October 1982
       METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE
         FORMATION OF REGIONAL HAZE
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES RESEARCH LABORATORY
     OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
    U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH  TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA  27711

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       METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE
         FORMATION OF REGIONAL HAZE

                    by

            James G. Edinger
                  and

            Timothy F. Press
      Atmospheric Sciences Department
         University of California
       Los Angeles, California 90024
              EPA  R806705010
            Project Officer

          George C. Holzworth

 Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory
     Office of Research and Development
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
     Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES RESEARCH LABORATORY
     OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
    U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA  27711

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                                 DISCLAIMER


     This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Sciences Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion.  Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.

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                                   ABSTRACT

     The purpose of this research project was to determine the role of
meteorological factors in the formation of widespread areas of haze in the
eastern United States.
     Three case studies were made:   A summer haze episode, an off-season haze
episode and a non-haze episode.
     Results showed that over the course of 2 or 3 days emissions from widely
separated sources such as St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh are
leafed  together by vertical and horizontal shears and mixing by daytime con-
vection to form a dilution volume many hundreds to well over a thousand km in
extent and 2 or 3 km in depth.   Almost all stations reporting haze during an
episode were confined to this dilution volume and most of these in that part
of the plume containing emissions that were 2 or 3 days old.
     The dilution volume associated with the off-season episode was of about
the same magnitude as that of the summer case, but was shallower and horizon-
tally more extensive.  Both of these 3-day haze volumes were much smaller than
the dilution volume associated with the non-haze case which blanketed almost
the entire eastern United States.

     This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. R806705010
Environmental Sciences Research  Laboratory, Office of Research and Development
under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  This
report covers a period from 8/1/79 to 12/31/81, and work was completed as of
12/31/81.
                                     i i i

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                                  CONTENTS
Abstract                                                                   iii
Figures                                                                    vi
Acknowledgment                                                             i*

      1.  Introduction                                                     1
      2.  Conclusions                                                      2
      3.  Method of Analysis                                               3
      4.  Case studies                                                     8
               Summer Haze                                                 8
               Off-Season Haze                                            TO
               Non-Haze Situation                                         12
      5.  Abbreviated techniques             t                             14
      6.  Haze-related Meteorological  Quantities                          16
References                                                                5.8

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                                 FIGURES
Number                                                                Page
  1     Network of rawinsonde stations                                   18
  2    Streamline maps,  00 GCT 25  February  1973,  at  950  and  900 mb
         levels                                                        19
  3    Streamline maps,  00 GCT 25  February  1973 at 850 and 800 mb
         levels                                                        20
  4    Streamline map,  12 GCT 2 October  1974,  950 mb level              21
  5    Streamline maps  for 00 GCT  and  12 GCT 3 October 1974,  950 mb
         level                                                         22
  6    Streamline maps  for 00 GCT  and  12 GCT 4 October 1974,  950 mb
         level                                                         23
  7    Technique for constructing  the  initial  24  hr  dilution  volume     24
  8    Technique for constructing  the  subsequent  24  hr growth and
         transport   of   already  existing  dilution  volume.             24
  9    Plume from St. Louis at 00  GCT  2  July 1973 resulting  from 3
         days of continuous emissions                                   25
 10    Synoptic maps, 29 June 1973                                     26
 11     Synoptic maps, 30 June 1973                                     27
 12    Synoptic maps, 1  July 1973                                       28
 13    Synoptic maps, 2  July 1973                                       29
 14a   Plume from Chicago at 00 GCT  2  July  1973 resulting from 3 days'
          continuous emissions                                         30
 14b   Plume from Cincinnati at 00 GCT 2 July  1973 resulting  from
          3 days' continuous emissions                                 30
 15a   Plume from Pittsburgh at 00 GCT 2 July  1973 resulting  from
          3 days' continuous emissions                                 31
 15b   Consolidated plume containing 3 days' emissions from  St. Louis,
          Chicago, Cincinnati and  Pittsburgh as seen at  00 GCT
          2 July 1973                                                  31

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Number                                                             Page

 16a       One-day-old emissions from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT 2 July 1973.        '   32

 16b       Two-day-old emissions from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT 2 July 1973           32

 17a       Three-day-old emissions  from  St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT 2 July 1973           33

 17b       Three-day consolidated plume  from the  four sources
             and Birmingham's  plume as seen  at 00 GCT 2  July 1973     33

 18        Consolidated3-day plume  from  St.  Louis,  Chicago,
          .   Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT 2  July 1973,
             assuming mixing up to  700 mb  level                       34

 19        Average horizontal  area  covered by the dilution volume
             containing  24 hour of  emissions as a function of
             time since  emissions began, 00  GCT 28  June  1973 to
             12 Z GCT 1  July 1973                                    35

 20        Position of cold front and distribution  of haze,
             00 GCT 3 July 1973  .                                    36

 21        Synoptic maps,  26 February 1973                           37

 22        Synoptic maps,  27 February 1973                           38

 23        Synoptic maps,  28 February 1973                           39

 24        Synoptic maps,  1  March 1973                               40

 25a       Plume from St.  Louis at  00 GCT  1  March 1973 resulting
             from 3 days'  continuous emissions                       41

 25b       Plume from Chicago  at 00 GCT  1  March 1973  resulting
             from 3 days'  continuous emissions                       41

 26a       Plume from Cincinnati at 00 GCT 1  March  1972  resulting
             from 2 days'  continuous emissions                       42

 26b       Plume from Pittsburgh at 00 GCT 1  March  1973  resulting
             from 3 days'  continuous emissions                       42

 27a       Consolidated  plume  containing 3 days'  emissions from
             St. Louis,  Chicago and Pittsburgh and  2  days'
             emissions from Cincinnati as  seen at 00  GCT 1  March
             1973                                                    43
                                       VII

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Number                                                               Page
 27b       One-day-old emissions  from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  1  March  1973            43
 28a       Two-day-old emissions  from St.  Louis,   Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  1  March  1972            44
 28b       Three-day-old emissions  from  St.  Louis,  Chicago
             and Pittsburgh, 00 GCT 1  March 1973                       44
 29        Synoptic maps, 2 October 1974                              45
 30        Synoptic maps, 3 October 1974                              46
 31       'Synoptic maps, 4 October 1974                              47
 32        Synoptic maps 5 October  1974                                48
 33a       Plume from St. Louis at  00 GCT  5 October 1974
             resulting from 3 days'  continuous  emissions               49
 33b       Plume from Chicago at  00 GCT  5  October 1974
             resulting from 3 days'  continuous  emissions               49
 34a       Plume from Cincinnati  at 00 GCT 5 October 1974
             resulting from 3 days'  continuous  emissions               50
 34b       Plume from Pittsburgh  at 00 GCT 5 October 1974
             resulting from 3 days'  continuous  emissions               50
 35a       Consolidated  plume containing 3 days'  emissions
             from St. Louis, Chicago,  Cincinnati  and
             Pittsburgh  as seen at  00 GCT  5 October 1974               51
 35b       One-day-old emissions  from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  5  October  1974          51
 36a       Two-day-old emissions  from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  5  October  1974           52
 36b       Three-day-old emissions  from  St. Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  5  October  1974           52
 37        Average 12 hour change in distance between pairs  of
             air parcels as a function of  initial separation           53
 38a       Comparison of plumes constructed by  the long and
             short (approximate)  methods,  Pittsburgh, 00  GCT
             1  March 1973                                              54
                                    vm

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Number                                                             Page

 38b       Comparison of consolidated plumes constructed by
             the long and short (approximate) methods,  OQ GCT
             1  March 1973                                            54

 39        Comparison of plumes constructed by the long and
             short (approximate) methods,  Pittsburah,  00 GCT
             5  October 1974                       "                  55

 40        Time variation of:  number of haze reports,  H;
             average 12 hour pair separation due to horizontal
             shear,  Al~^r  > average 12 hour pair separations
             due to       _ vertical  shear,  AdTT ; average
             wind speed, V; average rate         of equivalent
             potential  temperature with height,  dOe/JZ  .             56

 41        Map  of area covered by statistical study.  Lines
             connecting rawinsonde stations identify the 66
             station pairs.                                          57

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                               ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
     We are indebted to Teddy Keller and Jeff Wright who carried  out many of
the tedious and exacting calculations,  constructions and map  analyses in-
volved and to Joseph Spahr who skillfully managed  the transformation of data
on magnetic tape to convenient computer print-out  and graphic displays.  And
special thanks go to our project officer, George C.  Holzworth for his thought-
ful direction, assistance and encouragement.

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                                  SECTION 1
                                INTRODUCTION
     Extensive areas of hazy air covering major portions of the Eastern
United States have become a frequent summertime occurrence during the last
few decades.  This regional haze, though well described by satellite observa-
tions and the conventional surface synoptic network, Lyons (1978), is not as
well understood as the smaller, meso-scale visibility blight associated with
plumes from individual point or area sources such as power plants and urban
complexes.  A variety of models have been developed for these meso-scale
plumes.  But, as is reported in a recent study by the National Academy of
Sciences, Middleton (1981), the modeling of regional haze is not nearly as
far advanced.
     The present study is directed toward improving our understanding of the
meteorological mechanisms involved in the formation of such large volumes of
more or less uniformly polluted air. It is a diagnostic enterprise.  Its pur-
pose is to provide information useful for constructing models of the regional
haze formation process.

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                                   SECTION 2
                                  CONCLUSIONS
     Synoptic-scale motions revealed by rawinsondes  and surface wind reports
combined with daytime vertical  mixing motions up to  the 800 or 700 mb levels
distribute emissions from widely separated continuous sources  such as St.  Louis,
Chicago, Cincinnati and Pittsburgh over a widespread area hundreds of miles
across and more than a thousand miles long in a period of 2 or 3 days.
     The combined plumes (superposed dilution volumes) for these four cities,
constructed in accordance with  the observed flow fields at the surface,  950 mb,
900 mb, 850 mb and 800 mb levels, coincide well with observed  areas of wide-
spread haze.
     When haze forms it tends to do so in emissions  2 or 3 days old and  in mix-
tures of emissions from several locations.
     Haze episodes appear to differ from non-haze situations in having smaller
dilution volumes, the result of smaller vertical and horizontal shears and
weaker winds.
     The summertime haze episode examined occurred in the absence of persistent
(day and night) strong stable layers in the lower atmosphere.   Strong low level
inversions were the rule at night, but during the day convection several kilo-
meters deep was typical with towering cumulus reported within  the haze in a
number of locations.
     Widespread haze areas occasionally develop in seasons other than summer
when there is considerably more stability in the lowest layer  of the atmosphere.
Apparently in these cases mixing up to only about 1  or 2 kilometers is involved
as are somewhat stronger shears, resulting in shallower but horizontally more
extensive haze volumes.
     Both vertical and horizontal shears significantly influence the horizontal
spreading of the dilution volumes with the vertical  shear being the dominant
factor.
                                      2

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                                   SECTION 3
                               METHOD OF ANALYSIS
      Air quality simulation models describing the long-range transport of air
pollution have been devised.  Usually they are based on a requirement of mass
balance.  The processes and mechanisms included are: emission, chemical trans-
formation, physical removal, turbulent diffusion and transport.
      The air motions used in these models are observed atmospheric motions,
not air movement calculated from fundamental physical  principles.   Typically
they are the observed wind averaged over the depth of the polluted layer or
the wind observed at some standard level interior to the polluted  layer, often
the 850 mb level, (Nordb et al., 1974; Eliassen et al., 1975; Pack et al.,
1978; Eliassen, 1980).  A certain amount of observed detail  in the wind field
is lost in the process of constructing vertically averaged wind  fields or in
accepting the wind at any one level as being representative of the vertically
averaged flow.  These neglected (dispersive^ motions are parameterized in the
models by eddy diffusion terms.   Some air quality simulation models have taken
vertical wind shear within the polluted layer into account,  notably Hidy et
al., (1978) and Veltishcheva (1979) for travel times out to 24 hours.  In the
work reported here the winds at all levels within the polluted layer are used
to determine the long-range transport and dispersal  of pollution out to 3
day's travel from the sources.  It is done for a number of haze  episodes
chosen from 30 years of record (1948-1978).   The purpose is  to discover the
meteorological mechanisms associated with the formation of these extensive
volumes of hazy air.
      The analysis consists of constructing the previous 3-day history of the
hazy air.  It is assumed that the responsible pollutants came from the major
air pollution sources in the eastern United States (large cities,  power
plants, etc.).  A 3-day dilution volume is constructed for each  major source.
These individual dilution volumes overlap to form a  conglomerate volume which

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contains all of the air which passed over the major sources.   It may be
assumed that this large conglomerate volume would also contain air from any
other source, of whatever size, located in the area intermediate in location.
to the major sources.
     The analysis makes use of the U.S. National  Weather Services'  surface
observational and rawinsonde network in the eastern United States (see Figure
1) to provide descriptions of the flow features involved in the transport and
dispersion of pollutant emissions.  The streamline patterns shown in Figures
2 to 6 provide examples of the sort of mixing motions that can be resolved
using wind data from the synoptic observations network.
     Figures 2 and 3 reveal the three-dimensional structure of several vor-
tices over the eastern United States, a definite continuity of pattern exist-
ing level to level from 950 to 900 to 850 to 800 mb.  And Figures 4, 5, and
6 show the continuity in time over a three-day period of a large anticyclonic
vortex as it moves across the eastern United States.  The range of eddy sizes
resolvable using the rawinsonde network is well illustrated by comparing the
small cyclonic vortex in southern Louisiana in Figure 3a with the large anti-
cyclone in Figure 5b which practically covers the entire eastern United States,
And a scan  of the other streamline maps in these two map sets displays
eddies of many intermediate sizes within this range.
     In reconstructing the extensive volume of hazy air the major sources of
emissions, i.e. the large urban centers, are taken as continuous point sources
Their nighttime emissions are treated as plumes moving with the surface winds
as reported on the 3-hourly surface synoptic maps.  Their daytime emissions
are assumed to mix vertically by thermal convection through the lowest 2 or
3 km of the atmosphere and to move with the observed wind fields at each level
(50 mb intervals) within that layer.  The shearing motions and translation
combined with the vertical mixing produce a dilution volume associated with
the particular source.  The effects of horizontal motions on a scale smaller
than those described by the streamline analyses are neglected.
     A number of techniques were tried before the method described below was
adopted as the one providing the best approximation of the volume of con-
taminated air produced by arrays of continuous point sources over periods of

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one, two and three days.  The evolution moved from the approximate determina-
tions reported by Edinger (1980) to the more rigorous procedures represented
schematically in Figures 7 and 8.
     Referring to Figure 7, at the initial instant, taken as 00 GCT, the
emissions of interest begin leaving the source.   During the subsequent twelve
hours, nighttime, a plume is laid down at or near ground level.  Its location
is determined by constructing a streak!ine from the three-hourly surface wind
maps.  This streak!ine is constructed by connecting the 12 GCT end points of
the trajectories of the air parcels that passed over the source at times 00,
03, 06, 09 and 12 GCT.  This plume is represented in Figure 7a.  It is
assumed that vertical mixing motions are absent during this twelve hour in-
terval .
     During the subsequent twelve hour, day-time interval, 12 to 00 GCT, mix-
ing motions distribute the emissions vertically through the layer from the
surface up to the 800 mb level.  (The reasons for choosing 800 mb will be dis-
cussed later).  It is assumed that at a time not far removed from 12 GCT the
surface plume develops vertically into a curtain which is subject to winds at
all levels up to 800 mb.  Shears in the wind with height carry the emissions
at the various levels off in different directions.   Figure 7b pictures the
streaklines extending from the source at five levels as seen at 00 GCT, 24
hours after emissions began.  Figure 7c then describes the volume through
which the vertical  mixing motions have distributed  the first days emissions
by 00 GCT.
     Figure 8 represents the further growth of this first day's 24 hour emis-
sions (dilution) volume during the next 24 hours due to shearing motions in
the vertical and another daytime period of vertical mixing.  It also shows
the transport of this volume away from the source.   In this case emissions
exist in diluted form at all levels up to 800 mb at the initial instant
(Figures 8a and 8c).   At each level the perimeter of a polluted area (Figure
8b) is carried forward 24 hours by constructing trajectories originating at
significant points  along each perimeter.  The trajectories are not shown in
the sketch but the  resulting transport and deformation of the perimeters are
indicated at each level ( Figure 8b).   The dilution volume resulting from the
vertical mixing up  and down of the pollution at these various levels is shown

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in Figure 8d.
     To construct the dilution volume containing two days of continuous emis-
sions from the source one needs to construct the next day's 24 hour dilution
volume and add it to the volume shown in Figure 8d.   These two 24. hour dilu-
tion volumes overlap and together constitute the two day polluted wake (48
hours dilution volume) of the continuous point source.  In the case studies
to be discussed below these procedures were repeated for a third day's emis-
sions so that the dilution volume containing three  day's emissions from a given
source were obtained.  As an example refer to Figure 9.   The shaded area re-
veals the horizontal  extent   of three day's continuous emissions from St.
Louis as seen at 00 GMT 2 July 1973.
     The selection of the 800 mb level as the upper limit of the vertical
stirring and mixing followed unsuccessful efforts to define the top of the
mixing layer by inspecting the plotted radiosonde temperature and humidity
profiles at all stations in the eastern United States at both the 00 and 12
GCT times.  Careful analysis of the profiles together with the associated
surface weather maps suggested that during typical summer haze episodes in
the eastern United States there is no extensive daytime stable layer in the
lowest few kilometers placing an upper limit on convective mixing.  To the
contrary reports of towering cumulus frequently appear here and there within
the hazy volume suggesting that the mixing in some places reaches and exceeds
the 500 mb level.  The upper limit to the vertical stirring and mixing is at
best ill-defined and irregular.  In all of the case studies the top of the
stirred layer was assumed first to be at the 800 mb level.  In one case, in
an attempt to improve the fit between the constructed haze volume and the
actual haze observations the level was raised to 700 mb with some improvement
of the fit with the observations.  In the other case studies the fit with the
observed haze distribution was so good using an 800 mb level top to the mix-
ing that an adjustment in the level was considered unnecessary.
     To select the major sources of emissions in the northeastern United
States the statistics appearing in EPA reports (1978) were used.  In pre-
liminary case studies nine major urban industrial areas were chosen to .re-
present the sources of emissions.  Each was treated as a point source.

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Several considerations resulted in the revision downward in the number of
these sources to just four:  St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati and Pittsburgh.
They were:  (1)  Preliminary results suggested that it was emissions two or
three days old that were the major contributors to the haze and some of the
emissions from the cities along the Atlantic coast moved into the data void
over the ocean in less than three days preventing the completion of the
construction of their dilution volumes;  (2)  The two and three day dilution
volumes from individual  point sources overlapped each other to such a large
extent that including sources more closely spaced than the four chosen would
have only a small effect on the size of their combined dilution volume; and
(3)  A considerable saving in time and resources was realized by limiting the
number of sources to four.

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                                  SECTION 4
                                CASE STUDIES
Summer Haze
     This case study, 00 GCT 29 June 1973 to 00 GCT 2 July 1973,  examines  a
new relatively unpolluted air mass that has just invaded the source area  from
the west following a cold front passage.  (See Figures 10, 11,  12  and 13).
It terminates when the next front arrives from the west and begins  to replace
the now hazy air mass over the northeastern United States.  Presented here
is the dilution volume through which three days'  emissions from St.  Louis,
Chicago, Cincinnati and Pittsburgh are distributed as seen at  00  GCT 2 July
1973.  This volume or plume is the consolidation of four, one  from  each of
the cities.
     Figure 9 shows St. Louis' 3-day plume at 00 GCT 2 July 1973.   It extends
all the way from the Mississippi River to the coast of New England  and is
about 400 km wide.     The undulating line within the plume is the  streak!ine
for St. Louis at this time for the winds  at the 850 mb level.   It constitutes
the locus at 00 GCT 2 July 1973 of all air parcels that passed over St. Louis
at the 850 mb level during the three day  period.   The marks along the streak-
line indicate the locations of air parcels that passed over St. Louis at  the
hours of 1200 and 0000 GCT.  The streak!ine is included only to provide a
basis for comparing the plume as constructed here with model calculations  in
which expanding puffs are arrayed along a streakline to form the  plume.  Such
a model plume compared with the plume in  Figure 9 would in this instance
be displaced to the south and be narrow in the west and wide in the east,  but
would, however, be of about the correct length.
     Figure 14a shows the plume for Chicago at 00 GCT 2 July 1973.   It
stretches out in a more northeasterly direction than St. Louis' and extends
beyond the edge of the map.  It is somewhat narrower, averaging about 300
km    in width.  The 850 mb streakline again is indicated, its time marks
suggesting that most of the first day's emissions have passed the  boundary of
the map.  Apparently most of the Chicago  dilution volume at this  time is  over
Canada.
     Cincinnati's plume is shown in Figure 14b.  Its orientation  is even  more

                                       8

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northeasterly than Chicago's but because of Cincinnati's location to the
southeast of Chicago its plume exits the northern boundary of the map in
almost exactly the same place as Chicago's.  The width is a bit more variable
than its predecessor's but averages about the same, somewhere between 300
and 400 km.
     Pittsburgh's plume, Figure 15a, also exits the map near the northern
tip of Maine and falls completely within the Cincinnati plume.  Apparently
about one half of Pittsburgh's emissions have moved beyond the map's bound-
aries at this time.
     The superposition of these four plumes produces the dilution volume
shown in Figure 15b.   It is a volume about 600  km   wide extending from
Illinois 1500  km   to the edge of the map in the vicinity of northern Maine
and for an undetermined distance beyond.  This result suggests that synoptic
scale motions and diurnal  vertical  mixing up to the 800 mb level can distri-
bute the emissions from the four continuous point sources over a 1,000,000 ktrr
area in a period of three days.  Black dots have been entered on the map to
designate stations reporting haze or smoke at this time so that comparisons
can be made between haze reports and plume location.
     It is possible to indicate which part of this plume contains the one-
day old, two-day old and three-day old emissions.  Figure 16a shows the part
of the plume containing material emitted during the last 24 hours,  1 July
1973.  The plumes from the four sources have not yet merged.   And very few
of the haze reports fall within these young (one-day-old) plumes.  Figure 16b
indicates the location of the material emitted in the 24 hour interval, 30  .
June 1973, what was referred to above as two-day old emissions.   This area
encompasses most of the stations reporting haze in the northeastern -United
States.  It misses a few in New England.  The dilution volume for the three-
day old emissions, those entering the atmosphere on 29 June 1973 from the
four sources, includes all  the stations reporting haze in the northeastern
United States.  (See Figure 17a).  The results suggest that most of  the haze
forms in air containing emissions which are two or three days old.
     The consolidated plume described above does not explain  the cluster of
haze reports in the vicinity of coastal Virginia and North Carolina.  The

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technique used in constructing the plume was altered in two different ways in
an attempt to resolve this problem.   First a search for an additional  point
source was made using the emissions  inventory in the EPA reports (1979).   Un-
fortunately the contributions of such important sources as-Philadelphia,  New
York and Boston could not be examined because of the lack of data'over the
adjacent ocean areas.  Birmingham, Alabama seemed the most likely other candi-
date.  So the dilution volume for this source was constructed.   The results
are shown in Figure 17b.   It failed.  The three-day Birmingham  plume does not
reach the coastal sections of North  Carolina and Virginia.  As  a next try the
plume for the four sources was reconstructed allowing the mixing to extend to
the 700 mb level instead  of just to  the 800 mb level.  The results are shown
in Figure 18.  The additional spreading provided by flow patterns at these
higher levels extended the plume to  the south and east to include the haze
reports in question.
     The size of the area containing one day's emissions (sort  of a 24 hour
urban puff) increased with time at all stations.  Figure 19 shows a time
graph of the magnitude of these areas averaged over the four stations.  The
areas are expressed in terms of equivalent radius, the radius of a circle
having the same area.  The graph suggests that for the first 2^ days the  peri-
meter of the dilution volume of one  day's emissions from a single point
source moved radially out away from its centroid at something like 2 % ms" .
     A new front moved into the midwest during 2 July 1973 and  delivered a
new non-hazy air mass to  Michigan, Indiana and Illinois.  The old air mass
ahead of the front by 00  GCT 3 July 1973 had become even hazier.  Figure  20
indicates the frontal position and the locations of the stations reporting
haze at 00 GCT 3 July 1973.
Off-Season Haze
     This particular haze episode, 00 GCT 26 February 1973 to 00 GCT 1 March
1973, was chosen for study as an example of the off-season (not summer) occur-
rence.  It begins 00 GCT  26 February 1973 with the arrival in the source area
of a fresh cold air mass. (See Figures 21,22,23 and 24).  During the subse-
quent three day period ending at 00 GCT 1 March 1973 a ridge of high pressure
slowly moves across the eastern United States from west to east and by the
end of the third  day an  extensive area  of  haze  has  developed over  the midwest

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that extends all  the way from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes.
     Figure 25a shows the plume from St.  Louis at the end of the three day
period, 00 GCT 1  March 1973, resulting from continuous emissions from 00 GCT
26 February 1973 to 00 GCT 1 March 1973.   The location of the one-two- and
three -day old emissions are indicated by the dashed, dotted and dot-dashed
curves within the plume.  At this time the one- and two-day old emissions
are still in the vicinity of St.  Louis but the three-day old emissions have
moved off to the south and have spread out horizontally to cover most of the
southeastern United States.
     The three-day plume from Chicago is  shown in Figure 255.  It is  roughly
the same size as St. Louis'  plume but is  displaced a little to the north and
west.  However, most of the plume overlaps the St. Louis plume in such a way
that Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi  all are
exposed to a blend of both Chicago and St. Louis emissions at this time.
     At the beginning of the three-day period, 00 GCT 26 February 1973, the
cold front had not yet passed Cincinnati.  Consequently some of Cincinnati's
three-day old emissions were delivered to the pre-frontal air mass and some
to the new relatively unpolluted cold air mass behind the front.  For this
reason  only one- and two-day old emission volumes are seen in Figure 26a.
That portion of the emissions that entered the new air-mass on this,  the
first day, has been neglected and the plume entered in the figure contains
only one- and two-day-old emissions.
     The front had just passed Pittsburgh at 00 GCT 26 February 1973  so the
plume shown in Figure 26b contains a full three days' emissions from
Pittsburgh.  It shows the same marked extension to the south due to the
rapid expansion of the three-day old emissions volume on its third day out.

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     Figure 27a shows the consolidated plume resulting from the merger of
the four individual  plumes.   It covers a large area,  most of the United
States east of the 95th meridian except the northeast states and southern
Florida.  A few scattered haze reports exist west of  the plume.  Otherwise
all of the stations  reporting haze fall  within the constructed dilution volume.
     Figure 27b shows the areas covered by one-day-old emissions.  As in the
previous case study  only a small fraction of the haze reports are found here,
9 of the 52 reports  or 17%.   The two-day-old emissions, as seen in Figure 28a,
encompasses 23 of 52 or 44%  of the stations reporting haze.  The remainder
of the haze reports  are located predominantly in the  gulf states, in that
part of the plume made up exclusively of three-day-old emissions, as seen in
Figure 28b.  44 of 52 haze reports or 87% fall within it.
     The majority of the haze reports are at locations where a superposition
of emissions from different  sources or different times occurs.  In West
Virginia haze is reported where both two- and three-day-old emissions from
Pittsburgh appear together.   In southwest Ohio both Cincinnati and Chicago
plumes are present at the haze reporting stations.  The edges of the St.
Louis and Pittsburg  plumes are close by.  In the southern states there are
17 stations reporting haze within the overlapping Chicago and St. Louis plumes,
The six haze reporting stations in Illinois are in two- and three-day-old
emissions from Chicago and two-day-old emissions from St. Louis.  It is
apparent that much of the haze forms in aged emissions from more than one
source and occurs sometimes  at distances away from the sources that exceeds
TOGO km.
Non-Haze Situation
     This is a study of a non-haze episode, 00 GCT 2  October 1974 to 00 GCT
5 October 1974.  A synoptic  situation was chosen that resembled as closely as
possible the typical haze episode but which, of course, generated no haze.
It is a post-cold frontal situation in which a large  anticyclone covers the
entire eastern United States and over the course of three days, 2 October
1974 to 5 October 1974, gradually moves across the area to the east, as
shown in Figures 29, 30, 31  and 32.

                                      12

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     The plume generated for the emissions from St. Louis during these three
days is shown in Figure 33a.  It is very extensive stretching all  the way
from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada and from North Dakota to Pennsyl-
vania.  Chicago's plume is about the same size, perhaps even more  extensive
in the north-south direction and shifted a bit toward the east.   See Figure
33b.  Cincinnati's plume (Figure 34a) is a bit narrower but may be just as
large.  Like the others it extends past the limit of the map over  the Gulf
of Mexico.  Figure 34b shows Pittsburgh's plume.  It extends down  the south-
east Atlantic coastline spreading both east and west at its southern extremity
to cover areas of unknown extent over the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic
Ocean.
     The consolidated plume (Figure 35a) containing emissions from all four
sources covers most of the eastern United States extending from the 95th
meridian on the west to the 75th meridian on the east and including part of
southern Canada and an undetermined amount of the Gulf of Mexico and the
Atlantic Ocean.  The dashed lines interior to the plume indicate the boundaries
of the St. Louis,  Chicago, Cincinnati and Pittsburgh plumes.
     Figures 35b, 36a and 36b show the area covered by the one-day-old, two-
day-old and three-day-old emissions respectively.  The one-day-old plumes are
noticeably larger than those generated during the haze episodes discussed
above.  And the two-day-old emissions cover an area so large that  it compares
favorably with the largest of the three-day-old emissions volumes  for the
haze episodes discussed earlier.  The three-day-old emissions volume is ob-
viously much more extensive than its counterparts during the haze  episodes.
How much larger is impossible to state since the plume extends beyond the map
border.  No haze was reported at any time except at a station in southern
Canada at 12 GCT 4 October 1974.  It is apparent that much larger  dilution
volumes are generated in this no-haze case then in the haze cases.
                                     13

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                               SECTION 5
                         ABBREVIATED TECHNIQUES
     Constructing the plumes presented in each of the case studies  involved
24 surface maps, 28 streamline maps  and something like 1000 trajectories.
Before selecting such a difficult and elaborate technique a number  of shorter
but more approximate methods had been attempted such  as the one  described  by
Edinger (1980).   And after the difficult long  method  had been  applied to the
three case studies described above new attempts were  made to abbreviate pro-
cedures without  significantly degrading the results.   Described  now is an
abbreviated method that involves a great reduction in the number of traject-
ories required.   Its results are compared with those  of the long method.
     In this method the first day's  dilution volume was determined  in exactly
the same way as  it was in the long method.  Then the  centroid  of this volume
(in the horizontal plane) was determined and entered  at each level.   24-hour
trajectories, constructed at each level carried the centroids  forward one
day.  The perimeters of the volumes  were reconstructed around  the new posi-
tions.  These new perimeters were the original ones expanded by  amounts cor-
responding to the calculated average rate of separation of pairs of particles
as shown in Figure 37, where rates of separation are  given as  a  function of
separation.  In  this case, separation is taken as the distance between sig-
nificant points  on opposite sides of the perimeter. In all other respects  the
long method was  followed.  The manner in which this rate of separation informa-
tion was determined will be described in the next section.
     Figure 38a  compares the 3-day plumes generated for Pittsburgh  00 GCT
1  March 1973  using the approximate  and the rigorous  method.  The shaded
area designates  the plume using the  long procedure.  The abbreviated method
produces a two-day dilution volume (dashed line labeled 2) that  is  perhaps
50% too large.   On the other hand the three-day volume is more nearly the
right size, maybe 15% too big.
     The combined plume from all four sources for 00  GCT 1 March 1973 as
determined using the abbreviated method is very nearly the same  size as
that produced by the long method.  Its location, shown by the dashed line  in
Figure 38b, is pretty close although it is shifted toward the east and in

                                    14

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doing so misses seven haze reporting stations in the west.
     Pittsburgh's plume for the no-haze case is an example  of a rather poor
fit between the results of the abbreviated and long methods.   The comparison
is made on Figure 39.  Both the two- and three-day old dilution volumes
differ markedly in shape.   Obviously in this case the economy of tracking
only centroids comes at the expense of missing marked changes in the shape
and location of the dilution volumes.
     The abbreviated method has not been adopted essentially  because of its
insensitivity to shape and location changes in the dilution volumes.  Its
determination of volume magnitude is pretty good and might  be useful in appli-
cations where location is  not as important as merely determining the dilution
potential of a given synoptic situation.
                                      15

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                                   SECTION  6
                     HAZE-RELATED  METEOROLOGICAL  QUANTITIES
     The three synoptic situations involved in  the  case  studies  above  provided
three quite different haze conditions.   The first was  a  fairly typical  summer
situation with the wide-spread haze area developing near the  source  areas  and
then moving out to the northweast.  The second  was  a winter episode  of very
extensive haze that formed in the  midwest.   The last was an example  of a  large
cold autumn anticyclone moving across  the eastern United States,  wanning  up  as
it drifted southeastward in which  no haze developed.
     What meteorological quantities are associated  with  the occurrence and
non-occurrence of widespread areas of haze?  In an  attempt to answer this
question  a number of quantities considered to  affect  dilution were  computed
on a daily basis for six months running.  The graph of these  quantities ver-
sus time is shown in Figure 40.
     As a measure of stability the vertical gradient between  the 950 and  800
mb levels of the equivalent potential  temperature was  chosen.- The approximate
relationship 0  = 0 + 3.0 RH was used to compute the equivalent  potential
temperature, where RH is the relative humidity  expressed as a fraction.  The
value plotted on the graph is the  vertical  gradient of the equivalent  poten-
tial temperature, dG /dz, averaged over the 00  GCT  and 12 GCT times  and the
12 radiosonde stations indicated on Figure 41.
     The following quantity was used to represent the  effect  of  vertical  shear
	             2            2 V2
Adi2 = [(u^t-Upt)  + (v-|t-v2t) ]    where subscripts 1 and 2  refer to  dif-
ferent levels at the same station  and u and v are wind speed  components and  t
is 12 hours.  The plotted value is the average  over the  three 50 mb  layers
from 950 to 800 mb averaged over all stations.   It  is  a  measure  of the rela-
tive 12 hour horizontal displacement of a pair  of air  parcels originally  se-
parated only in the vertical.  A running 5 day  mean was  taken to smooth'the
trace.

                                     16

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     The effect of horizontal  shear is given by the 12 hour change in hori-
zontal separation between horizontally separated pairs of air parcels as com-
puted using the following expression
       	                  o                ? 1/2      9      9 1/2
        A£12  = [(V-u^/ + (Vlt-v2t-£y/]   - [£x(/ + £y/j

The subscripts refer to different stations and u, v and t are as defined
above.  £   and £   are the horizontal components of the initial separation.
         xo      yo
Computations were made at each level individually and for each of the 66
pairs of rawinsonde stations represented by the lines between stations on
Figure 41.  The value plotted  is the average over all 66 pairs for the 800 mb
level.  (The line of best fit  for A£,2 plotted against the initial separation
produces the graph shown in Figure 37, that was used earlier in the  approxi-
mate method of constructing perimeters.)
     Translation, \T, was represented by the average resultant wind speed
averaged over all stations and all levels from 950 to 800 mb.
     As a measure of the haziness of the day in question the number, H, of
surface weather stations reporting haze at 1800 GCT within the area  circum-
scribed by the heavy line in Figure 41 was determined.
     The results as shewn in Figure 40 reveal  an obvious seasonal change in
the incidence of haze, a marked increase frcm  winter to summer.  Seasonal
trends in the meteorological variables are most pronounced in the stability
variable, the vertical gradient of the equivalent potential temperature.  It
clearly shows a decrease in stability from winter to summer.  This associates
summer, the hazy season, with  the least stability, a result contrary to
common experience with meso-scale air pollution situations in which  low level
stable layers are a requirement.
     This poses a number of questions.  Does low stability and the,associated
enhanced vertical mixing in some way contribute to the formation of  summer
haze?  Is a deep layer of mixing required to allow vertical shears to leaf
together emissions fron a number of large urban sources?  Do emissions dis-
tributed through a layer of small stability 2  or 3 km deep have a longer re-
sidence time in the atmosphere than those trapped below a stable layer'based
at 1 or 2 km?

                                     17

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     The other meteorological  variables  are associated  with  the  horizontal
spreading of emissions.   Their seasonal  changes  are not so obvious  but  do
show some decrease in value from winter  to summer.   Generalizing, one might
conclude that winter dilution  volumes  are  shallower but more expansive  hori-
zontally than summer dilution  volumes  which are  deeper  but of smaller  hori-
zontal extent.  It is not clear which  has  the smaller volume and therefore
the highest average concentration of primary pollutants.
     Husar (1979)  has pointed  out that in  the last  few  decades summer,  pre-
viously the time of best visibility, has become  the season with  the poorest
visibility.  It is not likely  that the meteorological patterns have changed
to that extent.  Perhaps changes in the  seasonal  pattern  of  emissions  has
tipped the scales, scales that are not too far from balance  if the  seasonal
change in dilution volumes is  small.
     The average values  of the above meteorological variables were  calculated
for the summer haze case study, 00 GCT 29  June 1973 to  00 GCT 2  July 1973.
They were averaged over  all times, levels  (up to 800 mb)  and stations  or
station pairs.  The effect of  hozirental shears  expressed in terms  of  pair
                                                                a
                                                                 -1
separation speed was  about 1  1/2  ms   .   Vertical  shears  produced  a  3  1/2 ms
pair separation speed.   And the average translation speed as 5 ms
     These results suggest that, in this case at least,  vertical  shears exert
a greater influence on  the horizontal  spreading of dilution volumes than do
horizontal shears.  They also suggest  that the expanding 24 hour  dilution
volumes are advected away from their sources fast enough to separate from
them.  That this is so  can be seen in  Figure 17a which shows the  location of
the three-day-old 24 hour emissions volume separated from St.  Louis and
Chicago for this case.   That it need not always be so can be seen  in Figure
25b for the other haze  case study, where one-two- and three-day old dilution
volumes simultaneously  cover the source, Chicago.
                                    18

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Figure 2b.   Streamline  map  ,  00  GCT 25  February  1973, at 9GO mb level
 Figure 2a.  Streamline map , 00 GCT 25 February 1973, at 950 mb level




                                  19

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Figure 3b.  Streamline map , 00 GCT 25 February 1973 at 800 mb level
Figure 3a.   Streamline  map  ,  00  GCT  25  February  1973  at  850 mb  level
                                20

-------
21

-------
00 GOT 3 Oct 1974
  a
  Figure 5a.  Streamline map  for 00 GCT 3 October 1974, 950 mb level
 12 GCT 3 Oct 1974
  Figure  5b.  Streamline map  for 12 GCT 3  October 1974, 950 mb level
                                 22

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 00 GOT 4  Oct 1974
   Figure 6a.  Streamline map  for  00 GCT 4 October 1974,  950 mb level
12 GCT 4 Oct 0974
  Figure  6b.  Streamline map  for 12 GCT 4 October 1974,  950 mb level
                                 23

-------
Figure 7.   Technique for constructing the initial  24 hr dilution volume,
Figure 8.   Technique for constructing the subsequent 24 hr growth and
           transport of already existing dilution volume.
                                24

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Figure 14a,
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Plume from Chicago at 00 GCT 2 July 1973 resulting
from 3 days' continuous emissions.
Figure 14b.
Plume from Cincinnati  at 00 GCT 2 July 1973 resulting
from 3 days'  continuous emission.
                               30

-------
Figure 15a.
Plume from Pittsburgh at 00 GOT 2  July 1973 resulting
from 3 days'  continuous emissions.
Figure 15b.
Consolidated plume containing 3 days'  emissions from
St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati and Pittsburgh as seen
at 00 GCT 2 July 1973.

                31

-------
Figure 16a.   One-day-old  emissions  from  St.  Louis, Chicago,
             Cincinnati and  Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  2 July  1973.
Figure 16b.   Two-day-old  emissions  from  St.  Louis, Chicago,
             Cincinnati and  Pittsburgh,  00 GCT  2 July  1973.
                              32

-------
Figure 17a.   Three-day-old  emissions  from  St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh,  00 GCT 2 July 1973.
Figure 17b.
Three-day consolidated plume from the four sources
and Birmingham's plume as seen at 00 GCT 2 July 1973.
                              33

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Figure 25a.   Plume from St.  Louis at 00 GCT 1  March 1973 resulting
             from 3 days'  continuous emissions.
Figure 25b.  Plume from Chicago at 00 GCT 1  March 1973 resulting
            from 3 days'  continuous emissions.
                               41

-------
Figure 26a.  Plume from Cincinnati at 00 GCT 1  March 1972
             resulting from 2 days' continuous  emissions.
Figure 26b.   Plume from Pittsburgh at 00 GCT 1  March 1973
             resulting from 3 days'  continuous  emissions.
                               42

-------
Figure 27a.   Consolidated plume containing 3 days'  emissions  from
             St.  Louis,  Chicago and Pittsburgh and  2  days'  emissions
             from Cincinnati  as seen at 00 GCT 1  March  1973.
Figure 27b.  One-day-old emissions from St.  Louis, Chicago,
             Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, 00 GCT 1  March 1973.
                               43

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Figure 28a.   Two-day-old emissions from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh, 00 GCT 1  March  1972,
Figure 28b.   Three-day-old  emissions  from  St.  Louis,  Chicago  and
             Pittsburgh,  00 GCT 1  March  1973.
                                44

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Figure 33a.
Plume from St.  Louis at 00 GCT 5 October 1974
resulting from  3 days'  continuous emissions.
Figure 33b.  Plume from Chicago at 00 GCT 5 October 1974
             resulting from 3 days' continuous emissions,
                                 49

-------
Figure 34a.  Plume from Cincinnnati at 00 GCT 5 October 1974
             resulting from 3 days' continuous emissions.
Figure 34b.   Plume from Pittsburgh at 00 GCT 5 October 1974
             resulting from 3 days'  continuous emissions.
                                50

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Figure 35a.   Consolidated plume containing  3 days'  emissions
             from St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Cincinnati  and  Pittsburgh
             as seen at 00 GCT 5 October  1974
Figure 35b.  One-day-old emissions from St.  Louis,  Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh, 00 RCT 5  October"1974.
                               51

-------
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Figure 36a.
Two-day-old emissions from St. Louis, Chicago,
Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, 00 GCT 5 October 1974.
Figure 36b.   Three-day-old emissions from St.  Louis, Chicago,
             Cincinnati  and Pittsburgh, 00 GCT 5 October 1974,
                               52

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Figure 38a.   Comparison of plumes  constructed by the  long  and
             short (approximate) methods,  Pittsburgh,  00 GCT
             1  March 1973.
             Comparison  of  consolidated  plumes  constructed  by
             the  long  and short  (approximate) methods, 00 GCT
             1  March  1973.
                               54

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57

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                                 REFERENCES

Edinger, J. G., 1980:   Analysis  of Reduced-Visibility  Episodes Over the
    Eastern United States.  Preprint Volume:  Second Joint  Conference on
    Applications of Air Pollution Meteorology  and Second  Conference on
    Industrial  Meteorology.   Published  by  American Meteorological Society.

Eliassen, A., 1980:  A Review of Long-Range  Transport  Modeling. J. Appl.
    Meteor., 19, 231-240.

Eliassen, A., and J. Saltbones,  1975:  Decay  and  Transformation Rates for
    SOp as Estimated from  Emission Data, Trajectories  and Measured Air
    Concentrations.  Atmos.  Environ.,  9, 425-429.

EPA (1979a) Protecting Visibility, An  EPA  Report to  Congress  EPA-450 5-79-
    008, Office of Air Quality Planning and  Standards,  Research Triangel
    Park, N.C.

EPA (1979b) Gridded Annual  Air Pollutant Emissions East of  the Rocky
    Mountains,  EPA-600/4-79-030, Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory,
    Research Triangle Park,  N.C.

Hidy, G. M., R. K. Mueller and E. Y. Tong, 1978:  Spatial and Temporal
    Distributions of Airborne Sulfate  in Parts of the  United  States.
    Atmos. Environ., 12, 735-752.

Husar, R. B., D. E. Patterson, J. M. Holloway, W. E. Wilson and T. G.
    Ellestad, Trends of Eastern  Haziness since 1948.   Preprint Volume:
    Fourth Symposium on Turbulence, Diffusion, and Air Pollution.  Published
    by American Meteorological Society.

Lyons, W. A., J. C. Dooley,  K. T. Whitby,  1978:  Satellite  Detection of
    Long-Range Pollution Transport and  Sulfate Aerosol  Hazes.  Atmos-
    pheric Environment 12:  621-631.

Middleton, J. T., 1981: On  Prevention  of  Significant  Deterioration of Air
    Quality.  Report by Committee to the Environmental  Studies Board,
    Commission  on Natural  Resources, National  Research Council of National
    Academy of Sciences.

Nordb, J., A. Eliassen, and  J. Saltbones,  1974:  Large-Scale  Transport
    of Air Pollutants. Advances  in Geophysics, 18B,  137-150.

Pack, D. H., G. J. Ferber,  J.  L. Heffter,  K. Telegadas, J.  K. Angel!,  '
    W. H. Hoecker and L. Machta, 1978:   Meteorology  and Long-range Transport,
    Atmos. Environ., 12, 425-444.

                                    58

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Veltischeva,  N.  S.,  1979:  Paper presented at WMO Symposium on the Long-
    Range Transport  of  Pollutants, Sofia, 1-5 October 1979, WMO Publ.
    538 Ref.  XI.3.
                                     59

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
 1 REPORT NO.
                              2.
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

   METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE  FORMATION
   OF  REGIONAL HAZE
                                                           5. REPORT DATE
             6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
 7. AUTHOR(S)

   James G.  Edinger and Timothy  F.  Press
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

   Atmospheric Sciences Department
   University of California
   Los Angeles, CA 90024
                                                           10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                CDTA1 0/Q3-1398 (FY-83)
             17 CONTRACT,GRANT NO.

                R806705
 12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
   Environmental Sciences  Research Laboratory - RTF, NC
   Office of Research and  Development
   U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency
   Research Triangle Park,  NC  27711	
             13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                Final   8/1/79-12/31/81
             14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
                EPA/600/09
 15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
 1,6. ABSTRACT
       The purpose of  this  research project was  to  determine the role of meteorol-
  ogical factors  in  the formation of widespread  areas  of haze in the eastern  United
  States.  Three  case  studies were made:  A summer  haze episode, an off-season  haze
  episode and a non-haze episode.

       Results showed  that  over the course of 2  or  3 days emissions from widely
  separated sources  such as St. Louis, Chicago,  Cincinnati and Pittsburgh are leafed
  together by vertical  and  horizontal  shears and mixing by daytime convection to  form
  a dilution volume  many hundreds to well over a thousand km in extent and  2  or 3 km
  in depth.  Almost  all  stations reporting haze  during an episode were confined to
  this dilution volume and  most of these in that part  of the plume containing emis-
  sions that were 2  or 3 days olds.

  The dilution volume  associated with the off-season episode was of about the same
  magnitude as that  of the  summer case, but was  shallower and horizontally  more
  extensive.  Both of  these 3-day haze volumes were much smaller than the dilution
  volume associated  with the non-haze case which blanketed almost the entire  eastern
  United States.
 7.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                              b-IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                           c.  COSATI Field/Group
 3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
                       RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report}
      UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
     70
                                              20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
                                                    UNCLASSIFIED
                                                                        22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)

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