EPA-600/7-78-059
April 1978
FIELD INVESTIGATION
OF COOLING TOWER
AND COOLING POND
PLUMES
by
Ronald E. West
Chemical Engineering Department
University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado 80309
Grant No. R802893
Project Officer
Lawrence D. Winiarski
Assessment and Criteria Development Division
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does men-
tion of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommen-
dation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scientific data on
pollutants and their impact on environmental stability and human health.
Responsibility for building this data base has been assigned to EPA's Office
of Research and Development and its 15 major field installations, one of which
is the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis Laboratory is research on the
effects of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
ecosystems; the behavior, effects and control of pollutants in lake systems;
and the development of predictive models on the movement of pollutants in the
biosphere.
This report describes field measurements of plumes from a mechanical
draft cooling tower and from a cooling pond.
A. F. Bartsch
Director, CERL
iii
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Figures vi
Tables viii
Abbreviations and Symbols x
Acknowledgement xii
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 2
3. Recommendations 3
4. Experimental Plan 4
5. Cooling Tower Results 16
6. Cooling Pond Results 51
References 72
Appendix A 73
Appendix B 81
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FIGURES
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Portion of Comanche Station Plot Plan
Block diagram of NCAR Boundary Profile System
Sample recorder trace from NCAR sonde
Valmont site map
Cooling tower velocity profile
Balloon flight locations at Comanche
Run 1A, ascent and descent, March 20, 1975, at Comanche. . .
Run 1C, ascent and descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche. . .
Run 2C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche
Run 2C, horizontal traverse, March 25, 1975, at Comanche . .
Run 2C, descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche
Run 3C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche
Run 3C, horizontal traverse west to east, March 25, 1975
at Comanche
Run 3C, horizontal traverse south to north, March 25, 1975
at Comanche
Run 4C, March 25, 1975, at Comanche
Run 5C, March 25, 1975, at Comanche
Run 6C, March 25, 1975, at Comanche
Run 7C, ascent and horizontal traverse, March 25, 1975,
at Comanche
Page
5
9
11
14
19
25
28
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
39
40
41
42
Vll
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20 Run 7C, descent and ascent, March 25, 1975,
at Comamche 43
21 Run 8C, descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche 44
22 Run 9C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche 45
23 Run IOC, descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche 46
24 Run 11C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche 47
25 Runs 12C, 13C and 14C, horizontal traverses, March 25, 1975
at Comanche 49
26 Run 15C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche 5,0
27 Balloon flight locations at Valmont 55
28 Run 1, March 13, 1974, at Valmont 56
29 Run 2, March 13, 1974, at Valmont 57
30 Run 3, March 13, 1974, at Valmont 58
31 Run 4, March 13, 1974, at Valmont 59
32 MRI recorder trace, March 13, 1974, at Valmont 61
33 Run 2, March 15, 1974, at Valmont 62
34 Run 3, March 15, 1974, at Valmont 63
35 Run 4, March 15, 1974, at Valmont 64
36 Run 3, April 12, 1974, at Valmont 65
37 Run 3, April 14, 1974, at Valmont 67
38 Normalized humidity profiles at Valmont 68
Vlll
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Comanche Cooling Tower Specifications 4
2 Ambient Data, March 25, 1975 17
3 Plant Loads, Water Temperatures, Ambient Air Conditions and
Efflux Temperatures, Comanche Cooling Tower 20
4 Water Vapor Efflux Calculated from Measured Water Temperature
Changes 23
5 Water Vapor Efflux Based on Plant Load 26
6 Estimated Pond Evaporation Rates 53
7 Predicted and Measured Water Vapor Concentrations Above
Background, Cooling Ponds 69
A-l Ambient Data at Comanche 74
A-2 Ambient Data at Valmont 80
B-l Sonde Data Run 1A, 3/20/75 82
B-2 Sonde Data Run 1C, 3/25/75 84
B-3 Sonde Data Run 2C, 3/25/75 85
B-4 Sonde Data Run 3C, 3/25/75 89
B-5 Sonde Data Run 4C, 3/25/75 94
B-6 Sonde Data Run 5C, 3/25/75 95
B-7 Sonde Data Run 6C, 3/25/75 97
B-8 Sonde Data Run 7C, 3/25/75 98
B-9 Sonde Data Run 8C, 3/25/75 102
B-10 Sonde Data Run 9C, 3/25/75 103
IX
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B-ll Sonde Data Run IOC, 3/25/75 105
B-12 Sonde Data Run 11C, 3/25/75 106
B-13 Sonde Data Run 12C, 3/25/75 107
B-14 Sonde Data Run 13C, 3/25/75 108
B-15 Sonde Data Run 14C, 3/25/75 109
B-16 Sonde Data Run 15C, 3/25/75 110
B-17 Sonde Data Run 16C, 3/25/75 112
B-18 Sonde Data Run 17C, 3/25/75 113
B-19 Sonde Data Run 18C, 3/25/75 114
B-20 Sonde Data Run 19C, 3/25/75 115
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ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
MRI
NCAR
PSC
Meteorological Research Incorporated
National Center for Atmospheric Research
Public Service Company of Colorado
SYMBOLS
A
C
C
pw
f(w)
H
h
a
H
a
"b
H
c
H
e
H
P
H
s
H
da
M
m
i
m
w
mr
P
P
P*
sw
R
a
T
surface area of pond
psychrometric ratio, 0.47 mm Hg/°C
heat capacity of water
wind-speed function, defined in equation 13, in
cal/m2-s-mm Hg
humidity, g/m3
specific enthalpy of air, j/kg dry air
absorbed sky radiation
back radiation
heat lost by convection and conduction
heat lost by evaporation
heat load added to pond
absorbed solar radiation
total surface heat exchange rate per unit surface area
of pond
molecular weight of air
mass flowrate of dry air, kg/s
mass flowrate of water, kg/s
mixing ratio, g water vapor/kg dry air
total pressure
partial pressure of water vapor
vapor pressure of water in air saturated at wet-bulb
temperature
universal gas constant
Stephan-Boltzman constant
air dry-bulb temperature
xi
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T reference temperature, taken as 0°C
T pond surface temperature
o
T air wet-bulb temperature
w
T water temperature
wa
u wind speed, m/s
SUBSCRIPTS
in refers to entering stream
out refers to leaving stream
Xll
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was conceived and initiated by M. D. Henderson and Dr. R. C.
Johnson of the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Colorado.
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency sponsored the work. Dr. L.
Winiarski of the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory was the Project
Officer. His counsel and patience are much appreciated. Dr. B. Tichenor,
W. E. Frick and Dr. Winiarski had major roles in the field study at Pueblo,
Colorado. The sponsorship and assistance of the EPA is gratefully acknow-
ledged.
The Public Service Company of Colorado (PSC) allowed the field studies
to be made at their Valmont and Comanche Stations. They also made available
pertinent data for these sites and plant operating conditions. George Greene
and Dr. R. L. Pearson of PSC arranged for the on-site work. PSC personnel at
Valmont and Comanche were most cooperative and helpful during the site
studies. Dr. Loren Crow, Meteorology Consultant to PSC, supplied and reviewed
Comanche weather data. Our great appreciation is hereby extended to PSC.
The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) loaned equipment for
use in the field studies, trained University of Colorado personnel in equip-
ment operation, and assisted in reduction of the Valmont data. Messrs. R.
McBeth, D. Call and A. Morris were especially helpful. Without the assistance
of NCAR, this work could not have been done.
Drs. R. C. Johnson and W. B. Krantz of the Chemical Engineering Depart-
ment, University of Colorado, directed portions of this study. The field
work was done by graduate student M. J. Gorman at Valmont and by former
students Dr. J. W. Kaakinen, P. S. Stern and J. Frankel at Comanche.
xiii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The increasing use of electrical power has brought the United States into
a period of rapid construction of new power-generating stations. The concern
about requirements for environmental protection and the prediction of environ-
mental impacts has heightened interest in the effects of projects such as
power plants. All current-technology power plants dissipate more than half of
the energy released from the fuel to a coolant, usually water, and thence to
the surroundings. Most new power stations cool and recirculate the water to
mitigate thermal pollution effects. The cooling devices in turn impact the
environment. Most of the water-cooling systems discharge a large fraction of
the heat by evaporation in the form of water vapor. This water vapor may con-
dense in the atmosphere causing a plume which may be the most visible aspect
of a power plant. The visible plume may touch the ground causing serious
ground-fog problems. The water vapor and condensed water may affect local
weather conditions.
There have been a number of efforts to model and predict the fate of
water vapor from natural- and forced-draft cooling towers and from cooling
ponds. The efficacy of a modeling effort cannot be judged without field data
on plume behavior. There has not been, however, a corresponding effort to
obtain field data on water-vapor dispersion around cooling ponds and forced-
draft cooling towers. There have been a limited number of visual and photo-
graphic measurements of fog plumes from cooling systems, a few ground level
water-vapor-concentration measurements, and some laboratory simulations of
plume behavior. Somewhat more work has been done around natural-draft cooling
towers. In this situation, there is a distinct need for data on water-vapor
concentrations in cooling-tower and cooling-pond plumes.
The work described in this report is part of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency program to obtain field data on the behavior of plumes from
forced-draft-cooling towers and from cooling-ponds. The results presented
should be useful for testing predictive models of this behavior.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
1. The data necessary to determine plume behavior from forced-draft
cooling towers and from cooling ponds can be obtained with existing equipment.
In particular, the tethered-balloon-mounted temperature, humidity, wind-speed
and wind-direction radio sonde is an effective tool for obtaining water-vapor
profiles at wind speeds of less than 10 m/s.
2. Characterization of water-vapor-emission rates is fairly difficult.
This is especially true for cooling ponds where the emission rate must be
estimated and no independent checks are available. A method was developed
whereby water-vapor-efflux rates from a forced-draft cooling tower can be
estimated from the plant power load once the tower characteristics have been
determined.
3. A complete set of data for one day of operation of a cooling tower
has been obtained and is presented. These data include: ambient conditions;
water-vapor-efflux rates, temperatures and mixing ratios; and a number of
water-vapor profiles at various locations with respect to the tower. Partial.
sets of data are presented for five other days.
4. Ambient data, estimated water evaporation and water-vapor profiles
have been obtained and presented on portions of six days for a cooling pond.
5. Some significant features of cooling-tower and cooling-pond plumes
which must be reflected in any models have been identified.
6. The results presented should be useful for testing plume-behavior
models.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
As a result of this study the following are recommended:
1. Some modifications of the NCAR-type sonde are desirable for water-
vapor-profile work. Continuous readings from the sensors, especially of
temperature, would be useful. A simpler, more reliable humidity sensor is
highly desired. Easier and more reliable methods of sonde-location measure-
ment are needed.
2. Simultaneous, three-dimensional, water-vapor profiles should be
obtained. This would require simultaneous flight of at least two and prefer-
ably three, balloons and sondes.
3. The correlation of source-water-vapor efflux with plant load and
other variables should be established prior to water-vapor-profile measure-
ment.
4. More data, especially three-dimensional profiles and profiles under
a wider variety of ambient conditions, are necessary before definitive tests
can be made of predictive models.
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SECTION 4
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN
Cooling-tower measurements were made at the Comanche Station of the
Public Service Company of Colorado (PSC) at Pueblo, Colorado in March, 1975.
Cooling-pond measurements were made during March and April, 1974 at the
Valmont Station of the PSC near Boulder, Colorado.
COOLING TOWER
The Comanche Station of the PSC is located about 6.5 km south of Pueblo,
Colorado, about 9.5 km southwest of the Pueblo Memorial Airport, at an eleva-
tion of about 1,470 m. The Station had one 350 MW, coal-fired unit on line
at the time of the measurements. Figure 1 is a portion of the plot plan of
the Comanche Station.
The cooling tower at Comanche, was a Marley, double-cross-flow, Model
6616-4-10. The tower contained ten cells. The overall length of the tower
was 122 m (400 ft); the overall width was 22.2 m (72.7 ft). The tower was
oriented with the long axis southeast. The base of the tower was located at
1,471.5 m (4,827.7 ft) elevation. The fan deck was 12.6 m (41.3 ft) above the
base, and the tops of the fan cylinders were at 18.1 m above the base. Perti-
nent dimensions and design specifications of the tower are given in Table I.
In normal operation, water was circulated at the maximum rate and the tans
were run at maximum throughput.
TABLE 1. COMANCHE COOLING TOWER SPECIFICATIONS
Type Marley Mode] 6616-4-10
Number of Cells 10
Fan cylinder height above tower base 18.1 m
Fan cylinder diameter at top 9.24 m
Fan diameter 8.53 m
Design air flow rate per cell
(At design air density - 0.943 kg/m3) 749.5 m3/s
Design water flow rate 9.026 m3/s
Fan brake-power 139.7 kW
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N
IQQm
/Evaporation
pond
MR1
PSC
WEATHER
STATIONS
Plant
Area
Coal storage area ~4Soo
~479*K
'^ Reservoir
Figure 1. Portion of Comanche Plot Plan
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Measurements
The overall plan was to determine the ambient atmospheric conditions,
the rate of evaporation from the cooling tower and water-vapor profiles in
the atmosphere near the source. The determination of each of these types of
information is described in detail below.
Ambient Conditions
It was desired to know the ambient-air temperature and water-vapor con-
tent and the wind speed and wind direction.
There were several sources for ambient data at the Comanche site. PSC
had a weather station located about 350 m north of the cooling tower, as
marked in Figure 1, where temperature and relative humidity were measured at
1.5 m above the ground and recorded on a hydrothermograph with a seven-day
chart. Wind speed and direction were measured at 10 m height and recorded.
This station was operated for PSC by Loren W. Crow, Consulting Meteorologist,
Denver, Colorado and access to the records was obtained with PSC permission
and the cooperation of Dr. Crow.
A Meteorological Research, Inc. (MRI) weather station about 10 m north
of the PSC weather station. The MRI station recorded temperature, wind speed
and wind direction at 2 m height. A hydrothermograph with a one-day chart
was placed adjacent to the PSC hydrograph. Both the MRI station and the
hydrothermograph were obtained on loan from the National Center for Atmos-
pheric Research (NCAR), Boulder, Colorado. Both had been calibrated in the
NCAR Laboratory. The temperature sensor on the hydrothermograph was recali-
brated on-site after two days operation after it was found to be reading
erroneously. The PSC and MRI temperature charts had smallest scale divisions
of 2°F (1.1°C) and 10°F (5.6°C), respectively, and readings were estimated to
the nearest 0.5°F (0.28°C) and 1°F (0.56°C), respectively. These values are
reported to the nearest 0.1°C as converted, but the resolution is at best
±0.5°C and ±1°C, respectively. The NCAR hydrothermograph scale had smallest
divisions of 1°C and values were estimated to the nearest 0.1°C, but the
resolution is ±0.5°C.
Both the PSC and MRI wind-speed sensors recorded wind-run. The wind
speed was obtained by dividing wind-run by elapsed time. Wind-run was taken
between half hours, so the hourly values are an average from the half-hour
before to the half-hour after the hour.
A solarimeter on loan from and calibrated by NCAR was used to measure
total insolation. The solarimeter usually was located at the PSC ground sta-
tion, but occasionally was placed near the base of the cooling tower.
Temperatures were measured on probes extending from the plant stack at
heights of 76, 112 and 152 m. These temperatures were recorded and access to
these records was obtained with the cooperation of Crow. These values were
read to the nearest 0.5°F and converted to the nearest 0.1°C. At times the
wet- and dry-bulb temperatures near the cooling tower base were measured with
an Assrnan, aspirated psychrometer. This instrument was calibrated at the
University of Colorado and could be read to the nearest 0.1°C.
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The ambient pressure was measured and recorded occasionally. The normal
atmospheric pressure at Pueblo is about 665 mm Hg.
Source Measurements
The rate of water vapor emission from the source is an essential value in
any plume modeling work. In an effort to determine source values, studies
were conducted on the water-vapor-emission rates from the cooling tower.
It was desired to determine the volumetric flow rate, the water vapor
content and the temperature of the air being discharged from the cooling
tower. A rig was built to make the necessary measurements. The rig consisted
of a 5 cm diameter aluminum pipe, 6 m long. On one end of the pipe were
mounted a Gill propeller anemometer and two YSI, bead thermistors, one dry
and one wick-wetted. The thermistors were mounted in a 2.5-cm-diameter
aluminum tube which was aspirated, and the electronics were mounted externally.
The thermistor set-up was on loan from NCAR and was identical to that on the
balloon sonde described later. Wiring from these instruments passed via a
multi-wire cable through the center of the pipe and thence to a digital volt-
meter (DVM) and a recorder on the cooling-tower fan deck. The signal from the
anemometer was recorded while those from the thermistors were manually read
on the DVM and recorded.
Scaffolding was erected adjacent to the fan cylinder of the fifth cell
from the northwest corner of the tower. Two scaffolds were erected on oppo-
site sides of the fan cylinder approximately the north-northwest and
south-southeast sides. A complete diameter traverse could be made by moving
the pipe and instruments from the wall to near the center of the cylinder from
each side. Readings were taken on only the one cell of the tower because the
scaffolding was required. Readings were taken at five or six "equal-area
points" on each radius.
Water temperatures frequently were measured in the inlet pipe and at
various points in the distribution system on the top of the cooling tower and
in the bottom collection basin and outlet of the tower with a metal thermo-
meter supplied and calibrated by PSC (the calibration was checked against the
Assman thermometer). The thermometer had 2°F divisions and was read to the
nearest 0.5°F (0.3°C). Also, PSC personnel read and recorded the temperatures
at the condenser inlet and outlet to the nearest 0.5°F (0.3°C), several times
daily and they made available those values. Hourly values of the plant load
were obtained from PSC records. The circulating water flowrate was obtained
from the capacity of the circulating pumps in the condenser-feed line and was
not measured.
The inlet-water temperature was found to be the same at all locations in
the tower. The outlet-water temperature was the same within 1°F at the two
ends of the tower. Values of water temperatures read at the cooling tower
tended to be 1 to 2°F lower than corresponding values read by PSC personnel
at the condenser inlet and outlet. However, the change in water temperature
agreed within 1°F (0.5°C) as measured by PSC and by our team. PSC water
temperature values have been used almost exclusively in the analysis of the
cooling tower because PSC had a more complete set of values, especially at
the times when balloon flights were being made.
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Near the end of the measurement program it was discovered that the sig-
nals from the wet and dry thermistors on the cooling-tower probe were not good
and one set of readings was taken at the edge of the fan cylinder with the
Assman psychrometer. Also, the exit-air-temperature records taken early in
the program were lost when blown away by the wind. So, very few data on the
exit-air temperature were available.
Balloon Sonde Measurements
Measurements of conditions in the atmosphere wind speed and direction,
pressure, and wet- and dry-bulb temperature were made with the NCAR
Boundary-Layer Profile (BP) system. The BP system used at Comanche is
described below. Advanced systems of this type are now commercially avail-
able.
The sensors were calibrated by NCAR in their laboratory. The thermistor
readings were checked in the field against the Assman psychrometer and gave
excellent agreement.
The system consisted of a balloon, winch, telemetry package and ground
station. The balloon was a Follmer Model 115, dirigible-shaped with three
inflated stabilizer fins. Its length was 4.9 m, maximum diameter 1.4m, and
total displacement 3.7 m the largest permitted without special FAA waiver.
The balloon was constructed of 2 mil polyethylene and had an internal dilation
system to permit a 760 m elevation change. Net static lift at sea level was
1.8 kg. Using 100 Ib-test nylon cord for tether, a 935 g telemetry package
could be lifted to 610 m in calm conditions and to less than 245 m in 9 m/s
winds. The winch was developed at NCAR and consisted of a drum with level
wind, driven directly from a half-inch, heavy-duty drill. An SCR speed con-
troller permitted smooth control of the line at speeds from .3 to 3 m/s. A
line footage indicator aided in determining balloon-ascent characteristics.
Figure 2 depicts the telemetry package blocks (1) through (15) and
the ground station blocks (16) through (19). The telemetry package used
NiCd batteries as power supply. A precision regulator provided +6 and -6 V
for the telemetry system and sensors. Pressure was measured by an aneroid
cell whose output was linearized by a linear voltage differential transformer.
Both dry- and wet-bulb temperatures were detected by YSI bead thermistors
whose outputs were linearized. The two thermistors were shielded in a tube
at the top of the telemetry package and were aspirated by a tiny B.C. motor
and fan. The wet-bulb thermistor was wetted by a tissue wick leading to a
small water reservoir. Wind was detected by a 3-cup anemometer with two
small attached magnets that closed a reed switch twice for each cup revolu-
tion; the linearizer converted the frequency of switch closures to a D.C.
voltage. Wind direction was determined by a compass (not shown) which was
clamped to a calibrated resistor for each reading.
The linearized sensor outputs, in the range 0-100 mV, and a sync pulse
were fed to a time multiplexer. The sync-pulse amplitude was determined by
an internal 100 mV reference signal and therefore represented full-scale-
sensor output. Each data frame from the multiplexer consisted of a full-
scale-sync-pulse followed by a zero reference and then seven pairs of data
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0)
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pulses and zero references. Output from the multiplexer was converted to a
voltage output in the range 0 to 1.5 V. A voltage-controlled oscillator
operating on IRIG channel 8 (3 kHz ± 7.5%) converted the 0 to 1.5 V signals
linearly to the audio tone necessary for telemetry transmission. An FM radio
transmitter operated at 403 mHz and delivered a nominal power of 50 mW to a
pair of crossed-dipole antennas fed 90° out of phase, thus providing circular
polarization.
The telemetry signal was received at the ground receiver by a helical
antenna. The receiver output was fed to a discriminator that converted audio
frequency to an output in the range ±1 to ±2.5 V and thence to an Esterline
Angus model S 601-S Speed Servo strip chart recorder.
The NCAR balloon had stable flight characteristics at low wind speeds.
At speeds above about 10 m/s, however, roll of the balloon tended to swing the
instrument package wildly and safe flights could not be made.
The radio-receiving station was set up at a convenient location, and
constant communications were maintained between the crew with hand-held CB-
radio units.
Frequent high winds at Comanche limited the data-taking to one flight on
March 20 and nineteen flights on March 25. During the last 16 runs on March
25, the EPA radio sonde was also attached to the NCAR balloon. Late on the
day of March 25, 1975, the tether line snapped and the balloon and sondes were
irretrievably lost.
A sample pulse-record of the sonde data is shown in Figure 3. Each data
frame lasted thirty seconds and consisted of: the full-scale sync-pulse
followed by pressure, wind speed, dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature,
wind direction and, again, wind speed pulses. Each sensor-signal pulse lasted
for about 1.5 s.
The sonde data from Pueblo were hand-reduced to the corresponding physi-
cal readings. Baseline drift was not a serious problem, when some drift did
occur it was compensated as readings were taken off the recorder chart. A
template was constructed for each variable so that pulse heights were read off
of the strip chart as physical values.
The pressure-sensor reading was a relative value, i.e., full-scale on
the recorder chart corresponded to a pressure change of 100 millibar (mb).
At a fixed atmospheric pressure, pressure decreases with altitude by 1 mb per
10 m, hence the change in pressure as the balloon ascended or descended could
be used to determine its height. There were 50 scale divisions on the re-
corder-chart paper, so each division corresponded to a 2 mb change in pressure
or 20 m change in height. Values were read to the nearest 0.5 mb (5 m), so
the precision of the height determinations is approximately ±5 m. The abso-
lute pressure at the sonde was determined by setting the sonde reading equal
to the absolute pressure read with the altimeter at times when the sonde was
at ground level. Due to variations in ground level, there is approximately
±0.5 mb (5 m) error in the absolute height so determined. This, combined with
the relative error, suggests that overall there was about ±10 m uncertainty in
10
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g
-TIME
*
15
-80
-60-03
u
00
LL
-20
Zero One Data
Reference Frame
Figure 3. Sample recorder trace from
NCAR sonde.
11
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fixing the height from the pressure. With this in mind, the hand-reduced
values of sonde altitude were estimated from the pressure data as follows.
The absolute pressure was established by interpolation of pressures measured
with the altimeter. Not all flights were started at ground level, so the
sonde pressure at ground level at the time closest the flight time was set
equal to the interpolated ground-level barometric pressure. Other pressure
readings from the sonde were then converted to absolute-pressure values. The
height above ground level at any time was then determined as 10 m for each mb
difference in pressure from ground level. These heights were plotted versus
time and a smooth curve drawn through these points. Heights were read from
the curve to the nearest 5 m. Generally the data points fit a smooth curve
to well within ±5 m, but occasionally there were pressure fluctuations
corresponding to as much as ±10 m height which could have been due to actual
bouncing of the balloon or due to erroneous signals or reading of the signals.
In these cases, the smoothed curve was used. It is estimated that the eleva-
tion values are within ±10 m of the true values and that the absolute pres-
sures are within ±1 mb (0.76 mm Hg) of the true pressures.
The balloon location was determined independently with theodolites. Two
theodolites were in fixed, known positions relative to each other and to the
cooling tower. The operators tracked the balloon and, on a given signal,
stopped tracking and read the elevation and inclination angles. From these
values the distance of the balloon from the cooling tower, and its height,
were calculated. The height values so determined usually agreed within ±10 m
with those determined from the pressure. Sometimes these values did not
agree so well, but this was found to be due to poor time synchronization of
the readings. When the time sync was adjusted, agreement was quite good.
Thus the height values reported should be good to within ±10 m and the rela-
tive heights in any given flight should be good to1 within ±5 m.
Except for wind speed, all sensors gave essentially a constant reading
for the 1.5 s of the recorded pulse. The wind-speed reading often changed
during a single 1.5-s pulse, however, sometimes by as much as a factor of 2.
This was due to fast changes in the wind speed and the rapid response of the
anemometer. When this occurred, an average of the wind speed during the pulse
was read and recorded. Full scale on the recorder chart was 10 m/s in wind
velocity, so each scale division was 0.2 m/s. Values were read to the nearest
0.1 m/s, but when the wind speed was changing, the average was probably only
accurate to ±0.2 m/s.
Full scale on the chart equalled 360° in wind direction, so each chart
division corresponded to 1.2°. Values were read to the nearest 3° and the
resolution error is about ±5°. Directions are relative to magnetic north
(= 0° = 360°).
Full scale on the chart corresponded to 25°C of temperature. Each scale
division was 0.5°C. Different temperature ranges were available via a selec-
tor switch on the sonde. Temperature values were read with great care to the
nearest 0.1°C, and the resolution error is considered to be 0.1°C. Both the
wet-bulb temperature and the difference between the wet- and dry-bulb are
important in the calculation of humidity. Since the temperatures were read in
pairs, in exactly the same way, it is believed that the uncertainty in the
12
-------
temperature difference is also ±0.1°C.
The mixing ratio, mr, g of water vapor per kg of dry air, was calculated
from the formula (1),
mr = (622 p)/(P - p) (1)
The water-vapor partial pressure, p, in mm Hg, is given by (2)
p = p* - 0.00066 (1 + 0.00115 T ) (P) (T - T ) (2)
sw w w
Values of the saturation vapor pressure of water were obtained from the
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (3).
Errors in the calculated mixing ratios result from errors in the absolute
value of the wet-bulb temperature and from errors in the difference between
the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures. At 0°C an error of 0.1°C in the wet-bulb
temperature, if the temperature difference is correct, results in a 1.4 per-
cent error in the saturation mixing ratio. An error of 0.1°C in the tempera-
ture difference, if the wet-bulb temperature is correct, causes an error of
about 1 percent in the saturation mixing ratio. The percentage error
increases as the relative humidity decreases. For example, at 0°C, 30 percent
relative humidity, the mixing-ratio errors due to a 0.1°C temperature or
temperature difference error are about 5 and 20 percent, respectively. It is
estimated that the mixing ratio values determined by wet- and dry-bulb ther-
mometry should be within ±10 percent of the correct values for the conditions
of this work. Changes in mixing ratio during a single flight should be well
within this range.
COOLING POND
Cooling-pond measurements were made at the Valmont Station of PSC,
located about 3 km east of Boulder, Colorado at an elevation of about 1,600 m.
There was one 185 MW, coal- and gas-fired unit operating at Valmont during
the measurement period. Figure 4 is a map of the vicinity of the Valmont
Station. Water cooling is accomplished by cooling ponds. There are three
lakes at Valmont, but during the measurement period only two, Leggett Owen
Reservoir and Hillcrest Lake, were in the cooling loop. Water was not circu-
lated through the larger Valmont Lake. The hot water was discharged into
Owen Reservoir and the cool water was taken from Hillcrest Lake. The eleva-
tion at the lakes' surface is about 1,593 m.
Ambient Conditions
At Valmont only the MRI weather station was available for measurements
of ambient temperature, wind speed and wind direction. Ambient humidity was
determined from frequent readings with the Assman Psychrometer. Ambient
pressure was also read at various times. There were no corroborating ambient
measurements in the Valmont program, except for readings from the balloon
sonde when it was outside the influence of the ponds. Insolation was not
measured at Valmont.
13
-------
N
VALMONT
RESERVOIR
LEGGETT
OWEN
RESERVO
HILLCREST
LAKE
Power
Plant
1 km
Figure 4. Valmont site map.
14
-------
Source Data
No direct measurements were made of the water conditions in the cooling
ponds at Valmont. Water-vapor-source data consisted of condenser-inlet and
outlet temperatures and water flowrates recorded and furnished by PSC. The
temperature-difference values should be accurate to within ±0.5°C. The uncer-
tainty in the water flowrates is not known.
Balloon Sonde Measurements
The BP system used at Valmont was identical to that described above for
Comanche, except that it did not include a wind-direction sensor. The sonde
data collected at Valmont were reduced on the NCAR-computer system.
The data reduction procedures and calculation methods were as described
above as follows. For machine reduction, pulse heights and time were read
from the chart via a Bendix Datagrid and processed on a digital computer.
At Valmont, balloon flights were made at marked locations whose positions were
later fixed with a theodolite. The computer reduction of the pressure
(height) data did not smooth the values as did the hand-reduction. However,
for pressure and the other variables, when the rate-of-change of the variable
appeared smooth, not all points were read and an internal interpolation
routine was used.
15
-------
SECTION 5
COOLING TOWER RESULTS
Measured values, reduction of these values and the results obtained, and
the reliability of these results are presented in this section.
AMBIENT DATA
Reliable data on the ambient atmospheric conditions are essential in any
effort to model the behavior of plumes injected into the atmosphere. At
Comanche there were at least two sources of each ambient measurement (except
insolation) so it is possible to have rather high confidence in the values
reported at most times.
Ambient data for all days on which field measurements were made, March
18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, and 26, 1975, are presented in detail in Appendix A.
The values tabulated are: time-of-day; temperature measured by NCAR, PSC and
MRI hydrothermographs; temperature measured by Assman psychrometer dry-bulb;
temperatures measured on PSC stack at 76, 112 and 152 m; wind speed and wind
direction from MRI at 2 m and from PSC at 10 m; relative humidity from NCAR
and PSC hydrothermographs and mixing ratios from their average and from the
Assman; and insolation.
The temperature values from the near-ground sensors do not always agree.
In addition to differences in calibration, there are several possible reasons
for this, including: the NCAR, PSC and MRI values were taken at the PSC
weather station while the Assman readings were taken near the base of the
cooling tower; the scale resolutions of the several sensors were not the same
as discussed earlier; and the times on the recorder charts were not precisely
synchronized. The NCAR readings on March 18 and 19 are definitely in error,
the instrument was recalibrated against the Assman on March 20 and from then
on it is probably the most accurate. Generally the readings from the three
ground-temperature sensors agree within ±0.5°C of their average, but in a few
cases the discrepancy is larger. It is believed that the average values are
within ±1°C of the correct value. It is recommended that the average of the
temperature values in Table A-l be used.
Temperatures from the stack sensors generally are consistent with ground
temperatures although it is noted that the sensor at 76 m may have been in-
fluenced by its proximity to the plant buildings. Crow (personal communica-
tion) has suggested that this sensor may tend to read high for this reason,
especially when the ambient temperature is low. The absolute values should
be well within ±1°C but differences, hence the lapse rate, could easily be
off by a factor of 2.
16
-------
The agreement between the two wind-speed sensors is quite good but not
precise. It is recommended that they be averaged.
Wind direction values are hourly averages from PSC and MRI. The agree-
ment is generally excellent within ±10° most of the time, within ±30° vir-
tually all the time, and certainly always within the variability of the wind
itself. The values are relative to magnetic north. It is recommended that
they be averaged.
Relative-humidity values generally agreed quite well when the relative
humidity was less than 50 percent (which was most of the time). At higher
relative humidities the agreement is not so good. In most cases the agreement
is fair and these values usually agree well with values at other locations
from the Assman psychrometer and the balloon sonde. It is recommended that
the average relative humidity value be used.
In Table 2 are summarized the ambient data for March 25, 1975, the day
Time
0700
0730
0800
0830
0900
0930
1000
1030
1100
1130
1200
1230
1300
1330
1400
1430
1500
1530
1600
1630
1700
1730
1800
Avg.
Temp, °C
-6.2
-6.4
-5.5
-3.6
-2.7
-1.0
-0.8
0.0
+ 1.1
4.6
3.6
4.4
5.1
6.1
6.7
8.0
8.3
10.6
10.6
11.1
11.3
10.8
10.2
TABLE 2.
Pressure,
mm Hg
670.3
670.3
670.3
670.3
670.3
668.8
666.5
665.0
663.5
662.8
662.7
AMBIENT
Mixing
Ratio,
g/kg
1.37
1.32
1.42
1.57
1.64
1.78
1.77
1.83
1.95
2.07
2.05
2.11
2.22
2.32
2.35
2.49
2.47
2.71
2.53
2.62
2.65
2.56
2.46
DATA, MARCH
Avg. wind
speed m/s
1.5
1.1
1.2
1.9
2.0
3.0
2.3
1.2
2.0
3.2
4.8
5.5
25, 1975.
Avg. wind
direction
325
285
30
15
40
80
70
15
330
10
310
285
Sonde
Wind speed,
m/s
3.4
3.4
0.7
3.0
2.3
2.6
3.0
3.9
3.7
4.0
4.1
4.0
2.5
2.0
1.4
1.7
2.9
3.0
4.6
5.0
6.5
Dir.
340
21
9
13
43
36
65
61
58
82
72
82
46
43
42
1
353
329
353
332
300
17
-------
most of the balloon data were obtained. The data presented are pressure,
average temperature, mixing ratio, average wind speed and wind direction.
Wind speeds and directions from the balloon sonde are included for comparison.
WATER VAPOR SOURCE
The source of water vapor above background was the water evaporated in
the cooling tower. Droplets condensed due to supersaturation in the tower
and "drift" (entrained water drops) also represent potential sources of vapor
downwind from the tower. It is important that this source term be known in
any modeling effort.
Normal operating procedure, in effect at all times when our measurements
were being made, was to operate the water-circulating pumps at full capacity.
The design capacity was 9.026 m3/s. The water flowrate was not measured, so
the design value has been assumed to be correct and has been used in all sub-
sequent analysis.
The design capacity of each of the ten fans on the cooling tower was
749.5 m3/s. Normal operating procedure was for all fans to operate at design
capacity. This was in effect at all times when measurements were being made.
The velocity traverse results are shown in Figure 5. A striking bi-modal
velocity profile can be observed. Near the center of the fan cylinder, above
the fan hub, the gas velocity was slightly negative (i.e., downward). The
velocities were quite reproducible. On one occasion, the probe was left in
one position for four hours and the average velocity remained constant within
the readibility of the recorder chart throughout that period. Wind speed and
direction may have had a slight effect on the velocity profiles as can be
seen by comparing the points for March 21 and March 26. It does not appear
that the total volumetric flow was changed by the wind within the accuracy of
the measurements. There were no apparent effects of plant load or ambient
conditions on the velocity profile.
Values taken from the curve of Figure 5 at six equal-area points on each
radius were averaged to give an average exit velocity of 10.15 m/s and a
volumetric flowrate of gas out of the cylinder of 711.7 m3/s per cell. This
value is an excellent agreement (5 percent lower) with the design value of
749.5 m3/s. The measured value, 711.7 m3/s per cell, 7117 m3/s for the tower,
has been used in the subsequent calculations.
Plant loads, water temperatures, ambient air temperature and mixing
ratio, and a few measured efflux-air temperatures are given in Table 3 for
the days of interest. It may be noted that the outlet water temperature at
1400 hours on March 24 is inconsistent with the other values that day. It is
suspected that the value recorded as 65°F (18.3°C) should be 60.5°F (15.8°C).
Had good values for the efflux-air wet- and dry-bulb temperatures been
obtained, the mixing ratios and enthalpies of the efflux air could have been
calculated. The consistency of these values then could have been checked
against an enthalpy balance around the cooling tower. However, this could not
be done because good efflux-air-temperature values were not obtained. As a
18
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consequence, a different approach had to be taken to estimate the efflux-air
conditions.
An energy balance around the cooling tower is as follows:
energy water in + energy air in + energy gains - energy losses
= energy water out + energy air out (3)
It was assumed that energy losses and gains were negligible compared to the
changes in energy of the air and water streams. The energy input of the fans,
for example, was calculated and was negligible. The energies associated with
blowdown and make-up were assumed negligible, since their flowrates and
temperatures were not available. Further, the fact that the measured tempera-
ture change through the cooling tower agreed with that across the condenser,
confirms this assumption to within the accuracy of the temperature measure-
ments .
Thus, from equation (3),
enthalpy change water (in - out) = enthalpy change air (out - in) (4)
which can be written as
m . C (T . - T .) - m C (T - T .)
w,in pw wa,in ref w,out pw wa,out ref
= m, (h - h . ) (5)
da a, out a, in
Rearranging equation (5) yields
h - h . = - C (T . ) - C (T ) (6)
a, out a, in m pw wa,in m pw wa,out
del del
With known flowrates, water temperatures and ambient-air conditions, equation
(6) could be solved for the enthalpy of the air out. However, the water
flowrate was not constant (due to evaporation) nor was the dry-air mass flow-
rate known (the wet-exit-air volumetric flowrate was known) . The solution
thus was iterative.
Equation (6) was solved first by assuming the water flowrate to be con-
stant at the known outlet value and the exit air was assumed to be dry air,
i.e., the dry-air flowrate was assumed to be that of the exit air. The
enthalpy of the exit air was then calculated by equation (6) . Then the
assumption was made that the exit air was saturated with water vapor. For
saturated air, the enthalpy and mixing ratio are unique functions of tempera-
ture, so with this assumption the temperature and the mixing ratio were deter
mined from the calculated exit-air enthalpy. The values so obtained allowed
estimation of the change in water flowrate due to evaporation and of the dry-
air flowrate. With these new estimates, the procedure was repeated to give
new values for the conditions of the exit air. Further iterations were not
21
-------
justified, since the changes in the calculated values (less than one percent)
were considerably less than the errors involved in the measurements and the
assumptions in the procedure.
Values of the exit-air temperatures and mixing ratios calculated as
described, and the total water-vapor efflux are given in Table 4.
The assumption that the efflux air was saturated was examined in several
ways. It was observed that under most conditions in the field, water con-
densed in the efflux air just above the top of the fan cylinder. This indi-
cated that the efflux air must have been close to saturation. The one set of
measurements made with the Assman psychrometer, at 1300 hours on March 26, at
the cylinder edge gave equal wet- and dry-bulb temperatures, establishing
saturation at that time. However, the temperatures on the two sides of the
fan cylinder differed by 2°C (21.5°C on one side and 23.5°C on the other) so
the uniformity of the conditions of the efflux air, which has been assumed
throughout, was not established. The average of the measured temperatures
was 22.5°C. No value could be calculated at 1300 hours, but the calculated
efflux temperature was 22.9°C at 1000 hours and 25.8°C at 1400 hours. So, the
values obtained by the calculation procedure are consistent with the measured
value.
The efflux-air temperatures, calculated by assuming saturation, were
compared with the temperature of the inlet water measured at the same time.
The calculated efflux temperatures were always less than those of the entering
water, as they must be. Further, the entering-water temperature minus the
calculated efflux-air temperature was usually about 4°C (range 2 to 6°C,
average 4°C). The enthalpy of moist air is almost completely independent of
dry-bulb temperature for a given wet-bulb temperature. Thus, if the calcu-
lated efflux-air enthalpies are correct, the temperature calculated by
assuming saturation is the wet-bulb temperature of the efflux air, even if the
air is not saturated. The efflux-air dry-bulb temperature may not exceed the
inlet-water temperature, however, so the maximum error in the mixing ratio
(if the efflux-air dry-bulb temperature equalled the inlet-water temperature)
may be estimated. This was done and it was found that if the dry-bulb
temperature was 4°C higher than that calculated, the mixing ratio calculated
assuming saturation would be high by 6.5 percent.
The other major sources of error in this procedure are: water-tempera-
ture-measurement errors, and the liquid and gas flowrates used. Temperature-
measurements errors presumably are random. The measured gas flowrate was 5
percent less than the design value, so it may be slightly low (which would
cause the calculated efflux-air temperature to be high). The error in the
water flowrate is unknown, but neglecting heat losses, makeup, and blowdown
would tend to make calculated mixing ratios too high. Thus, the tendency is
for the assumptions made to give efflux-air temperatures and mixing ratios
higher than they should be. It is concluded that the calculated values should
be within 10 percent of the true values and that they tend to be higher than
the true values.
A procedure was needed so that the efflux-air conditions could be esti-
mated for times when tower conditions were not being measured, but balloon
22
-------
TABLE 4. WATER VAPOR EFFLUX CALCULATED FROM MEASURED
WATER TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Date
3/18
3/19
3/20
3/21
3/24
3/25
3/26
Time
0600
1000
1400
1800
0600
1000
1800
0600
1000
1700
1800
0600
1000
1400
1600
1800
0600
1000
1400
1800
0600
1800
2200
0600
1000
1400
Calculated Efflux Air Conditions
Total Water Water Vapor Rate
Mixing Vapor Rate, Above Ambient
Temp °C Ratio g/kg 105 g/s 105 g/s
18.9
22.9
25.5
24.4
23.7
25.2
26.9
24.5
26.1
26.0
26.9
24.7
27.3
26.7
25.9
26.8
20.0
23.5
22.0
26.0
14.5
24.8
24.7
23.5
22.9
25.8
15.9
20.4
24.0
22.4
21.4
23.5
26.1
22.6
24.8
24.7
26.1
22.8
26.8
25.8
24.5
26.0
17.0
21.1
19.3
24.7
12.0
23.0
22.8
21.1
20.4
24.4
1.156
1.462
1.701
1.591
1.526
1.663
1.854
1.605
1.766
1.737
1.828
1.616
1.878
1.809
1.726
1.821
1.237
1.506
1.387
1.738
0.896
1.630
1.617
1.505
1.462
1.722
1.083
1.211
1.531
1.435
1.333
1.472
1.634
1.392
1.521
1.563
1.632
1.340
1.619
1.599
1.529
1.653
1.149
1.406
1.272
1.611
0.791
1.467
1.454
1.319
1.283
1.496
23
-------
flights were being made. It was expected that the amount of energy dissipated
at the cooling tower would be closely related to the plant power-load. The
change in specific enthalpy of the air through the cooling tower is directly
proportional to the energy dissipated (with constant dry-air flowrate). So,
the calculated change in the air specific enthalpy was plotted versus the
plant load as shown in Figure 6. The central line is a line fitted-by-eye to
the points. The two lines bounding the central line are calculated lines
based upon the water-temperature difference 0.5°C greater or less than that
corresponding to the average line. This reflects the range of uncertainty in
the air-enthalpy change due to the likely error in the measurement of water-
temperature change. Only five of the twenty-six data points fall outside that
band and only one, that at a load of 338 MW is excessively far off. That
particular point was included even though it is suspected that the water-
temperature reading may be in error (that is the point at 1400 hours on March
24 mentioned earlier). This result suggests that within the probable error
of the water-temperature-difference values, the air-enthalpy change can be
estimated from the plant load.
Given a value of air-enthalpy change, the temperature and mixing ratio of
the efflux air (assuming saturation) may be determined as described above.
This was done using the central line of Figure 6. Comparison of the water-
vapor-efflux values by this method with those obtained by energy balance
(Table 4) shows that, except for the questionable point at 338 mW, the agree-
ment is excellent. Thus, it was concluded that this method could be used to
estimate the total- and the above-ambient water-vapor-efflux rate at any time
the plant load was known. This was done for all the time periods when field
measurements were being made and these results are presented in Table 5.
Unfortunately, there is no absolute check on the values of the efflux-air
temperatures, mixing ratios, the total water-vapor-efflux rates, and the
rates-of-water-vapor-efflux above ambient. The procedure which was developed
and used here gives results which are consistent with the available data, and
it is recommended that the values in Table 5 be used. The values estimated
from the plant load are certainly within the accuracy of the available data
and it is recommended that, for consistency, these values be used even for
those times when measured water-temperature changes are available.
BALLOON SONDE RESULTS
An adequate test of plume models requires data on the spatial distribu-
tion of water vapor in the atmosphere downwind from the source. Such data
were obtained from the sensors on the balloon sonde. These results are pre-
sented and discussed in this section. Related data obtained by the EPA team
are presented elsewhere (4).
Figure 7 shows the approximate location of each of the balloon flights on
the Comanche plot plan.
The reduced data from the sonde sensors included: pressure, dry-bulb
temperature, wet-bulb temperature, wind speed and wind direction. These data
are tabulated in detailed in Appendix B. For convenience, the values were
reduced to point values of the sonde height, the dry-bulb temperature and the
24
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TABLE 5. WATER VAPOR EFFLUX BASED ON PLANT LOAD
Date
3/19
3/20
3/21
3/24
Time
0600
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1800
0600
0900
1000
1200
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
0600
0900
1000
1100
1200
1400
1600
1800
0600
0800
1000
1100
1200
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
Temp °C
23.8
25.6
26.0
26.2
26.5
26.7
27.0
27.3
26.9
23.9
25.4
25.8
26.8
26.9
26.9
26.8
26.8
26.8
25.0
26.6
27.1
26.7
26.2
26.1
25.9
26.5
20.5
21.3
23.7
24.2
25.3
25.7
26.0
26.1
26.1
Calculated Efflux Air Conditions
Water Vapor
Mixing Total Water Above Ambient
Ratio g/kg Vapor 105 g/s 105 g/s
21.5
24.1
24.8
25.0
25.5
25.8
26.4
26.8
26.1
21.7
23.8
24.4
26.0
26.1
26.1
26.0
26.0
26.0
23.2
25.7
26.5
25.8
25.0
24.8
24.5
25.5
17.5
18.5
21.4
22.1
23.7
24.2
24.7
24.8
24.8
1.533
1.705
1.744
1.756
1.788
1.805
1.846
1.871
1.854
1.541
1.680
1.718
1.820
1.826
1.826
1.827
1.829
1.821
1.645
1.801
1.857
1.807
1.756
1.739
1.726
1.786
1.273
1.335
1.528
1.570
1.704
1.705
1.737
1.743
1.745
1.341
1.514
1.547
1.567
1.599
1.609
1.643
1.668
1.634
1.328
1.454
1.493
1.596
1.651
1.665
1.665
1.653
1.625
1.368
1.563
1.598
1.590
1.560
1.529
1.529
1.618
1.186
1.263
1.428
1.492
1.589
1.606
1.632
1.638
1.619
Plant
Load, MW
296
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
300
316
315
300
302
298
302
300
301
302
305
335
335
336
334
334
307
333
282
308
346
318
335
338
352
358
359
360
(continued)
26
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Date Time
3/25 0600
0900
1000
1100
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2200
3/26 0600
0900
1000
1200
1300
1400
1500
1700
Temp °C
13.5
22.4
22.8
23.5
24.4
25.0
25.2
25.4
25.6
25.3
25.1
24.5
23.4
21.3
21.4
23.3
24.0
24.6
27.0
26.6
Calculated Efflux Air Conditions
Water Vapor
Mixing Total Water Above Ambient
Ratio g/kg Vapor 105 g/s 105 g/s
11.1
19.7
20.3
21.1
22.4
23.2
23.5
23.8
24.1
23.7
23.4
22.6
21.0
18.5
18.6
20.9
21.8
22.7
26.4
25.6
0.829
1.413
1.453
1.505
1.590
1.641
1.660
1.680
1.699
1.680
1.654
1.603
1.498
1.335
1.333
1.492
1.550
1.602
1.846
1.794
0.724
1.291
1.325
1.362
1.433
1.471
1.484
1.503
1.516
1.517
1.491
1.440
1.305
1.111
1.154
1.278
1.323
1.376
1.615
1.542
Plant
Load, MW
171
332
336
336
336
338
336
327
327
328*
330
330**
330
282
283
285
283
285
340
338
* - interpolated
** - extrapolated
27
-------
/
jCoal
/storagei
area
Ascent
Descent
Horizontal
Figure 7. Balloon flight locations at Comanche,
28
-------
mixing ratio, and these are presented in the form of plots of the temperature
and the mixing ratio versus sonde height (or, in the case of horizontal tra-
verses, versus time) in Figures 8 through 26. Some features of each of the
profiles are discussed.
Profiles
Figure 8 shows the temperatures and mixing ratios obtained on a vertical-
ascent and -descent flight on March 20, 1975. Shown for comparison are
ground-level and stack-sensor temperatures, the adiabatic-lapse rate and the
background mixing ratio. The air-dry-bulb-temperature values as measured on
the ascent and the descent are within ±0.5°C of each other at a given height
and the lapse rate is near the adiabatic value, except perhaps for the lowest
30 m. All the mixing-ratio values from the sonde are greater than the ambient
value by more than experimental error, indicating that the sonde was in the
vapor plume. Mixing ratio values at a given height on ascent and descent
differ from each other by more than experimental error. Close examination of
the wind-speed and wind-direction data from the sonde showed that while the
wind direction was essentially constant at 282 ± 21° (the ± values are ± one
standard deviation), there was a significant change in wind speed from
5.55 ± 0.93 m/s to 3.48 ± 0.84 m/s while the balloon was sitting at the top
of the profile (before and after 1110 hours). This presumably was the cause
of the significant change in mixing ratio.
Figures 9 through 26 represent flights made on March 25, 1975, time time-
of-day is given on the graph.
Figure 9 shows a flight, run 1C, made close to the tower at a time when
the tower was emitting a visible plume. Indeed, at times the balloon was
within the visible plume and the high turbulence therein caused roll of the
balloon and finally resulted in puncture of the balloon by the sonde antenna.
There is a large excess of the mixing ratio above ambient. Above 80 m height,
the temperatures are quite reproducible on ascent and descent, but below 80 m
they are rather different. The mixing ratios are less reproducible, but show
trends similar to the temperature.
Figures 10, 11 and 12 show the ascent, horizontal traverse and descent
made in a single run, run 2C. Between ground level and 110 m height on the
ascent, Figure 10, the wet-bulb sensor was not functioning properly so there
are no mixing-ratio data. The mixing ratio exceeded ambient for the entire
duration of this flight.
Figures 13, 14 and 15 represent the ascent and two horizontal traverses
in run 3C. Near the end of the north traverse, Figure 15, the balloon entered
the visible plume and once again the extreme turbulence caused balloon roll
and the puncture of the balloon by the sonde antenna. This and the earlier
observation indicate the high degree of turbulence in the visible plume. Out-
side the visible plume the air was calm, the bouncing and rolling commenced
immediately upon entering the visible plume. These observations suggest that
a plume model must account for the high degree of turbulence within the visi-
ble plume.
(Text continues on page 38)
29
-------
160
120
I
O
u
I
80
40
Time, MDT -
Ambient
at 1100 -
Sonde
averages-
Temperatures-
Adiabatic
1100 to 1121
wind speed 3.6 m/s,
direction 300°
wind speed 4.5 m/s 1100 to 1110,
3.5 m/s 1110 to 1121, direction 282C
sonde
+ ground and stack at 1100
X ground and stack at 1130
Ambient
Start
15 16 17 18
DRY BULB
TEMPERATURE, °C
\
End
3 4
MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 8. Run 1A, ascent and descent, March 20, 1975,
at Comanche.
30
-------
u
c
o
u
c
-------
160
120
I
O
Lu
I
80
40
Time, MDT
Ambient
at 0800
Sonde
averages
Temperatures-
- 0736 to 0750
wind speed 1.0 m/s,
direction 280°
wind speed 1.2 m/s,
direction 6
sonde
+ stack at 0730
-5 -4 -3 -2
TEMPERATURE, °C
Ambient
1 23
MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 10. Run 2C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
32
-------
6'
o
o
VD
CN
O
O
eg
CJ
c
\ .
E -
CSl
01
CO
I §
UJ
C
O
N
O
cs
C
t>0
rl
33
-------
200
160
120
LL)
I
40
Time, MDT - 0812 to 0818
Ambient at 0800 - wind speed 1.0 m/s, direction 280C
Sonde averages - wind speed 2.8 m/s, direction 57
Temperatures
sonde
+ stack and ground at 0830
Adiabatic
Ambient'
I
_L
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 ' 1 2 3
TEMPERATURE, °C MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 12. Run 2C, descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
34
-------
200
160
120
80
I
Q
LJ
40
Adiabatic
f I r » |
Time, MDT - 0852 to 0900
Ambient at 0900 - wind speed 1.1 m/s,
direction 30
Sonde wind speed 0.1 m/s,
averages - direction 43
Temperatures - sonde
+ ground and
stack at 0900
-4 -3 -2 -1
TEMPERATURE, °C
0
Ambient
i
2 3
MIXING RATIO, g kg
Figure 13. Run 3C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
35
-------
IL A
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k s
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36
-------
U
LU n
ct: u
D
a:
UJ
o_
-1
UJ
i- -2
Temperature at 76m on stack-
at 0930
5.4°
01
O"
i-
ft:
O
X 2
Horizontal traverse at 85m
Inside visible
de-_
scen* r
Ambient-
Time, MDT -
Ambient
at 1000 -
Sonde
averages -
0930 to 0948
wind speed 1.9 m/s
direction 30
wind speed 3.0 m/s
direction 13
I
_L
0
Figure 15.
8 12 16
TIME, min
Run 3C, horizontal traverse south to north,
March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
37
-------
There are other features of run 3C worthy of note. Throughout this run,
whether within the visible plume or not, the ambient mixing ratio was exceeded
at the sonde location. Upon entering the visible plume, the mixing ratio
values are at or near saturation corresponding to the local dry-bulb tempera-
ture. Saturated values in the visible plume lend support to the validity of
the sonde measurements. Values less than saturation and the rapid changes in
mixing ratio suggest, as was visually observed, that near the edge of the
visible plume there exist unsaturated as well as saturated regions in rapid
fluctuation and mixing. The picture given by the sonde measurements corres-
ponds to that which was observed visually. Further, a rapid descent was made
upon puncture of the balloon and when the visible plume was left the mixing
ratio dropped to lower and more stable values.
A shift in wind direction around 0900 hours led to a search for the
plume. At the low wind speeds prevalent, it was difficult to determine the
plume location far downwind from the tower, even though there was still a
visible plume near the tower. Runs 4C, 5C, 6C and 7C, Figures 16, 17, 18, 19
and 20, were made while searching for the plume.
In Figures 16, 17 and 18 the mixing ratio remained remarkably constant
and agreed, within experimental error, with the background value, another
source of confirmation of the sonde values. The mixing ratio was always about
5 percent in excess of the background value. This could be due to differences
in calibration, but it might also be due to residual excess water vapor, since
the plume had passed through the areas of measurement somewhat before the
balloon. However, the differences cannot be considered significant.
The early part of run 7C, Figure 19, showed background, but the latter
part of the horizontal traverse and the descent and ascent, Figure 20, began
to show excess water vapor above ambient. The edge of the plume had been
found.
Figure 21, run 8C, shows a mixing ratio exceeding ambient by an amount
essentially equal to the experimental uncertainty up to 140 m and equal to
ambient above that.
Figures 22 and 23, runs 9C and IOC, show substantial excesses of mixing
ratio above ambient between about 50 and 250 m height. These two flights
show excellent vertical profiles of the plume at a time when the balloon was
downwind of the cooling tower. Conditions at the top of these flights are
essentially background, so the profiles include the entire vertical section of
the plume. These two profiles are mildly suggestive of a bimodal mixing
ratio, i.e., two maxima in mixing ratio in the vertical direction. It was
frequently visually observed that, at some point downwind of the tower, the
visible plume tended to split into two sections, one of which continued to
rise and to be visible and a second which tended to move horizontally and soon
to become invisible.
Figure 24, run 11C, shows an excess mixing ratio somewhat greater than
the experimental uncertainty. By the time of this flight the wind had shifted
away from the measurement location again.
(Text continues on page 48)
38
-------
Time, MDT
Ambient
at 1100
Sonde
averages
Temperatures-
- 1028 to 1038
wind speed 2.0 m/s,
direction 40°
wind speed 2.3 m/s,
direction 43
sonde
+ ground and stack
at 1030
160
120
80
LoJ
40
\diabatic
Ambient
0
-1 0 1 v 2 3
TEMPERATURE, °C MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 16. Run 4C, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
39
-------
-
9
o
-
~
-
»
i v '-
§
\
o
co
o
H
4-1
tfl
1
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ex
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fa
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9NIXIH
40
-------
Time, MDT - 1052 to 1059
Ambient at 1100 - wind speed 2.0 m/s, direction 40
Sonde averages - wind speed 3.0 m/s, direction 65
Temperatures - sonde
+ ground and stack at 1100
160-
Adiabatic
Ambient
0
-1
0123
TEMPERATURE, °C
2 3
MIXING RATIO, g kg
Figure 18. Run 6C, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
41
-------
CM
o o
O rH
C C
o o
H -H
4-1 4-1
O O
01 (U
M ^
H -H
cn co
o o
CM <)
T) T)
0) 0)
0) (1)
D. a,
co w
G C
H -H
O
O
I I
O
O
I t-H
4-1
H
cB
4-1 M
CO
-------
240H
200h
-1123 to 1147
Time, MDT
Ambient
at 1200
Sonde
averages
Temperatures-
wind speed 3.0 m/s
-direction 70°
wind speed 3.7 m/s
-direction 58
sonde
+ stack at 1200
Ambient
Adiabatic
1 2 3
TEMPERATURE, °C
MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 20. Run 7C, descent and ascent, March 25, 1975,
at Comanche.
43
-------
240
200-
Time, MDT - 1148 to 1155
Ambient wind speed 3.0 m/s,1
at 1200- direction 70°
Sonde wind speed 4.0 m/s,
averages- direction 70°
Temperatures-
sonde
ground and"
stack at
1200
1234
TEMPERATURE, °C
/
MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 21. Run 8C, descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
44
-------
Wet bulb may
have frozen
240-
200-
160-
Time, MDT - 1211 to 1220
Ambient wind speed 3.0 m/s
at 1200-direction 70°
Sonde wind speed 4.1 m/s
averages- direction 72
Temperatures-
20
sonde
stack at 1200
I
1234
TEMPERATURE, °C
3 4
MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 22. Run 9C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
45
-------
240
200
16O
120
Eso
I
&
LJ
I
40
20
Time, MDT
Ambient
wind speed 3.0 m/s
at 1200- direction 70°
Sonde
wind speed 4.0 m/s
averages- direction 82
Temperatures-
- 1223 to 1233
sonde
stack at 1230
Adiabatic
Ambient
12345V 2 3
TEMPERATURE, °C MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 23. Run IOC, descent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
46
-------
240
200
160
120
80
UJ
I
40
0
Time, MDT - 1303 to 1313
Ambient wind speed 2.2 m/s
at 1300- direction 60°
Sonde
wind speed 2.5 m/s
averages- direction 46
sonde
+ ground and stack
at 1300
Temperatures-
Adiabatic
_L
Ambient
3456 _ . -
TEMPERATURE, °C MIXING RATIO, g/kg
Figure 24. Run 11C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
47
-------
Figure 25 includes runs 12C, 13C and 14C, continued portions of a hori-
zontal traverse, which show essentially background. The sonde readings con-
sistently exceeded background by an amount about equal to the experimental
uncertainty.
Figure 26, run 15C, again shows the mixing ratio exceeding background by
an amount about equal to the experimental uncertainty. The constancy of the
mixing ratio with height suggests that this probably is background. The wet-
bulb thermistor on the sonde failed at the top of the ascent during this run
and did not work thereafter. Apparently a short developed in the electronics,
as only a full-scale signal was obtained. Runs 16C through 19C have not been
plotted, since no wet-bulb temperatures, hence no mixing ratios were obtained.
The dry-bulb-temperature values suggested that flight 16C may have caught the
plume but the other three probably did not. The wind was shifting in direc-
tion and increasing in speed during this period. Following run 19C, the
balloon was moved and, while being held at about 40 m height, the tether line
snapped and the flight gear was lost.
Discussion
Wind speed and direction data from the balloon sonde were compared with
the average background results in Table 2. The wind direction shows excellent
agreement between the ground stations and the sonde, always well within the
uncertainty of the values. The wind speed from the sonde always exceeded the
average from the ground stations, usually by about 1 m/s. The higher wind
speeds from the sonde may be due to differences in calibration, or due to the
fact that the ground values are averaged over a longer (one hour) period
(although this seems unlikely as the sonde values consistently exceeded the
ground station values, rather than differing randomly). These differences may
well be a result of the normal wind-velocity profile near the ground, since
most of the sonde values are from aloft. Changes in wind speed with height
are not noticable in a single flight, but when speeds aloft are averaged, they
would be expected to exceed those near the ground. This question cannot be
resolved with the present data.
The wind speed data from the two channels of a data frame were averaged
separately and found to agree. It is suggested that the average wind speed
and wind direction values from the sonde be used, since they are representa-
tive of the conditions at the measurement location.
Flights which found essentially background conditions are of some value
in model evaluation. Since they show locations outside the plume, they indi-
cate where the plume was not. A model must agree with the absence of the
plume as well as with its presence.
48
-------
s 1
1*
*
en
CM
O
r-^ r-l u~i
LO rH
CO T3
<->
c cd
o
*
0
0
0
.
^
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0
.
«.
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^-1
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£
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.
^
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,
t
1
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^_
1
00
<\J
^j
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e
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CM
,_ (
4-1
0
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0)
efl
S-i
01
cd
i
rH
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co£ g
^ -H QJ
LU M ^
^ 00
cd
h- « E
0 0
-------
20O
160
120
E
i-
LU
I
80
40
0
Temperatures-
Time, MDT - 1432 to 1450
Ambient wind speed 2.0 m/s
at 1500 - direction 320°
Sonde wind speed 2.9 m/s
averages- direction 353
sonde
ground and
stack at 1430
Adiabatic
56789
TEMPERATURE, °C
Ambient
T
2 3
MIXING RATIO, g kg
Figure 26. Run 15C, ascent, March 25, 1975, at Comanche.
50
-------
SECTION 6
COOLING POND RESULTS
AMBIENT DATA
Ambient conditions were measured only with the MRI and the Assman at
Valmont. There were no backup measurements, so the ambient data are somewhat
less certain than the values for Comanche. This is especially true of the
ambient temperature because of the resolution on the MR! temperature scale
(10°F, 5.6°C). Thus the uncertainty in the ambient temperature is of-the-
order-of ±2°C. Ambient data for the measurement periods at Valmont are pre-
sented in Table A-2, Appendix A.
SOURCE DATA
It is impossible to measure directly the evaporation from large, operat-
ing cooling ponds. Rather, methods developed in earlier EPA projects and
other studies must be used along with weather and load data to estimate the
evaporation rate. There had been an earlier study of evaporation losses from
the Valmont lakes which was of considerable help in the present project (5).
The state-of-the-art in cooling pond evaporation work is well summarized
in a recent EPA report (6). The basic approach described therein has been
followed with modifications appropriate to the particular situation. Since
no measurements were made of the pond temperatures, only the PSC condenser-
inlet and outlet temperatures and the water flowrate were available as basic
data. The cooling water flowrate was taken as constant at 4.23 m /s (670,000
gal/min), the design rate.
The pond areas were: Owen Reservoir, 367,000 m2 (90 acres); Hillcrest
Lake, 489,000 m2 (120 acres); and Valmont Lake, 1,300,000 m2 (320 acres).
The total-surface-heat exchange, H , of a pond is represented by (6) :
At steady-state,
and
H=H+H+H+H+H (7)
t s a b e c
H + H = 0 (8)
t P
51
-------
(T - T . ) (9)
wa,out wa,in
At steady-state it is assumed that the quantity and temperature of the
water in the pond remain constant. For a natural, unheated pond. H is zero
at steady-state.
The solar and sky radiation terms were estimated from solar data (6),
the ambient temperature and the cloud cover at the time of the measurements.
The terms for back radiation, evaporation and convection are given by:
H = .97 a (T + 273)'4 (10)
D S
H = f(w)(p - p* ) (11)
H = C f(w) (T - T ) (12)
c s
When the surface-water temperature, T , is unknown, equation (7) must be
solved iteratively. In the Valmont situation, there were two ponds, Owen and
Hillcrest, in the cooling loop, and they were not at the same temperature.
It was assumed that the surface temperature of each pond was uniform. Further
it was assumed, following Throne (5), that the surface temperature of Hill-
crest Lake was equal to the measured condenser-inlet temperature plus 1.1°C
(2°F). This left only the temperature of Owen Reservoir as an unknown.
However, a wind function must be chosen.
Several wind functions, including that recommended by Throne (5) for
Valmont, were used. Equation (7) with the terms given in equations (9), (10),
(11) and (12) substituted, was solved iteratively for the surface temperature
of Owen Reservoir. Bounds were established for realistic values of the
temperature of Owen Reservoir. It could not be less than the temperature of
Hillcrest Lake and further, it was highly unlikely (although not impossible)
that it would exceed the condenser-discharge temperature. Most wind functions
were found to give temperatures clearly either too high or too low. The wind
function recommended by Brady (7),
f(w) = 2.21 + .111 u2 (13)
was found to give the most realistic results and it has been used in the cal-
culation in this work.
Once the surface temperature had been established, the evaporation rate
was given by equation (11). This same procedure and the same wind function
was used to estimate the surface temperature and evaporation rate of Valmont
Lake, the unheated pond. The results of these calculations are summarized in
Table 6. Even with the Brady wind function, on two days the calculated
temperature of Owen Reservoir exceeded the condenser-discharge temperature.
It seems probable that either the wind function gave too low a value or that
the estimated net solar input was too high (or both) on these days.
52
-------
C/3
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-------
Pond-heat balances are usually done with monthly or daily-average data.
Data for the measurement period (about two hours on most da>s) were used
herein. This may introduce some error in the calculations tending to over-
estimate the pond temperature, since the pond temperature probably changes
less rapidly than was indicated by using short-term data.
Since the values of pond-evaporation loss must be estimated, and since
the radiation terms in the overall pond heat balance are relatively quite
large, the reliability of the estimated evaporation values must be questioned,
Differences of as much as 30 percent in evaporation rates occurred with
different wind functions. The assumption of steady-state, the use of short-
term weather data and the use of the Brady wind function all probably tend to
make too high the estimated pond temperatures.
BALLOON SONDE DATA
Figure 27 shows the location of the balloon flights on the Valmont Site
(the run number each day corresponds to the location number on the map) . The
MRI weather station was at location Gl through March 13, 1974 and at G2
thereafter.
Computer-generated plots of measured-wet- and dry-bulb temperatures and
calculated-dew-point temperatures vs. height and plots of humidity, g/m , are
shown for both the ascent and the descent of several flights in Figures 28
through 31 and 33 through 37. These figures show results from four flights
on March 13, three on March 15, one on April 12 and one on April 14, 1974.
Eight other flights made on March 8 and 15 and April 8, 12 and 14 all
showed essentially background conditions, so graphs of these profiles are not
included. Fogging did not occur on any of the measurement days. Wind speed
profiles are not shown, but the average and the range of wind speed indicated
by the sonde anemometer are given on the profile plots. Wind direction was
not measured with the sonde used at Valmont.
The conversion from humidity, in g/m3, to mixing ratio, in g/kg, is
given by
RT
M(P - p)
The conversion is mr = 0.946 H for a pressure of 625 mm Hg, a temperature of
0°C, and an H of 4.84 g/m3 (saturated at 0°C) . The conversion is always
near 1, but varies slightly with T, P and H.
The results on March 13, 1974 are interesting because of the existence
of a temperature inversion that day as is clearly shown by the temperature
profiles in Figures 28, 29, 30 and 31. The height of the inversion was around
60 m, but changed rapidly, varying from about 30 to about 100 m. The humidity
values shows significant excesses above ambient up to the inversion height and
then rapid decreases to essentially ambient above that height. Thus, the
(Text continues on page 60)
54
-------
N
VALMONT
RESERVOIR
LEGGETT
OWEN
RESERVO
HILLCREST
LAKE
Power
Plant
1 km
Figure 27. Balloon flight locations at Valmont.
55
-------
175
150
125
100
uj 75 [-
x
50 -
25 -
ASCENT
-15
-10 -50 5 10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
15
0123456789
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
10
175
150
125
*
,_- 100
X
jjj 75
50
25
0
-T- -r-T T-r- i | . i 1 i 1 i ' i i 1 i 1
-
i
; i
: ' j
X ( [
1 FLT 1 -
1 DESCENT .
-
'.
^-UST:
150
125
^ 100
X
o
lu 75
50
25
0
N FLT 1 ;
: \ DESCENT j
-
i
I :
(
\
1 i L^ 1 . I . 1 I . ... f .... 1 1 . 1 1 .... i .... 1 .... I .... 1 . , , ,
-15 -10 -5 ' 0 ' 5 10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
15
6 7 8 9
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
10
Figure 28. Run 1, March 13, 1974, at Valmont.
56
-------
175 r
150
125
100
75
50
25
n
i i
;
1
\
1
1
!
\ \
\ \
"' \
\
- : }
\ . i
: \
i \
\
-T-T-ry-T-T r ,-r-
/ FLT 2 :
/ ASCENT :
y
/ ^
/
-
:
\
- - XU POINT-
DRV BULB
175
150
125
2
,_- 100
X
o
- 75
50
25
n
-1 i . r | i ,-rn ' 'Ti-| .-, ,T|-rr-nV. I'>-TI-. t , r , rr r | -I r i . |'l . ' r
\
( FLT 2
\ ASCENT .
WIND SPEED, m/s
/ Mm. Ave Max
/ 0 03 25
\ :
: \ :
: > :
\ -
1 -
(
V
-15
175
150
125
100
50
25
-10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
9
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
175 p
150
125
.100
50
25
FLT 2
CESCENT
WIND SPEED, m/s
Mm Ave Max
0 25 49
15
'0125456789 10
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 29. Run 2, March 13, 1974, at Valmont.
57
-------
ira
150
125
.100
1
X
o
u 75
50
25
A
-F-FTT lr-i i 1 ' ' ' ' 1
\
1
1
i
\
\
1
1
-15 -10 -5 0
i i . -r
j
i
I
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\
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j
1
1
F-T , r , | i i i
FLT T>
j
ASCENT
-
/ 1
/ :
-
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1
f -
-
-
I I Sy BULB1;
*Y SU .
i ra -; , i .... r - . - 1 ' . . i ' r -, -- ' i ' ' i " ' T < " " i ' ' '
FLT 3
i- V
,50 I ASCENT :
C :
125
2. 1CO
t-
x
o
LU 75
X
50
25
i :
/
I WIND SPEED, m/s !
\ Min Ave Max.
j Q2 1.7 3.7
\
^^
\.
^N
\
5 10 15 U0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1C
TEMPERATURE, DEG C ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
175 - ' ' 1 ' T-F--F-F-F-T-,
158
125
s
. 100
r
X
1 »
50
25
0
^
t
',
;
i
I
I .. i . . .. i . . . a
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f
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1
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A
, -1 r T~I F- F- r r-
FLT 3
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^-^sEBa
1 f O r ' r | T , r ; T-r r-rrr , r T r [ t - i"T f r i r i f Tr r .,...., ,,.,,,...
: , FLT 3 :
150
125
5
1 * 100
X
0
X
50
25
0
DESCENT .
\ :
\
\
\ WIND SPEED, m/s
; Mm Ave Max. !
0 0.7 2.3 J
\
: \ :
\ :
: \ '.
\ '
' I
s
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
15
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 30. Run 3, March 13, 1974, at Valmont.
58
-------
1/5
150
125
100
H"
X
o
LJ 75
X
50
25
.
1 TC
' fy
150
125
2
,_-100
X
tU TC
"T" ^^
50
25
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. r ' r ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
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v
1
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5 -10 -505
TEMPERATURE, DE<
i i r r | i ; i i j i r i i p"1 ' ' ^T n
i
- ,"' \
i
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- \ \
\ t
t i
; 1
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ill
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ASCENT
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v
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7
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150
125
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X
50
25
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5 °(
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150
125
. 100
H-
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X
50
25
n
i i , , i . i 1 1 1 ,ii, |i . ii i . . i 1 1 i
, FLT 4 ;
\
) ASCENT J
V :
V ;
WIND SPEED, m/s
Mm. Ave Max.
o 1.7 5.3 :
l :
' V
^-
; ^^
7
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Li 1 1 "
1123456789 10
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
-i'i| r , | .-n-r-| i-T-rTTT-T-i-.Tr-n T m | , I i ITI T-n | i i . r-|
r FLT 4 -
/
r / DESCENT -
/
ti
V
\ WIND SPEED, m/s "
N. Min. Ave Max
N. 0 1.6 4J8 '-
- \
/
(
\ -
' . \ :
- I :
. ) :
: / :
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
10
15
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 31. Run 4, March 13, 1974, at Valmont.
59
-------
water-vapor plume was trapped by the inversion.
The wind direction was undergoing rapid shifts and the wind speed was
rather low (1 to 1.4 m/s) during the measurement period. The wind was in
every quadrant except between south and west, but the predominant direction
was northerly, as shown in Figure 32, the MRI trace for that day. Measure-
ment location 1 was between Owen Reservoir and Hillcrest Lake, while the other
three flights were made at locations to the north and northwest of the ponds.
The average wind direction during the time of flights 2 and 3 suggest that no
excess water vapor should be found, yet in these runs the measured concentra-
tion significantly exceeded background. The wind-direction history must be
examined to attempt to interpret this. From 0600 hours on, the wind speed
was very low and the wind direction shows major changes. Hence, it would be
expected that the water evaporated from the ponds tended to accumulate within
a few km of the ponds and to be not strongly dispersed. The inversion tended
to trap the vapor near ground level and vertical movement of the inversion
may have mixed the air below and spread the water vapor in the immediate
vicinity of the pond.
By assuming that the vapor cloud maintained an integrity of shape (be-
cause of entrapment by the inversion) and simply was moved around by the
wind, a vectorial diagram representing the shape and location of the vapor
cloud was constructed. This was done from 0600 hours up to the time the
flights started, and it was found that the cloud was stretched to the south
and southeast of the ponds, away from the locations of flights 2, 3 and 4.
This suggests that little or no water vapor accumulated at those locations
prior to flight time. Some periods of wind from the east during flight ] and
early in flight 2 probably account for the vapor found in flight 2. Indeed,
the concentrations are somewhat lower in the descent than in the earlier
ascent of flight 2, as would be expected, since the wind had shifted to
westerly by the time of the descent. This procedure did not account, however,
for the water vapor observed in flight 3.
It would be expected that the location of flight 3 would be devoid of
excess water vapor. Nonetheless, flight 3 showed greater excesses than did
1 or 2. This might be a topographical phenomenon, as the location of flight
3 was somewhat protected by the Valmont Butte, a sharp ridge some 50 m higher
than the ponds, and the excess water vapor was confined to approximately that
height. Nonetheless, the results of flight 3 remain unexplained. Enough
easterly and southerly wind preceeded flight 4 to account for the water vapor
observed therein.
These results indicate that under inversion conditions, evaporated water
is trapped by the inversion and at low wind speeds, it tends to be relatively
uniformly distributed horizontally in the near vicinity of the source.
The water-vapor profiles on the measurement days generally conform
qualitatively with expectations based upon wind direction and flight location.
Flights 2 and 3 on March 15, depicted in Figures 33 and 34, show detect-
able water vapor above background. Flight 4, Figure 35, shows essentially
background. Flight 1, April 12, Figure 36, shows a slight water vapor excess
(Text continues on page 66)
60
-------
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DIRECTION,0 MILES
Figure 32. MRI recorder trace, March 13, 1974,
at Valmont.
61
-------
300
250
200
100
50
30Q
250
200
150
100
50
FLT 2
ASCENT ^
POINT
500 n
250
200
x 150
o
LU
I
100
50
FU 2
ASCENT
-10 -505
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
10
QL^LJ
WIND SPEED, m/s
Min. Ave. Max.
0 1.2 3.5
FIT 2
DESCENT
POINT
-10 -5 0 5
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
0123456789 10
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
300 n-rr -rr- I
250
200
150
LJ
X
100
50
FIT 2
DESCENT
WIND SPEED, m/s
Min. Ave. Max.
2.2 3.9 5.5
10
123456789
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
10
Figure 33. Run 2, March 15, 1974, at Valmont.
62
-------
300
250
200
.
|150
LJ
I
100
50
M
1 , , 1 1 r , , 1 1 1 1 ' ' '"I 300
FLT 3 -
ASCENT J
' \ \ '
;. s 1 i
' 1
i \
\ \ \ :
/ 1
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: ' \\ :
v I I po|w:
I \ i "" ~ XI 8S4
\ , \ A, , . . . . , . .
250
200
.
|<50
LJ
X
100
50
A
"" f -r ' " .
FLT 3 '
ASCENT :
.
-
WIND SPEED, m/s ;
Mia Ave. Max.
1.6 2.0 2.5 ;
-10 -5 0 5 10 "0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C _ _ ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
500
250
200
2
I"
0 150
LJ
I
100
50
Q
1 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '
FLT 3
DESCENT
; M (
: \ \\
111
\ I
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1 1
i
; ' \ \
; 1 1
:
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: \ 1
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^VV
250
200
^
n
h-
C> 15°
LJ
X
100
50
n
FLT 3 -
DESCENT :
-
-
-
: \ WIND SPEED, m/s
-
"
_
-
.
^ , ,
Mm. Ave. Max.
2.0 2,8 3.7 "
_
-
-
,.,_., , /
-10 -5 0 5 10 0123456789 1C
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 34. Run 3, March 15, 1974, at Valmont.
63
-------
300
250
200
iLl
I
100
50
300
250
200
LJ
X
100
50
FLT 4
ASCENT
POINT
300
250
200
150
100
50
-10 -505
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
FLT 4
ASCENT
WIND SPEED, m/s
Min. Ave Max.
2.3 3x3 6,1
10
0123456789 10
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
FLT a
DESCENT J
250
200
'50
100
50
FLT 4
DESCENT .
WIND SPEED, m/s
Min. Ave. Max.
1.4 4.5 8,0
"-10 -5 0 5
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
10
0123456789 10
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 35. Run 4, March 15, 1974, at Valmont.
64
-------
200
175
150
5 125
5 100
UJ
1 75
50
25
ill r i T i I i [ 1
I \
}
i (
\
( ;
|
. \
\
; \
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T 1 1 1 1 '
J
j
) FLT 3
I ASCENT -
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V
1
:
-
-;
1 ;
L ,J
. ^1 . . .
^00
175
150
s 125
o 1°°
UJ
1 75
50
25
n
i i i i 1 i i i i 1 ' i i i 1 i i i i 1 i i i 1 i i i i 1 i r i
: 1 FLT 3
) ASCENT -
.
|
-
-
WIND SPEED, m/s :
Min Ave. Max. :
0 1.8 3,1
-
-
-
°-10 -5 0 5 10 15 "0 1 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 10
TEMPERATURE, DEC C ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
175
150
5 125
I
o 100
UJ
I
75
50
25
0
T i i i | i p i i | i
/
:.' 1
; S \
h
/
: : i
i
;
i
. 1
i.
: \
: \.._
<* FLT 3
\
t
i
I
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, ......
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I
t
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) :
=
ks^
i *
£UU
175
150
5 125
(_
x 100
UJ
x 75
50
25
0
T 1 T 1 I I ( I I | > T T 1 III I pi T I T f r T T T [ 1 ' | ' 1 1 | ' |
f FLT 3 :
j DESCENT -
' I
_
WIND SPEED, m/s '
Mm. Ave. Max. '.
0.1 3.0 4.1
-
-
-
\ \
L j
0 5 10
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
1
9 10
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 36. Run 3, April 12, 1974, at Valmont.
65
-------
near the ground during ascent and essentially background during descent.
Flight 1 on April 14, Figure 37, shows background.
Discussion
Important characteristics of cooling ponds are that they are large-area,
ground-level water-vapor sources where the interest is in plume behavior near
the source.
The ground-level-water-vapor data obtained earlier by Henderson (personal
communication) indicated these features of cooling pond plumes: (1) within
±20° of the mean wind direction from the edges of the source, the downwind
water-vapor concentration is essentially uniform in the cross-wind direction;
(2) up to 2 km downwind of the trailing edge of the source, the concentration
is not a strong function of downwind distance; and (3) the water-vapor concen-
tration in the plume is strongly dependent upon the atmospheric stability
conditions.
The present data are too few to support or challenge the first two obser-
vations above, but they are supportive of the third. These data do add
another dimension, the vertical. They indicate that the vertical profile may
be roughly represented by a half-Gaussian distribution. This is shown in
Figure 38, wherein the measured excess water vapor divided by that at ground
level is plotted against the height divided by an assumed normalizing height
(this assumed value is equivalent to one standard deviation in the Gaussian
distribution). For the inversion conditions of March 13, the assumed height
is approximately equal to that of the inversion. The normalized Gaussian
curve shows that, except for some of the March 15 data, the data do fit a
Gaussian distribution reasonably well. Thus, it is concluded that a Gaussian
distribution is a reasonable representation of the vertical-profile data for
cooling ponds.
The profile data of this work have been compared with predictions based
upon the method of Turner (8), and with a modification of that method which
was identical except that the stability class was determined from the measured
temperature-lapse rate rather than from meteorological parameters as in the
Turner method. The measured-lapse rate indicated greater stability (with two
exceptions) than did the meteorological conditions. The results of these
comparisons are shown in Table 7. Neither model is quantitatively accurate
but the version using the temperature-lapse-based stability generally did
better. Both methods usually predict lower than the measured values, sometimes
predicting zero concentrations when considerable was measured. The factor
mostly responsible for these low values is the wind direction. When the wind
direction is changing rapidly, the mean wind direction is an inadequate para-
meter to represent the plume travel.
The model described by Tsai and DeHarpporte (9) incorporates the essen-
tial features of cooling-pond plumes observed in this work and that of
Henderson (personal communication). That is, it takes into account the area
source, wind convection and vertical diffusion. It also accounts for verti-
cal-wind-velocity gradient, plume bouyancy and cross-wind diffusion at the
edges of the plume. It does not account directly for wind meander. The
(Text continues on page 71)
66
-------
125
100
S. ^
I
UJ
1 50
25
0
i i i i i ' ' ' ' i
V |
: ( i
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v? \
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15 -10 -5 0
FLT 3 '.
ASCENT
-
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5 1
IS
100
2 75
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x 50
25
0 °
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) 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' > > i ' i ' 1 1 1 ' ' r
FLT 3 '.
ASCENT
"
WIND SPEED, m/s "
Mm Ave Max
3.6 5.0 6.3 ;
-
3456789 1C
TEMPERATURE, DEG C
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
25
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ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY, GPM3
Figure 37. Run 3, April 14, 1974, at Valmont,
67
-------
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A April 12
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0.2 , 0.4 0.6 0.8
HUMIDITY/OHUMIDITY AT GROUND LEVEL)
Figure 38. Normalized humidity profiles at Valmont.
68
-------
TABLE 7. PREDICTED AND MEASURED WATER VAPOR CONCENTRATIONS
ABOVE BACKGROUND, COOLING PONDS
Stability Class Height
EPA Above
Flight Work- Temp. Ground
Date Number Book Gradient m
3/13 1 B D-G 0
42
85
127
2 B D-E 0
42
85
127
3 B E 0
40
80
120
4 B E 0
41
82
123
3/15 1 E D 0
45
89
134
178
2 E D 0
42
85
127
3 C D 0
64
128
192
4 C D 0
66
133
199
Water Vapor above Ambient, g/m
Predicted Measured
EPA
Work- Temp.
Book Grad.
0.27
0.23
.18
.11
0.0
0.0
0.01
0.0
0.25
.02
0.0
0.10
0.0
0.08
.01
0.0
0.20
.06
.01
0.0
1.11
.31
.01
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.13
0.0
0.18
.05
0.0
0.07
.01
0.0
0.14
0.0
0.38
.02
0.0
1.50
.63
-.05
.08
1.50
1.15
0.50
.05
1.80
1.55
0.20
0.0
2.10
1.80
0.88
0.0
1.05
.80
.90
.20
0.0
0.70
.50
.55
0.0
0.50
.30
.20
.05
0.30
.15
.10
0.0
(continued)
69
-------
TABLE 7 (continued)
Stability Class Height
EPA Above
Flight Work- Temp. Ground
Date Number Book Gradient m
4/12 ICE 0
42
84
126
2 B E 0
44
88
132
3 B D 0
47
95
4 B D 0
48
99
4/14 1 B E 0
26
53
79
2 B E 0
20
40
60
79
5 C D 0
19
38
57
75
Water Vapor above Ambient, g/m3
Predicted Measured
EPA
Work- Temp.
Book Grad.
0.12
.05
.01
0.0
0.19
.13
.04
.01
0.0
0.20
.13
.05
0.71
.60
.36
.15
0.13
.13
.11
.09
.07
0.16
.14
.10
.07
.04
0.33
.01
0.0
0.73
0.0
0.0
0.45
.05
0.0
2.58
.25
0.0
0.70
.39
.13
.03
.01
0.30
.21
.09
.04
.01
0.75
.30
.08
-.05
0.50
.15
.10
.10
0.50
-.05
-.05
0.45
.03
0.0
0.25
.03
.10
0.0
0.20
.20
.20
.05
.10
0.40
.25
.10
.03
.05
70
-------
results of Tsai and DeHarpporte indicate good agreement with cooling-pond-
fog-plume behavior. The inclusion of plume bouyancy causes a maximum concen-
tration to occur somewhat above ground level downwind of the source, as indi-
cated by some of the present profiles.
The Tsai and DeHarpporte model is described in some detail (9), but the
computer code is proprietary so the model was not compared with the data of
the present work.
71
-------
REFERENCES
1. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigera-
tion, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., New York. 1972. p. 99.
2. Bindon, H. H. A Critical Review of Tables and Charts used in Psycro-
metry, in Humidity and Moisture, Measurement and Control in Science and
Industry, A. Wexler, ed., vol. 1. Reinhold Corp., New York. 1965.
PP. 3-15.
3. Weast, R. C., editor. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 49th ed. ,
The Chemical Rubber Co. 1968, p. D109.
4. Winiarski, L. D., and Frick, W. F. Field Investigations of Mechanical
Draft Cooling Tower Plumes: EPA-600/7-77-025. Corvallis Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis,
OR. 1977.
5. Throne, R. F. How to Predict Lake Cooling Action, Power, 95, //9, 1951.
pp. 86-90, 210.
6. Thackston, E. L. Effect of Geographical Variation on Performance of
Recirculating Cooling Ponds: EPA-660/2-74-085, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, B.C. 1974.
7. Brady, D. K. Heat Dissipation at Power Plant Cooling Lakes, Proceedings
of the American Power Conference, 32, 1970. pp. 528-536.
8. Turner, D. B. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, U.S. Public
Health Service Publication #999-AP-26. 1970.
9. Tsai, Y. J. and DeHarpporte, D. R. Cooling Pond Fog Prediction Model,
in, Man-Made Lakes: Their Problems and Environmental Effects. American
Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph 17, W. C. Ackerman, et al., ed. ,
Washington, D.C. 1973. pp. 421-427.
72
-------
APPENDIX A
EXPLANATION OF TABLES
AMBIENT DATA AT COMANCHE
Table A-l includes ambient data for the Comanche Station at Pueblo, CO,
for March 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, and 26, 1975. The sixteen columns of
Table A-l are described as follows:
First -- Time, Mountain Daylight Time (MDT)
Second through fifth -- Temperature at ground, °C, as measured by:
a. NCAR Hydrothermograph,
b. PSC Hydrothermograph,
c. MRI ground station, and
d. Assman Psychrometer or metal thermometer near
base of cooling tower.
Sixth through eighth -- Temperatures aloft, °C, from sensors on PSC
stack at 76, 112 and 152 m heights.
Ninth -- Wind speed from PSC wind tower at 10 m height. Values are
hourly average. A designation such as 3.1G10.7 means 3.1 m/s
hourly average with gusts to 10.7 m/s.
Tenth -- Wind speed from MRI ground station at 3 m height. Values are
hourly average.
Eleventh -- Wind direction from PSC tower at 10 m, hourly average.
0° North, 90° East, 180° South, 270° West.
Twelfth -- Wind direction from MRI ground station at 3 m. Values are
hourly average with ± range of variability. HV means highly
variable, direction varied up to 360° in one hour. V means
variable, direction varied up to 180° in one hour.
Thirteenth through fifteenth -- Percent relative humidity as measured by:
a. NCAR Hydrothermograph,
b. PSC Hydrothermograph, and
d. Assman Psychrometer near cooling tower base.
Sixteenth -- Insolation, Langleys per hour.
A blank means no data for that time.
73
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AMBIENT DATA AT VALMONT
Table A-2 includes ambient data for run dates at the Valmont Station at
Boulder, Colorado. The data are:
Date
Flight number
Temperature, °C, measured with the Assman psychrometer.
Humidity, g/m3, calculated from Assman psychrometer readings.
Wind speed, m/s. Value is average from wind run recorder on MRI.
Wind direction, average and range from MRI.
Cloud cover, tenths, estimated.
TABLE A-2. AMBIENT DATA AT VALMONT
Date
3/8/74
3/13
3/15
4/8
4/12
4/14
Flight Temp.,
Number °C
1 2.8
1 4.7
2
3
4
1 -1.0
2
3
4
1 3.7
1 11.8
2
3
4
1 0.9
2
5
Average
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g/m3 Speed, m/s
2.76 1.8
4.52 1.0
1.2
1.2
1.4
3.53 1.0
1.1
2.3
2.7
3.0 1.2
3.11 3.1
1.8
1.8
1.6
2.60 0.7
3.2
4.3
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45±90
350±120
3501200
160±60
70±40
120±90
190±90
170±40
47±70
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130+70
30±80
190± 5
290+90
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Cloud
Cover
10
9
5
2
4
0
80
-------
APPENDIX B
COMANCHE BALLOON SONDE DATA
Tables B-l through B-20 show the sonde data for flights at the Comanche
Station. Columns 1 and 2 for the wind speed correspond to the two pulses of
wind speed per data frame. In no case was there found a significant differ-
ence between the mean values for the two pulses. Means and standard devia-
tions are reported for wind speed and wind direction. Background values are
given for times closest to the flight times.
81
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-78-059
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
"Field Investigation of Cooling Tower and Cooling
Pond Plumes"
5. REPORT DATE
April 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Ronald E. West
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Chemical Engineering Dept
University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado 80309
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
IHE625
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R802893
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Con/all is, OR
Corvallis Environmental Research Center
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Measurements were made relating to the behavior of water-vapor plumes from forced-draft
cooling towers and from cooling ponds. There were three categories of measurements.
(1) Ambient weather data including temperature, humidity, wind speed and wind direction
These measurements were made with standard meteorological equipment. (2) Source data,
including the temperature, mixing ratio and flowrate of the air leaving the cooling
tower or cooling pond. Cooling-tower measurements were made with a traverse rig.
Cooling-pond source data were estimated using correlations. (3) Mater-vapor distri-
bution in the atmosphere in the vicinity of the source, including temperature and
mixing ratio of air above the ground at various locations with respect to source.
These measurements were made with tethered-balloon-borne radio sondes.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI field/Group
cooling towers, plumes
plume computer programs
plumes trajectories
plumes cooling towers
plumes, thermal analysis
plumes, atmospheric diffusion
Field 14
group 131+
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
130
20 SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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