0.9
73.8
Rainfed
{1O* ha)
2.8
13.7
20.0
0.5
1.95
39.0
Deep Water
HO6 ha)
—
3.75
7.3
0.4
~
11.5
Upland
(10* ha)
~
4.65
6.7
5.65
2.7
19.7
Total
Area
(106 ha)
36.8
36.0
53.4
9.2
5.45
142.9
Sources: FAO, 1988; Mistra et al., 1986; Huke, 1982; N.N., 1987; in Braatz and Hogan, 1991
a China, Taiwan, Korea DPR, Korea Rep., Japan
b Indonesia, Laos, Kampuchea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam
c Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
Emission Reduction Opportunities
While there are currently no known options which may be routinely employed to reduce
methane emissions from rice cultivation, efforts to date have identified a number of areas for
further investigation which could reduce methane emissions from rice cultivation, while
maintaining the productivity of the rice fields (IPCC, 1990b; Braatz and Hogan, 1991). These
areas include:
Cultivar Selection: Developing rice cultivars which result in lower methane emissions may
be a feasible option, and can be practical as long as rice productivity and other desirable
characteristics are not compromised.
Nutrient Management: Research indicates that adding some nitrogen (N) fertilizers and
reducing the use of raw organic materials as fertilizer can reduce methane emissions from
rice fields. This option is especially feasible because N fertilizers are already a major
nutrient source for flooded rice fields in Asia. The major constraints to this option are the
cost of N fertilizers, which may be prohibitive in some regions, and the existence of
cultural fertilization techniques, which may be difficult to change.
Water Management: Intermittent draining of rice fields during the growing season or
between croppings appears to decrease methane production, as does increasing the water
percolation rate in the fields. These methods are feasible in regions such as lowland and
flatland irrigated areas, which have secure and controllable water supplies. Proposed
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OTHER SOURCES 6-17
changes in water management practices must be researched carefully in order to avoid
decreasing productivity.
Cultural Practices: Opportunities may also exist for mitigating methane emissions by
altering existing rice cultivation practices, such as tillage and seeding techniques. While
certain changes in practice have been shown to reduce emissions, however, this strategy
may be impractical. Existing cultivation practices have often been developed to suit
physical, biological and socioeconomic conditions, and may be the most appropriate
methods for each region.
A comprehensive research approach which includes consideration of the above factors could
help in the development and demonstration of practices that maintain or increase rice
productivity while reducing methane emissions. Recognizing that increasing productivity as
well as satisfying other social and cultural constraints are fundamental objectives, experts in
the area generally believe that such an approach could achieve a 10 to 30 percent reduction
in methane emissions from rice cultivation, relative to current levels, over the long term (IPCC,
1990b; Braatz and Hogan, 1991).
EPA is funding a major research effort to obtain such information through a cooperative
agreement with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). The International Atmospheric
Chemistry Activity (IGAC) is also carrying out a major coordinating effort regarding methane
and other trace gases emitted from rice fields.
Benefits
While the relative costs and benefits of each mitigation option should be assessed, research
has indicated that many actions taken to reduce methane emissions (e.g., improved cultivar
selection and nutrient management) can have the added benefit of increasing the productivity
of rice cultivation.
Identifying and Promoting Emission Reductions
The research needs for reducing global methane emissions from rice cultivation may best be
served through the formation of a research consortium involving the major rice-growing
countries, in order to facilitate regional and international collaboration and research on
methane emission issues. The consortium could focus its efforts in Asia, where most of the
world's rice is produced and where experimental data is lacking. China, India, Japan,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines have been identified as having the most
appropriate infrastructure and key research sites for such a project (Braatz and Hogan, 1991).
The global benefits of this type of cooperative body could include the following:
Organized Information Sharing: The consortium could facilitate the sharing of information
from research efforts around the world, and could greatly accelerate progress in global
research by collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting regional data for integration into both
global-scale and location-specific data systems.
Identification and Demonstration of Options: Much further research is needed to better
understand the processes involved in methane production and emission from rice fields,
-------
6-18 OTHER SOURCES
and to identify the best options for reducing emissions. The consortium could promote
cooperation among numerous countries and organizations in order to facilitate research,
and to assist in the subsequent demonstration and implementation of those options found
to be most promising.
Training: The research consortium could also facilitate widespread training in these
promising options for rice researchers and farmers throughout rice-growing regions.
Financing: Financing for the consortium may need to be secured from national and special
donor sources. A central institution could be created to coordinate this effort and to
guarantee consistent and continued support and coordination during the lifetime of the
proposed program.
6.5 Biomass Burning
Methane Emissions
Most major sources of biomass burning are anthropogenic and fall into two general categories:
1) large open fires associated with land management practices (common in forest, savanna
and crop ecosystems), and 2) small-scale fires in which wood and crop residues are burned
for fuel in households or industry. Methane is one of the forms in which carbon is released
into the atmosphere when biomass is burned. Although typically more than 95 percent of the
carbon burned as biomass is released in the form of CO2 and CO, a small but significant
component is released as methane. Current estimates of methane emissions from biomass
burning range from 20 to 80 teragrams (Tg) per year, or 5 to 20 percent of total annual
methane emissions from all sources (IPCC, 1990; Andrasko et al., 1991); these emissions are
expected to increase along with growing rates of deforestation (Norse, 1991). Emissions
estimates are calculated by multiplying estimated total biomass consumed globally by methane
emission factors for different types of fuels and fires. The emission factors are based on
models and experimental data.
The amount of methane emitted when biomass is burned is determined by the following
factors:
• fuel size, composition and distribution;
• fuel chemistry; and
• moisture content of fuel.
These fuel characteristics influence emissions by determining the combustion efficiency of the
fire. The release of methane, non-methane hydrocarbons and particulates is enhanced during
incomplete combustion.
The majority of methane emissions from biomass burning are likely produced in developing
countries, where many common land use techniques (e.g., shifting cultivation and crop
rotation) involve regular burning, and where biomass, primarily in cookstoves, often accounts
for over 90 percent of total energy consumed (Ahuja, 1990). Although country-specific data
is limited, it is also generally agreed that most anthropogenic biomass burning (up to 87
-------
OTHER SOURCES 6-19
percent) occurs in the tropics (Andrasko et al., 1991; Ward and Hao, 1991). Much of this
is due to deforestation for the sake of agriculture; it is estimated that shifting cultivation in
the tropics accounts for over 25 percent of total global biomass burned each year (USEPA,
1990).
Emission Reduction Opportunities
Ongoing work has identified a number of longer term options that could potentially reduce
methane emissions from biomass burning. In general, these options require additional
research to fully determine the best means of implementation. The options include:
Reducing the Frequency, Area and Amount of Biomass Burned Worldwide (in forests,
grasslands and croplands):
• Forests. Reducing the burning that takes place in forest ecosystems can be
accomplished by minimizing the need for forest clearing through improved productivity
of existing agricultural lands and/or by lengthening rotation times of shifting
agriculture. Other strategies include enhancing forest resource utilization or
silvicultural practices to promote sustainable forest use. The magnitude and effects
of fires can also be mitigated through fire management programs, or incorporating
charcoal into the soil after burning.
• Grasslands. Improved grassland management and fire prevention programs could
potentially reduce the frequency and area of both wild and intentionally- set fires.
Other options include: switching from raising domestic livestock to native animals
adapted to naturally occurring vegetation (to eliminate the need for burning to create
new growth suitable for grazing); and developing fodder trees to feed livestock.
• Croplands. The need for biomass burning on croplands can be reduced by
incorporating crop residues into the soil or composting, or replacing annual or seasonal
crops with permanent tree crops.
Improving the Efficiency of Biomass Used as Fuel: Options for improving biomass energy
efficiency include increasing the efficiency of biomass cook stoves and developing high-
efficiency gasifiers for crop residues. Methane and other greenhouse gas emissions can
also be reduced overall by switching to alternative fuels (e.g., kerosene or LPG).
The largest potential for reducing emissions from biomass burning may exist in developing
countries, where the majority of biomass burning occurs and few reduction or control
programs exist. Although most of the strategies are relatively simple to implement, the
required regional research and the time needed for the development and acceptance of new
policies make these feasible only in the longer term. The most promising strategies may
include the following:
Forests and Grasslands: Forest and grassland fire management programs currently are
rare in developing countries. The development of such programs, modeled on successful
programs in other regions, could result in substantial reductions in biomass burning where
they are applicable.
-------
6 - 20 OTHER SOURCES
Replacing shifting agriculture with sustainable systems may be another promising option
for reducing deforestation rates, if the productivity of croplands is maintained. This may
be possible through the expansion of financial and educational fertilizer use programs, or
through the promotion of forestry as an economically viable enterprise, using sustained
forest management programs (especially in highly productive tropical forests).
Reforestation efforts, aimed at enhancing sustainable tropical and temperate forest
ecosystems and ensuring adequate carbon sinks, could also be beneficial.
Croplands: Composting or incorporating crop residues into soil are simple and feasible
options which could reduce biomass burning on a large scale while providing adequate
nutrients for crops.
Biomass as Fuel: Studies have shown that it is possible to double the overall efficiency
of existing household biofuel cookstoves. Programs to improve their performance could
have substantial economic and health benefits (i.e., reduced exposure to smoke) for the
users, and reduce methane and other greenhouse gas emissions by decreasing the fuel
needs of the stoves. Programs to develop and promote advanced stoves should take into
account local needs, diets, technologies, and accessible fuels.
Reducing the demand for biomass products by promoting fuel switching may also be a
feasible option if the prices of alternative fuels are competitive.
Opportunities may also exist for reducing biomass burning in developed countries. Although
practices such as shifting cultivation, burning crop residues, and using biomass as an energy
source are not common in most developed countries, significant methane emissions may be
released from wild forest fires (Ward and Hardy, 1991). Successful fire management
programs are in place in many temperate and boreal forests and in some semi-arid areas (e.g.,
Canada, the United States, Australia, the Mediterranean). Improving existing fire management
techniques and promoting them in areas which lack programs could yield significant reductions
in biomass burning. Reforestation efforts are also a valuable goal in developed countries.
Benefits
In addition to emissions reductions, other benefits may result from efforts to reduce biomass
burning. These include maintenance of forest and agricultural resources, reduced soil erosion,
and the protection of human health, life and property. Several options, such as agroforestry
programs, have already gained international acceptance for their potential to protect species
diversity and reduce rates of deforestation.
Identifying and Promoting Emission Reductions
Some potential actions to promote the use of suitable technologies for reducing methane
emissions from biomass burning include:
Country Planning and Policy Studies: Country-level policy analysis may be useful to
assess the feasibility, costs and benefits of options for reducing biomass burning in
specific ecosystems. Priority should be given to identifying and developing national and
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OTHER SOURCES 6-21
regional policies and institutions needed to support the programs for reducing emissions.
Net greenhouse gas balance analyses considering both sources and sinks of the gases
involved may also be useful in order to develop strategies aimed at reducing total
emissions.
Technology Transfer: Technology transfer programs could assist in reducing emissions
from biomass burning, particularly through developing and promoting the expansion of
improved cooking stoves in developing countries.
Information Transfer and Training: Intensive education and training programs could help
to achieve a widespread reduction of biomass burning and related gas emissions.
Programs could be especially useful for promoting the adoption of new land management
and agricultural practices such as: lengthening rotation times of shifting agriculture; raising
native animals; developing fodder trees to feed livestock; composting agricultural residues;
and planting tree crops. Information transfer and training could also facilitate the
implementation of fire management programs.
International Agreements: International cooperation in the form of forest protection and
reforestation agreements could play a large role in reducing global biomass burning. Such
agreements could also expedite technology and information transfer to countries with
potential reductions in biomass burning and greenhouse gas emissions.
6.6 Fossil Fuel Combustion
Methane Emissions
Fossil fuels, which include coal, oil, natural gas, shale oil, and bitumen, release methane and
other gases during combustion. Current estimates of methane emissions from fossil fuel
combustion, based on measured emission factors and available estimates of fossil fuel use
worldwide, are 2 to 2.6 Tg per year (USEPA, 1993b), but may be as high as 3 Tg per year
(IPCC, 1990b; Darnay, 1992).
When fossil fuels are burned, carbon is released in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
and other hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and other trace substances. The
amount of methane in these emissions is determined to a large extent by the completeness
of the combustion process; the release of methane is proportionally greatest during incomplete
combustion.
The majority of emissions is currently released in developed countries because of their
extensive use of fossil fuels. Fossil fuels provide over 90 percent of all of the energy needs
in these countries, as compared to about 55 percent in developing countries, where biomass
is frequently burned for fuel (USEPA, 1990).
The magnitude and composition of emissions released during a combustion process vary
according to the following factors:
• amount and type of fuel combusted;
-------
6 - 22 OTHER SOURCES
• methane content of the fuel;
• completeness of the combustion process;
• type and condition of combustion engine; and
• use of exhaust control technologies.
The distribution of emissions from fossil fuel combustion is expected to change over the next
few decades. Growth in fossil fuel use is expected to continue, particularly in developing
countries, due to rapid population growth, urbanization, increasing transportation needs, and
accelerating industrialization. The proportion of world energy used and emissions created by
developed countries is expected to significantly decline due to these changes as well as
advanced energy-efficient technologies and emission control regulations adopted in developed
regions (USEPA, 1990).
Emission Reduction Opportunities
Methane and other greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion can be reduced by
modifying the combustion process to decrease the amount of gases produced, or by using
exhaust control technologies, such as catalytic converters, to reduce emissions of some gases
after the combustion process has taken place. Unless such exhaust control technologies are
employed, the gases produced during fossil fuel combustion are emitted to the atmosphere.
Many potential emissions reduction techniques could be applied in both the short and longer
terms. The reduction options for stationary and mobile combustion sources are discussed
separately, due to differences in appropriate emission reduction technologies for each type of
combustion. The available technologies are described in USEPA (1992b). They are discussed
below and summarized in Exhibit 6-8.
Stationary Sources: A number of technologies are available to reduce emissions from sources
such as powerplants and factories worldwide. Although rising energy prices have promoted
the recent development of many energy efficient technologies, and increasingly strict air
quality regulations have resulted in the development and use of advanced exhaust control
technologies in developed countries, potential exists for further large improvements in both
areas (USEPA, 1990). Potential may also exist for emissions reductions in developing
countries, as new technologies replace older and less efficient ones. Opportunities in these
countries may be limited, however, to the more affluent areas where fossil fuels (as opposed
to biomass) are the primary source of energy.
• Increasing energy efficiency. The energy use efficiency of stationary sources can be
increased in the residential and commercial sectors by constructing more efficient
building shells, and using more efficient appliances, lighting, and heating and cooling
equipment. Large potential also exists for recycling waste heat and improving
combustion efficiency in the industrial sector through the use of cogeneration,
advanced combined cycle turbines, variable-speed drives, fuel cells, and inorganic
wastes recycling.
• Exhaust control technologies. Exhaust control technologies for stationary sources
include non-selective catalytic reduction and oxidation/selective catalytic reduction
technologies. Larger reductions can be achieved in stationary and mobile combustion
engines with these technologies by maintaining high exhaust gas temperatures.
-------
OTHER SOURCES 6 - 23
• Alternative fuels. Non-fossil fuels which may be feasible for use with stationary
sources include biomass fuels, hydrogen, and nuclear energy. In addition to switching
to non-fossil alternative fuels, shifting to fossil-derived alcohol fuels can result in lower
direct emissions of methane and other exhaust gases.
• Alternative energy. Non-fossil energy which may be feasible for use with stationary
sources include solar thermal, wind, photovoltaic (PV), hydroelectric and geothermal
energy.
Mobile Sources: A number of opportunities exist for reducing emissions of methane and
other gases from this sector in developing countries. Emissions in these countries are
likely to be high as a result of the old age of existing vehicles, poor vehicle maintenance
practices, traffic congestion, poor fuel quality, and lenient or non-existent emissions
standards (USEPA, 1990). Although methane and other gas emission rates from mobile
sources are comparatively low in developed countries, due to recent fuel efficiency
improvements and standard exhaust control practices, opportunities exist for reducing
these emissions further.
• Increasing fuel efficiency. It may be possible to increase the efficiency of fuel use in
new light-duty vehicles by up to 35 percent by reducing vehicle weight, using low
friction tires, five-speed automatic transmissions, improved aerodynamic designs,
and/or continuously variable transmissions. Opportunities for efficiency improvements,
such as adiabatic diesel truck engines, are also available for freight transport.
• Post-combustion exhaust control technologies. The most common examples of these
technologies are catalytic converters, which promote the oxidation of unburned HC and
CO and in some cases the reduction of oxides of nitrogen (NOX). Air injection into the
exhaust manifold can also control HC and CO emissions. Although exhaust control
technologies are standard in many developed countries due to increasingly strict
regulations governing allowable levels of NOX, CO and HC emissions, potential still
exists for further emissions reductions.
• Alternative Fuels. Some non-fossil fuels which may be feasible for automotive
technologies include solar and hydrogen fuels, fuel cells, electricity, and biomass-
derived alcohol. The use of fossil-derived gaseous and liquid fuels (e.g., methanol,
ethanol) can also result in lower direct exhaust gas emissions.
Particular short-term and longer-term actions with potential to reduce emissions from fossil
fuel combustion are listed below. Potential exists worldwide to reduce emissions from
stationary sources. Emissions reduction efforts in the mobile sector may have the largest
effect in developing countries, where the largest potential reductions exist.
Stationary Sources:
Short Term:
• Increase the use of energy efficient technologies in new industrial and
electricity generating applications; retrofit existing facilities with these
technologies;
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OTHER SOURCES 6 - 25
• Expand the use of exhaust control technologies;
• Substitute cleaner fossil fuels or renewable fuels in industrial applications or
electricity generation, and in residential areas where coal is used for cooking and
space heating;
• Construct new buildings with more efficient shells, lighting, heating and cooling
systems;
• Improve technologies and strengthen standards for energy efficiency in residential
appliances;
Longer Term:
• Expand the use of advanced technologies for locally available renewable fuels (e.g.,
large and small-scale hydroelectric);
• Expand research, development and use of advanced space conditioning
technologies and energy management systems (e.g., heat pumps, "Smart"
electronic systems, thermal storage techniques); and
• Introduce cogenerated district heating and cooling systems in dense urban areas.
Mobile Sources:
Short Term:
• Expand the use of low emitting technologies;
• Introduce or strengthen exhaust control standards in countries with less stringent
regulations (may include sharing of most advanced control technologies);
• Improve automobile inspection and maintenance programs;
• Increase research, development and implementation of fuel switching to alternative
fuels;
Longer Term:
• Develop and introduce advanced technologies for renewable alternative fuels (e.g.,
hydrogen);
• Implement urban planning, road improvement and mass transit programs to
alleviate traffic congestion; and
• Promote the use of advanced telecommunications as a substitute for
transportation.
-------
6 - 26 OTHER SOURCES
Benefits
The strategies discussed in this section may result in numerous national benefits, in addition
to reducing emissions of methane and other greenhouse gases. These benefits include
increased energy security (reduced reliance on foreign sources of oil and other fuels),
enhanced air quality, and cost savings resulting from energy efficiency improvements.
Identifying and Promoting Emission Reductions
Some potential actions to promote the use of technologies for reducing methane emissions
from fossil fuel combustion include:
Country Planning Studies: Country-level analyses may be useful to determine the most
appropriate strategies for reducing methane emissions from fossil fuel combustion in each
region. In each case, a unique combination of energy efficiency, fuel switching, and
emissions reduction technologies may most successfully achieve these reductions.
Policy Assistance: Strategies aimed at reducing methane emissions from fossil fuel
combustion may be constrained by diverse economic, regulatory, and political systems.
Useful efforts in all countries could include developing policies that encourage improved
energy efficiency and provide appropriate incentives.
Technology Transfer: While many of the technologies discussed above are currently
available in most developed countries, technology transfer programs could facilitate their
successful adoption in developing countries.
Information Transfer and Training: Information transfer and training programs may be
useful to promote the widespread adoption of efficient fossil fuel combustion technologies
and emissions control techniques. Information about current technologies could be made
available to all countries through such mechanisms as shared journals and information
clearinghouses. Training in the implementation of these technologies could be made
available to government and technical personnel.
Financing: The introduction of advanced technologies into many developing countries
could be facilitated by financial assistance from other governments, foreign development
agencies or international organizations, or by subsidies from manufactures of advanced
technologies.
-------
OTHER SOURCES 6 - 27
6.7 References
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Ahuja, Dilip (1990), "Research Needs for Improving Biofuel Burning Cookstove Technologies:
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Bartone, Carl (1992), personal communication. Urban Development Division, World Bank,
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Baum W.C. and S.M. Tolbert (1985), Investing in Development: Lessons of World Bank
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Braatz, Barbara V. and Kathleen B. Hogan, eds. (1991), "Sustainable Rice Productivity and
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Darnay, Arsen J, ed. (1992), Statistical Record of the Environment. Detroit: Gale Research,
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Escritt, Leonard B. (1984), Sewerage and Sewage Treatment:lnternational Practice. William
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Huke, R.E. (1982), Rice Area by Type of Culture: South. Southeast and East Asia.
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IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1990a), Climate Change: The IPCC
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IPCC (1992), Science Assessment. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Work
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Loehr, Raymond C. (1984), Pollution Control for Agriculture, second edition, Orlando:
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Maber, Steve (1992), personal communication, Water and Sanitation Division, World Bank,
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Mistra, B., S.K. Mukhodpadhyay, and J.C. Flinn (1986), "Production Constraints of Rainfed
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Ward, Darold E. and Colin C. Hardy (1991) "Smoke Emissions from Wildland Fires," in
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