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                                   18
sculpins, and the one white fish that was collected.  Although Pontoporeia
has been reported as an important food for alewives and occurs commonly
in the area, it was not heavily used by the alewives  captured in the study.
Shoreline minnows,  white  suckers,  and smelt fed heavily on chironomid
larvae.  Yellow perch and smelt fed more frequently on forage fish in the
Waukegan area than at Zion.  Zooplankton (cladocerans  and copepods) were
used by more fish at Waukegan than at Zion, except for  the alewife.73

            The relative frequency of fish eggs in the stomachs  of nine
species showed a rather wide utilization of fish eggs for food.  The fish eggs
were probably the eggs of more than one species, since they were found over
such a long period, from March through October.  Alewives, smelt, and
perch were found in the area during their anticipated time  of spawning, and
the eggs of  these species were probably among those commonly found in the
stomachs.

            Reference  122  states "Although no direct data exist, it is ques-
tionable if the waters  off the Zion site could provide grounds suitable for
spawning of any fish on a large scale  due to the ever-present scouring
action of waves.  Spawning presumably occurs in protected harbors where
there are quiet waters."  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife records
for various fish spot-checked  by trawling at 3-40 fathom depths off Waukegan
from  1967  to 1971 (October, November, April and May)  suggest that,  except
for smelt,  alewife and bloater, the  ratio of young to adult is much less than
50%.122

            Plankton net tows  have shown that this area does not contain
significant  amounts of either fish larvae or pelagic fish eggs, yet analysis
of stomach contents suggests that spawning of some species may take place.

            Supplement IV of the Zion Environmental Impact Report   states,
"Based on preoperational monitoring accomplished thus far, it appears
fairly certain that spawning grounds for lake trout and white fish do not
exist in the Zion area.  Preoperational studies have shown that  adults of
these species are absent from the predicted area of discharge during spawn-
ing season. "

            Recent collections  by state fisheries and game personnel have
shown the  species of fish  listed in  Table 3 to be present at the Point  Beach
and Kewaunee  area.98  This was confirmed by gill-net sampling by Bio-Test
Laboratories in 197 I.70

            The most abundant sport  fish found in the area during 1971 was
the lake trout.70  Virtually all had been stocked in Wisconsin waters  by
Federal or State agencies, as indicated by their clipped fins.  The bulk of
the fish taken were  year-class V (1966) fish. They were predominant in the
spring and  fall; year-class III and  IV fish were more in evidence  during the
summer months.
-------
                            19
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            Stomach analysis of the lake trout revealed alewives comprised
57%, by volume, of the total food items.  Other items included smelt, shiners,
and sculpins.  A large number were taken with empty stomachs.  This oc-
curred during October 1971, when they were near spawning conditions.70

            Reference 129 states  there are no known spawning or nursery
grounds for fish in the area of the Point  Beach Power Plant site.  Samples
taken from the Point Beach discharge  flume  by the Wisconsin Department
of Natural Resources, between  March  and May 1971, resulted in a total catch
of eight sculpin, two samples with a "few"  smelt eggs, and one  possible
salmonid  egg.129

            During a 3-yr period  (1968-1970) of preoperational surveys
conducted by the  State of Michigan  in the  area of the Palisades Plant,
28 species of fish were captured by gill netting, seining, or trawling.  Gill-
net catches  were dominated by  alewives  (55%) and yellow perch (39%).
Shoreline seining  disclosed a predominance  of longnose  dace and spottail
shiners.  Aside from alewives,  the trawl catches were composed princi-
pally of smelt, trout, perch, and bloaters.  Among the salmonids, the total
catch for  3 yr was 32 lake trout, 8 coho  salmon, and 10 chinook salmon,
nearly all of which were from plantings made at nearby  Port Sheldon and
New Buffalo.   There were  significant diurnal differences in the catches.

            Perch was the most abundant game fish sampled throughout the
summer and fall.  Since no young-of-the-year perch were captured, it was
postulated that they were inhabiting the zone 3- 18 ft deep, an area that was
not sampled.   Very few adult alewives were taken in the  inshore  area dur-
ing daytime seining, but large numbers were captured at night  on
May 14,  1970.

            Bloaters were the only species of Coregonus caught in  any
abundance during  the 3-yr  period.  Only four  lake  herring were  taken
during the test period.

            A Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory cruise report19 described
fishing to locate  spawning grounds of lake  trout and white  fish in south-
eastern Lake Michigan.   "Catches (during  November 1971) of ripe, spent,
and gravid female lake trout in several areas off  Benton Harbor (D. C. Cook
Plant site),  South Haven (Palisades Plant site), and Saugatuck suggest that
this species spawned in large numbers along the entire  southeastern shore
of Lake Michigan. All males were in  spawning condition.   Of 183 fish over
23 inches long, 31% had  healed  lamprey  scars and 1.1% had fresh wounds.

            "The  only whitefish taken  were a single female off  New Buffalo
and 6 ripe males  off Saugatuck.  The evidence  ...  suggests that whitefish
spawn in  suitable  locations (probably mostly reefs) along  the southeastern
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                                   21
Lake Michigan shore, but not in great numbers.  Fairly large  catches  of
lake trout "were made off New Buffalo and Saugatuck in the December nets.
Nearly all were males."19

            Fish, taken inshore at the Bailly Plant site (September 19-20,
1970) by seining, included  about 200 yellow perch, less than 3  in. long, sev-
eral small bluegills,  two small largemouth bass, and several species of
unidentified minnows.91  Fish taken in gill nets included 88  yellow perch,
two white suckers, and one longnose sucker.  Yellow-perch age groups were
III, IV, V, and VI with twice as  many females as males.  The perch were
feeding  primarily on crayfish (from extensive areas of rip-rapping in  the
area) and other fish.

            Additional fish data specific to the Cook Plant area are given
in Ref. 65.  A tabulation of the 1970 catch data for game fish taken off  of
Berrien  County, Michigan  (site of the Cook Plant), revealed the following
abundance percentages:  smelt, 62%; perch, 31%;  chinook salmon, 6%;  and
trout (lake,  brown, rainbow, and steelhead), 4%.

       2.   Plankton

            Generally, Lake Michigan has low algae populations compared
with those of most surface waters, with centric diatoms predominating.
During the summer,  however,  the southeast sector of  the lake contains
algae  close  to the shoreline of the type  commonly found in  eutropic situa-
tions.87   There is an  apparent relationship between the areas of the lake
shore,  where nuisance algae occur, and the  proximity of sources of plant
nutrients contributed by major  tributaries.119

            The background data  on plankton in the Zion-Waukegan area were
summarized as follows:26

            "Water samples for plankton counts "were  collected in the  Zion
area in April  1968, and in  August, October and December 1969, and monthly
since.  Despite a problem  in comparing population because different sam-
pling techniques were used, the species of plankton identified in the  spring
of 1968 were similar to  those of 1969 and subsequent studies ... .

            "In August 1969, the plankton population near Zion was composed
of green algae, blue-green algae, diatoms, protozoans, and crustaceans with
the diatoms usually comprising more than 80 percent  of the total plankton.
This plankton population was not evenly distributed in the water column but
was most numerous at the  15 to 20 foot depth.

            "In October  1969, the total plankton population  was similar in
composition to that observed in August.  Diatoms usually comprised more
than 75 percent of the total plankton population at all depths sampled.  In
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                                   22
addition to members  of the genera Fragilaria and Tabellaria, species of
Asterionella were observed more frequently in the October samples.  Al-
though temperatures  were similar throughout the water column, the plankton
populations were most numerous at the 10 to 13 foot depth.

            "Plankton samples taken during December, 1969, were obtained
from a much wider section of the lake  than earlier samples and are there-
fore believed to more accurately represent  the existing population.  Most of
the samples were taken between the 5 and 15 foot depths, ...  .  The total
population was composed of the same planktonic forms observed in August
and October, 1969; however, the diatoms comprised more than  90 percent
of the population (rather than 75 percent).  The diatoms Tabellaria and
Fragilaria were  still represented; however,  species of Stephanodiscus re-
placed Asterionella as a dominant form.

            "The 1970 and 1971 studies to determine the thermal effects on
both phytoplankton and zooplankton found in  the Waukegan area  produced
comparable data on planktonic population to those in the Zion study.  With
respect to phytoplankton, these more extensive studies confirmed earlier
observations and led  to the conclusion  that most species encountered were
classical  to Lake Michigan, however, the diatom Stephanodiscus hantzschii-
tenuis was a notable  exception. It was  found to be the  most dominant species
in April, May and June and has been associated with organic enrichment
(Stoermer and Kopczynska,112  1967).71  This species also  represents more
than 5  percent of the August and September populations."2

            It should  be noted that the  relative abundance of  diatoms meas-
ured by the Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories in the Zion-Waukegan area, in
August, October, and December 1969 (80, 75, and 90%, respectively), con-
trasts  sharply with the data of Schelske and Stoermer, °  which indicated
that diatoms comprised  10% of the phytoplankton samples taken from the
midlake part of southern Lake Michigan during the summer  of  1969.

            A more detailed reporting69 of plankton samples obtained in the
Zion-Waukegan area  from April to December 1971 revealed the following:
Chrysophyta (golden- brown algae) was the most abundant algae division.
Diatoms,  the most numerous  of which  were  Fragilaria crotonensis,
Stephanodiscus binderanus, S. hantzschii-tenuis , Rhizosolenid eriensis,
Asterionella formosa, and Tabellaria flocculosa, comprised more  than  90%
of the April-August population, about 50% of the September-October popula-
tion, and more than 70% of the November-December population. The Cyano-
phyta (blue-green algae) was  the second most abundant, the percentages
rangingfrom 0.2 to 42% of the phytoplankton.   Chlorophyta  (green algae) had
an abundance of  0.2-7.6% of the total phytoplankton.

            The  largest standing crops of diatoms were observed in April,
May, and June when temperatures were below 56°F, with inshore 'waters
-------
                                   23
containing more than offshore waters.  The temperatures at this time •were
above what is considered optimum for  several of the dominant species.  9

            Comparison of Chrysophyta populations  with the concentrations
of silicon dioxide, total phosphate, and nitrate-nitrogen revealed (a) that
silica increased gradually in the spring and then declined concurrently with
decreasing diatom populations during August (the quantity of silica generally
declines as diatom populations increase), (b) total phosphates decreased
gradually from June through  October, and minimum amounts  coincided with
the fewest diatoms, (c) nitrate-nitrogen remained uniform from May through
September and increased during the fall (this  may be attributed to a reduced
uptake of nitrates by phytoplankton during a period of minimum population
growth).69

            The blue-green algae comprised less than 5% of the phytoplank-
ton from April through August 1971.  However, from September through
December, percentages at various sampling locations varied  from 11 to 67%
of the phytoplankton, primarily due to an increase of Collosphaerium
naegelianum.  It was noted that blue-green algae populations did not exceed
25% of the total during the 1970-1971 study.

            Zooplankton data acquired  by the Industrial Bio-Test  Labora-
tories were summarized2  as follows:  "Additional data on zooplankton, also
obtained in 1970 and 1971  studies,  revealed that the  most common classes
present in Lake Michigan  near the Zion station were copepods,  cladocerans
and to a  lesser extent, rotifers.  The most abundant zooplankton crustacean
in Lake Michigan, the  Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi, was found to be the
dominant species representing the copepods.  Other common  copepods ...
were Eurytemora affinis (present in large  numbers  in September and
October), Cyclops vernalis (quite common  in October and present in low
numbers in September), and Diaptomus ashlundi (found in moderate numbers
in January and December  and again only in significant numbers in
September).  The most abundant Cladocera throughout the study was  found
to be the Bosmina longirostris.  Daphnia retrocurva and Ceriodaphnia
quadrangula were also present in significant numbers in August.  Rotifers
were represented predominantly by Conochilus and Asplanchna
priodonta ... . "26

            A more detailed reporting   of  zooplankton  studies in  1971 stated
that a seasonal variation was clearly observed.  "The major portion of the
zooplankton community was composed  of copepods during the spring  months.
Then, with the higher  water temperatures of July through September, the
cladocerans predominated.  As the water temperature decreased, the
copepods again predominated."69

            Plankton samples obtained at the Kewaunee site in 197 I70  re-
vealed that diatoms were the most abundant members of the phytoplankton,
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                                   24
followed by blue-green algae and green algae.  The diatoms were most
abundant in May  (91%), and the fewest  numbers were observed in November
(66%).  Blue-green algae comprised 2-26% of the population, the lowest and
highest values occurring during May and November, respectively.  The
larger counts were due to an increase  in Coelosphaerium naegelianum.
Green  algae and miscellaneous forms always accounted for less  than 8% of
the total.  These  results are similar to the Zion studies.

            The five most abundant species were Fragilaria pinnata,
F. crotonesis, Tabellaria flocculosa, Coelosphaerium naegelianum, and
Stephanodiscus hantzschii-tenuis.  All are diatoms  except the blue-green
algae C_. naegelianum.

            Zooplankton samples were obtained in the Point Beach and
Kewaunee areas by The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee126" 128 and at
Kewaunee by Bio-Test Laboratories.70 The Bio-Test data identified 13
species of cladocerans, 11 species of copepods, and two immature stages
of copepods during 1971.  This included small numbers of five genera not
reported in The University of  Wisconsin data of 1969   and three genera not
reported in the 1971 data.128

            The most  numerous species identified in the Bio-Test studies
at Kewaunee were Bosmina longerostris, Chydorus sphaericus, Cyclops
bicuspidatus thomasi,  and two species  of Daphnia; The University of
Wisconsin data from Point Beach and Kewaunee listed Bosmina, Cyclops,
Diaptomus, Daphnia and rotifers as the most abundant.  Both studies found
numerous copepod nauplii.  The rotifer population was reported  to be much
higher in 1971 than in 1969 and 1970.128'70

            Dr.  Ayers conducted limnological studies at the Cook Plant  site
in 1969 and 1970.  On  July 10, 1970, phytoplankton samples were obtained
at 53 stations.  The 53 samples contained 59 dominant or codominant (six
stations had two  species of approximately equal numerical superiority)
groups, of which 49 were diatoms.  The  number of samples in which the
various species were  dominant are Tabellaria fenestrata (32), Cyclotella sp.
(seven), Milosira sp. (six), and Fragilaria  crotonensis (four).  The  species
Milosira  sp. and Cyclotella sp. were most  dominant in the surf zone, and
F.  crotonensis was more dominant in stations farthest offshore.
 their data:5
The investigators made the following comments  concerning


a.   "There appears to be  an increase (in numbers of species,
    at least) of blue-green algae from spring into fall.

b.   Green algae appears to have a peak in  late summer that
    may or may not be supported by subsequent data.

c.   The persistence of flagellates is unexpected and may or
    may not be supported  by subsequent data."
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                                   25
            Examining their data for river-associated phytoplankters, they
concluded that the evidence from the July 10 survey shows no demonstrable
effect of the St.  Joseph River on the Cook Plant phytoplankton.7

            Variations from station to station in the diversity index, number
of species,  and organism density, during the July  10, 1970, tests forced them
to conclude  "that small water masses, each with different biotic characteris-
tics, move through the Cook Plant area."

            Zooplankton data obtained on July 10,  1970, also indicated a
patchiness from station  to station, but it was not as pronounced as phyto-
plankton patchiness.  Although the Cyclopoid copepods were  occasionally
present in the greatest numbers, Bosmina cladocerans dominated the  sam-
ples most frequently.  The most abundant zooplankters had the following
sample frequencies:  Cyclopoid copepods  (eight), Diaptomus copepods (none),
Bosmina cladocerans (37), Polyphemus cladocerans (two), and Asplanchna
rotifers (none).

            Copeland and Ayers34 provide an interpretation of biological data
obtained during  lakewide sampling during 1969 and 1970.  "Inspection of the
phytoplankton data tends to confirm the general trends  observed in  other
studies.  In general, total phytoplankton abundance was greater near the
south end of the lake and near shore than in the northern end and in the cen-
tral lake.  This  was the  expected situation.  However, relative abundance  of
the various  algal groups did not follow the expected pattern. In only about
half of the samples did diatoms represent more than half the algal  cells
present.  Their  relative abundance was lowest at some of the open  lake
stations, particularly toward the northern end.  When diatom abundance was
low, the green algae usually were found to be high, and vice  versa.  The
other groups tended to remain at rather low levels except for an occasional
peak in the  blue-green's  and  dinoflagellates, but these peaks  seldom repre-
sented more than 50%  of total phytoplankton.  Since phytoplankton abundance
can rise and fall rather  quickly, and since samples from different stations
in this study were widely spaced in time,  even within a single cruise, it is
unwise to draw any more detailed conclusions from this data."

            Copeland and Ayers34 interpret zooplankton data obtained during
lakewide sampling in the following manner.  "Comparison of the zooplankton
data with other studies is particularly difficult because of differences in
sampling techniques and schedules used by various investigators.   The list
of species present was as expected, and few anomalies were present  in their
relative abundance.  Either the Calanoid copepods  (especially Diaptomus) or
the Cyclopoid copepods were usually the most abundant group, although they
were outnumbered in a few samples by Daphnia.  Total zooplankton abun-
dance fluctuated greatly from  sample to  sample, and no clear temporal or
geographic  trends could be seen."
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                                   26
       3.   Periphyton

            "Periphyton are defined as the complex assemblage of aquatic
organisms,  especially green and blue-green filamentous algae, that grow
attached to permanent substrates such as rocks,  logs, steel pilings, etc. in
shoreline areas.  In addition to the larger algae,  there are less obvious
diatoms, many bacteria, protozoa, and invertebrate animals  -which constitute
the periphyton community.  Under normal conditions  periphytic growth  is
considered to be  beneficial because it is a food source to many fish or fish
food organisms.  Some of the bottom feeding fish, such as carp and suckers,
will browse directly on the filamentous algae.  Forage fish feed on the proto-
zoa and invertebrates.  As the algae  die and decompose, the  organic material
released becomes nutrients for other algae and invertebrates, all of which
constitute the aquatic food chain of the littoral  area.

            "It is only when the periphyton growth exceeds the rate at which
fish and  invertebrates can assimilate it into the normal food chain that  the
growth becomes  excessive and a nuisance. Excessive growth  can create
problems, both aesthetically and practically, when the filamentous algae
break away and float onto beaches to decay, enter municipal  waterworks,  or
clog equipment maintained in the lake."74

            Periphyton samples, collected from natural substrates in the
Zion area in 1969 (no month given), indicated that the filamentous green
algae,  Cladophora, was the most common organism in the periphyton
community.28

            A more thorough study   summarizes the results of periphyton
samples collected from April  1970 to March 1971 from both permanent and
artificial substrates near the Zion Station and the Waukegan Station.  Peri-
phyton growth was  measured from May until November, at which time a
combination of ice, water temperature less than  50°F, and stormy weather
inhibited growth.

            Permanent substrate growths were characterized  by the cold-
water genera Ulothrix and Stigeoclonium in the spring and Cladophora in
the summer.   Cladophora glomerata dominated during July and August and
was found on most substrates  through  October, at which time Ulothrix zonata
reappeared.  The appearance and disappearance  of diatoms and blue-green
algae had no such clear-cut trend.74

            The  cold-water genera Ulothrix and Stigeoclonium grew abun-
dantly on artificial substrates before the appearance  of Cladophora.
Cladophora first appeared on the artificial substrates at  Zion in June, be-
came abundant in July, and disappeared in August. Ulothrix was the most
abundant green algae in the Zion area  from August through November.74
The Waukegan intake supported  Cladophora during July and August, although
it was not abundant.
-------
                                   27
            Cladophora persisted on the permanent substrates until October,
but its growth on the artificial substrates occurred only during July and
August.  This differential persistence demonstrated the value of studying
both substrates.74

            Abundant diatom growth of several species occurred near Zion
during the  entire sampling period.  In contrast, abundant growth at the
Waukegan intake occurred only during  spring and summer months and was
limited primarily to two species.  The data indicate that diatoms  have a
limiting upper temperature for maximum growth between 55 and 70°F, with
a sharp inhibition at temperatures above 70°F. 4

            The Zion area did not support abundant blue-green  algae growth
during any season.  Abundant growth in the  Waukegan intake was restricted
to the period from July to October.   The  report postulated that  blue-green
algae growth is  not  expected to increase  near Zion after startup because the
underwater, offshore discharge is designed to prevent warm water from
reaching the nearshore substrates suitable  for periphyton growth.

            Chlorophyl _a and biomass data indicate the largest  amount of
periphyton growth on artificial substrates was  supported in the Waukegan
intake canal during  August and September.  The water temperatures were
between 67 and 70°F.  After  September, periphyton growth was  greater on
artificial substrates in the Zion area.  Except for an early October  chloro-
phyl a analysis, the  late September to November  growth near Zion was sig-
nificantly larger than growth in the warmer waters near Waukegan.74

            Diatoms were the most abundant form of periphyton in the
Kewaunee and Point Beach areas.  Fragilaria was the most abundant diatom
represented by nine species.  F. vaucheriae was  the  most abundant species
in studies using plexiglass substrates,126"128'131"133  whereas  samples  from
natural substrates near  Kewaunee in 1971 showed _F.  vaucheriae to be in
low abundance. °  The difference was most likely attributed to the different
substrates. (In general, there is a  lack of permanent substrates along the
shoreline in that area.)

            Bio-Test studies70 reported periphyton samples  taken from
wooden pilings and riprap contained strands of filamentous green and blue-
green algae intermixed with several species of diatoms. The most obvious
species of filamentous green algae was Ulothrix zonata,  which was more
abundant in May and November than in August. (The University of Wisconsin
studies were limited to periphytic diatoms.)

            There are few results of periphyton studies to report for 1970-
1971 that are  specific to the southeastern shore of Lake Michigan.  Two
periphyton samples  were obtained from a 6-ft-deep,  plastic, subsurface
float in October 1969.5 The  samples were only qualitatively examined to
-------
                                   28
determine the dominant periphyton types in the Cook Plant area in the fall.
The periphyton were very sparse and were dominated by diatoms of the
genera Gomphonema, Nitzschia, Synedra, Achnanthes, and Cymbella.  The
dominant diatom was Gomphonema sp., though Melosira varians was also
quite  abundant.  One  green algae, Stigeoclonium, was present in some num-
bers.  No Cladophora was present.

            A very brief tabulation of the dry weight per  square meter of
approximately one  month's growth of periphyton  in the Palisades area, dur-
ing May-August 1969, is given in Ref.  30.  No species identification is
reported.

            Periphyton samples were obtained at the Bailly Station site in
September and October 1970.  These data were taken in the presence of the
thermal  discharge  from the existing Bailly Plant and therefore will be dis-
cussed in Section III  below.

       4.   Benthos

            In April  1968 and August, October, and December  1969,  bottom
organisms were  collected off Zion at offshore distances out to  5600 ft.
The 1969 samples were generally similar in composition to the samples
collected and reported by Beer and Pipes in April  1968.13  The benthic or-
ganisms found in the Zion area were generally dominated by crustaceans,
but oligochaete worms were most numerous  in the shallower areas.  The
fingernail clams (Pelecypoda),  Sphaeriidae, and  the snails  (Gastropoda)
usually composed less than  15% of the benthos found.26

            In depths shallower than 10 ft,  benthic populations at Zion were
almost nonexistent, probably as the result of scouring by wave action and
the frequent shifting  of bottom sediments.  At depths of 10-20  ft, oligo-
chaetes (aquatic  worms) became  the most abundant organism.  Tubificids
•were  the  most abundant shallow-water species,  and Stylodrilus heringianus
was reported as  the  most abundant deeper-water species.  In -waters deeper
than 20 ft, the burrowing amphipod, Pontoporeia  affinis, became the domi-
nant benthic representative.

            Samples  obtained at Zion from April through December 1970
showed the  benthic populations peaking (approximately tripling) during July
and August, because  of reproduction, and then slowly declining during the
fall months. Pontoporeia affinis  was the dominant organism, accounting for
50-83.4% of the total population.  Oligochaete worms,  midges (Chironimidae),
and fingernail clams (Sphaeriidae) ranked  second, third,  and fourth,
respectively.2

            Samples  obtained during 1971 9 confirmed crustaceans  (Ponto-
poreia affinis) as the most abundant benthic  organism, with population
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                                   29
densities  similar to those of 1970.  Oligochaetes, consisting primarily of
tubificids, composed the  second most abundant category, with fingernail
clams third. Snails and insect larvae together composed only about 10% of
the total benthos.  The tubificid population density was somewhat higher in
1971 than in 1970.  The total benthic population densities varied among vari-
ous sampling areas, but no clear trends were apparent throughout the year. 9

            Low numbers of benthos were collected during 1971, at depths
less than  20 ft,  from the  clay and rock  substratum that underlies the shallow
"waters near Kewaunee. Chironomidae  (midge  larvae) was  the predominant
group of organisms, probably because of its ability to construct cases and
avoid being swept away by wave action.  Different chironomid genera, with
the exception of Heterotrissocladius, were observed each season.70

            Reference  121 cites (without reference) a brief study of the ben-
thos at Point Beach in  1968:  "The Point Beach benthos was so depauperate
that use of benthic  organisms as indicators (for  long range environmental
effects) was abandoned."

            Benthic samples were obtained at the Point  Beach Power Plant
at monthly intervals, from May through August 1971 by Argonne National
Laboratory.109  The samples, obtained from depths  of less  than 40 ft, con-
firmed that the  benthic population was very sparse.  Unlike the conditions
at Kewaunee, the most common organism collected was the amphipod,
Pontoporeia affinis, with population  densities of  0-100 organisms/m2.  This
density is extremely low compared to data from Zion, where population
densities  ranged from  4000  to  16.000/m2 (Ref. 77).

            Bottom samples for benthic invertebrates were collected in the
Palisades area  from May 1968 to October 1970.30  The benthic samples were
typical of those found in Lake Michigan, the major taxonomic  groups being
amphipods (primarily Pontoporeia sp.), aquatic earthworms (Oligochaeta),
freshwater  clams (Sphaeriidae), aquatic insects  (primarily Chironomidae),
flatworms (Turbellaria),  leeches (Hirudinea), and hydra (Coelenterata).
Densities of the amphipods, oligochaetes and pelecypods increased with in-
creasing  depth.  Chironomidae were the predominant organisms at depths
less than  20 ft.119

            The abundance of benthic organisms was low in the Bailly region,
as compared with other aquatic life  in Lake Michigan. Of  the organisms
present during  September and  October  1970, oligochaete worms (Tubificidae),
comprised  52%  of the total benthic organisms.  Most of the species of oligo-
chaetes present were characteristic of eutrophic, but not grossly polluted,
waters.  The two genera  of midge larvae present, Chironomus and
Cryptochironomus, are characteristically found  in  eutrophic and polluted
sediments.   The amphipod, Pontoporeia affinis,  is a cold-water form and
found only at the station in deepest water.
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                                   30
            Ayers found that limited sampling for benthos in the  Cook Plant
area, during 1969 and part of 1970,  was difficult to  interpret.5  In a report7
on the initial phase of a large-scale  sampling program at the Cook site on
July 1970, he concluded the benthic  macrofauna increased strongly with depth
between  15 and 80 ft.  Chironomids  were present in low abundance over much
of the area and dominated the benthos in depths less than about 20 ft.5

            Reference 34 summarizes lakewide benthos data acquired during
1969 and 1970 in the following way.   "The benthos samples were  also about
as expected from previous studies.   In most cases, total benthos abundance
was between 1000-5000 organisms per square meter, but it occasionally was
much higher.  Only 3 stations (Sheboygan, Zion,  and 20 miles southeast of
Waukegan) had very high benthos  abundance,  and even these had more nor-
mal abundance on at least one cruise.  Beeton,  in reviewing the  work of
other investigators, mentioned that  the proportions of amphipods  and oligo-
chaetes reported in the fauna had shifted from 48/39% respectively to
65/24% between 1931-32 and 1963-64.  In the present samples, however, the
proportion was nearer to the earlier figures  stated above than to  the latter.
This may be due in part to selection against small forms, especially oligo-
chaetes,  by the sampling and sorting process  used on the present study."

            The lack of benthos in the inshore areas  of Lake Michigan was
confirmed by Copeland and Ayers34  in their description of changes in their
sampling locations.  The station at the Kewaunee Nuclear Plant was moved
to 3.5 miles offshore because at 1 mile  the sediments were hard and un-
sampleable  with  little or no benthos; the Point Beach Station was  moved to
4 miles offshore for these same reasons; the  Bailly Nuclear Plant station
was moved to 2 miles offshore because,  while the  sediment was sampleable,
there was little or no  benthos.
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Ill STUDIES RELATED TO THERMAL PLUMES
A, Physical Characteristics
Before one can assess the biological or ecological impact of waste -
heat discharges on a particular receiving body of water, it is necessary to
first determine the "natural state," biological and physical, of the water
body This matter has been pursued m the preceding section The next
step in evaluating the impact requires the identification of the areal extent
and temporal behavior of the temperature changes within the body of water
induced by the heated additions. This section lists and briefly reviews
those references that have provided this kind of information, either from
direct physical measurements or from model predictions As indicated m
the Preface, the reference material will for the most part be limited to
subject matter directly related to the Lake Michigan environment
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energy Each spring and summer it raises the temperature of large vol-
umes of lake water from 32 to about 70°F Man obviously has no control
over this source. Rivers and streams are also sources of heat input dur-
ing certain times of the year Man has some control over these sources
by the way he uses them for cooling He may also increase their absorp-
tion of solar energy by impounding them behind dams or by reducing their
shade by deforestation Other significant sources of heat input are, oi
course, industrial and municipal uses of the water, over which man has
complete control
The lakewide physical effects of man-made thermal discharges
(primarily electric -utility generating stations, steel plants, and municipal
waste-water treatment plants) have been analyzed by Asbury 3 The studies
showed that if all the waste heat projected for the year 2000 were mixed
throughout the lake, the lake surface temperature would have to increase
only 0 1°F to dissipate it. The increased evaporation loss would be
810 cu ft/sec, compared to a natural evaporation loss of about
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Figure 3 shows an inventory of the major heat sources for
Lake Michigan It includes major rivers, principal industrial sources, and
steam-electric power plants contiguous to Lake Michigan. The black semi-
circles represent the estimated thermal -plume areas associated with the
peak thermal discharges. The plume areas extend from the point of dis-
charge to the place where the heated water cools to 1 ,8°F above the natural
ambient lake -water temperature. The size of each plume was calculated
using estimated or known flow and temperature information for a particular
source, together with a phenomenologlcal model for predicting plume areas
proposed by Asbury and Frigo 4 River -plume areas were computed from
the maximum monthly thermal-discharge rates associated with the rivers
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                        ESCANABA 25 MWe
PULLIAM 3925MW«
KEWAUNEE NUC
 527 MWe
POINT BEACH NUC
 1030 MWe
                                                                                     MAXIMUM  ESTIMATED  THERMAL
                                                                                     PLUME AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH
                                                                                     MUNICIPAL SANITARY.  INDUSTRIAL
                                                                                     POWER PLANT AND NATURAL
                                                                                     RIVER  THERMAL SOURCES
                                                                                                  SOURCES

                                                                                             MUNICIPAL SANITARY
                                                                                              NDUSTRIAL
                                                                                          R   NATURAL RIVER
                                                                                          *   COMBINATION OF ABOVE
PORT WASHINGTON _
 400 MWe
                                                                                                 NOTE
                                                                                                    NUMBER NEXT TO SOURCE
                                                                                                    CODE REPRESENTS PLUME
                                                                                                    SEMI-CIRCLE RADIUS IN FEET
                                                                                                    TO I* C EXCESS ISOTHERM
                                                                                       0 H CAMPBELL
                                                                                        647 MWe
                                                                                       JAMES DE YOUNG
                                                                                        48 5 MWe
                                                                                                  — SCALE —

                                                                              PALISADES NUC 840 MWe (COOLING TOWERS)
                                                                              DONALD C. COOK NUC,
                                                                                2200 MWe
COMMERCE ST 35 MWe

WELLS 14 MW<

VALLEY 280 MWe.
 ZION NUC  2100 MWe.

 WAUKEGAN  1107 8 MWe
 WINNETKA 25 5 MWe
 SOUTH WORKS 105 MWe
                    STATE LINE
                     964 MWe
                                  DEAN H MITCHELL
                                    414 3 MWe
                                                                      .MICHIGAN CITY
                                                                       715 MWe (COOLING TOWER)
                                                       • BAILLY 615 6 MWe

                                                       ^BAILLY NUC 660 MWe (COOLING TOWER)
              Fig.  3.   Maximum Estimated  Thermal-plume Areas Associated with Municipal, Sanitary
                        Industrial,  Power-plant,  and Natural River Thermal Sources.
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                                   33
over the period of record (1965-1969).  These maximums occurred some-
time in the  summer when river-water temperatures are naturally  higher
than the lake temperatures.  The river inputs would be  relatively smaller
on an average basis.

        Thus Fig.  3 visually contrasts peak plume areas associated with
natural and manmade thermal discharges to the  lake.  In some situations,
municipal, industrial, and power-plant heated effluents  are  discharged to
a river that is a tributary to Lake Michigan.  Under these circumstances,
it was not possible to separate the contributions of  each source to  the
plume area shown in the  figure.   Each of these situations is marked with
an asterisk. The power-plant sources have been singled out by name;
other sources have been  designated  by the fact that they are municipal (M),
industrial (I), natural (R), or combinations  of these sources.  The numbers
refer to the radius of the semicircles, in feet, that  have the same areas as
the thermal plumes  they  represent.

        1 .   Field  Data

            An observation of the sinking-plume phenomena at the
Point Beach Plant was reported by Hoglund and Spigarelli.59  Temperature
recorders were placed on the bottom of Lake Michigan  near the plant dis-
charge.  Analysis of the data revealed that  the discharge water interacted
with the lake bottom as long as the ambient lake temperature  was 39.2°F
or less. When the ambient lake  temperature  exceeded  39.2°F, there was
little indication of temperature perturbations on the bottom as a result of
the thermal discharge.  The data are presented in terms of the percentage
of the time  the various recorders were influenced by the plume.  The pos-
sible biological implications of this  work are discussed later  in this section.

            Ten thermal  plumes have been  mapped  at the Waukegan Plant
by Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories over a period from February  21, 1970,
to June 2, 1971 .°°~°8  The plume  data were obtained by boat  transverses,
vertical profiles being taken at stationary  boat locations. Data locations
•were determined using boat radar equipped with a variable-range finder.
Wet- and dry-bulb air temperatures -were  acquired, along with ambient
wind direction and speed. Power-plant factors such as plant  electrical
loading, condenser water flow, and intake and discharge temperatures were
also obtained.  The data were presented in  graphical form generally with
horizontal sections showing isotemperature contours.  In most instances,
vertical cross sections of the plume also showing isotherms were  provided.
The plumes were obtained on the following  dates: February 21, 1971 (shows
sinking-plume phenomena); April 23, 1970; May  19, 1970; May 27,  1970;
August  24, 1970; September 30,  1970; October 21, 1970;  November 11,  1970;
February 16,  1971 (sinking plume); and June 2, 1971 (cooperative field day).

            The Bio-Test authors have summarized their field investiga-
tions by indicating that the Waukegan plumes  are quite  variable in size,
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                                   34
configuration, and general characteristics, and are most influenced by wind
and wind-induced currents.  They observed that the plumes appeared to re-
spond quickly to wind-induced current movement  and were principally  di-
rected in a downwind direction.  They stated that  the outer perimeters of
the plumes were found difficult to locate, mainly because of the tempera-
ture variability of the ambient water.  They stated further  that the heated
effluent affects  the lake-bottom temperature only a short distance  from the
outfall, except when the wind blows parallel to the shore or slightly onshore,
causing the plume to remain in shallow water close to  the shore.  Heated
water was found to extend more  than a mile downwind on such occasions
with a strong along-shore breeze.

            The heated-plume water was stated to rise  quite rapidly after
the initial  momentum of the discharge velocity was reduced. When winter
lake ambient temperatures were  either at or near freezing, the plume was
stated to sink to the lake bottom and to spread over the floor.  It was found,
however, that the plume mixed with the ambient water  quite rapidly under
these conditions.

            Consumers Power Company has available two documents sum-
marizing 1970 and  1971 in-house thermal-plume temperature surveys  per-
formed at  various company  plants throughout Michigan.  '32 Of particular
interest are  those studies relating to plants on  Lake Michigan.  The 1970
field surveys consisted of making temperature measurements at various
water depths throughout an established grid of marker buoys in the survey
area.  The temperatures acquired were  plotted as a function of position for
particular depth levels, and isotemperature contours were then drawn.
Power-plant operating data  in the form of plant electrical output,  condenser
cooling-"water flows, and cooling-water intake  and discharge temperatures
•were  recorded.  Ambient "wind speed and direction, air  temperature, and
relative humidity were the  atmospheric  variables recorded.

            Three temperature surveys  were performed at the J. H. Campbell
plant on July 10, August 26, and  September 9, 1970.  Only water surface
temperatures were measured on  these three field days.  On September 9,
vertical temperature measurements were additionally  made at five stations.
Two temperature surveys were performed at the  B. C.  Cobb plant, located
on Muskegon Lake, which empties into Lake Michigan.  The surveys were
made on July 16 and July 17.

            The  1971 field surveys were somewhat  more extensive in that
the surveys  also included water  chemical  sampling and drift-bottle studies.
The water sampling results were  not included  in the report.  Three field
studies were performed at  the Big Rock Point  Plant:  June 30,  July 1, and
July 2,  1971. Six field studies were made at the J.  H. Campbell Plant:
June 17, June 18, July  7, July  8, August  3, and August 4, 1971.  Five studies
were made at the B.C. Cobb Plant:  June  23, June 24,  June 25, August 5,
and August 6, 1971 .
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                                   35
            In a brief summary of these plume measurements, the  report
stated that the heated-plume water was buoyant and spread into relatively
thin layers on the surface of the receiving waters.  The extent of mixing
•with adjacent waters was stated not to be well defined; however, it  appeared
that maximum mixing occurred after the plume had cooled down to within
5.4 F of the ambient receiving water.

            A compilation of 1971  field data gathered  by Argonne National
Laboratory relating to physical measurements of thermal discharges for
several power plants sited on the lake have been reported by Frigo and
Frye.51 The field investigations basically consisted of temperature, water
current, and meteorological measurements.  Water temperatures were
measured by boat using a submerged boom with probes attached at various
depths .

            Ambient water current and meteorological information consist-
ing of wet- and dry-bulb air temperatures, and wind speed and direction
•were typically recorded for each plume  investigation.  Power-plant operat-
ing data •were acquired from utility personnel.  The report also describes
plume measurements made using airborne infrared imagery techniques.  A
study of the sinking-plume phenomenon was also described.

            Plume measurements  were made at the Point Beach Plant dur-
ing March and April (sinking-plume  study), on May 20, June 25, and July 20;
two plumes on July 21 and August  31; two plumes and an  airborne infrared
imagery study on September 1; two plumes on October 28; and a near-field
jet study on November 3, 1971.  Two plume measurements were made at
the Waukegan Plant on June 2.  This was part of a cooperative field effort
and is described separately in this section.  Plume data were also  obtained
at the State Line Plant on August 4 as  part of another cooperative effort.
Most of the data  obtained at the various  plant sites were  reported in graphi-
cal form.  The figures present horizontal and vertical plume sections with
isotherms drawn on  1 C intervals.  The  authors indicated that the data-would
be used as input  to analytical modeling efforts within  their organization.

            A joint field day was conducted at the Waukegan Plant on  June 2,
1971, to compare,  among other things, various plume measurement tech-
niques.52  The results showed rather remarkable  agreement between  plume
isotherms measured by two different organizations using in situ measure-
ments obtained from moving boats. An airborne infrared mapping  of the
plume was only  in  fair agreement  with the other two after the infrared data
were corrected to  account for plume-measurement time  differences.

            Thermal-plume temperature studies (September 19 and Octo-
ber 28, 1970) were reported on for the Bailly Power Station.91  The tem-
perature measurements were made by taking surface and vertical temperature
profiles at numerous offshore sampling  positions in the lake.  Meteorological
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                                   36
parameters such as wind speed and direction, cloud cover, air temperature,
and relative humidity -were recorded in addition to the plant operating pa-
rameters of electrical output, cooling -water flows, and cooling water intake
and discharge temperatures.  The data were  presented in conventional iso-
therm plots,  but for the  surface isotherms only.

           Scarpace and Green have reported on a series of studies using
airborne infrared imagery techniques to map thermal plumes at the
Point Beach and Edgewater Power Plants.105  In this preliminary reporting
they pointed out a rather interesting and apparently not uncommon plume
phenomenon which is readily apparent  in an infrared image of the Point Beach
plume shown in Fig. 4.  The discharge temperature during infrared mapping
was  stated to be 78.3°F; the  intake on the ambient water temperature was
6l.5°F.   Thus the  darker areas within the figure  represent higher tempera-
ture conditions.  The authors attribute the  wavelike patterns  to "thermal
fronts"  moving outward  from the  discharge since they have thermal pictures
of the plume  every 5 min and can therefore follow frontal motion.

           The authors also noticed cyclic temperature  oscillations at a
fixed location within the Point Beach plume at a depth of  9 ft.  Although it
was  not stated whether these in situ measurements were made concurrently
with the infrared measurements,  the authors believed that  such bulk-
temperature  oscillations suggest  that the thermal fronts  are  not just a sur-
face phenomenon.  Infrared techniques would measure only the temperature
of the first tens of microns of the surface water.

           In a more  recent paper,106  Scarpace and Green discuss  additional
infrared plume measurements made at the Point Beach Plant bet-ween Sep-
tember  14 and 17,  1971, and additionally speculate on plausible explanations
for the  presence  of the thermal fronts.  Apparently the fronts seem to be
the strongest in very calm -weather and are not evident during high-sea ob-
servations.   The  strength of the fronts seems to  vary from day to day.
Horizontal plume  temperature gradients larger  than  0.9°F/ft "were said to
be observed with frontal motion.  It -was also observed that secondary waves
were superimposed on the thermal fronts.  The  secondary waves -were dis-
covered with near-infra red photographs; they were just barely visible with the
infrared imagery.  Explanations for the secondary waves  were also discus sed.

           In summary, the  authors felt that the  presence of moving ther-
mal fronts adds a significant dimension to the already complicated biological
and physical aspects of  heated discharges.

           A comprehensive infrared study  of three power-plant sites on
Lake Michigan -was reported on by Stewart, Brown, and  Polcyn.110   The
broad purpose of the study was to conduct  multispectral  diurnal surveys
of power -plant effluents into Lake Michigan and to investigate, -where pos-
sible, the various effects and interactions  between these  plumes  and the
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37
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                                              oo
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-------
                                   38
natural ecology of the lake.  Specifically, the report furnished (a) plume
imagery data,  (b) an analysis of imagery gathered on growth and movement
of the thermal bar,  (c) a study of wind effects on plume distribution, and
(d) a study of the relationship between the thermal bar, natural river out-
falls, and power -plant discharges.

            Infrared scans were made on the J. H. Campbell Plant on
April 22, 23, and 30 and May 28, 1971.  The data showed extreme plume
variability, dependent on -wind speed and direction and wind history. Com-
plete plume reversals within a 2-hr period were noted; subtle changes were
noticed in a span of 25 min.

            The Michigan City Plant was studied on April 23, April 30,
May 7,  and May 28, 1971 . The smallest plume occurred on the day of the
strongest -winds. A -wave pattern in the  April 23 data was noticed.  (These
"•waves" looked much like the thermal fronts described by Ref. 106.)

            The Bailly Plant was investigated on April 23, April 30, May 7,
and May 28,  1971.  The April 23 data shows some thermal-wave-pattern
structure in  the plume.

            Some of the imagery data for the plants were presented in three
unique forms as a result of  computer analysis of the data.  In one form the
plumes were shown contoured into  discrete temperature contour bands, the
sum of these bands  representing a  mosaic for the entire plume. The sec-
ond display form involved color-coded temperature contours.  The  third
display form involved the use of computer symbol signatures combined with
color overlays to denote the temperature contours.  The data results were
also tabulated to provide plume  areas for  a particular 1 °F temperature
interval.

            A bibliography of thermal-plume field investigations conducted
on large lakes was reported on by  Tokar.114  This report -was a state-of-
the-art survey, which attempted to identify existing thermal-plume field
data that  could be used to support or verify analytical plume-modeling ef-
forts associated with heated-water discharges into  the Great Lakes.  The
report  is somewhat dated in that most of the  reviewed plume data, with a
few exceptions, were  of a 1970 origin or earlier. Nevertheless, much of
what the report concluded on the plume field  investigations up to 1970 is
perhaps appropriate even to this date.

            The author concluded that the  major difficulties associated with
using existing field data for validating or improving analytical predictive
methods are:  (a) The transient nature of the plumes makes it difficult to
obtain truly characteristic data by  normal techniques,  (b) Many partial
investigations of thermal plumes are being performed by a number of
groups, often at the same location.  Dilution of effort appears to be common.
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                                   39
(c) Different mathematical models require different kinds of data, so that
data that are sufficient for one study may not be sufficient for another.

            The report also provided an inventory of all the major power
plants sited on the Great Lakes and information indicating plant siting in
terms of electrical output versus state and lake distribution.

        2.   Mathematical Modeling

            In two reports, one by Asbury and Frigo4 and the other  by
Frigo,53 thermal-plume field data were used to develop and  validate a sim-
ple phenomenological relationship for predicting the surface areas  of ther-
mal  plumes in lakes.  According to the authors, the relationship they obtained
represents a useful rule  of thumb for predicting surface areas of buoyant
plumes from surface  discharges.  The  actual relationship was presented
as an eyeball data fit  on log-log graph paper.

            An analytical expression for  the data of Asbury  and Frigo was
obtained by Elliott and Harkness43 using a least-squares fit.  Their rela-
tionship is
where 6 and 00 are the plume excess temperatures at any point within the
plume and at the immediate point of discharge, respectively, A  is the total
area, in square feet, of the plume up to the  6  excess isotherm, and  Q  is
the volumetric discharge  rate, in cubic feet per second, of the cooling water.

            In Ref. 53, Frigo correlated much of Argonne  National
Laboratory's  1971 plume  field data, taken at various Lake Michigan-sited
power plants, with the phenomenological model. All the new data fell within
the data scatter envelope  of the phenomenological  relationship, and it was
concluded that the validity of the relationship was  further  strengthened.

            A state-of-the-art report concerning the mathematical model-
ing of thermal discharges into large  lakes was reported on by Policastro
and Tokar.92  Sixteen  analytical models were critically reviewed discussing
individual model treatment of geometric, kinematic, hydrodynamic,  and
thermodynamic variables. The models reviewed did not represent all of
those that could be used for lake applications.  Therefore  a  bibliography of
other models  holding  potential merit in this regard was also included.  One
of the models reviewed has  been used to make plume temperature predic-
tions  for the Zion Station  discharges into Lake Michigan.  All the material
in the report is highly technical, including its  six pages of conclusions and
observations.
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                                   40
            A -workbook containing computational procedures in the form
of nomograms for estimating the temperature distribution and physical
spread of heated discharges originating from submerged discharges has
been authored by Shirazi and Davis.108

       3.   Hydraulic Modeling

            Hydraulic-model studies  of the proposed Zion Station Unit 1 dis-
charge have been made  by the Alden Laboratories.26'78  The purpose of
these studies  was to  determine the temperature-dilution patterns and ef-
fects of the condenser cooling -water  discharge on Lake Michigan.  The
model was adjusted and operated to reproduce prototype conditions at the
point of discharge.  The test facility and test procedures were designed to
simulate field conditions expected at  both  Zion discharge structures.  The
tests were conducted for a variety of conditions  of lake depth and flow.
The test results were presented in pictorial form showing water-temperature
distributions  in the vicinity of the discharge in plan and vertical views.

            The analytical-plume-modeling efforts for the Zion Station are
also given in  Ref. 26. Together they  form a complementary set of data and
are discussed in relation to each other in  testimony given at the Illinois
Pollution Control Board Hearings on  January 24, 1972, by D. W. Pritchard."
Dr. Pritchard pointed out that the analytical-modeling results  overestimated
plume  lengths in relation to the hydraulic-modeling results for the higher
excess isotherms. For lower excess temperatures (<9°F), the two forms
of modeling were said to be in complete agreement.  The plume areas pre-
dicted by the  two modeling techniques show the analytical method to predict
larger areas  by a factor of  1.65.

            Alden Laboratories have  also  performed hydraulic-modeling
studies for the  D. C.  Cook Plant.64 An undistorted model was used with a
1/75-scale ratio to model the discharge region as accurately as possible.
The experimental features of  the tank limited the hydraulic-modeling re-
sults  to the equivalent of 4000 ft in either  direction along the  shore and out
to 4000 ft offshore.   Preliminary trials indicated that the 3°F excess iso-
therm (used in water-quality regulations)  could  not be closed -within the
tank,  so analytical procedures were used  to complete the task.  Most of the
information gathered thus far was performed on the basis of the discharge
structures  using three discharge slots.  Tests are currently being per-
formed on the basis  of using two slots per discharge.

        4.   Effects  on Shoreline Ice

            The main source of information on shore  ice development and
destruction, and on the  potential  effects of thermal discharges on this ice,
is work  by Ayers.8   During the winters of 1969-70 and 1970-71, aerial
photographic  ice-reconnaissance surveys of the entire  shoreline of
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                                   41
Lake  Michigan were performed to observe and photograph the alongshore
ice and open-water areas in the vicinity of nuclear and fossil-fuel power
plants.  On-foot photographic records of the shore ice conditions were ob-
tained at the Cook Plant  site and  at the sites of existing thermal discharges.

            As a result of these activities, Ayers has derived abundant evi-
dence that the  shore ice  along the Lake  Michigan shore has a complex
structure called "the storm icefoot, lagoon,  and outer barrier."  The method
of formation and details  of this compound structure are discussed in Ref. 8.

            Ayers et al_.  state  that evidence from two winters of ice studies
"does not show that discharges of "waste heat cause extensive melting of
shore ice "with the resulting exposure  of the  beaches to wave erosion.  In-
stead, the data show that the usual outfall structure, a sheet-pile flume
leading out  into the water, will have shore ice continuing up to the very
sides of the flume ... (However) At Campbell there has  been,  both winters,
a considerable area of shore ice  melted, but beach erosion has not been
evident."8

            Using an analysis  of lake currents and wind-direction patterns,
Ayers et al. concluded that during two-thirds of the winter the Cook Plant
plume "will not have significant contact with the shore ice  and the natural
processes of ice-building and  ice-destruction will be in control.  "The
Cook  Plant  thermal plume appears, at this time, to be an ice-destructive
force potentially operative about  a third of the time in winter.  During this
time it will be a destructive force wandering randomly along  the  shore,
staying in contact with the shore  ice for very limited periods at any local
point.  Since its ice destructive force will always be preceded and followed
by the natural  forces of ice-building and ice-de struction,  we conclude that
the effect of the Cook  plume on local  shore  ice will be only a  limited dimi-
nution in the amount of ice present."8

B.  Biological  Characteristics

       Coutant36 summarized  the  concern about thermal discharges as
follows:

        "We visualize  the power plant  as a large artificial predator acting
on these populations.  Our opinion has been molded by laboratory experi-
ments which have shown  that thermal  shocks  may lead to  death or induce
secondary effects that ultimately affect  survival of the organism or its
population.  We may fail  to realize, however, that these devastating results
are not obligatory in the  entrainment process.  Rather, they occur only as
a result of specific combinations of temperature  and duration of exposure."

       This section describes  studies performed and testimonies presented
that are relevant to these effects of "temperature and duration  of exposure"
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                                   42
on aquatic organisms.  Many of these organisms are of immediate impor-
tance to man through commercial fisheries, sport fisheries, or biological
nuisances.119  Others are important as food-chain contributors to those
species of more direct interest.  Still others are  important components  of
the entire ecosystem, without which other processes in the lake could not
proceed.119

       A  division was made in  this report between thermal-plume effects
and intake and discharge effects. Problems with  fish kills on intake  screens
and mechanical damage due to pumping were easily relegated to the section
on intakes and discharges.   However, some of the temperature-related ef-
fects, such as periphyton growth and fish behavior, were not clearly  sepa-
rable into the specific sections.  Thus,  a somewhat arbitrary decision was
made to describe  those  studies that were performed  primarily in the intake
or discharge in the section on Intake and Discharge Effects.  Those studies
that included lake measurements as well as intake and discharge measure-
ments are reported here.

       1 .   Waukegan Power Plant

            A number of studies of the biological  effects of thermal dis-
charges have  been undertaken by the Bio-Test Laboratories  for Common-
wealth Edison. The studies use the heated  discharge of the Waukegan
power plant.

            Following preliminary studies in 1968, reported  by Beer and
Pipes,13 fish collections were made near the Waukegan and Zion areas
from  March through October 1970.  Thirteen species were taken in the
Waukegan area and 1 7 in the Zion area.73 The most  dominant fish -were
alewife, smelt, spottail  shiner, chub,  and yellow perch.  The data indicated
that alewives  seemed  to prefer the  warm discharge water throughout the
test period; the coho salmon seemed to prefer it only during the spring.

            During 1971, alewives were  again the  most abundant in the
sampling  area, with very large concentrations in  the discharge during
August and September.  A heavy concentration of  adult spottail shiners
was observed in the Waukegan discharge in June,  but no  young-of-the-year
were  taken in subsequent samples.

            Fish that were  present  throughout the year in both the Waukegan
intake and discharge canals were carp, goldfish, and white suckers.  Sport
fish taken during early spring and late fall  included brown trout, rainbow
trout, and coho salmon. They were found mainly  in the intake  canal, though
a few -were captured in the  discharge.72

            Phytoplankton samples  taken in May to September  1970 indicated
no significant differences in total population densities between the  intake and
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                                   43
discharge canals.  Offshore densities were somewhat lower than the canal
densities.  Diversity and evenness indexes showed little difference among
populations in the intake, discharge,  and offshore  during the sampling pe-
riod.28  These results were essentially confirmed during the 1971  studies.72

            Monthly sampling of zooplankton in and out of the Waukegan
plume \vas carried out from June  through October 1970.  Generally, there
•were more  organisms  inside than outside the plume .

            Ayers  conducted studies at the Waukegan Station on June  30,
1969  (intake temperature,  55°F; outfall temperature,  6l.9°F), and found an
apparent phytoplankton kill of 10%.  There  was no evidence of heat-stimulated
recovery in the near region of the plume.  The population-density  ratio,
with respect to  a station 2000 ft from the outfall, was 0.6:1.6

            The  zooplankton numbers indicated similar trends with the pop-
ulation density reduced 15% at the outfall and a ratio  (plume/outfall) of
0.2:1  at 2000  ft.6

            "In  summary,  the biological data show kill-off of both phytoplank-
ton and zooplankton in  passage through the plant.  In both types of  plankton
there appears to have been continuation of die-off between the outfall and
the nearby portion of the plume.  Benthos results  showed nothing attribut-
able to the plant except bottom scour due to currents in the  intake and
outfall."6

       2 .   Point Beach Power Plant

            The  plankton, periphyton, and benthos communities of  inshore
waters were sampled near the Point  Beach Nuclear Plant by Argonne
National Laboratory, during 1971, to determine the biological effects of the
thermal  discharge.109  With respect to phytoplankton, it was concluded from
vertical  tows for plankton  that no  significant differences existed between
plume and nonplume water in terms of plankton biomass.  However, fluoro-
metric analysis  of phytoplankton samples showed  considerable  variation
in chlorophyl a  concentration (proportional to phytoplankton productivity)
at the sampling stations.  Initially (nearest the discharge),  there seemed
to be an  inhibition in chlorophyl .a. Approximately 1400 ft from the dis-
charge an increase had occurred, and at greater  distances  the levels de-
creased  to  near ambient  concentrations.  A  significant increase  in
chlorophyl a. concentration was observed in the plume in July, when an up-
welling resulted in elevated nutrient  concentration.

            With respect to periphyton,  its growth -was  significantly greater
at the three stations nearest the discharge. Growth at  all other stations
was similar to that at the control  areas. Periphyton  productivity, as meas-
ured  by 14C uptake, was significantly higher at a station 5000 ft from the
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                                   44
discharge than at the control station and at a station nearer the discharge.
The elevated temperature near the  discharge apparently did not stimulate
periphyton production during the period of the study.

            Fish were routinely collected by Argonne  National Laboratory102
from  several locations, including the discharge canal, the beach zone near
the discharge,  and  a control beach zone approximately 2 miles north of the
Point Beach plant.  Hand seining was used in the shallow beach zones, and
scuba divers speared large fish in the discharge canal.  This sampling dis-
closed that  during the summer  months of May through July, alewives were
the most abundant fish  in the discharge canal and the beach zone.  Dense
schools were observed in the discharge canal and often  out into the lake as
far as 150 yards from the discharge. Carp were the most commonly ob-
served fish, both in the discharge and beach zones.  Schools of  10-30 fish
swam in and out of the  discharge  canal along the sides and bottom through
temperature gradients  of up to  18°F.  Suckers were observed each time
divers entered the  discharge (June-September).  Smallmouth bass of vari-
ous sizes were  observed only in the discharge.  Trout and  salmon were not
observed in the discharge channel during the higher-temperature periods
(>72°F).  Trout  and salmon also frequented the near-field plume region as
evidenced by good catches made by boat  fishermen.

            The spatial distribution of fish in and around a thermal plume
•was observed by Argonne National Laboratory  during tests to examine the
feasibility of acoustic fish-locating  equipment.  On October 28, 1971, si-
multaneous  echo-sounding and temperature measurements  were made as
a boat traversed through the  Point Beach Nuclear Plant thermal plume.
Observations were  made in daylight and  after dark. The major difference
observed between the day and night  runs was the presence of a large num-
ber of schools  of fish during  the day and the complete absence of schools
during the night. The number of individual fish observed at night is almost
seven times greater than during the day.  In general, during both the day
and night series, the majority of fish (species unknown) were in water less
than 55°F, and  at no time were  fish  detected in plume water warmer than
59 F.  Many fish, however, have been observed in the discharge canal  in
much higher temperatures.103

            An interesting study of  the effect of thermal discharges on the
swimming patterns of coho salmon  past the Point Beach Nuclear Plant has
been released by The University of Wisconsin - Madison.   The fish were
tracked by underwater telemetry  equipment and a special temperature-
sensitive ultrasonic transmitter attached externally to the fish.  All fish
tracked in 1971  were adult coho salmon captured at Algoma, Wisconsin.
The fish were displaced 23 miles southward and  released for tracking at
a point approximately 0.9 mile  southeast of the Point Beach water-intake
structure.
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                                   45
            Preliminary analysis of the 1971 tracking data indicates that
three general patterns of movement were followed by the fish tracked in
the Point Beach area:  1) Five  fish closely  followed the shore line and def-
initely did encounter the plume; 2) two fish swam approximately 0.3-
0.6 mile offshore  and may or may not have come into contact with the
plume; and 3) four fish definitely did not encounter the plume.

            Of the five fish that definitely contacted the thermal plume, two
made a course change of about 90° at a point considered to be the location
of the plume interface and subsequently swam approximately parallel to the
interface.  At the  location of course change of these  fish, the temperature
increase across the plume  interface was from 52 to  59°F in  the first case,
and from 55 to 61 °F in the second.  A third fish twice encountered the plume
edge very  near the hot-water -discharge structure, and upon each contact
changed  swimming direction by 180°.  The temperature rise  across the
plume  interface in this area was from 59 to 70°F.  The fish was swimming
northward at 1.6 ft per second.  Immediately before  first contacting the
plume, his speed increased to 2.5 fps .  After first contact with  the plume,
the fish changed direction and swam  south, approximately 0.1 mile, at
0.8 fps.  After turning northward again, he was swimming at 0.7 fps while
approaching the plume for a second time.  After the  second contact, the fish
swam 0.75 mile south-ward  at 2 fps  before  turning north and  approaching
the discharge area a third time.  The  transmitter  signal was then lost after
the fish had been tracked to within 0.2 mile of the discharge  structure.  The
tracking signal was also lost from two other  fish which had entered the
plume  area before sufficient data on their  behavior at the plume interface
could be obtained.

            Of the other  fish that encountered the plume,  all  four  exhibited
a marked increase in swimming speed during the track segment immedi-
ately preceding contact with the plume.  Three of these fish  were lost in
the plume  due  to transmitter failure, but the  fourth was tracked through the
plume.  While  passing through  the plume, this fish decreased its  swimming
speed slightly  from 2.3 to 2 fps.  Two of the fish that were among those lost
in the plume due to transmitter failure were  later captured in their home
stream area (Algoma, Wis.) by sport fishermen.

            The effect upon fish resulting from power -plant  shutdowns dur-
ing emergency or  normal situations were referred to briefly in Ref. 129.
It was  stated that  it was  significant to note that operating experience for the
first six months at the Point Beach Station  showed that with  20  shutdowns,
occurring primarily in the winter months, no fish are known to  have been
killed and no other adverse effects were observed.

       3.   Blount Street Plant (Lake Monona)

            A study to assess distributional responses of fishes to operation
of a power plant with  once-through cooling on Lake Monona was reported  by
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                                   46


Neill and Magnuson.80  Integration of field and laboratory results suggested
that  fishes were distributed within the outfall area according to their dif-
ferent temperature preferences. Preferred temperatures of six
Lake Monona fishes were measured by allowing each of several  specimens
to behaviorally regulate the temperature of its tank.  The midpoint of the
preferred (laboratory-determined) temperature range agreed well with the
median body  temperature  of the fish as  measured in the outfall area dur-
ing afternoon tests.  For example, carp, 89.2 (laboratory)/87.1 °F (field);
blue gill, 86.5/84.9°F; large mouth bass, 84.4/85.5°F; black  crappie, 82.9/
82.9°F; rock bass, 81.1/81.5°F; and yellow perch, 74.1/80.8°F.   (For yellow
perch, temperatures below 79.7°F were  not available in the outfall area.)

            Temperature was a major factor governing fish  distribution in
that  fish tended to be most abundant in that part of the habitat having tem-
peratures within the  species-preferred range of temperature as determined
in the  laboratory.  Disparate distribution of some specific fish species of
different size resulted from the influence  of factors other than size-related
differences in preferred temperature.  For example, spatial segregation
between young and adults of two species, carp and yellow bass,  probably
did not reflect size differences  in preferred temperature.  Adult carp  "were
concentrated in the outfall area during summer, but the young carp were
not, even though thermal regulatory behavior  of young  carp indicated that
they preferred temperatures between 86 and  92.3°F, temperatures avail-
able only in the outfall area. Young yellow bass avoided the outfall area;
larger yellow bass were relatively abundant there and were  particularly
concentrated near the jets.  Yet, large yellow bass  stayed near  the bottom
in water not much warmer than the reference areas where the young lived,
indicating that temperature alone was not  the dominant factor.  Water-
velocity effects were offered as one explanation for the above-mentioned
behavior.  Explanations of this behavior were not offered in  the  report.80

            Laboratory experiments80 with bluegills and yellow perch con-
firmed that fish may be attracted to food-rich environments, but suggested
that the  attraction to food does not override  the  behavioral thermal regu-
lation.  Provided  an environment with the  preferred temperature is avail-
able, the fraction of time spent in  a food-rich environment  is likely to
decrease abruptly as the temperature diverges from the preferred.  Fishes
may, however, briefly foray from an environment offering the preferred
temperature, but  not food, into cooler or warmer (even lethally •warm)
•water where food is available.

        4.   Michigan City Station

            Biological data were obtained from the  intake, outfall, and sta-
tions 400 and 1000 ft from the outfall, at the Michigan City Station on
June 28,  1969.6 The  temperatures were:  intake, 64°F; outfall,  77.4°F. The
data indicated some kill-off of phytoplankter s because the outfall population
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                                   47
density was 14% less than that of the intake.  Phytoplankton densities in the
plume were larger than those in the outfall.  The ratio was 2.45:1 at 400 ft
and 1.34:1 at 1000 ft.  Some of the increase was associated with the blue-
green algae, Oscillatoria, and the yellow-brown alga Dinobryon, but the in-
vestigators could not tell if it was due to plant heat or to foreign water
masses drifting in from the southwest.6

            The zooplankton showed a decrease from intake to discharge of
2.9:1, and many dead or broken organisms were observed in the outfall
sample.  Zooplankton densities in the plume, relative to the outfall, varied
from 5.3:1 to 0.2:1. As in the phytoplankton data, Ayers et al.  "were unsure
•whether drifting water masses affected the data.

            The waste heat from the Michigan City  Generating Station  did
not appear to affect the benthic organisms.

            Table 4 summarizes  direct measurements of the time required
for a plastic bag, nearly filled with water, to travel from the mouth of the
plant outfall to a point -where ambient lake temperature was reached.5  The
short duration  of bag drifts  was unexpected.  Ayers e_t al.  indicate that,
even  in larger  plumes, the  duration of the greater than ambient tempera-
tures is probably too brief to trigger excess  algae  blooms.5

        5.   Bailly Plant

            Field data were obtained on two days during September and
October 1970 at the Bailly Plant, located between Michigan City and Gary,
Indiana.  The purpose was to compare samples of the pertinent biological
parameters obtained from the plume area and the adjacent ambient waters.
A  summary of  the results91  indicated higher concentrations of diatoms,
dinoflagellates, and blue-green algae in samples taken from the warm water.
However, concentrations of  golden-brown algae (other than diatoms) and
green algae were similar for  samples both inside and outside the plume.
Concentrations of green algae increased with decreasing distance from
Burns Ditch.  The growth was higher near shore than 4000 ft offshore.91

            The periphyton  showed greater concentrations of Cladophora
glomerata both within the thermal plume and in adjacent areas  than in areas
along the  southwest shore of the lake.91  Zooplankton were three to four
times more abundant within the thermal plume than outside it.  In general,
most forms found in the plume are characteristic of eutrophic conditions.
The most abundant organism was the cladoceran, Daphnia retrocurva, fol-
lowed by  the copepod, Eurytemora  affinis .  Individuals of these species
found within the plume were infested -with fungus, whereas those collected
outside did not exhibit any fungus.91

            A large concentration of yellow perch were found in the plume
at the time of sampling.  The  intake/discharge  temperatures -were 66/81°F
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                                     48
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                                   49


on September 19 and 52.3/66.Z°F on October 28, 1970.  It was speculated
the fish may have been attracted by the greater abundance of zooplankton
in the region of the  thermal plume.

       6.   J. H. Campbell Plant

            A biological survey in the vicinity of the J. H. Campbell Plant
was performed  by the Michigan Water Resources Commission11 during
August 11-13, 1970. The plant was operating with an intake  temperature
of 63°F and a discharge temperature of 77°F.  Bottom trawling  for fish re-
vealed no consistent differences between plume and nonplume areas.  Most
of the fish collected were young-of-the-year smelt. Yellow  perch were
next in abundance.

            Large amounts of filamentous green algae, Cladophora, were
collected in the trawl through the plume area.  The origin of the algae was
unknown.ll6

            Plankton algae samples exhibited no gross numerical differences
or changes in community structure between the discharge and ambient
waters.116

            Results from the benthic sampling indicated a statistically sig-
nificant increase in number of species found near the discharge canal.  Al-
though there was a  slight increase  in total population near the discharge
area, the population samples were not significantly different from the con-
trol points.  It was  speculated that the use of nutrient-laden  water from the
Pigeon River, for cooling, may have caused the increase in  species.1

            It was concluded1   that the increased benthic productivity in
the plant's outfall was the only adverse effect that could be attributed to
the warm-water discharge.

       7.   Miscellaneous Studies

            Several papers have been published during the last  two years
that provide laboratory temperature-tolerance  data for several
Lake Michigan fish. Edsall e_t _al_.  tested juvenile and young  adult  bloaters
for tolerance  to high temperatures. The "ultimate" upper lethal tempera-
ture (the lethal  temperature that cannot  be  increased by increasing the  ac-
climation temperature) for the juvenile bloaters •was  80.1 F, slightly higher
than that for the young adult bloaters. The thermal tolerance of juvenile
bloaters was slightly less than that of brook trout,  but higher than that of
other Salmonidae.

            Brungs17 reported the exposure of fathead minnows  to  elevated
water temperatures of 78.8-93.2°F.  He  found that reproduction was more
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                                   50
sensitive than survival, growth,  or  egg hatchability in assessing the effect of
temperature  The number of eggs produced/female, the number of eggs/
spawning, and the number of  spawnings/female were gradually reduced at suc-
cessive temperatures above 74.3°F. No spawning or mortality occurred at
89.6°F which was the  lowest temperature where growth was apparently reduced.

            McCormick et al.82 studied the thermal requirements of cisco
larvae by determining growth rates, mortality,  and net biomass gain as a
function of temperature.  Temperatures  between 55.4 and  64.4°F were rec-
ommended as most suitable  for  sustained production of larval cisco. The
Z4-hr median lethal temperature for ciscos acclimated to 37.4°F was 67.6°F.

            The avoidance mechanism, or selection of preferred tempera-
tures, as described above, was also illustrated  in an experiment described
by Raney104 during testimony before the Michigan Water Resources
Commission.  He  cited one test  in which six ale-wives, acclimated  at 77°F,
chose 82 F -water  when given the choice between 74 and 82 F, and chose
80°F water when the  alternative  was 86°F.  In a similar test, six other  ale-
wives, acclimated at  77 F, chose 83 F -water over 75°F water and then chose
80°F -water when 86 F was the  alternative.  He said,  "This illustrates the
expected reaction  of  a species, such as an alewife, if and when it comes
close to a heated  plume."

            Testimony by Lauer79 before the Michigan Water Resources
Commission included data related to several aspects of thermal effects on
lake biota.  Concerning phytoplankton, experiments have shown the diatom,
Asterionella formosa, was capable  of one division  per day at 50°F and two
divisions per day  at 68°F.  Under optimum growing conditions, some algae
are capable of three  generations per day.  Most algae species studied have
a lethal temperature  in the range of 91-11 3°F, the  majority  being near 111 °F.
Diatoms that require cooler temperature (stenotherms) are  generally most
sensitive to temperature change and can -withstand an 18 F temperature
change.

            Lauer79 stated that at none of 1 0 operating power plants  had he
observed a discernible shift in species diversity resulting from the -water
temperature increase. He attributed  this to the relatively short exposure
time of the organisms to the heated water.

            The doubling time  of zooplankton crustaceans  such as  copepods
and cladocera is very dependent on temperature.79 Doubling times of 0.2-
2 days have been  observed for these organisms at  temperatures of approxi-
mately  77°F.  The population turnover rate  (100% replacement by a new-
crop) may be as rapid as 4 days or  less  at 77°F, and up to 22 days or longer
when temperatures are lower.  Twenty-five of a 28% average loss per day
at summer temperatures has been observed to be due to predation.  The
maximum temperature tolerance of the majority of zooplankton species
studied range between 86 and 95°F.
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                                    51
            Using lake-bottom temperatures measured continuously during
March and April 1971 during a study of the sinking-plume phenomenon at
the Point Beach Plant, Hoglund and Spigarelli59 used the data of Colby and
Brooke25 to predict the hatching time of lake herring eggs subjected to the
observed temperatures during their incubation period.  For the conditions
studied (2000 ft from discharge, 21 ft deep), the calculations predicted the
lake herring emergence "would be advanced about 7 days as a result of ex-
posure to the sinking plume.

            A rather significant development related to the problem of
power -plant design and site selection has  been reported by Coutant.   He
described steps being taken to develop quantitative mathematical predict-
ability of detrimental biological effects of thermal discharges.  For instance,
a. "survival nomogram" (a graphical  representation of lethal temperatures
versus time, with acclimation-temperature parameters) may be prepared
for many aquatic species  for which sufficient data may be available.  Then,
with the  aid of a time-at-temperature graph, developed by analyzing the
velocities  and temperatures an organism will  experience while passing
through the plant and plume, one may determine if lethal conditions will be
experienced by  the organism being studied.  If this type  of analysis is per-
formed during the  design  stage of the plant,  then engineering changes that
affect the temperatures or velocities may be incorporated to minimize  the
problem.  For those who prefer the  mathematical approach, these data  are
easily converted to a set of regression equations.

            With the  acquisition of sufficient data related to sublethal effects,
such  as equilibrium loss and increased susceptibility to predation, the meth-
od described above may be used to estimate the probability of these effects
or to design the plant to minimize them.

            If accepted, this approach clearly  defines the type of laboratory
and field data that  must be acquired to make full use of its  utility.
-------
                                   52


                IV. INTAKE AND DISCHARGE EFFECTS

A.  Inventory of Designs

       Summary operational data for most power plants on or in the prox-
imity to Lake Michigan can be found in either the Department of the Army,
Corps of Engineers,  "Application for Permit to Discharge or  Work in
Navigable Waters and their Tributaries-Eng Form 4345,"  or in the Federal
Power Commission's  Statement Form, "Steam-Electric Plant Air  and Water
Quality Control Data for the Year ended December 31, 1971, FPC Form 67."
Both of these forms contain fairly comprehensive submissions from  the
various utilities concerning cooling-water operational data for their  various
power plants.

       The Army Corps permit application must be  completed by any person
or entity seeking to directly or indirectly discharge  or deposit refuse matter
into navigable waters  or their tributaries.  The policy has been to  interpret
the discharge of waste heat as refuse, and, therefore,  utilization of once-
through condenser cooling by electrical power-generating  facilities requires
the submission of a corps application.

       The FPC form contains information on air as well  as water quality-
control data.  The form must be completed for every steam-electric station
having a generating capacity of 25 MWe or  greater that belongs to  an elec-
trical utility system with a capacity equal  to or greater than 150 MWe.  It
is also required if the 25-MWe plant lies within  a National Air Quality
Control Region, regardless of whether  the facility is part of a larger
system.

       Space limitations preclude the incorporation  of the complete  Corps
and FPC forms for all the major steam-electric power plants sited on or
next to the Lake.  Only selected facts from these documents have been in-
cluded here to give the reader a perspective for the  relative sizes  between
the various individual operating plants  and  their respective cooling-water
requirements. Table  5 presents these  selected data for those plants with
a 75-MWe  nameplate  rating or greater. The rationale for selecting the
75-MWe rating is suggested by EPA's specific cognizance of heated dis-
charges greater than  0.5 x 1 O9 Btu/hr.  A 0.5 x l09-Btu/hr thermal-
discharge rate roughly corresponds to  the waste-heat  discharge from a
33% efficient, 75-MWe nuclear plant.  Table 5  is not inclusive for yet
another reason.  Heated effluents are being discharged into the  Lake, either
directly or indirectly, by several industrial facilities such as U.S.  Steel
South Works in Chicago, Inland Steel, Youngstown Steel, American  Oil,
Union  Carbide, and others in the industrial sectors  along the Indiana
shoreline.
-------
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                                   58
       To better understand the mechanisms of power-plant cooling, the
current design features of the cooling systems for five major nuclear
power plants sited on Lake Michigan will now be described.

       1.   Kewaunee Plant Cooling System

            The condenser  cooling-water system for the Kewaunee Plant
is shown schematically in Fig.  5.  Briefly, the cooling water is withdrawn
from the lake at three intake  ports located about 14 ft below the lake sur-
face. Steel trash  grills with 1-ft-square openings are installed above the
intake openings to prevent large debris from entering the  system.  In addi-
tion, an air-bubble screen around the periphery of the intake structure
discourages possible fish penetrations.  Most of the intake structure and
the entire  10-ft-dia  intake pipe leading  from the structure to the plant is
buried below the bottom of  the lake. The cooling water is drawn through
the intake  ports, in a downward direction, at about 0.9 fps. It flows by
action of gravity through the 10-ft-ID intake  pipe and empties into the
forebay of the screenhouse. The water velocity in the intake pipe  at full
flow is about 11 fps.  The screenhouse forebay acts as  a stilling basin to
reduce the water velocity before  the water passes through a bar or trash
grill (size unknown) and the traveling or rotating screens.

            Each traveling  screen has a 3/8-in. mes*h.  Each screen is a
continuous belt constructed of screening panels with a shelf at  the lower
edge of each panel.  The screen is  rotated upward in a plane normal to the
waterflow direction.  Any debris  larger  than about 3/8 in. is thus  "caught"
by the screen, and as the screen  moves  upward out of the  flowing water,
the debris falls off into the shelves. These shelves are backwashed auto-
matically, the debris being sluiced to a strainer casket, where  it is collected
and  eventually removed for onsite burial.  A hypochlorinating system is pro-
vided to  inject sodium  hypochlorite, if necessary, into the inlet of the travel-
ing screens to prevent the  buildup of bacterial slime on the condenser tubes.

            After  the water passes through the screens, it is still  within  a
large basin, which helps to distribute the waterflow evenly to the circulating-
water-pump intakes located at the bottom of the basin. The circulating-
water pumps then deliver this water to the condenser.  While the circulating
pumps are operational, the water surface level in the basin is liable to be
many feet below the lake surface level, which allows lake  water to be drawn
into the  intake system  by gravitational flow.

            As the cooling  water  flows through the condenser it picks up
heat. The heated  cooling water is returned to the lake by means of a dis-
charge basin located at the shoreline.   The basin is approximately 40 ft wide
at the shoreline discharge  point.  During the winter, to control the formation
of ice in the system, the circulation flow will be reduced to 287,000 gpm
with a corresponding rise in  temperature of the cooling water  of about Z9°F,
-------
                                             59
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                                   60
Under this operation, a portion of the discharge "water is returned to the
intake via a 10-in.  recirculation line.  Figure 6 shows the intake and dis-
charge structures in much greater detail.

       2.   Point Beach Plant Cooling System

            The condenser cooling-water system for the Point Beach Plant
is schematically shown in Fig. 7.  The Point Beach Plant has two generating
units and, therefore, two independent condenser cooling systems.  The in-
take structure is made of steel piling forming  a hollow cylindrical structure,
standing upright on the lake  bottom,  and filled  with staggered limestone
blocks.  In addition, thirty-eight 30-in.-dia pipes pass through the intake
structure about 5 ft above the lake bottom.  The lakeside ends of these pipes
are covered with lf£ x 2-in.  gratings.  Figure 8 is  an isometric view of the
intake design.  Most of the intake water  flows through the void spaces be-
tween the limestone blocks.   The isometric sketch is not correctly drawn,
because  the blocks are shown closely fitted when in reality they are some-
what more randomly oriented.

            During normal,  as opposed to wintertime, operation, both 14-ft-
dia intake pipes are used to  conduct  the  water  to the plant screenhouse
forebay. At full flow,  the water velocity in both intake pipes  can approach
5.4 fps.  After entry into the forebay, the water passes through bar grates
spaced about 2 in.  apart, then through traveling screens  using 3/8-in. mesh
size.  The design water velocity through the  screens is  about 1.1  fps.  The
debris collected on the traveling screens is  sluiced to a  strainer basket
having 3-in.-square openings.  The small-sized debris and the wash water
are returned to the Unit 2 discharge flume.  After  passing through the
traveling screens,  the water divides between the circulating pump intakes
for the two units.  From this point on, the two  cooling systems are inde-
pendent, each having its own pumps, condensers, and discharge structures
(outfalls).  Both discharges  are nominally 35-ft-wide canals extending out
into the  lake approximately  150 ft.  Each outfall is at a 60° angle with shore.
The average water discharge velocity within the flume is about 2.2 fps.

            During winter operation, or  whenever the intake water tempera-
ture falls below 40°F,  108,000 gpm of the discharge water is  recirculated
to the intake structure to prevent the formation of  ice in the cooling system.
This is accomplished  by reversing the flow in  one  of the 14-ft intake pipes.
At this time, the other pipe  will maintain a higher  intake flow of 428,000 gpm.
Under these flow conditions  and while at full plant  power, the temperature
rise for  the cooling water will be about  31.5°F, instead of the normal 19.3°F
rise.

       3.   Zion Station Cooling System

            The schematic flow diagram for the Zion Station condenser
cooling  system is  shown in  Fig. 9.  Details of  the intake  structure are shown
-------
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                                   65
in Fig. 10.  The inlet ports are about 1 7 ft below the water surface.  The
roof structure is located above the two large intake ports to prevent vortex
motions in the inlet water, as well as to provide more of a horizontal ve-
locity gradient around the intake. Water not only enters  through the larger
two center ports but additionally through 45 small-diameter holes located
around the periphery of the intake.  These smaller ports serve a double
purpose.  In the wintertime, warm discharge water is recirculated through
them to prevent system icing.  These smaller ports eventually lead to the
center intake  pipe shown in Fig. 10,  via a common plenum, the thawing box.
All three  16-ft-dia intake pipes lead to the forebay. At full circulating flow,
the average water-intake velocity at the two larger ports will be 2.47 fps
while the  16-ft intake pipes will have a 5.6-fps average flow velocity.

            An isometric drawing of one of Zion's 12 traveling screens is
shown in Fig. 11.  The  bar grill has  vertical 2-in. openings.  The flow ve-
locity will be  1 .2 fps  at the grill face and  about  2 fps at the traveling screens.
After passing through the screens, the water is withdrawn by the respective
circulating pumps for each unit and eventually is discharged  to the lake about
760 ft offshore. The  total transit time from intake to discharge is about
2 min.  The discharge  structure for  Unit 2 is shown in Fig. 12.  The dis-
charges are 154 ft on either side of the centerline for the intake pipes.
Each structure consists of a rectangular box with outlet louvers located on
the offshore end and on the side away from the intake pipes.  The outlet from
the discharge structure consists of 14 ports roughly  7 ft  wide by 3 ft high.
The ports are directed so as  to form a 45° angle with both the intake lines
and the  shore.

            During winter operation, part of the discharge water is recir-
culated  to the intake structure by flow reversal in the central 16-ft-dia
intake pipe.  The cooling-water circulation rate and temperature rise  for
winter were not specified.

       4.    D. C.  Cook Plant Cooling System

            The condenser cooling-water  system for the  Cook Plant is  sche-
matically shown in Fig. 13.  The intakes are surrounded  by octagonal-
shaped,  heavy structural frames provided with bar racks and 8 by 8-in.
grating  on all sides.  The top of each frame is  covered with a steel roof.
At full flow, the intake  water  velocity through the grating interstices will
be 1.27  fps.  Figure 14 shows a vertical view of a typical intake structure
along with the grills of parallel vertical bars with 2-|-in. openings between
them.  The water  velocity through the  grills is about 1 fps. The traveling
screens have  3/8-in.-square  openings, and the water velocity through  the
screens will be at most 2 fps.  The  debris collected by the screens will be
removed as solid waste.  Units 1 and 2 have different condenser cooling-
water flow requirements due  to differences in turbine designs.
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                                               66
             Note Pipes shall  have o minimum 3.0  cover
  EL 551.7'
I G L a 1955
                           L.W. Datum
                           EL. 576.8'
                           IGLD  1955
                                         0             500
                                               Scale
Intake

r-EL  5675'
\  r<£_EL 5442
         IGLD 1955
                                                                                   Intake structure
                                                                                    (see Detail "B")
                        ^ ice melting ports all
                        around in thawing box
                           tIntake structure
             intake structure
                 Framing in concrete
                 typ all around	
160'  intake  line
                                                                    Detail B
                                                                l60' intake P'oe
                                                       16 0' ice melting line and intake pipe
              L W Datum
              EL 576 8'
              IGLD 1955
                Lake bed
                EL 555 2-2
                          Intake structure
                                                                        L P EL 5675
                                                 Thawing box
                           Tremie  concrete
                                     16 0' intake pipes
                                          0     Scale    40
     Fig.  10.     Zion  Station  Water-Intake  Structure  in Lake  Michigan
                                                                                            26
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                                   71
            Specific details concerning the discharge-structure designs are
lacking.  It  is known that the  structures will be located about 1198 ft offshore
and will  be  submerged.  The  lake depth at the discharge locations will be
about 16 ft.   Each structure will extend about 4 ft above the lake bottom
and will  have two horizontal  slot openings to produce a water-jet exit ve-
locity of 1 3  fps.  Details  concerning the orientation of the jet openings are
not given.  Figure 15 shows a plan view in detail of the Cook circulating
water system. The cooling-water transit time from the circulating pump
discharge to the  condenser inlet is  about  35  sec.  The transit time through
the condensers is about 6 sec and from the  condenser outlet to the point of
discharge into the lake is about 184  sec.

            Winter-season deicing capability is provided by recirculating
a portion of the warmed discharge water  from either Unit 1 or 2  through
the center 16-ft-dia intake pipe in which flow will be reversed.  Close in-
spection of  Fig. 15 can show  how this is accomplished by appropriately
manipulating  roller gates and sluice gates in the screenhouse.  Specific
flow and temperature data for the cooling system operating in the winter
mode was not given.

       5.   Palisades Plant Cooling System

            The schematic for the Palisades Plant condenser cooling sys-
tem is shown in Fig. 16.  Cooling water is withdrawn from the  lake at about
3300 ft offshore.  The intake  consists of a vertical 11-ft-dia pipe, with its
opening located about 6 ft from the lake bottom.  A 60-ft-wide, 60-ft-long,
12-ft-high box is centrally located over the intake.  The box has a steel
plate for its top and 2-in. vertical bars, spaced 10 in. apart,  around the
sides.  The  trash rack located inside the  screenhouse consists of  a grating
with vertical  bars about 1 in. apart.   The  discharge canal is a structure
about 37 ft wide at  the shore, opening to 100 ft at the point  of discharge,
about 108 ft from shore.  The average discharge velocity across  the 100-ft-
wide opening  will generally be less than 2 fps.  The cooling-water transit
time from the condenser header to the point of discharge into the  lake is
roughly 25 sec.

            During winter operation, about 17,000 gpm of discharge water
will be withdrawn from the discharge canal and returned to the intake.
A  special pump will be used for this purpose.

B.  Biological Effects

       As stated in Section III.B, this section includes summaries of studies
performed primarily in the intake and discharge canals.  Similar  types of
studies that included measurements  in the lake part of the plume are re-
ported in the  above-mentioned section. Therefore,  reference to both sec-
tions will be necessary for a  complete review.
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                                   74
       The biological effects on organisms passing through the pumps and
condensers were studied by the Bio-Test Laboratories at the Waukegan
Generating Station during 1971 ,72 Phytoplankton samples taken during this
period indicated no significant differences in total population densities be-
tween the intake and discharge canals.  (Ayers e_t al. reported an apparent
10% phytoplankton kill in his Waukegan measurements. )

       Initial findings of the effects of zooplankton passing through the con-
densers   showed  an average mortality of 5.8% due to mechanical effects
and another 1.6% due to thermal stress.   (Comparisons were made with and
without heat addition in the condensers.)  Even in July and August, when the
discharge water reached a  maximum temperature of 88°F,  90% of the zoo-
plankton survived. Other studies10'22'58'90 (some of which relate to  salt-
water) were cited as showing that water  temperatures below 99°F have little
effect on the survival rate of most zooplankton.  However, they found over
80% mortality when this temperature was exceeded.72

       Size was found to be an important factor in the mortality rates.
Zooplankton exceeding  a  length of 0.9 mm suffered 17% mortality; smaller
organisms suffered only  4% mortality.

       Reference 72 cited studies that showed,  "Organisms subjected to a
sudden temperature rise occasionally assume a condition of complete in-
activity simulating death. However, within a few hours after being returned
to temperatures far below their  lethal level, these 'dormant' organisms
would resume their normal active conditions."23 The zooplankton popula-
tion at the Waukegan Station showed an average recovery rate of 1.4% 4 hr
after entrainment, resulting in a total mortality of only 6%  from condenser
passage.7

       Preliminary studies at Waukegan indicated condenser passage had
little if any lethal effect on zooplankton egg viability.  Results from Sep-
tember to  December 1971 showed, in each of four species tested, egg via-
bility increased from 1 to 7% as a result of passage through the condenser.72

       Periphyton samples collected from April 1970 to March  1971, from
artificial  substrates in the  Waukegan intake and discharge canals, indicated
more rapid growth in the warm discharge water during June and July.  The
increased  growth  was due to nonfilamentous green algae, periphytic diatoms,
and filamentous blue-green algae, and not to forms  of Cladophora.  Growth
in the discharge canal was  reduced during midsummer when water tempera-
tures exceeded 70°F.  After September the growth again increased, but was
not as  large as that which occurred on substrates located away from the
influence  of the warmed water.74
       Samples taken during 1971 (Ref. 72) showed that, as in the 1970
study,  the dominant members of the periphyton community in both the
-------
                                   75
intake and discharge canals were diatoms. Despite some differences in
distribution and abundance of particular species between the intake and
discharge, the total  species, composed mainly of diatoms, -was often quite
similar. The green algae species, Stigeoclonium, which was found to be
abundant in the discharge canal only in late June  1970, proliferated in both
canals in the 1971 sampling period.  It was abundant in the intake when
temperatures ranged from 50 to 60°F, but also grew well in the discharge
temperatures of 70-79°F.  Both the intake and discharge supported much
larger growths of periphyton  in December  1971 than in December 1970.

       The thermal discharge from the Point Beach Nuclear Plant has been
the subject of a number of studies since the unit went into operation in
December  1970.  Reference 1Z8 describes  a preliminary  study, primarily
to develop  experimental techniques, that used the two separate cooling sys-
tems  to study the mechanical damage and  combined mechanical-thermal
damage on phytoplankton  and  zooplankton.  Although experimental difficulties
were  experienced, the preliminary results indicated no significant mortality
to phytoplankton.  Samples of zooplankton  taken from the intake and discharge
of both units were similarly surveyed, and results show that the physical
damage incurred by passage through the plant was more critical than the
thermal impact.  That is, the lethal effects of heating and pumping were
essentially the same as the effects of pumping alone.  The percentage of
animals killed by the entrainment experience varied from 8 to 19%, de-
pending upon the  season.

       Testimony given at the Wisconsin hearings   by Dr. Wright,
Westinghouse Environmental  Systems Department, described results of
studies  (unreferenced) by his organization  at "a variety of locations through-
out the United States."  Problems related  to flow were  generally more sig-
nificant than those related to  the increased temperatures.  Phytoplankton
survive both the passage  through the condenser and the residual time in the
thermal plume and still maintain their photosynthetic activity.  In some
cases, there was an increase in the productivity within the plume. Depend-
ing on the species and life stages sampled, a 5-20% loss in mobility of
zooplankton was observed as  a result of passage  through the pumps and
condenser.

       Studies on whitefish egg entrainment and effects on phytoplankton
and zooplankton productivity, as a result of passage through the  intake
structures,  pumps, and condensers, were  reported by the EPA Grosse He
Laboratory.44  Samples  were taken daily  at the Big  Rock Nuclear Plant
during November 1971 and at the Escanaba Power Plant during November 30-
December 4, 1971.  These plants  were chosen because  of their proximity
to whitefish spawning grounds.

       After pumping more than 6 million  gallons of intake water at the
two plants, the investigators reported finding no eggs at the Big  Rock intake
-------
                                   76
and an insignificant number  in the Escanaba intake. The results on phyto-
plankton productivity were inconclusive because of a low and variable
population density at the intake.44

        The  low live/dead zooplankton ratio at the Big Rock Plant inlet
indicated that damage was inflicted on the zooplankton while being drawn
through the  intake pipe (2000 ft offshore) or the population was adversely
affected by  severe  storms during the sampling period.   The  differences in
the live/dead ratios between the inlet and discharge was equivalent to a
55% mortality of the population observed.  The mortality would be 29% if
the discharge live/dead ratio were applied to the forebay population.  They
concluded, "Regardless of whether the mortality is 29 or 55%, there ap-
pears to be  significant population mortality."44

        The  live/dead zooplankton ratios obtained at the Escanaba  Plant
were much  higher than those observed at Big Rock. The higher survival
rate could have resulted because of less stress imposed upon the orga-
nisms  by the  shoreline intake.  The data indicated  a 7%  mortality in
passing through the plant.

        Brauer _et al.   studied the influence of the intake and outfall on the
distribution and abundance of zooplankton in Lake Monona.  Sampling on
13 days in the summer and fall of 1969  and  1970  showed that Diaptomus,
Daphnia and cyclopoid copepods were two to seven times as  abundant in
the water near the  outfalls as in the control area.  The maximum zooplank-
ton density  occurred in or very near the discharge currents, which sug-
gested  that  the animals were being brought  into the plume area rather than
being produced  in situ.  Observations that a many-fold increase in zooplank-
ton density  took place in periods  as short as 6  hr after the pumps  were
started, plus  the fact  that the ratio of young to  adult animals  in the outfall
samples was  not noticeably  high, support the conclusion that the organisms
were brought into the area via the intake.  This continuous input of zoo-
plankton simulated a rapid local production of zooplankton and probably
contributes  to a higher concentration of fishes  in the outfall  area than in
the reference area.

        The  studies  indicated that judicious  location of intakes (at a depth
of minimum organism densities) is one way in  which a power company
could reduce  its biological effects.

        Personnel of the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources col-
lected samples  from the Point  Beach discharge canal to determine to what
extent fish eggs and fry were drawn through the cooling-water  system.
Samples were collected on 14 days during March 3-May 27,  1971.  The
specimens recovered consisted of one sculpin  (partially deteriorated), a
few smelt eggs, and one salmonid egg (white).  Since whitefish and lake
herring are late fall and winter spawners, the  sampling was discontinued
-------
                                   77
until November, at which time sampling was performed twice a week until
March 1972. This time the specimens consisted of 4-j smelt (2-3 in.),
two salmonid eggs (white), and one small unidentified egg.  The investi-
gators concluded from these studies  that the intake and discharge structures
from the Point Beach Unit No. 1  are  of negligible concern to the spawning
grounds, eggs, and fry of whitefish and lake herring in Lake Michigan.

       Operating  experience with entrainment of fish during interim opera-
tion at low power  is summarized in Ref.  119 for the Palisades Nuclear
Plant.  The principal mortality was sculpins in January and February 1972.
The total number  of fish impinged on the screens and counted daily from
February 24 to March 26, 1972,  ranged from zero for 22  days up to 15 per
day for 10  days.119

       A large fish kill was reported at the J. H. Campbell Plant in early
February 1971.  The circumstances were summarized in a Michigan Water
Resources Commission memorandum.1 7  (1 ) The problem had existed for
7-10 days.  (2) A rough estimate was that several hundred thousand fish had
been killed by impingement on the screens. (3)  The species were mostly
gizzard shad,  with some alewives and yellow perch. It was speculated that
attraction  of fish to the warm water that  was discharged to prevent ice jams
in the intake channel was the cause of the problem.

       The occurrence of gas-bubble disease in fish in the discharge of a
power  plant in North Carolina was reported by the North  Carolina Wildlife
Resources Commission.   Gas-bubble disease can occur when the blood of
a fish becomes supersaturated with gases.  This condition may result when
a fish at equilibrium with air-saturated water is subjected  to an increase
in temperature, a decrease in pressure,  or both. More commonly, gas-
bubble disease develops  when a fish is exposed to an environment super-
                              OQ
saturated with dissolved gases.

       Gill nets, electrofishing,  and midwater trawls were used to  obtain
monthly fish samples at the Duke Power  Company Marshall Steam Station.
Three  species of fish were found to be afflicted  with the disease during the
winter of 1969-1970, whereas 13 species showed symptons  during the winter
of 1970-1971.   "Pop-eye" was the major  diagnostic feature observed in the
majority of cases. Relatively few fishes had bubbles on their head  or fins,
                             -D Q
or in the mouth or the viscera.

       Several fish mortalities involving a few hundred black crappie were
observed during late February 1971.  The  symptoms exhibited by the dying
fishes  implicated  gas-bubble disease as a principal factor.38

       Marcy   reported on the  survival  of fish larvae in the discharge
canal of the Connecticut Yankee  Atomic Power Plant.  The  plant cooling
water, heated  to about 22°F above ambient river •water, is discharged into
-------
                                  78
a 1.14 mile long canal before returning to the Connecticut River.  Non-
screenable fish larvae less than 0.6 in. in length, were sampled at the
plant intake and discharge, and at three points along the canal.  The studies
revealed that no fish of nine species entrained in the  condenser cooling-
water system survived passage to the lower end of the canal when water
temperatures were above 86°F.  The survival rate  immediately after
passing through the plant was 34.5% when the discharge temperature was
82°F and 16.6% when the discharge temperature was 92°F.  The majority of
dead specimens were mangled, and this condition was more apparent in
larger specimens.  When the discharge temperature was 95°F, 100% mor-
tality occurred during passage through the plant.
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                                   79


                V.  ALTERNATIVE COOLING METHODS

A.  Environmental Impact

       At the September 28,  1970, Workshop Session of the Third Lake Michi-
gan Enforcement Conference, a report, entitled "Feasibility of Alternative
Means of Cooling  for Thermal Power Plants Near Lake Michigan" was
entered into  record  by Federal EPA representatives.  The object of this
report was to establish the engineering and economic feasibility of various
closed-cycle condenser cooling methods that could alternatively be used in
the place of once-through cooling. The report examined the situation for
a modern 40% efficient 1000-MWe fossil plant (or some plant with an equiva-
lent thermal discharge loading) sited along four shoreline reaches of
Lake Michigan.  The alternatives considered were:  mechanical and natural-
draft evaporative  cooling towers, mechanical and natural-draft "dry" cooling
towers, cooling  ponds, and spray canals.  Representative meteorological data
for the four reaches of the lake were obtained and then used as input data
to computer  codes to generate engineering performance and monetary cost
data for the alternatives.

       The report concluded that the alternative cooling systems considered
are feasible  alternatives to once-through cooling around Lake Michigan, and
the impact of alternative cooling  systems on the  environment appears to be
minor.  Those potential problems that do exist with the  alternatives could
be avoided, or at least alleviated, through proper site selection and  engi-
neering design.

       Several  specific studies have been made concerning the possible
environmental impact of alternative  cooling systems for the major nuclear
power  stations sited on the Great Lakes.  Presently, four  of the 12 U.S.
nuclear stations, either operating or under construction on the Great Lakes,
\vill use  closed-cycle  cooling in the form of evaporative towers.  Two of
these plants  are situated along Lake Michigan, and the  other two on Lake Erie.
Although this report is primarily concerned with Lake  Michigan, it was
felt that much of the environmental rationale concerning the installation of
closed-cycle cooling at the two Lake Erie plants could  be  equally germane
to Lake Michigan  issues.

       The following pages contain information extracted  either from util-
ity environmental  reports or from U.S. AEC environmental statements made
on nuclear power  pilaints pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act
of 1969.  The information is qualitative in nature. Nevertheless, this infor-
mation is presented to give the reader additional perspective on the environ-
mental issues surrounding closed-cycle  cooling.

       1.   Davis-Besse Station

            The 915-MWe Davis-Besse Station, on Lake Erie, will use a
single 493-ft-tall  na!;ural-draft tower.115  Studies of the  climatic effects of
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                                  80
an earlier proposed 370-ft tower, by Travelers Research Corporation,
indicated that the tower would "emit a highly visible but elevated plume,
which will, on the average, persist  1.2-2.3 miles downwind.  It may, in
cold weather, persist as much as 20 miles downwind an estimated 6%  of
the time (22  days)." The visible plume would touch the ground less than
2%  of the time, on an annual  basis.  During rare winter conditions the tower
plume  could  cause  some icing on structures at or near ground level, at  a
distance of 1-2 miles from the tower, in the downwind direction.

           More recent studies  were performed by NUS Corporation  for the
actual  493-ft-high tower under construction at the Besse site.115 Two-year
site meteorological data were correlated with Toledo meteorological  data,
which, in turn, were used to  predict the environmental  effects of the opera-
tion of the cooling tower. Computer codes were used to calculate plume
rise, dispersion, and transport on an hourly basis upon input of hourly
meteorological data. The results were examined to determine consistency
with the  actual Besse site meteorological  data and  the occurrence of local-
ized lake breeze effects, and also to assess anomalous situations of plume
downwash. The NUS analysis concluded that the average visible vapor
plume  would be 1.5 miles long.  Visible plumes longer  than 5 miles were
estimated to  occur  only 3% of the total hours of the year. As long as  the
plume  remained aloft during these periods, the plumes would represent
only an aesthetic problem.

           It was further estimated that there could be a maximum annual
increase of 3.5 hr in the occurrence of fog conditions resulting  from tower
operation.  An annual average of 831 hr of fog occurs naturally; therefore
the 3.5-hr figure represents a 0.42% increase. The increased occurrence
of fog conditions does not represent discrete cases of  induced fog,  but
rather the possibility of fog  occurring earlier and lasting longer than  normal.
Lake breeze effects could increase the possibility  of fog calculated for  the
study;  however, this effect was not  considered to be significant.

           Predicted increases  in  induced fog under icing conditions  were
estimated to be less than 1 min at maximum.  Lake breeze  effects  were not
considered to change the icing calculations since the lake breeze is not  a
major  effect  during the winter, when the lake  surface is generally warmer
than the  land surface.

           Downwash conditions resulting in  the plume being brought to
ground elevation were calculated to occur as often  as  12.8%  of the time
(1121 hr/yr), with most hours occurring under offshore winds.  The winter
downwash could possibly result in icing on surfaces less than 3000 ft  away
at a rate of 0.03-0.07 in. of ice per  hour.  These  downwash  calculations
reflected maximum limits of occurrence and actual observations at operating
natural draft towers in this country have not confirmed downwash behavior.
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                                   81
            The Environmental Report115 stated that the temperature excess
of blowdown effluent over the ambient Lake Erie receiving water will be
limited to a maximum of ZO°F by supplying ambient lake water to a collecting
basin to dilute the tower blowdown.  The maximum quantity of heat dis-
charged to the lake is expected to be no greater than 1.38 x 108 Btu/hr, as
opposed to 62.10 x 108 Btu/hr for once-through cooling. This  corresponds
to a 45 to 1 reduction in heat input to the lake.  The blowdown  will enter the
lake through an offshore high-velocity discharge with a normal flow of
9225 gpm.   On occasions the  flow may reach as high as 13,800 gpm.

            Tower drift was estimated to be  a negligible problem since the
expected drift losses would be 0.01% of the tower  circulating flow, or 48 gpm.
For an assumed tower  concentration factor of two and an assumed lake water
salt content of 225 ppm, the  maximum amount of salt deposited on the land
was estimated to be 3.7 x 10~4 (lb/yr)/sq ft,  assuming a uniform  salt distri-
bution over a 10-square-mile area.  Assuming a 30.5-in. annual rainfall,
the salt concentration was estimated to be  2  ppm if  all the salt deposited
was taken by the rain.  Terrestrial effects arising from drift losses were
therefore assumed to be of little  concern.

            The Environmental Report also addressed the potential impact
of the tower on bird kills.115  Collision kills with the tower by  migratory
waterfowl were considered to be  most likely at night or during times of
heavy fog,  but in any event, they were assumed to be minor in relation to
the total migratory populations.  Resident birds were not expected to be
destroyed by collisions with the tower.

       2.   Enrico Fermi Plant

            The Fermi Plant environmental report indicates that two
natural-draft evaporative towers, approximately 400 ft high, will be used
for condenser cooling.39  The report stated that the  possible effects of the
towers on the local environment can be conveniently considered to be of
two kinds:   (l) presence of water from the  towers in the form  of plumes,
fog, icing,  or precipitation; and  (2) influence on natural condensation and
precipitation processes.  The report states,  "The quantitative assessment
of the two kinds of effects at  this time can  be made  only from  observations
of releases from similar cooling towers in similar  climates and from
incomplete  theoretical calculations."

            Two early independent analyses of the extent of the tower
plumes indicated that an airport two miles west of the plant might be
influenced at most by 8-18 hr/yr. The  diffusion models used to calculate
these distances were credited with yielding unusually conservative values
because they did not  take into account the plume's inherent buoyancy.
Additional estimates of the plume's horizontal extent were gained from
observations of the Keystone natural-draft towers in western  Pennsylvania.
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                                   82
For a six-month observational period, the plumes on only 11 different days
extended as much as  a mile.  Although the climate in the  Keystone plant
area is  somewhat different from that of southeastern Michigan, it is be-
lieved that the Keystone information offers a realistic idea of what can be
expected at the Fermi site.39

            Minor modifications of the microclimate in the vicinity of the
Fermi site, resulting from plume shadowing, were anticipated. However,
the actual effects or the magnitude of these  effects has not been assessed.
Fog formation was only  discussed in a qualitative way. The inference was
that it would take an unusual set of meteorological conditions to bring the
tower plumes to the ground.

            Ground icing conditions were stated to possibly arise under
either of the following conditions:  (l) With strong winds  (>25 mph), there
is a potential of downwash icing in the immediate vicinity of the towers,
provided that there is the additional joint occurrence that objects downwind
are below 32°F and the atmosphere has a high relative humidity.  An  analy-
sis of 10-yr records  of hourly observations at the Detroit City Airport
showed that the joint  occurrence of the above-mentioned  conditions occurred
for less than 0.1% of the  observations.  In any event, the  extent of icing in
this manner should be confined to an area two to four tower heights down-
wind. (2) Lake breeze circulations  during early spring were also hypothe-
sized as being the second possible means for causing ground icing. No
estimates were  given as  to the  potential number or duration of these  periods.
This issue, according to  the report, awaits successful application of numer-
ical models presently being formulated.

            Comparative calculations were made assuming that if all the
water evaporated from both towers over a year  were evenly deposited over
a 25-square-mile area,  it would amount to 1.4 in. of precipitation.  This  is
compared with a normal  annual rate of about 31 in.  The  report went  on to
state that observations of actual cooling towers  rarely show observable
precipitation, and when precipitation did occur,  it was not established
whether it was the result of natural processes being stimulated by tower
effluent.

            The influence of tower effluents on natural condensation and
precipitation processes  was discussed. Although the total amount of  heat
and water released from a cooling tower is  small in comparison to a small
shower, the nature of the atmosphere is such that at times small perturba-
tions may give rise to more extensive reactions.  Several were enumerated
and discussed:

            a.   Cumulus or stratocumulus clouds induced to form sooner,
                or last longer, or grow denser  and  deeper.
            b.   Natural  fog induced to last longer.
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                                   83


            c.   Natural precipitation induced to increase locally at other
                times .
            d.   Thunderstorm activity induced to either increase or de-
                crease, depending on the nature of the atmosphere.

Our understanding  of the natural process of condensation and precipitation
is far from complete.39  Therefore the extent  to which a cooling tower
affects the above processes  cannot be reliably estimated from a theoretical
standpoint.  However, actual observations show that increases in local
cloudiness are common in some areas.   Changes in precipitation were
small and much less frequent.  Additionally, no reports of thunderstorm
modifications are known to date.  Further elaboration on the above four
items was  given within the report39 but, again, only from a  qualitative
viewpoint.

            Tower  blowdown is returned to Lake  Erie at the shoreline.  The
blowdown's temperature excess is expected to range between 12 and 23°F.
The maximum heat discharged in this manner is  expected to be less than
0.78 x 108 Btu/hr,  or 1.5% of the once-through requirement.  The returned
water will  have roughly three  times the concentration of dissolved solids
(500 ppm) than appear locally  in the lake. Additionally, free chlorine will
be present in concentrations estimated to be less than 0.1 ppm.

            It is estimated that a maximum total  of 19,500 gpm will be
evaporated and lost by drift  from the towers and a  small pond used in the
closed cooling system.  Drift from both towers is expected to be  less than
a maximum of 0.1% of the tower circulating flow.   By assuming the 0.1%
figure, together with a solids-concentration factor  of three, the investiga-
tors estimated that the dissolved solids emitted to  the atmosphere would
be less than  5300 Ib per day.

       3.   Zion Station

            Several recent studies have investigated closed-cycle cooling
systems  for  nuclear power plants along Lake  Michigan. The  first such
study was that of the Sierra  Research Corporation  in which evaluations
were  made to determine the possible environmental impact of operating the
2200-MWe Zion Nuclear Generating Station with evaporative cooling towers .26
Several cooling-tower configurations were considered for the Zion site:
70 mechanical-draft tower cells, each 60 ft high, 70 ft wide, and 40 ft deep;
10 combination mechanical-natural-draft towers  250 ft high and 300 ft in
diameter; five natural-draft towers, 350 ft high and about 300 ft in diameter;
and three natural draft towers 500 ft high and about 500 ft in diameter.

            Basically, the calculations made for fog frequencies required
the input of tower design parameters together with historical meteorological
data for the Zion site.  Since the requisite meteorological data  were not
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                                  84
available for the Zion site, recourse was made to U.S. Weather Bureau
data, gathered at the Chicago (Midway) and Milwaukee airports, which pro-
vided tabulations of the frequency of various combinations of temperature,
humidity, and wind speed.  Atmospheric stability and wind assessments
required for the tower fog calculations were obtained from determinations
made by the NUS corporation for the Zion plant in relation to  radiological
dispersion issues.

            The results show that ground fog, as a result of mechanical-
draft tower operation, could be expected somewhere around the plant
(which may include Lake Michigan as well) a maximum of 650 hr/yr.  It
was stated that a ±20% variation in this number could be expected in any
given year due to natural variability.  The maximum frequency at any one
point was calculated to be  90  hr/yr at 1.5-2.5  miles north of the plant
using Milwaukee meteorological data.  Chicago meteorological data also
show  a maximum frequency in that location but only 50 hr/yr.  Using
either  the Chicago or Milwaukee data, the investigators predicted that
fogging would most likely occur from northwest through the north and
easterly directions.  Predicted fog frequency is  least to the \\c^l of Zion
station.  Fog-frequency estimates as a result of tower operation for various
towns or locations were given as:  Waukegan Airport, 20-40 hr/yr; the
town of Zion,  about 25 hr/yr; Waukegan,  18 hr/yr; Winthrop Harbor and
along highways northwest of the site, 40-60 hr/yr; and the lake  shore
1-2 miles north of the plant, 50-90 hr/yr.

            Most occurrences  of fog would be between 0 and 34°F.  The
winter months, December, January, February, and March, show the highest
fog frequency; June,  July,  and August the least.  The most favorable hours
for fog formation are from 3 to 7  A.M.  The greatest majority of all
cooling-tower fogs should be observed between 12 midnight and 10 A.M.
Most fogging episodes were said to  be short-lived, with a duration of
2-4 hr. Very few situations are expected with a persistence  over 6 hr.
A fog duration of up to 12 hr or more could infrequently occur when the
tower fog mixes with natural fog.  The report concludes  that if an average
duration of 3 hr is assumed for a  fogging episode as a result of tower opera-
tion, then the  mechanical-draft towers would produce ground fog on a maxi-
mum of 25 days/yr at any one point.

            The fog frequencies computed for the taller towers  were  con-
siderably lower, decreasing with tower height.  For  the 500-ft-tall towers,
estimated ground fog frequencies  ranged from 5-40  hr/yr, the distance  of
maximum frequency being 12.4 miles from the  site.   Ground-fog frequencies
for the  350-ft towers were  estimated to occur between 15 and 75 hr/yr,
9.31 miles being the distance of maximum frequency.  Fog frequencies for
the 250-ft tower were 25-100 hr/yr, the distance of  maximum frequency
being 7.4 miles.  With fog persistence of 2-4 hr, individual fog episodes
were expected to occur 5-30 days/yr with these taller towers.  The pre-
dicted ground-fog frequencies  are significantly lower with increasing tower
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                                   85
height, and when fog does occur it generally occurs further from the plant
with increasing height.  However, because ground-fog frequencies  are less
with the taller  towers, this does not imply that the tower plumes will dissi-
pate close to towers.  Rather, plumes from the towers will frequently per-
sist for distances as great as  10-20 miles, but only rarely will these plumes
contact the ground.  The distribution of fog from these taller towers with
respect to the time of the day, the month, and the direction were stated to
be similar to the mechanical-draft situation.

           A summary  chapter in the  Sierra  Report  was devoted to inter-
preting the results.  Although the  physics of the problem formulation is
based on accepted and understood models, these  models nevertheless have
never been verified against long-term  tower tests and should therefore be
interpreted as  state-of-the-art estimates. It  was estimated that the calcu-
lated values should be correct to within ±25%, at a confidence level of 95%.

           Natural fog at Milwaukee and Chicago (Midway) averages 260 and
160 hr/yr, respectively.  It was estimated that about  35% of the tower-fog
cases would coincide with measurable  natural fog.  When fogs occur together,
the fog density would naturally be greater in the  tower plume. In general,
the intensity  of the fog at the ground under such situations should produce
visibilities in range of 200-1000 ft, that of dense natural fog.

           Since most tower fogs  would occur when temperatures are
below freezing, some  icing was anticipated whenever the supercooled fog
made contact with solid  objects at the ambient temperature.  But, because
fog situations will seldom last longer than several hours,  heavy icing of the
kind that would endanger vegetation or  structures would not be expected.
The report cautioned,  however, that any icing  on  highways could be  a
serious hazard.

           The Sierra report mentioned that  under certain wind conditions
downwash and aerodynamic distortion,  not only from  the towers themselves
but also from nearby plant building structures, could to  a  small extent
increase the  frequency of ground fog.  The number of such incidents would
decrease with increasing tower height.  Such effects could be minimized
with the 500-ft towers.

           The Environmental Report26 summarized additional problems
that could result from cooling-tower operation.   Since the Waukegan air-
port is about 3.25 miles  away, it was suggested that both the vapor  plumes
and tall towers, if used,  could represent aircraft hazards.  It was further
suggested that  the water evaporated by the towers (66 cfs) might legally be
construed as a Chicago area water diversion and hence  apply against the
3200 cfs internationally  allocated for the Illinois-Lake Michigan diversion.
The report additionally pointed to the undesirable aesthetic impact  of
either  the resultant tower plumes or the towers themselves, particularly
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                                   86
the taller ones. Tower blowdown and drift problems were not pointed to as
being significantly consequential.  The blowdown thermal-discharge rate to
the lake would be  roughly 0.96 x 108 Btu/hr, compared to 150 x 108 Btu/hr
for once-through cooling.

            Several other alternative closed-cycle cooling systems were
investigated for the Zion station:   a 3000-acre cooling pond, a 300-acre
spray pond, and dry cooling towers. The 3000-acre pond was  ruled out
because land use in the area precluded everything except a possible loca-
tion several miles west of the site.  Because of elevation changes  and
distances involved, the pumping-energy requirements of this alternative
would reduce the capability  of the  station more than any other evaporative-
type alternative.  In addition, the pond site would require a number of
residences  and farms to  be  displaced. The 300-acre spray-pond alternative
was rejected, partially because of available land limitations and partially
because potentially severe  fogging and icing problems were anticipated.
The dry cooling towers were rejected as being viable alternatives, primarily
because of excessive costs.

            The Illinois State Water Survey published a  document summa-
rizing their findings  concerning the potential effects of cooling-tower efflu-
ents on the  atmosphere with emphasis on the Zion Plant.   A literature
search was made  covering  basically three topical areas: fog and icing,
clouds and precipitation, and severe weather.  More attention had been
given in the literature to fog and icing problems  associated with tower
effluents than any other potential weather effects.  The report stated that,
"The majority opinion appears to be that fog and icing are usually minor
problems with natural-draft towers employing evaporative  cooling, since
these towers usually extend to heights of 350 ft or more into the atmosphere
so that the plume  seldom, if ever, sinks  to ground level. Mechanical-type
towers release their effluent at a much lower level (50-75 ft) and in a much
more turbulent condition due to fan-forced ejection, so that there appears  to
be a high probability of tower-induced fog and  icing at or near the ground
on occasions.  However,  the frequency of such occurrences  cannot  be
assessed accurately with existing  observational data."

            Very little quantitative data on the effects of cooling towers on
clouds and precipitation  could be  found.  The report stated,  "Occasional
observations of light drizzle or snow attributed to tower effluents  have
been reported.  Also, there  have been several  reports of tower plume  con-
tributing to cloud formation downwind; apparently, these are usually
stratus-type clouds and observations of cumulus developments have been
rare.  A few mathematical  calculations have been made to determine the
cloud and precipitation producing potential of cooling tower plumes, but no
meteorologically acceptable analyses have been made to assess quantita-
tively the possibility that these plumes augment precipitation and cloud
systems associated with naturally occurring storms."62
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                                   87
            The literature provided little information on any observed or
calculated effects of towers on severe weather.  The report concluded,
"From consideration of atmospheric  physics and dynamics, one would
expect that any severe weather event resulting from cooling tower effluents
would be attained only through a triggering or stimulationeffect."  In another
paragraph the report went on to state, "In general, we conclude from avail-
able information in the literature that a  very distinct void exists in our
knowledge of the effects of cooling  tower plumes  on clouds and precipitation,
with regard to both initiation and stimulation of these weather events.
From climatological observations and cloud physics research, it is known
that cumulus clouds and rain showers or thunderstorms can be triggered  by
small inputs of energy.  Consequently, it is extremely important that re-
search be initiated to combine existing knowledge of plume and cloud prop-
erties  into mathematical models that will provide reliable quantitative
estimates of the  plume effect on downwind clouds and rainfall."

            The report summarized several specific findings  related to
Zion itself.  Calculations showed that the amount of moisture  that could be
added to the atmosphere from Zion would be very small compared to
natural fluxes in storm clouds.  However, the addition of tower effluents
could occasionally result in additional precipitation and possibly other
undesirable intensification of naturally occurring weather  events.

            The meteorological effects from the interaction between
cooling-tower effluents and lake breezes in the Zion area were stated to
"likely result in  additional snowfall under certain synoptic weather
conditions." The analyses indicated  that in spring "there would  be days
where  a  cooling tower plume would thicken on existing naturally occurring
fog, but most of the time this fog \vould not persist more than 1 to Z  miles
inland.  Only  very occasionally would a weather situation exist  in which
convective storms could be intensified by the lake breeze-tower  plume
interaction.  Again, the general conclusion must be that accumulated
knowledge is insufficient at this time to  define in quantitative  terms  the
effects of the interaction of cooling tower plumes with a lake-influenced
atmosphere. " 2

            A numerical model was used to estimate the amount of additional
rain or snow, under steady light rain or  snow conditions, that would result
from tower operation at Zion.  The results showed that the tower plume
could lead to a small rainfall  (trace amounts) within a few thousand feet of
the tower.  The  additional rainfall amounts were  said to be trivial, a fraction
of 1% annually.  Predictions on snowfall indicated that the  total annual snow-
fall would be increased 1-2 in. within this lake-effect zone. There were also
some indications using the model that the tower  plumes could trigger a
thunderstorm under special weather  conditions.
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                                   88
            Under a section titled, "General Conclusions and Recommenda-
tions"  the report stated, "At this  time meteorologists have not acquired
adequate information to define in  quantitative terms the meteorological
consequences of the large  amounts of heat energy and water vapor that are
released into the atmosphere from cooling towers associated with nuclear
power  plants.  The interaction between tower effluent and the atmosphere
is very complex and dependent upon local conditions  of climate and topog-
raphy	  Although it was not the purpose of this report to compare the
meteorological consequences of lake and atmospheric dissipation of waste
heat, the authors consider it appropriate at this point to present several
relevant facts pertaining to this problem.  First, it is much more  difficult
to establish the meteorological consequences of atmospheric dissipation
of waste heat from large nuclear  power plants  than it is to  evaluate the
meteorological ramifications of once-through cooling on Lake Michigan.
This is because in both time and space the lake is much more stable with
respect to its meteorological properties	   Secondly,  the lake cooling
spreads out the heat dissipation over  a much longer time period than
cooling towers and,  therefore, localized effects on the weather are likely
to be less pronounced with lake cooling than with cooling towers.  Strictly
from the meteorological standpoint, it appears that environmental effects
are likely to be no greater, and probably smaller, with dissipation of
waste heat into Lake Michigan compared with atmospheric  release from
cooling towers."

       4.   Point  Beach Station

            Alternate  closed-cycle cooling systems were investigated for
potential use at the  1046-MWe Point Beach nuclear station  in Wisconsin.129
It was  estimated than  an 850-acre pond would be required for this purpose.
The most significant environmental impact of this alternative was stated
to be the elimination of land resources that presently support agricultural
activities and small-game shelters.

            With evaporative  cooling towers, it was recognized that
natural-draft tower  plumes seldom return to the ground; thus the occur-
rence of ground-level  fog  or icing would be negligible. Some enhancement
of cloud formation and precipitation was suggested.   Two natural-draft
towers, each 370 ft  high and 400  ft in  diameter, were contemplated for the
Plant.  With the natural-draft towers,  it was  stated that there would be a
significant objectionable aesthetic impact. The towers would be three
times the height of the tallest existing structures.  With mechanical-draft
towers the occurrence of fog  would be more frequent.  Four tower assem-
blies, each  73 ft wide,  60 ft high,  and  360  ft long, were considered.

            The report129 indicates that the normally observed ground fogs
are quite  thin near the lake and suggests that the fogs created by
mechanical-draft  towers would probably extend from the ground to the tops
of the towers and  for a considerable distance downwind of the towers.
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                                   89
Conditions favoring this occurrence "would be limited mixing or inversion
breakup (fumigation)."  Whenever onshore breezes were present, there
would be the likelihood that some of the moisture from the towers "could
settle on forests and crop lands.  When ambient temperatures are low
enough, the moisture could freeze on tree limbs  and lower story vegetation
and could affect the wildlife cover." It was also  indicated that "there would
undoubtedly be some effect on seasonal crop characteristics due to increased
moisture."  The environmental impact for the alternative  cooling systems is
contrasted against once-through cooling in Table  6.129

            In the Point Beach Environmental Statement,121 it was  estimated
that a visible tower plume would be  seen during much of the year:  at least
50% of the year for mechanical draft towers and  95% of the year for natural-
draft towers. Most of the plumes would occur close to the facility.  How-
ever, under restrictive conditions the plumes could extend downwind as far
as 30-40 miles  for the natural-draft towers and as far as  15-20 miles for
the mechanical-draft towers.  Although the  actual size of the plume and the
distance it persists depend on meteorological factors, the plume will roughly
be cigar-shaped and, under restrictive conditions, would have a maximum
width of about 2 miles and maximum depth of about 1000 ft.  Further, it
was anticipated that cooling towers would increase the amount of fog at a
particular point on the order of 1-11 and 5-75 hr/yr at the point of maxi-
mum effect for  natural and mechanical draft towers, respectively.

            Ground-fog calculations for the alternative 850-acre cooling
pond indicated that ground plumes would extend from the pond to  1,5, and
10 miles on the order of 45, 30, and 5 hr/yr,  respectively.121 The maximum
number of hours per year of fog due to the cooling pond at any point at
1, 5, and  10 miles is estimated to be 8, 5, and less than 1  hr/yr, respec-
tively.  Pond fogging will occur almost exclusively in the winter,  and the
incremental environmental impact in terms of contributing to reduced
visibility  and icing should be inconsequential  in relation to the occurrence
of natural fog.

            A spray canal system was additionally investigated.  The plant
would require a 30-acre canal with about  140 spray modules.  A crude
analysis was performed which indicated that potential fogging and icing
resulted in occurrences of approximately 150, 80, 20, 4 hr/yr at  1/2, 1,
5, and  10  miles from the canal, respectively. 21

        5.   Kewaunee Plant

            Several closed-cycle  alternative cooling systems were investi-
gated in relationship to the 540-MWe Kewaunee Plant in Wisconsin.130
A single 450-ft-high, 480-ft-dia, natural-draft evaporative tower  and
three parallel banks of mechanical-draft towers,  each bank 50 by 350 ft,
were proposed as alternatives to  once-through cooling.  In a Westinghouse
study concerning evaporative towers for the Kewaunee site,  the potential
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                                                                                      90
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                                  91
environmental impact of such towers was discussed and most of the following
material on towers have been abstracted from this report.12

            The meteorological effects of evaporative towers were con-
sidered. Icing and fogging could occur and cause problems on nearby roads
or in the plant's electrical switchyard about  10 days annually.  This did not
count the number of times the tower plumes  might influence natural fogging
or icing conditions by making them more severe or of longer duration in
the vicinity. Cooling-tower drift problems were discussed and implied to
be of minimal consequence off site.  Except for certain tower chemicals,
"Watering  lawns in residential areas with average city water would result
in as much or more dissolved solids deposit as  would drift from cooling
towers  using Lake Michigan water." Drift was calculated to add roughly
400 Ib of dissolved solids per year  in the plant vicinity.

            Blowdown, while singled out  as an environmental issue, was
only discussed briefly by noting that it contains  not only increased con-
centrations of dissolved solids, but also  some chemicals.

            The Westinghouse report additionally  provided a quantitative
evaluation  of the potential biological impact of cooling towers as contrasted
against once-through cooling for the Kewaunee Plant.  Through a series of
rather simple calculations and arguments, it was  shown, based on con-
servatively assumed population, fractional capture, and mortality estimates,
that a maximum fish kill  of 7650 Ib/yr can be expected with once-through
cooling. Closed-cycle tower cooling was stated to result in zero fish kill.
The fish-kill equivalent of plankton mortality (including  meroplankton)
resulting from plant operation was  also calculated using estimated values
of lake  plankton biomass, cooling-system flow rates, fractional losses in
the condenser and in the towers and plumes, and a two-to-one  fish-to-
plankton-kill biomass ratio. The  estimated maximum values of fish kill
due to once-through and closed-cycle cooling were 2900 and 236 Ib/yr,
respectively.  The net estimated overall fish and fish-equivalent kill
range was  stated to be 1680- 10,550 Ib for once-through  cooling and 120-
270 Ib for closed-cycle cooling.  10,550 Ib/yr represents an average of
30 Ib/day.  A calculation  was made to show that the increased fuel-energy
cost alone,  resulting from closed-cycle tower operation versus once-
through cooling, amounts to $600,000/yr. This figure corresponds to a
biological cost of 10,550 minus  270 or  10,280 Ib of fish per year, or about
$60/lb. This figure was then compared to the cost of fish produced at a
hatchery, $1.50/lb.  The report concluded that,  "The great disparity in
the cost per pound of fish suggests  that better commitment of total resources
could be made by building fish hatcheries instead  of cooling towers."  The
environmental impact of various alternative  cooling-tower schemes for the
Kewaunee Plant is summarized in  Table  7 as abstracted from the Westing-
house Report.
-------
                                             92
                                         Table  7

                     Environmental Impact of Various Cooling Modes •*• ^
Area of Impact
Fish



Plankton



Fuel Resource

Effluents to
Air and Land

Effluents to
Water (Plume)





Parameter
Flow Rate, GPM
Mr Screen Effectiveness, I
Fish Capture at intake, 1
Fish Transport Mortality, %
Estimated Annual Damage, Ib/year
Condenser Mortality, %
Cooling Tower Mortality, 1
Plume Mortality, \
Meroplankton Mortality, Ib/year
Estimated Equivalent Fish Damage Ib/year
Heat Rate Btu/Kw-HR
Fuel Penalty for Towers, 1
Fog Persistence Due to Towers, Days/year
Drift, GPM
Salt Fallout, Ib/acre/year
Chemical Release
2
Radionuclide Release, pCi/1
Thermal Plume:
Discharge Temperature Above Ambient, F
Acres Affected at +1
Acres Affected at +4°
Acres Affected at +10°
Acres Affected at +18°
Once -through
413,000
0-501
0.34
100
2300-7650
10-20
0
10-201
725-1450
1450-2900
10,440
0
0
0
0
Nil
5

20
2720
252
7
0.7
Closed-Cycle
Cooling Towers
28,000
0-501
0.0017
100
1-32
10-20
100
4-8
59-118
118-236
11,070
6
10
400
400
Nil
89

20
141
72
28
4
 These values are assumed or estimated based  on  scant data; values should be verified by  field
 or laboratory work.

210CFR-20 Limit = 100 pCi/1
 10CRF-50 Limit = 20  pCi/1
-------
                                   93
            A cooling-pond alternative, between 650 and 1500 acres, was
investigated for the Kewaunee Plant.130 The most significant environmental
impact of the  pond would be the removal of 650- 1500 acres of crop and
pasture land.  A spray canal was also  considered for the plant.  No particu-
lar environmental impacts  were cited  for the  spray canal other than sug-
gesting that fish damage  similar to that of cooling towers  can be expected
as a result of blowdown to the lake.

       6.   Bailly Station

            An evaporative natural-draft cooling tower will be used at the
Bailly Generating Station in Indiana for its 685-MWe nuclear unit.91 Two
possible adverse meteorological effects  resulting from tower operation
were cited: fog and drift.  Calculations for the southern end  of Lake Michigan
indicated,  "relative humidity and temperature combine in such a manner  that
there is a  high probability of producing fog from a cooling tower only 0.11%
of the  time (0.4 days per  year)."  The  probability for ground  fog from a.
natural-draft  tower was stated to be even lower.

            Three atmospheric conditions  were discussed that could con-
ceivably limit the plume  rise from a tower and thereby increase the poten-
tial for contributing to natural fog: a strong atmospheric temperature
inversion,  the presence of a high wind, and tower downwash.  The  report
considers  none  of these three to be credible mechanisms  for contributing
to natural  fog.  Two types of atmospheric temperature inversions--a
surface-based radiation inversion and a  subsidence inversion--were also
considered as potential mechanisms for  causing  a plume to be trapped at
low levels  and thereby possibly contributing to existing natural ground
fogs.  These were subjected to qualitative  arguments, and it was concluded
that the tower plume would very likely penetrate the radiation inversion  or
rise to a sufficient height in a subsidence inversion (~1000 ft) insuring that
a natural-draft  tower plume would not likely play a  contributing  role in
existing ground fog.  In citing  reference  material within the  report, the
investigators  stated that, "Surveys of operating cooling towers in the
United States  and in Europe confirm that natural draft  cooling towers do
not cause or intensify ground fogging conditions."91

            Drift and evaporative losses from the Bailly tower are estimated
to be about 7100 gpm or 15.6 cfs .  This quantity was stated to represent  only
about 0.04% of Lake Michigan's natural evaporative losses over  the entire
lake.  It was therefore assumed that the  Bailly tower losses will have no
significant impact on the  lake.

            Tower  blowdown was not expected to be a problem since most
of the  impurities in the blowdown water will be the same as those  in the
lake.  Some chemical treatment  of this water, mainly in the form of
sulfuric acid and chlorine (hypochlorite ions), is anticipated. The investi-
gators, however, estimated this to be of  such low concentrations when dis-
charged that no adverse effect on the lake  is  expected.
-------
                                   94
            The possible synergistic effects resulting from the combination
of the cooling-tower plume with existing atmospheric constituents were dis-
cussed.  It was felt that since no such adverse effect has  been documented
at other natural-draft cooling-tower installations and since the regional
air-pollution indices  are stable  or declining, this would not be a problem.
Consideration was also given to the possible effects associated with the
tower plume blending with the stack effluents  from the operating fossil-
fired units at the Bailly site. The speculation is that sulfur dioxide in the
stack effluents could be oxidized and then combined with  the tower vapor to
form an acid mist. The statement was made that since other larger coal-
fired plants with natural draft towers have not reported any adverse effects,
no problem is anticipated at Bailly.  Further arguments were developed
stating that the oxidization of sulfur dioxide in a combined plume could be
catalized by certain fly-ash constituents. Since the Bailly fossil units
remove 99% of the fly ash through electrostatic precipitators, it was
inferred that this would reduce the probability of acid mist.

            Mechanical-draft cooling towers were also considered  as an
alternative to natural-draft towers.  Land-area requirements for the
mechanical towers were estimated to be roughly 23 acres, as opposed to
4.5 acres for natural-draft towers.  This excess land area for the
"economical arrangement" of mechanical-draft towers at the Bailly site
is not available;  therefore this  alternative was rejected.  From an  environ-
mental point of view, mechanical-draft towers were noted to have a greater
probability of producing ground fog than  natural-draft towers.  Since the
Bailly site is located in an industrial area near a highway, this potential
problem could be significant.  It was stated that mechanical-draft towers
are best suited for areas where fog is  unlikely or in sparsely settled areas.

            Cooling ponds, spray ponds,  and cooling canals were noted as
having a potential for producing ground fog and for evaporating more water
than cooling towers.  They were primarily rejected as alternatives because
of limited land availability. Dry cooling towers were also mentioned as an
alternative.  They were rejected, however, because their  use would signifi-
cantly decrease the plant efficiency unless special turbines could be made
available. The requisite turbines  could not be fabricated  in time to meet
the unit's operating date.  The towers were additionally rejected because
there was some doubt whether a dry-tower  system could be physically
incorporated into the Bailly site because of its anticipated size.

            Once-through cooling was also considered for the new Bailly
unit with  either a shoreline or offshore discharge.  It was indicated that a
detailed cost-benefit analysis would probably show this option to be the
best choice. It was rejected as  a viable  alternative since it was believed
that once-through cooling might be prohibited on Lake Michigan in  accord-
ance with the recommendations  of the Third Lake Michigan Enforcement
Conference. The utility stated that even though no existing law prohibits
-------
                                   95
once-through cooling, it could ill afford an operating-license delay of well
over one year as recently experienced by the Palisades Plant and then end
up installing duplicate facilities.

       7.   D. C. Cook Plant

            The environmental report for the 2200-MWe Donald C. Cook
Nuclear  Plant   outlines four alternative cooling systems which could be
used to backfit the present once-through system.  It was estimated that a
cooling pond would have to be at least 5000 acres and have a minimum
depth of  8-12 ft.  This alternative was  considered totally impractical, since
land acquisitions of the required area are not readily or realistically
available in the  surrounding scenic dunes area.  The sandy soil in the
general area would not be suitable to retain water without the costly instal-
lation of asphalt or some comparable material.  The pond was estimated
to consume roughly 40,000 gpm of  lake water, three-quarters of it through
evaporation and the remainder through seepage losses.  Aesthetically the
pond would be the most desirable of the alternatives considered.  From an
ecological  point of view, there would be no significant  effect other than
those anticipated from the displacement of farm and recreational land.

            Two natural-draft evaporative towers, each  500 ft high and
520 ft in diameter,  were considered as another alternative.  The towers
would consume about 30,000 gpm of water.  The meteorological effects
resulting from the discharge of this quantity of water vapor from two
localized points 500 ft above the ground were said to be unknown. Under
certain atmospheric circumstances the plumes could cause fogging  and
contribute  to icing conditions in the winter.  The  report  states that this
alternative would constitute  a significant aesthetic intrusion along the
scenic shoreline and would completely destroy the low-profile Cook  Plant
design.  During  cold weather the vapor plume would be visible several
thousand feet in the air, again an aesthetic cost.  From a land-use point of
view the  two towers would require the leveling of 40 acres of presently
undisturbed dune land.

            Fourteen mechanical-draft towers, each 73 ft wide, 400 ft long,
and 60 ft high, were considered for the Cook Plant as another alternative.
The mechanical-draft system would consume about 30,000 gpm of lake
water when in operation.  The system would also require some 90 acres of
dune land for installation. One  of the major disadvantages of a mechanical-
draft-tower system is discharging the water vapor and droplets at a
relatively low altitude above ground; this  could result  in serious icing
problems on plant-access roads and on public highways.  Since mechanical
towers have such a low profile, they would not detract from the plant's
low profile. However, because  of their bulk, they might  have a significant
adverse  effect upon the plant's appearance from the lake.  Ecological
effects on the lake from blowdown  discharges from either the mechanical-
or natural-draft towers were thought to be insignificant.
-------
                                  96
            Dry cooling towers were discussed, but they were not con-
sidered a viable alternative for a plant the size of Cook.  The report in-
dicated that even if they were feasible they could not be used at the Cook
Plant because the steam turbines presently installed could not operate
with them.

       8.   Palisades Station

            The Environmental Statement for the 715-MWe  Palisades
Nuclear Generating Station119 discusses several closed-cycle cooling
alternatives to the plant's presently used once-through system.  (The plant
will be backfitted by November 1973 with mechanical-draft  towers as part
of a settlement with interveners  at a licensing  hearing.)  The closed-cycle
cooling alternatives  considered were mechanical- and natural-draft evapo-
rative towers,  dry towers, and cooling and spray ponds.  One of the principal
impacts of the  evaporative towers was considered to be the addition of
chemicals to the lake  via blowdown and the addition of chemicals and water
to the surrounding land as a result of drift. (The blowdown issue is dis-
cussed in more detail in Section VI of this report and will not be covered
here.) The Environmental Statement concluded that once-through cooling,
with appropriate modifications to the present facility,  would cause less  of
an impact on the lake  than that resulting  from the Palisades Plant  operating
with cooling towers.

            The report mentioned several advantages of natural-draft
towers over mechanical-draft systems:  reduced requirement for corrosion
inhibitors, less drift,  and a long-term monetary cost  advantage.  The dis-
advantages  of a natural-draft tower for the Palisades location were thought
to be the  aesthetic impact of a 400-ft-high structure on the  naturally scenic
sand dunes  and the possibility that a tall  tower would disperse fog  and drift
and cause icing over  a wide area beyond the plant site. There was  a greater
possibility for  the plume from a tall tower to affect traffic  on nearby high-
ways; plumes from a mechanical-draft system would be expected to pri-
marily affect onsite areas. Dry cooling  towers were dismissed as  a viable
alternative  for the Palisades  Plant primarily because  the existing  turbine
and condenser  system could not accept backfitting without a rather severe
penalty in plant operating  efficiency and  further the state of the art on dry
towers is still  in its infancy for an installation the size of the Palisades Plant.
Cooling and spray ponds were also considered as alternatives.  The cooling
pond would require a minimum of 1000 acres, and building  the pond in the
immediate plant vicinity would require the destruction of the scenic sand
dunes.  The possibility of building a pond about a mile inland was also con-
sidered; however, this alternative would have meant destroying 1000 or
more acres of agriculturally productive  land.  These were  felt to be
unacceptable alternatives  by the utility.  The spray pond was rejected
because  its reliability was thought to be  too variable under  changing
meteorological conditions. The  loss of 30 acres of dune land required for
the pond, the great possibility of local icing during winter operation,
-------
                                   97
unknown drift problems, and the possibility of fogging under adverse
humidity conditions were significant adverse effects making the spray
pond an undesirable alternative.

            NUS Corporation evaluated the potential environmental impact
of operating the Palisades Plant with either a 490-ft-high, 485-ft-base-
dia,  natural-draft  tower or two  50-ft-wide, 470-ft-long, 62-ft-high,
mechanical-draft towers.33 Requisite meteorological  data for the  Palisade's
site were obtained from Muskegon County Airport, located about 70 miles
north of the site.  The meteorological data were analyzed to determine
under what  conditions evaporative towers could produce or intensify local
fog conditions.

            Natural fog frequencies were  correlated against the time of
day, the month of the year, atmospheric stability, wind speed, cloud cover,
and the relative humidity defect (defined as the difference between saturated
relative humidity and the ambient relative humidity).  Fog conditions are
dependent on wind direction and more likely to occur for winds from the
east through southwest directions.  Also fog is more likely to occur under
neutral and stable atmospheric conditions, particularly between 10:00  P.M.
and 9:00 A.M., and is most often  observed with some cloud cover.  The
relative humidity defect was the single parameter of greatest importance
in fog formation.  For defect values approaching  zero, there  was a 90%
or greater probability that fog conditions  were observed.  The  report
stated, however, that fogs do exist and can form under conditions when the
relative humidity defect is different from zero, that is, when the atmosphere
is unsaturated.  It was  determined that the probability of fog  formation could
be adequately represented by a single relationship with the relative humidity
defect.

            Calculations were performed that yielded estimates of visible
plume persistence, the possibility for induced fogging and icing, and poten-
tial downwash events.  With regard to the persistence of a visible  plume,
it was felt that the  phenomenon represents only an aesthetic problem.

            The proposed mechanical-draft facility was  found to have a
lower incidence of  long plume lengths.  About 45% of the  visible plumes
were calculated to  be dissipated within 350 ft of the towers.  Visible plume
lengths longer than 2 miles were estimated to occur for five  of the total
hours of the year.

            For the proposed natural-draft tower, visible plumes longer
than 2 miles were estimated to occur as frequently as 44%  of the total hours
of the year, 65% of these hours occurring during  the winter season.  In
terms of the aesthetic effects of the visible plume, the areas of greatest
potential concern were the communities of Covert and South Haven.  The
estimated percentage of the time the visible plume -was calculated to pass
-------
                                   98
over these towns was presented in tabular form in the NUS report.33 For
Covert, conditions favoring the downwash of tower plumes over the nearest
major highway 1-196 were investigated.  The frequency of such possible
occurrences for the natural-draft tower were estimated at 2 hr of fogging
and 0.2 hr of icing during the spring, 0.3 hr of fogging during the  fall, and
2.7 hr of fogging and 2.2 hr of icing during the winter.  These calculations
were  stated to be upper limits because observations of actual cooling-tower
installations have not confirmed such downwash phenomena. The report
indicated that mechanical-tower operation under conditions favoring down-
wash  would not affect highway 1-196 but only roads  and structures on the
plant  site.

            The probability of induced fogging, calculated for the mechanical-
draft  tower, indicated an increase of natural-fog duration a maximum of
14 hr/yr, 6.25 miles northeast of the site. This was the maximum value in
any direction.  There are 798  hr of fog occurring naturally in the vicinity;
the median duration of each fog episode is 2 hr.  An increase of 14 hr of
duration was then compared with the average  fog beginning 1 min earlier and
lasting 1 min longer. This  was thought not to be a  significant overall change.
The natural-draft tower was found not to induce ground-level fog.  The
probability of induced icing was  examined.  The results  showed similar
percentages to increased fog probabilities and therefore were not  considered
a significant problem.  Again the natural-draft-tower  results indicated no
increase.

            Several recently published reports in the open literature contain
information relevant to this survey.  These are now considered.

        9.   Natural-draft-tower Operating Observations

            A final report describing a cooling-tower  field study at the
1800-MWe Keystone Generating  Station in western  Pennsylvania was pub-
lished in January 1971.113  The purpose of the study was to describe and
evaluate the potential effects that emissions of water vapor and heat from
325-ft-high, natural-draft,  evaporative-cooling towers have on the local
environment and climate.  During the period of field observations  in
September, November, and December 1969, when the Plant was operating
at one-sixth of its design capacity, no adverse weather effects due to the
operation of the facility were shown conclusively.  Drift drizzle beneath
the towers was not detected, nor was  any increase  in ground-level humidity
underneath the plume path.  Long-term pre- and posttower climatological
data from nearby meteorological stations were studied,  and only in one
situation was a possibility of precipitation enhancement noted for the two-
year  period analyzed.

            General observations had shown the visible tower plumes nor-
mally to rise to an altitude of about 650 ft and travel downwind another
650 ft before  evaporating.  During periods of high humidity and low
-------
                                    99
temperatures  (25-30°F), the plume was observed for thousands of feet
downwind.  Casual observations indicated infrequent cloud initiation during
periods  of otherwise  clear  skies.  However, the tower plume would often
merge with low stratus clouds.  In addition, the tower  plume mingles with
the stack effluent from the fossil-fired generating units. Mixing of the two
plumes was  confirmed by the presence  of acid droplets in the visible por-
tion of the cooling-tower plume.

            The report concluded that the full environmental effects  of
natural-draft towers  could  not be stated conclusively from the study because
the actual field observations were intermittently made over  one  season only,
the plant was not  operating  at or near full power, and field instrumentation
was lacking  in several essential areas.

            Hosier   reported on a single fogging incident observed during
two years of investigation at the Keystone Plant in which a plume reached
the ground in the  vicinity of the natural-draft towers.  It was surmised that
an inversion on this occasion was  just at the proper height and strength to
confine the plume and its vertical  oscillations within the inversion.  Photos
taken from an aircraft on the same day and within several minutes of the
Keystone ground-fog incident showed that the injection of water vapor and
condensation nuclei by steel mills  in the Pittsburgh area resulted in fog  and
a dense  cloud extending a hundred miles downwind. The steel mills  were
apparently injecting their effluents at the same  level as the  surrounding
terrain through many small-diameter sources.  Hosier stated that had a
power plant injected effluents at the same level, a similar result would have
been expected.

            Decker37 has reported on  the relative probability of evaporative
cooling  systems to produce  sufficient ground fog to obstruct  visibility. The
results  of his survey  are given  below in the order of increasing probability
of surface fogging.  This information  was obtained from observational data.
         Type of Cooling System
   Tall, natural-draft towers, standing
   fully equippedwith drift eliminators .
   Tall, natural-draft towers, alone
   but without drift eliminators.
   Tall, natural-draft towers, close to
   fossil-fueled smokestacks emitting
   acid-producing stack gases.
   Mechanical-draft towers emitting
   at low level.

   Slack water, ponds, and lakes, and
   spray ponds.
          Probability of
      Obstructing Visibility

Extremely low, virtually zero.
Low, but likely to occur with high
humidity and stagnation.
Low to substantial, depending on
prevalence of wind direction and
spacing of stack and tower(s).

Substantial, but highly variable de-
pending upon wind and orientation
or grouping of units.
Low to substantial, depending upon
the stagnation of the atmosphere and
confinement of humidified air.
-------
                                  100
            Colbaugh et aj..,24 in an interim report, noted that there is a
lack of quantitative information for the reliable assessment of the effects
of cooling-tower plumes on the environment.  For this reason, a compre-
hensive field investigation of natural-draft-tower plumes was initiated at
the Tennessee Valley Authority's 2808-MWe coal-fired Paradise Power
Plant in Kentucky.  The plant has three natural-draft  towers, each 436  ft
high and 321 ft in diameter at the base.  Tower circulating flow is
290,000 gpm.  The towers are  designed to reduce the cooling water to
72°F at yearly average atmospheric temperatures of 57.4°F dry bulb and
52.2°F wet bulb and a cooling range of 27.5°F.

            General field observations of plume behavior were initiated  in
December 1969.  A more comprehensive program began in January 1971
to collect, compile, and analyze plume configurations  under various mete-
orological conditions.   Preliminary results were presented for observations
made during 130 days  throughout the  1970 calendar year.  These are shown
in Table 8.  The  data show considerable  monthly variation in plume length.
Preliminary evaluation of more recently gathered data has revealed no
significant adverse effect that can be  attributed to tower operation. On one
occasion, however, there was a measurable increase in the temperature
and moisture content downwind of the visible plume, with mist being
detected both under the visible plume and downward.

       1 0.  Drift Observations

            Two  recent documents have  reported on drift measurements
made on mechanical- and natural-draft towers using different experimental
methods for drift determination.  Reference 47 associated the commonly
used drift emission rate  of 0.2% of the tower circulating flow as possibly
originating  with  early developmental  tower studies and before efficient
drift-eliminator  designs  were put into practice.  Measurements made on
a commercial mechanical-draft tower (fan diameter,  28 ft; circulation
flow, 12,500 gpm; range,  23°F; approach, 7°F)  indicated the tower to have
a 0.005%  drift rate.  A more extensively studied mechanical-draft tower
(fan diameter, 18 ft; circulation flow, 6050 gpm; range, 10°F; approach,  7°F)
was investigated using a  laser-scattering technique and an isokinetic-
sampling technique.  The laser-scattering technique yielded a drift rate
of about 0.0055%; the isokinetic method gave about 0.0076%. A natural-
draft hyperbolic-tower (no specifications were given)  determination showed
drift to be around 0.005% via isokinetic sampling.  The  laser-scattering
method yielded drift percentages around 0.00012% for particles  larger
than 145 um.  The 0.005% drift rate was  said to be best representative of
state-of-the-art natural-draft towers.

            In Ref. 75, isokinetic sampling was conducted on the Homer City
natural-draft cooling tower.  The tower  is a counterflow design  with a full
circulating flow  of 208,000 gpm.  The tower is stated  to be 389 ft high with
a 276-ft-dia base.  Measurements indicated the drift for the tower under
full rated conditions to be 0.0025%.
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                                  102
           A guaranteed drift level of 0.002% has been used for two natural
draft cooling towers recently sold to the Potomac Electric Power Company
for its Chalk Point Station.2

       1 1. Theoretical Predictions

           Portman97 has reported on an  analytical study for analyzing the
downwind extent of fog from a cooling-canal spray for a steady wind blowing
perpendicular to the canal. His analysis was conservative in that it should
overestimate the downwind extent of fog and the frequency of occurrence for
a particular distance.  The analysis showed that the plume extent downwind
decreases with increases in air temperature,  diffusion intensity, and wind-
speed variation with height, and with decreases in air water-vapor content,
canal temperature, canal length, and efficiency of vapor transfer to air at
the canal.

           The analysis  was applied to an 800-ft canal at 55 and 75°F, these
temperatures being representative of winter hot-water temperatures of a
once-through and a closed-cycle cooling system, respectively.  With the
Detroit City Airport temperature-wind-humidity statistics, a spray canal
in the Detroit area operating at 55°F all year would produce a fog at  1  mile
distance less than 2.5% of the time.  For a canal at 75°F, the value is less
than 10%. It  was emphasized that these estimates should be regarded as
upper limits.

       12. Feasibility

           Dry natural-draft cooling towers each 394 ft high with a
357-ft-dia base are being operated in Razdan, Soviet Armenia.1  The  power
plant consists of three 200-MWe units, each matched with a  natural-draft
dry tower. One tower has been in service since  January 1971.  Apparently,
the success of the Razdan operation is leading to the development of hard-
ware and dry natural-draft towers for 800- to 1 200-MWe unit capacities.

B.  Monetary Costs
        To aid in evaluating the impact of the Lake Michigan thermal-
discharge  regulations proposed at the March 24,  1971, session of the
Lake Michigan Enforcement Conference, federal  representatives presented
a summary outlining EPA's position concerning the  status of existing
facilities that would or would not have to consider alternative cooling
schemes to be in compliance  with the proposed regulations.  However,
little specific data were presented to permit an evaluation of the cost of
implementating these regulations. This  section summarizes available cost
information as abstracted from recent documents.

        The report entitled "Feasibility of Alternative Means of Cooling for
Thermal Power Plants Near Lake Michigan," presented at the Lake Michigan
Enforcement Conference in September 1970, discussed closed-cycle cooling
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                                   103
systems and estimated the costs for using them.  Tables 9 and 1095 sum-
marize these costs in terms of utility-rate increases to the average resi-
dential customer. These tables are based on the assumption of newly
constructed 1000-MWe fossil and nuclear power plants and  show the effects
of low (Case I), normal (Case II), and  high (Case  III) values of the economic
factors involved in the analysis.  These two tables were not intended to
demonstrate the costs associated with the backfitting of existing plants, but
rather represent cost estimates for power plants originally designed to
accommodate these alternatives.

        The cost of backfitting cooling facilities was subsequently discussed
by Mr. Tichenor  at the recent Michigan,84 Wisconsin,125 and Indiana 3 state
hearings.  An Edison Electric institute report,  referenced in his testimony,
suggested that retrofitting an existing plant using evaporative towers would
cost $10-12/kW.  A Mr. Woodson134 was cited as  estimating the capital cost
of converting an 800-MWe plant from  once-through to closed-cycle cooling
at about $3,000,000,  or $3.8/kW.  Mr.  Warren, of the FPC, was cited95 in
estimating the cost of backfitting  all of the 15,000 MWe of capacity existing
and under construction on Lake Michigan as $150,000,000 or $10/kW. How-
ever, according to the testimony, none of the above estimates included the
cost of reduced generating capacity, increased  fuel costs, and increased
operating and maintenance expenditures.  According to the testimony, these
items  could add an additional $10-15/kW in  equivalent capital investment
to the  initial capital investment.  Adding these costs to the initial capital-
cost values shows a range of backfitting costs of $14-27/kW.  Given a plant
load factor of 80% and a fixed charge  rate of 14%, a $14-27/kW range is
equivalent to an increase in  busbar cost of about 0.3-0.6 mill/kW-hr.

        Mr. Tichenor cited an American Electric Power Service Corporation
estimate for backfitting the D. C. Cook Nuclear plant with natural-draft
cooling towers.  An initial capital investment of $32,000,000 or about
$15/kW was  quoted.  The company estimated the summer capability loss
to be 80 MWe.  According to the testimony,  if this capacity loss  was made
up with an equivalent amount of gas-turbine peaking units, the  capability
loss would require a  capital investment of $8,000,000.  Adding to this an
equivalent investment of $5/kW for operation and maintenance and increased
fuel expenses, the total backfitting capital cost  was estimated to be $24/kW
($52,800,000 for the 2200-MWe plant). With an 80% load factor and a 14%
fixed-charge rate, the increase in busbar cost was indicated to be approxi-
mately 0.5 mill/kW-hr.

        Cost  figures were cited for the Palisades Nuclear Power  Plant to
backfit with mechanical-draft towers  and radioactive-emissions-control
equipment:  $15,000,000 in capital equipment, with $3,000,000 annually
being required for the fixed  charges on the capital, reduced efficiency, and
increased operation and maintenance  costs. With an assumed  80% load
factor, $3,000,000/yr  corresponds to  a busbar cost of 0.6 mill/kW-hr.
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                                             104
                                                                      .95
Case
 I
 II
 III
                              Table  9
           Increase  In Busbar Cost Over Once-Through Design'
                        (Fossil Fueled Plants)
                                     Cost Increases (Mills/KW-HR)
(Mills/KW-HR)
    4.57
    5.94
    7.53
      Case

       I
       II
       III
      Plant  Capital
      Cost  ($/KW)
         110
         135
         160
Wet Wet
Mech. Nat.
Draft Draft
0.079 0.142
0.096 0.179
0.117 0.218
Economic Factors
Fixed Charge
Rate (1)
11
14
17
Cooling Spray
Pond Canal
0.012 0.049
0.021 0.058
0.039 0.070
Fuel Cost
O/106 Btu)
25
30
35
Dry
Mech.
Draft
0.46
0.58
0.70
Land Cost
($/Acre)
250
500
1000
Dry
Nat.
Draft
0.43
0.53
0.64



       Case

        I-N
       II-N
      III-N
                                           Table 10
                       Increase in Busbar Cost Over Once-Through Design °5
                                       (Nuclear Plants)
                                                 Cost Increases (Mills/KW-HR)
Case
I-N
II-N
III-N
Plant
Cost



Busbar Cost Wet
Once-Through Mech.
(Mills/KW-HR) Draft
4.37 0.085
5.83 0.108
7.60 0.135
Economic Factors
Capital Fixed Charge
($/KW) Rate (!)
135 11
160 14
185 17
Wet
Nat.
Draft
0.138
0.177
0.219
Fuel Cost
(
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                                  105
       Cost estimates were also presented for modifying existing discharge
designs to conform with mixing zone limitations. Tennessee Valley Authority
data on the 3450-MWe Browns Ferry plant indicated that a backfitted diffuser
system would cost an additional $2,900,000 (roughly equivalent to 0.02 mill/
kW-hr).  Modifications to the once-through system  for the 2600-MWe
Cumberland Plant were  estimated to cost $4,100,000 (about a 0.03 mill/kW-
hr busbar cost equivalent).

       Estimates for backfitting the 1047-MWe Waukegan and the 944-MWe
State Line plants with modified discharges were given as  $9,000,000 and
$11,500,000,  respectively.20 With plant-load  factors of 65% and a fixed-
charge rate of 14%, the increase in busbar costs were calculated to be
about 0.2 and  0.3 mill/kW-hr,  respectively.

       In summary, Mr. Tichenor's testimony given at the  three state
hearings concluded that:

       1.  For power plants initially designed to accommodate  closed-
cycle condenser cooling systems, the increase in busbar  costs over once-
through cooling is expected to  be around 0.2 mill/kW-hr for an evaporative
tower  system (nominally a 1%  residential rate  increase).

       2.  The increased cost for backfitting with  an evaporative tower
system is estimated to be  around 0.6 mill/kW-hr (nominally a 3% resi-
dential rate increase).

       3.  Increased costs due to modifying existing discharges range
widely from 0.02 to 0.3 mill/kW-hr (nominally a 0.1-1.5% residential  rate
increase).

       These busbar costs were related to the average residential consumer
around Lake  Michigan by assuming the consumer pays roughly 20 mill/kW-
hr for  his electrical power.

       1 .  Pulliam Plant

           Evan W. James, Wisconsin Public Service Corporation, stated
at the  Wisconsin hearings125 that decreasing the heat content of the 392-MWe
Pulliam plant discharge by 50% would cost some $3,770,000 in capital in-
vestment.  Annual costs, including carrying this investment, operating costs,
and maintenance  costs, were stated to approximate $1,035,000 annually.  If
the plant went to  a completely closed  system rather than  a  tempering  sys-
tem, the above costs  were stated to roughly double.

       2.  Kewaunee Plant
            Backfitted mechanical-draft cooling towers at the 540-MWe
Kawaunee Nuclear  Plant were estimated by Mr. James to be $10,000,000 in
construction costs. 25  Tower operation was stated to decrease the capacity
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                                  106
of the plant by 7.1% and the efficiency by 3.8%.  The cost of these towers in
terms of investment, losses in plant performance, and operation and main-
tenance was stated to be about $3,650,000 annually.  This  revenue  require-
ment expressed as an evaluated cost was given as $24,300,000.

           The Kewaunee Environmental Report130 listed additional cost
figures  for backfitted cooling schemes.  For a single, natural-draft evapora-
tive  tower, the added construction costs for tower installation would be
$16,902,000.  Annual operating costs and capacity makeup were said to cost
around $2,037,000 per year.  The total additional annual cost for backfitting
to a  natural draft tower would then be $4,577,000 per year.

           For mechanical-draft towers, backfitting costs  were stated to
be $10,118,000 in construction or, equivalently, $1,510,000 per year. Annual
operating and maintenance  costs, together with makeup of capacity, were
said to be $2,105,000.  Thus the total additional annual cost resulting from
the backfitting of mechanical-draft towers is  $3,615,000.

           The costs that would result from backfitting with a cooling  lake
were estimated to be $18,068,000 in capital costs or, equivalently, $2,700,000
annual cost.  Operating and maintenance  and  capacity makeup costs were
given as $2,675,000 per year.  The total incremental annual cost resulting
from the backfitting of a cooling lake is  thus  given as $5,375,000 per year.

           A spray-canal system was also investigated.  The capital in-
vestment in such a system  was estimated to be $11,410,000, or when con-
verted to an annual cost,  $1,710,000 per year for amortization and interest.
Operating and maintenance costs, together with generating  capacity makeup,
were estimated to add an additional $2,208,000 per year.  The total annual
cost for a backfitted spray-canal system was given as $3,918,000.

        3.   Point Beach Plant

            Testimony given at the  Wisconsin hearings125 by Mr. Patterson,
Sargent and Lundy Consulting Engineers, estimated the construction costs
of backfitting the 1046-MWe Point Beach Plant at $23,510,000 for  a cooling
lake, $22,936,000 for a mechanical-draft evaporative-tower system, and
$31,797,000 for natural-draft evaporative towers.  These costs reflect
interest and estimated escalation charges and, in addition,  land purchases
for the  cooling-lake alternative. With the costs for capability and  efficiency-
loss makeup and operating  and maintenance expenses evaluated on a present-
worth equivalent-investment basis, the evaluated cost of  the cooling lake
was  estimated to be $49,759,800; the mechanical-draft tower system,
$45,350,000; and the natural-draft towers,  $56,493,400.

            The Environmental Statement for the Point Beach Plant121 pro-
vided additional information on the  estimated yearly costs of backfitting the
-------
                                   107
entire plant with alternative cooling systems:  $7,600,000 per year for
mechanical-draft towers, $9,500,000 per year for natural-draft towers,
$9,100,000 per year for a spray-canal system, and $9,200,000 per year for
a cooling lake.

       4.   Zion Station

            The Environmental Report for the Zion Station2 discusses the
economic costs associated with backfitting the Plant with six alternative
cooling schemes. The costs represent additional capital investments,
capital-investment equivalents for loss of capability, and added operating
costs to  implement the particular alternative. For mechanical-draft cooling
towers, the estimated installation costs  were $72,000,000, with  loss of
capability and operating expenses estimated to be $45,000,000, totaling
$117,000,000.

            For natural-draft  towers, the installation costs were estimated
to be $79,000,000, with capability loss and operating costs amounting to an
equivalent $45,000,000, totaling $124,000,000.

            Installation charges  on  dry mechanical-draft cooling towers
were estimatedto be $343,000,000, withanadditional $1 03, 000,000 requiredfor
capability loss and operating expenses, yielding $446,000,000 for the present
total worth.  The addition of specially constructed spray ponds and even
spray devices within the  lake itself were considered along with  a cooling  lake
as the remaining alternatives.  No cost estimates were made for these.

            The reader should be aware of the fact that the Zion cost
estimates were based on specialized tower  designs.  Air traffic in the
Zion vicinity requires limitations on the maximum tower height; 250 ft was
used as a design basis.

       5.   Waukegan and State Line Plants

            Cost estimated for backfitting the Waukegan and State Line
Power Plants with subsurface high-velocity discharges were presented in
a letter from O.  D. Butler, Commonwealth Edison, to the Chairman  of the
Four-State Enforcement  Conference.20  The letter stated that the initial
capital investment, including escalation, contingency, and top allowances
for backfitting the Waukegan Station with mechanical- and natural-draft
cooling towers,  would be (as revised) $14,174,000 and $19,448,000, re-
spectively.  With the equivalent capital investment for  operating expenses
and loss  in capacity included, the total cost of backfitting the Waukegan
station with towers was given as  $21,390,000  and  $25,755,000, respectively.

            For the  State Line Plant, the total costs for backfitting with
mechanical- and natural-draft towers were estimated to be (as  corrected)
-------
                                   108
$37,128,000 and $51,195,000,  respectively.  The estimated capital investment
alone for the State  Line plant towers was  given as $26,983,000 and
$38,657,000, respectively.

       6.   Michigan City Plant

            Mr. C. W. Kern, Northern Indiana Public Service Company, pro-
vided a capital-cost estimate of $14,227,491 for backfitting the  719-MWe
Michigan City Generating Station with an evaporative-tower system. 3 This
plant has four units; one 500-MWe unit is currently under construction.
Much of  the cooling-system facilities originally designed for this unit were
still usable for the closed-cycle tower system, and this estimate reflects
the situation.  No other information concerning operating expenses  or
capacity makeup costs  were given.

       7.   Bailly Nuclear  Plant

            In the Environmental Statement for the 685-MWe Bailly Plant,120
two cooling schemes were discussed:  a natural-draft evaporative tower (to
be used at  the facility)  and  an alternative  once-through system.  The  capital-
cost differential between the tower and the once-through system was  given
as $7,000,000.  The operating-cost differential evaluated on a present-worth
basis, assuming a 30-year  plant life and discount  rate of 8.75%, showed the
tower to  require  an additional $4,000,000; the total evaluated cost differ-
ential thus was $11,000,000.  The  Bailly plant is currently under initial
phases of construction.  Hence these cost estimates are for a new facility
with the  cooling system optimized for both alternatives; i.e., these  are not
backfitting-cost differentials.

       8.   D. C. Cook Plant

            Testimony  by John Tillinghast, Indiana & Michigan Electric
Company, concerning backfitting the D. C. Cook Plant with evaporative -
cooling towers was given at the Michigan  hearings.84  The capital cost for
natural-draft towers was stated to be $55,935,000, including interest  and
escalation.  (These figures update information given earlier on the  D. C.
Cook Plant.) In addition to this, $6,000,000 per year was estimated to
account for operating and power-loss replacement costs.  These costs were
translated  to the  consumer by proposing that they could be  divided equally
among the  358,545 utility customers.  With this so done, the bills of these
customers were stated to increase on the average between 7.5 and 9%, or
by about $41 per  year.

            The Environmental Report65 for the Cook Plant added that the
cost of backfitting the plant with mechanical-draft towers would be  about
$63,000,000. An  annual penalty of about $3,400,000 would be incurred as
the result of losses in plant efficiency.  The cost of backfitting  the plant
with a cooling pond was said to be about $60,000,000.  A significant  loss in
-------
                                   109
plant efficiency would result with pond operation.  This loss, when translated
into  dollars, represented an additional operating cost of about $6,000,000
per year.

       9.   Palisades Plant
            Cost estimates for backfitting the 700-MWe Palisades Power
Plant with evaporative towers perhaps represents the best information
currently available, since this plant is actually effecting a change from
once-through to mechanical-draft cooling towers. In a letter from  R.  C.
Youngdahl, Consumers Power Company, to L. R. Rogers,  USAEC,136
Mr.  Youngdahl estimated the capital cost of backfitting with a mechanical-
draft tower system as $20,000,000 and the increased annual operating  cost
as $4,500,000.  In the Environmental Statement for the Palisades Plant,119
the 4,5-million-dollar value was used to calculate an equivalent present-
worth value of  $47,000,000 based upon a 30-year plant life and a 8.75%
yearly discount rate.  The incremented  cost of the mechanical-draft towers,
backfitted over the presently installed once-through system, was then
estimated to be $67,000,000  on a present-worth basis.  Relative costs  cited
the report for backfitting with high-velocity onshore or offshore discharges
ranged from 1  to 5 million dollars,  respectively.

       10.  General Observations
            John Z.  Reynolds, Consumers Power Company, testified at the
Michigan hearings84 concerning the cost of outfitting Consumer's 750-MWe
system,  present and proposed, with towers.  He estimated that $76,000,000
would be required in capital costs and $73,000,000 additional would be
required to account  for the 3-5%  system-capacity losses.  Total annual
costs, including fixed charges, added fuel costs, and operating and main-
tenance costs were  estimated to be about  $31,000,000 per year.  Total
capital costs, including equivalent costs, were projected to be about
$Z44,000,000.

            Mr. Wayne Wingert, Detroit Edison Company,  testified  at the
Michigan hearings84 that it would require  about $200,000,000 in capital cost
to convert  the Detroit Edison System to closed-cycle cooling.  He stated
that this investment, including operating costs, maintenance, etc.,  would
result in a total annual cost of $43,000,000 or roughly an increase  of  12%
in production cost per kilowatt hour, which would  mean slightly less than
a 6% direct increase in the customer's bill.
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                                   110


                        VI.  CHEMICAL INPUTS

A.  Summary of Power-plant Effluents

       Only limited information is available as to the chemical effluents
discharged to Lake Michigan from the power plants around its  shoreline.
Significant data are available in the applications for permits  to discharge,
submitted to the Army Corps of Engineers.  The operators of all power
plants have been requested to file  such applications within the past year.
Of the 27 power plants discharging, or to discharge into Lake Michigan or
near the mouth of its  streams,  18  applications were available at the time
they were reviewed in the Region V EPA Office.

       Examining the information in the applications revealed a number of
inconsistencies and a substantial lack of the information required.  Chemical
analyses of intake and effluent water were not available with  precision ade-
quate to  allow the calculation of incremental loads  by direct subtraction,
except in unusual circumstances.  The best information,  and  it is believed
the most pertinent, was given in the applications for Plants No.  13, 14, and
16, the proposed Zion Nuclear Plant,  and the operating Waukegan and
State Line  Plants.  For these cases, chemical  constituents actually added
or expected to be added to the coolant streams were identified and numer-
ical values  given.  Accordingly, the effluents of all other plants were pro-
rated on the basis of the data for these three.  (Due to variability in the
composition of the  effluent from the sluicing operation, the data in the
application for the  Waukegan Plant lacked internal  consistency; for this
reason, upon request, Commonwealth Edison provided average  analyses
for eight monthly samples,21 and these data were used in the  calculations.)
This procedure uses the tacit assumption that water-treatment practices
and procedures are the same for all the other  plants as for those for which
the data  are available. This is not entirely true, and the magnitude of the
inaccuracies  cannot be evaluated at this time.  Nevertheless, the results,
summarized in Table 11, are probably approximately correct and of suffi-
cient value to justify their publication.

       Two separate categories were  established,  nuclear and coal-fired.
In each category, the prorating was done in terms of the  average power
level at which the plants were operated, calculated, and shown for 18 of the
plants in Table 5.  The input information was the average megawatt-hours
per day output of the plants, as provided by the power companies on the
Corps of Engineers applications.   These numbers were believed to be
inaccurate in a few cases and were not available in several other cases.
In these  instances, an overall average operating megawatt level was
assigned as follows:  Using plant capacities from Federal Power Commis-
sion statistics,49 average plant factors were calculated for the available
12 coal plants (52.7%) and two nuclear plants (64.0%). The coal-plant
average  was multiplied by the plant capacity to obtain the average mega-
watt levels for the  remaining coal  plants, and the nuclear-plant average
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The Environmental Protection Agency draft final report on steam-
generating plants9 identifies manufacturing processes systems, and waste
loads under the following categories:
B. Standards Applicable to Power Plants
In spite of the uncertainty in the numbers reported in Table 11, it is
shown that coal-fired plants discharge more chemicals into the lake per
megawatt than do nuclear plants. In the table the ratio is greater than 14.
The most important contributing factor to this is the sluicing of ashes and
fly ash at the coal-burning plants and the discharge of the sluicing water
to the lake.
The numbers given for boron discharged are probably less accurate
than the others. The discharge occurs for pressunzed-water nuclear plants
whenever there is a leak between the primary and secondary coolant cir-
cuits. For design purposes, the Commonwealth Edison Co estimated that a
small leak would occur for 2 weeks per year. These numbers were then
prorated for the other pressurized- water nuclear plants. For the two
boiling-water reactor plants, zero is entered. The quantity of the objec-
tionable chromium is small, of the order of 0.25 Ib/day The aluminum
and zinc are primarily addedat coal-burning plants, where they are leached
from the fly ash.
Examination of the numbers in Table 11 shows that whenall 27 plants
are operating, about 63,000 Ib/day of total solids can be expected to be added
to Lake Michigan. This is some 11,400 tons/yr. Based on 173 x 1012 cu ft
of water in Lake Michigan, this corresponds to 0.002-ppm/yr increase in
solids content. The total nitrogen content of the discharges can be expected
to be about 70 Ib/day, and the total phosphorus content some 40 Ib/day.
prorated numbers in perhaps one-third of the entries, these maybe ex-
plainable in terms of variations in local practices.
in column 8 were derived in this fashion from those FPC Form 67's avail-
able in the Region V EPA Office. There is substantial deviation from the
prorating the experience at Zion, Waukegan, and State Line. The numbers
Power Commission Form 67 for the year 1969, showing the quantity of
phosphate added to the boiler makeup water for the year If essentially all
this phosphate is discharged to the lake, then the numbers calculated from
this source of information should be about the same as those obtained by
There was an additional source of information for estimating the
total phosphorus added to the lake. Several of the plants had filled Federal
was multiplied by the capacities to obtain the average megawatt levels for
the remaining nuclear plants These values are given in the third column
of Table 1 1 .
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                                   113
   3.3  Standard Manufacturing Processes
              3.3.1.1  Chlorination
              3.3.1.2  Filtration
              3.3.1.3  Clarification
              3.3.1.4  Lime-Soda
              3.3.1.5  Ion Exchange Processes
              3.3.1.6  Evaporation
              3.3.1.7  Reverse Osmosis
        3.3.2  Boilers
        3.3.3  Condenser
        3.3.4  Condensate Treatment
        3.3.5  Ash Handling

   3.4  Auxiliary Processes

        3.4.1  Condenser Cooling Water Heat Disposal Systems
              3.4.1.1  Once-through Condenser Cooling
              3.4.1.2  Cooling Device on Condenser  Discharge with
                      Recirculation
              3.4.1.3  Cooling Device on Condenser  Discharge
              3.4.1.4  Cooling Device on Condenser  Discharge withPartial
                      Recirculation and/or Dilution
        3.4.2  Service Water Systems
        3.4.3  Sewage  Plants
        3.4.4  Cool Storage
        3.4.5  Oil Leakage
        3.4.6  Hydrovactors
        3.4.7  Other On-site Activities
        3.4.8  Accidental Potential Pollution Sources

   3.5  Typical Future Manufacturing Processes

   3.6  Normal In-plant Pollution Control

4. Standard Raw Waste Loads

   4.1  Concept of Standard Raw Waste  Load
   4.2  Waste Load  Data Sources
   4.3  Standard Raw  Waste  Loads from Standard Manufacturing Processes

        4.3.1  Water Treatment
        4.3.2  Boiler
        4.3.3  Condenser
        4.3.4  Condensate Treatment
        4.3.5  Ash Handling
   4.4  Standard Raw  Waste  Loads from Auxiliary Processes

        4.4.1  Heat Disposal  Systems
        4.4.2  Service Water Systems
        4.4.3  Other Waste Water Sources
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                                   114
Typical waste loads are tabulated, and some methods of reducing quantities
of waste are outlined.  The standards are intended to facilitate consideration
of the effects of power plants on the environment.

C.  Chemicals for Removal of Organic Deposits in Condensers and Process-
    Water Systems

       When natural waters are passed through circuits  of the kind used in
power plants, fouling deposits that interfere with the flow of water  and heat
form onall  surfaces with which the water comes in contact. These deposits
may be in the form of hydrous oxides of metals, such as iron and chromium;
they may be scales, such as carbonates or sulfates of calcium and  magne-
sium; or they may be organic in nature.   The organic deposits are  formed
by the deposition of living organisms, followed by their continued growth.
In the presence of  sunlight, the organic deposits are  typically algal, whereas
in unirradiated heat-transfer equipment,  they are typically bacterial.

       For removal of the slime formed  in power-plant condensers and
other heat exchangers  (such as those in the process-water systems),
chlorine, added to the cooling water, has  been found  to be effective and in-
expensive.  In most power plants, it is injected into the cooling water in the
form of elemental chlorine or in the form of a strong solution of sodium
hypochlorite for a few relatively brief (10 or 1 5 min typically) periods per
day.  This  system is called shock defouling. A considerable  fraction of the
organisms in the deposits are killed, and the organic material and  much  of
the  scale are dislodged and carried out in the cooling water.   Organic ma-
terial formed on all parts of the system downstream of the condenser reacts
with residual chlorine and helps  to reduce its level at the point of discharge
to the lake.

       In addition to its toxicity to  the slime bacteria, chlorine has the ad-
vantage that it is chemically unstable in water and is quickly degraded in
nature.   This reaction is catalyzed  by light;  the data of Hancil and Smith,56
as treated by Draley,40 show that under the  laboratory ultraviolet illumina-
tion, the time in seconds to reduce  the concentration of free chlorine from
c0 to c is t = 7.8  In (c0/c).  This advantage is partially lost if ammonia is
present in the cooling water,  since  the chloramines formed by reaction be-
tween ammonia and chlorine have longer  lifetimes in natural waters than
does the free chlorine (which exists in the form of hypochlorous acid or the
hypochlorite ion).

        The optimum utilization of chlorine for defouling would require that
the  chlorine and chloramines be decayed  or  dissipated before discharge of
the  effluent stream  to the lake (or other natural bodies of water in more
general  terms).  A  common chlorination  practice, though by  no means
universally practiced, which helps  to achieve this  condition,  is  to have the
total  circulating-water stream divided into  parts, only one of  which is
chlorinated at a time.  The remixing of the chlorinated and unchlorinated
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                                   115
streams then leads to the removal of chlorine by the so-called chlorine-
demand constituents  of the untreated -water.  It is also possible to remove
residual chlorine chemically by adding reducing agents such as sodium
sulfite or bisulfite.  For example, in one  installation a ratio of sodium bi-
sulfite to residual chlorine of 3.8:1 decreases the residual chlorine level
from 1 to below 0.1  ppm in less than 5 sec.89

       The use of chlorine and the problems pertinent to the avoidance of
significant toxic  doses to the lake (or other receiving waters) are the sub-
jects of  the recent analysis by Draley.40  The need for (a) standards,
(b) discharge monitoring, and (c) development of calculational  knowledge
and skills are emphasized.

       Significant new publications related to chlorine and its  toxicity con-
cern  standards and the effects of dilute solutions  on fishes.

       In the area of standards, the  Michigan Water Resources Commis-
sion, Water Quality Control Division, issued in the  spring of 1972 an
Interim Effluent  Standard for Industrial Discharges of Chlorine (to be re-
viewed as to adequacy and suitability on or before December 1972).85 It
specifies that "Waste streams shall contain not more than 0.05 mg/'E/ of
total  chlorine (free and combined) in the discharge  to receiving waters
after utilizing available dilution and at a point to be determined by the
Chief Engineer of the Commission, where application of chlorine is on a
continuous basis; or  contain not more than 0.5 mg/£ of total chlorine  (free
and combined) in the discharge to receiving waters after utilizing available
dilution and at a  point to be determined by the Chief Engineer of the Com-
mission, where continuous application of  chlorine will be limited to not
more than 30 minutes during any 2-hour period."

       Oh December 20, 1971, William A. Brungs forwarded to
Mr. Francis T. Mayo, Regional Administrator for EPA Region V,
"Water Quality Criteria Recommendations for Residual Chlorine in Re-
ceiving Waters for the Protection of Fresh Water Aquatic Life," by the
Staff  of the National Water Quality Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.45  Four
separate levels of residual chlorine, that would be applicable to
Lake Michigan or other receiving water,  were identified, in terms of tox-
icity  and usage.  During  continuous use at 0.01 mg/liter  or less, trout
reproduction and some important fish food organisms would probably not
be protected and the  situation could be partially lethal to  sensitive life
stages of sensitive fish species.  For continuous usage at 0.002 mg/liter
most aquatic organisms  should be protected.   For intermittent use at
0.1 mg/liter,  not to  exceed 30 min/day; or 0.05 mg/liter, not to exceed
2 hr/day, significant kills of aquatic organisms should not occur and the
aquatic ecology should not be adversely affected.  These recommendations
require the use of the amperometric titration method; some of the other
methods commonly used in the determination of residual  chlorine have
been  shown to be inaccurate.  The National Water Quality Laboratory
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                                   116


recommendations were reissued about June 1972.46 There were no changes
in the specific recommendations.  The text was modified,  apparently with
the  objective of assisting the reader in considering possible applicability of
the  criteria.

       The same document summarizes the literature that is  most perti-
nent to quantitative effects of low levels  of residual chlorine on a number
of varieties of fish species .  Twenty-four references are given. Dr. Brungs
has prepared a more extensive literature review on the effects of residual
chlorine on aquatic life.18  Covered are the aqueous dilute solution chemis-
try  of chlorine, its effects on aquatic life, chlorinated wastewater  treatment
plant effluent,  chlorination for antifouling, and results  of standard bioassays.
The following general statements resulted from the review: (1) Tests of
residual chlorine toxicity should be conducted using continuous-flow bioas-
say procedures and the most precise,  sensitive, and appropriate analytical
method for determining residual chlorine; (2) typical environmental vari-
ables do not significantly affect residual chlorine toxicity,  although at lower
pH  toxicity may be increased as a result of  the greater proportion of free
chlorine present, but this difference is slight; (3) trout, salmon, and some
fish-food organisms are more sensitive  than warm-water fish, snails, and
crayfish; (4) chronic  toxicity effects on growth and reproduction occur at
much lower concentrations than acutely  lethal concentrations; (5) most of
the  lethal effects  of residual chlorine occur within 12-24 hr, with lethal
effects of free chlorine being more rapid than those of chloramines;
(6)  chlorination of wastewater results  in a variety  of chlorinated com-
pounds in addition to  chloramines, and this aspect  needs much greater re-
search emphasis; (7) residual chlorine is more persistent than the few
minutes  or hours indicated by some authorities; (8) dechlorination with
sodium bisulfite,  sodium thiosulfate, and sulfur dioxide, among others,
greatly reduces or eliminates toxicity due to  residual chlorine, and the po-
tential chronic toxicity resulting from such additional treatment requires
further research; (9) substitutes for chlorination of wastewaters or  cooling
waters  should be  used whenever feasible, but only  after adequate acute and
chronic  toxicity  studies to determine the potential  environmental impact of
the substitutes, and their efficacy as adequate disinfectants must be verified.

        The Staff of the Michigan Water Resources  Commission has  under
way a program to assess,  under field conditions, the effects of chlorinated
condenser cooling water on aquatic life.  Truchan and Basch118 have re-
ported observation of a major fish kill and concomitant analyses for total
residual chlorine near the Karn-Weadock power plant complex near the
mouth of the Saginaw River.  A maximum 1.36 nag/liter of residual chlorine
was detected during the period of measurement (corresponding to the time
of addition of chlorine in the plant).  This study shows  that intermittent dis-
charges  of chlorine from power plants can be acutely toxic to  fish life in the
discharge channel, perhaps partly because fish sometimes congregate in the
vicinity  of plant-water discharges. Caged fish studies at the same plant
were reported by Basch and Truchan11 and Wuerthele and Truchan.135
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                                   117


Short-term tests at chlorine levels up to 0.4 mg/liter were run.  Fathead
minnows suffered no mortality during the exposure periods.  Rainbow trout,
however, suffered 90% mortality after exposure to an average total residual
chlorine (TRC) concentration of 0.106 mg/liter for  16.18 hr out of the 62-hr
test period.  Mortality -was also observed after the  second exposure for
5.52 hr out of the 29-hr test period. Acknowledging the  fact that the fish in
the study were caged and could not avoid the discharge,  the results do indi-
cate that intermittent low-level discharges of chlorine from power plants
can be toxic to certain fish species resident in the discharge  area.

       Massey, also of the Bureau of Water Management, described the
avoidance of chlorine discharges and the killing of fish at the Big Rock Point
power plant in May 1972.81 The TRC level in the discharge channel rose,
briefly out of control due to a malfunction, to a maximum measured value
of 3.05 mg/liter.  The highest readings  obtained in the plant by
Consumers  Power personnel using the orthotolidine color comparator
was 0.2 mg/liter TRC.  Instances  of apparent incorrectly low readings
through the  use  of the orthotolidine comparator have also been recorded
at other sites.

       Fish kills due to chlorine discharge in power-plant circulating
water have also occurred  in other  water bodies, including salt water.
Fairbanks, Collings and Sides48 have reported such events in the
Cape  Cod Canal.

       The  Michigan Bureau of Water Management has also done caged-
fish field research downstream of  municipal wastewater-treatment plants.
In one study, sponsored by EPA, toxicity to rainbow trout has been shown
at distances up to 0.8 mile downstream.  Fathead minnows  appeared
adversely affected up to 0.6 mile downstream. Total residual chlorine
concentrations less than 0.1 mg/liter were toxic to fathead minnows.  The
rainbow trout 96-hr total residual  chlorine PL-50 concentration below
two plants was 0.023 mg/liter.

       Alternatives to chlorine defouling, receiving increasing attention,
are mechanical  methods of removing fouling deposits.  Mechanical devices
can consist of balls, plugs, or brushes;  they are blown through the tubes of
heat exchangers such as steam condensers by the force  of the flowing fluid
or by mechanical devices.  Automatic systems are  offered by Amertap
Corporation and American M. A. N. Corporation.  The Amertap  system
circulates sponge-rubber  balls in  a special bypass  cooling-water stream.
The M. A. N.  System uses nonmetallic brushes, which are restrained in
the tubes by plastic baskets attached to  the ends of each tube. By revers-
ing the flow of the cooling water, the operator can automatically "shoot"
the tubes with the brushes. The Amertap system has received most favor-
able attention by American power  companies; it is being installed in
Commonwealth Edison's Zion Nuclear plant.
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                                   118
       American experience with the Amertap system is limited, and it is
not yet possible to  say whether it will provide a desirable substitute for
chlorine defouling in all situations. In particular, the entrainment of small
debris sometimes leads to plugging when the debris and the ball enter a
tube at the same time and restricts flow when it is entrapped in the ball-
collecting device.  Mechanical treatment is not ordinarily used in other
places in power plants where defouling is required. Of particular note  are
the service-water systems  used to remove heat from a number of auxiliary
items of equipment at a typical plant.  The installation of mechanical sys-
tems for each of these heat exchangers has been unattractive, and plants
using mechanical treatment for condenser  tubes still chlorinate service-
water systems.   In these cases it remains  necessary to  examine the con-
centration of residual chlorine after dilution with the main circulating-water
stream.  At Zion the resulting solution is more  dilute than the maximum
appropriate concentration in the EPA-recommended criteria.

D.  Chemicals for  Treatment of Water-Steam System

       Steam-boiler systems are typically treated with  chemicals to mini-
mize the formation of scale  and corrosion  products on steam-generator
surfaces and to  minimize corrosion in the  remainder  of the system. Makeup
water is characteristically highly purified  to minimize the amount of scale-
forming  chemicals, such as  dissolved calcium and magnesium. Reducing
agents such as hydrazine and sulphite are  commonly added to maintain  very
low oxygen contents (oxygen accelerates corrosion of the steel system).
Phosphate  is added to help tie  up the small residual amounts  of calcium
and magnesium  and to serve as a corrosion inhibitor. Morpholine is added
as a volatile corrosion inhibitor that will distil with the  steam and protect
return piping.  Chromate has been used in  some systems because of its
effectiveness as a corrosion inhibitor.  Since the last Enforcement Confer-
ence, no new information considered valuable to the Lake  Michigan problem
has been encountered.

E.  Chemicals for  Treatment of Cooling  Towers and Ponds

       The use  of cooling towers simplifies  the treatment of waste  heat,
but adds complexity in water treatment.  Cooling-tower  recirculating sys-
tems, and in particular the  towers themselves, have corrosion and fouling
problems that are more difficult to treat adequately than once-through
cooling systems. Bacterial  and algal slimes sometimes grow rapidly on
the aerated cooling-tower circuits. Some  companies are now trying to
develop new and optimized chemical treatments. Although there has been
no universally used chemical treatment of  recirculating circuits, and
hence no standard content of additives  in the blowdown, a group of chemical
additives is commonly encountered. Mixtures of chromate, zinc, and phos-
phate are commonly used for corrosion control.  Microbial problems are
controlled by addition of chlorine,  hypochlorites, and nonoxidizing organics,
such as chlorophenols, quaternary amines, and organometallics. Silt
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                                   119
deposition is controlled by use of polymers such as lignin-tannin disper-
sives, polyacrylamide, polyacrylates, polyethyleneimine, and other poly-
electrolytes.  Acid or alkali is used for pH control, and organic phosphorus
compounds such as organic phosphates, aminomethylene phosphonate,  and
polyesters are often used to control corrosion and scale formation and to
provide dispersing effects.54

       The Atomic Energy Commission, in its environmental statement
for the Palisades Plant,119 has warned of the possibility that cooling towers
might prove, overall, more adverse to the environment than once-through
cooling and discharge to  Lake Michigan.  The following is quoted from the
Summary and Conclusions section of that document:

       "The  use of the (cooling) towers reduces impingement, entrainment
and thermal impact on fish and other  aquatic biota. However,  they intro-
duce a long-term adverse impact of chemicals from continuous blowdown ...
of concentrated salts which would accumulate in L/ake Michigan  over the
long-term operation of the cooling towers and  cause serious degradation
of the water quality of Lake Michigan in the vicinity of the Plant.  The in-
creased concentration •would result in phosphate enrichment of  the lake
water  and reconcentration of zinc and chrornate in biota.

       "Cooling towers introduce terrestrial environmental impacts on
floraand fauna  ... from chemicals deposited by  the drift, evaporation ... of
lake water, fogging under certain meteorological conditions, and icing in
the winter.  Although the  (Palisades) towers are hidden from view, they
will cause an adverse aesthetic effect from the lake side and will have a
noise impact on the area.

       "(For Palisades)  the cooling towers will not only require an increase
in capital and operating costs of the order of about $67,000,000 but will re-
sult in a decrease of  about 3% in net electrical output  due to the electrical
power required for the fans in the  towers."

       These statements are supported by an appended 18-page review
and evaluation  of "Cooling Tower Chemicals--Potential Environmental
Degradation."  Also included is a discussion of blowdown treatment to re-
move the  toxic elements  chromium and zinc.  Commercially available
methods for these removals could be  applied to recirculating cooling water
system blowdown.

       There are some notable differences between the treatment of re-
circulating cooling-tower circuits  with chlorine and the treatment of once-
through circulating-water circuits with chlorine.  Since the chlorine in the
recirculating circuit  must not only clean the condenser tubes, but also the
surfaces in the cooling tower, it is  no longer possible to add chlorine  only
to the extent  necessary to last for  passage through the condensers.  Instead
it is necessary to overcome the total  chlorine  demand in the entire
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                                  120
recirculating system,  both in the form of dissolved chemicals and organic
deposits on surfaces.  Chloramines, produced by the  reaction of free
chlorine with nitrogen-bearing compounds, are lost to a considerable
extent by volatilization in the aeration while passing through the cooling
tower.55 It is also possible to chlorinate by adding enough free  chlorine
to initiate the  "breakpoint"  reaction, in which the chloramines are oxidized
to nitrous oxide, which is in turn lost by aeration.  The techniques and the
operating procedures for cooling-tower circuits have not yet been •well
established, and remain to be optimized. Additionally it •will be  necessary
to establish some procedure in •which the residual chlorine in the recircu-
lating cooling water is not discharged to the natural body of water through
the blowdown during periods of chlorination. Possibly blowdown could be
suspended for periods; plants now being built have included holding ponds
in the blowdown circuit so there is time for chlorine  decay before dis-
charge.  Separately pumped dilution streams are possible, and chemicals
could be added to remove the residual chlorine.  No cooling -tower recircu-
lating cooling circuits are operating on Lake Michigan.  The Palisades Nu-
clear Plant, the Bailly Nuclear Plant, and the  Michigan City Plant are
planning to operate in this fashion.

        No cooling ponds are proposed for use on the shores of Lake  Michigan.
For  other installations, such cooling ponds have effected certain simplifi-
cations. Short-term chemical additions are discharged, in a more dilute
form, over a longer period of time.  Unstable  chemicals like chlorine are
typically completely decayed away before reaching the point of blowdown,
and so are not  significantly present in the plant discharge.
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                                  121
                             REFERENCES

 1.  Anonymous, "Dry Cooling Tower Uses Steel Structure," Electrical
    World, April 1,  1972.
 2.  Anonymous, "Contract," Electrical World, May 1, 1972, p. 106.

 3.  Asbury, J. G., "Effects of Thermal Discharges on the Mass/Energy
    Balance of Lake Michigan," ANL/ES-1, July 1970.
 4.  Asbury, J. G., and Frigo,  A. A., "A Phenomenological Relationship for
    Predicting the Surface Areas of Thermal Plumes in Lakes,"  ANL/ES-5,
    April 1971.

 5.  Ayers, J. C., et al., "Benton Harbor Power Plant  Limnological Studies,
    Part VII,  Cook Plant Preoperational Studies, 1970," Special Report
    No. 44,  Great Lakes Research Division, The University of Michigan,
    Ann Arbor, Michigan, March  1971.

 6.  Ayers, J. C., et al., "Benton Harbor Power Plant Limnological Studies,
    Part IV:  Cook Plant Preoperational Studies, 1969," Special Report
    No. 44,  Great Lakes Res. Div., The University of Michigan, 1970.
 7.  Ayers, J. C., et ai., "Benton Harbor Power Plant Limnological Studies,
    Part IX, The Biological Survey of 10 July 1970," Special Report No. 44,
    Great Lakes Research Div.,  The University of Michigan.
 8.  Ayers, J. C., O'Hara, N.  W.,  and Yocum, W. L., "Benton Harbor Power
    Plant Limnological Studies, Part VIII, Winter Operations  1970-1971,"
    The University of Michigan,  Great Lakes Research Division, Special
    Report No. 44, June 1971.
 9.  Aynsley, E., and Jackson, M. R., "Industrial Waste Studies:  Steam
    Generating Plants." Draft final report of Freeman Laboratories, Inc.,
    for the Water  Quality Office  of the Environmental Protection Agency,
    May 1971.
10.  Badger, R. G., and Roessler, M. A.,  "An Ecological Study  of South
    Biscayne  Bay  and Card Sound," Zooplankton, pp.  1-29, Progress Re-
    port to U.S. Atomic Energy Commission  and Florida Power and Light
    Company, University of Miami, 1971.

11.  Basch, R., and Truchan, J., A Caged Fish Study on the Toxicity of In-
    termittently Chlorinated Condenser Cooling Waters  at the  Consumers
    Power Company's J. C. Weadock Power Plant, Essexville, Michigan,
    December 6-10, 1971.

12.  Beer, L. P., "Natural and Unnatural Water Temperatures  in Zion-
    Waukegan, Illinois Area of Southwest Lake Michigan," Proc.  14th Conf.
    Great Lakes Res. 1971, International Assoc. Great Lakes Research,
    1971, pp.  507-521.
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                                  122
13.  Beer, L. P., and Pipes, W. O., "A Practical Approach, Environmental
    Effects  of Condenser Water Discharge in Southwest Lake Michigan,"
    Commonwealth Edison Co., Chicago, Illinois, 1968.

14.  Beeton, A. M., "Changes  in the Environmental and Biota of the Great
    Lakes," in Eutrophication:  Causes, Consequences, Correctives,
    National Academy of Science, 1969, pp.  150-187.

15.  Bersamin, S. V., "A Preliminary Study  of the Nutritional Ecology and
    Food Habits of the Chubs (Leucichthys)  and Their Relation to the Ecol-
    ogy of Lake Michigan," Papers of Michigan Academy of Science, Arts
    and Letters XLIII:  1958,  pp. 107-118.
16.  Brauer, G., Neill, W., and Magnuson, J. J., "The Effects  of a Power
    Plant on the Distribution and Abundance of Zooplankton Near the
    Plant's  Thermal Outfall," The University of Wisconsin, Water Re-
    sources Center, February 1972.
17.  Brungs, W. A., "Chronic  Effects of Constant  Elevated Temperatures
    on the Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque)," Trans.
    American Fish. Soc.,  Vol. 100, No.  4, October 1971, pp. 659-664.
18.  Brungs, W. A., Literature Review of the Effects of Residual Chlorine
    on Aquatic Life, prepared for submission for publication to Journal
    Water Pollution Control Federation, second draft, June 1972.

19.  Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Great Lakes  Fishery Labora-
    tory, Ann Arbor, Michigan, R. V. Cisco Cruise XII,  1971.
    Lake Michigan, November 16-December 4.

20.  Statement of O. D. Butler, Commonwealth Edison Company,  to the
    Four State Enforcement Conference c/o Murray Stein,  Environmental
    Protection Agency,  concerning additional evidence for the record of
    the conference meeting of March 23-29, 1971, dated April 23, 1971.
21.  Chun, K. C., Commonwealth Edison, Letter to Draley, J.  E., Argonne
    National Laboratory, August 17,  1972.
22.  Churchill,  M. A., and  Wojtalik, T. A., "Effects  of Heated Discharges:
    The TVA Experience," Nuclear News, September 1969, pp. 80-86.

23.  Coker, R. E., "Reaction of Some Freshwater Copepods to High Tem-
    peratures, With a Note Concerning the Rate of Development in Relation
    to Temperature," J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. _50:  pp.  143-159, 1934.

24.  Colbaugh, W.  C., Blackwell, J. P., and Leavitt, J. M., "Interim Report
    on Investigation of Cooling Tower Plume Behavior," Presented at the
    American Institute of  Chemical Engineering 68th National Meeting,
    Cooling Tower Symposia, Houston, Texas,  February 28-March 4,  1971.

25.  Colby, P. J., and Brooke, L. T.,  "Survival  and Development of Lake
    Herring (Coregonus artedii) Eggs at Various Incubation Temperatures,"
    Biology of Coregonid Fishes, University of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg,
    Canada, 1970.
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                                  123
26.  Commonwealth Edison Company and Battelle Columbus Laboratories,
    Environmental Impact Report:  Supplemental Information to the Zion
    Environmental Report, Supplement II, December 3,  1971.

27.  Commonwealth Edison Company and Battelle Columbus Laboratories,
    Environmental Impact Report:  Supplemental Information to the Zion
    Environmental Report, Supplement IV, April 13, 1972.

28.  Commonwealth Edison Company, Zion Nuclear Power Station Environ-
    mental Report, May 17, 1971.

29.  Consumers Power Company, Environmental Report: Operating License
    Stage for Palisades Plant, October 9, 1970.

30.  Consumers Power Company, "Supplemental Information on Environ-
    mental Impact of Palisades  Plant," AEC Dkt.  No. 50-255, August 18, 1971.

31.  Consumers Power Company, Environmental Activities Department,
    "1970  Water Quality Studies," no date or publication number given.

32.  Consumers Power Company, Environmental Activities Department,
    "1971  Water Quality Studies," no date or publication number given.

33.  Consumers Power Company, Supplemental Information on the  Environ-
    mental Impact of Palisades  Plant, August 18,  1971.

34.  Copeland, R. A., and Ayers, J.  C., "Trace Element  Distributions in
    Water, Sediment,  Phytoplankton,  Zooplankton  and Benthos of
    Lake Michigan," ERG Special Report No.  1, Environmental Research
    Group, Inc., May  1972.

35.  Coutant, C. C., and Goodyear, C. P., "Thermal  Effects (Biological):
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36.  Coutant, C. C., "Effects on Organisms of Entrainment in Cooling Water:
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37.  Decker,  F.  W., "Probabilities of Cooling System Fogging," Presented
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38.  DeMont, D. J., and Miller, R. W., "First Reported Incidence of Gas-
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39.  Detroit Edison Company, Environmental Report for Enrico Fermi
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    ANL/ES-12, February 1972.
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                                  124
41.  Edsall, T. A., Rottiers, D. V., and Brown, E. H., "Temperature Toler-
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44.  Environmental Protection Agency, Grosse He Laboratory,
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45.  Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Laboratory,
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46.  Environmental Protection Agency, National Water Quality Laboratory,
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51.  Frigo, A. A., and Frye, D. E., "Physical  Measurements of Thermal
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52.  Frigo, A. A., and Romberg,  G. P., " Thermal-plume Dispersion Studies.
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                                  125
53. Frigo, A. A., "Prediction of Surface Plume Areas Associated with
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56. Hancil, V., and Smith, J. M.,  Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Develop 10,
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57. Hasler, A. D., et_ al., "Movements and Residence of Larger Great Lake
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60. Hosier, C. L., "Wet Cooling Tower Plume Behavior," Presented at the
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61. Hough, J. L., etal., " Lake  Michigan Hydrology near Palisades  Park,
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62. Huff, F. A., Beebe, R. C., Jones,  D. M. A., Morgan, G.  M., Jr., and
    Semonin,  R.  G., "Effect  of Cooling Tower Effluents in Atmospheric
    Conditions in Northeastern Illinois," Illinois Water Survey, Urbana,
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63. Indiana, State of, Stream Pollution Control Board, In the  Matter of:
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    Rule SPC 12, August 23,  1971.
64. Indiana & Michigan Electric Company, Supplement No. 2 to Environ-
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65. Indiana & Michigan Electric Company, "Supplement to Environmental
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66. Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Report to  Commonwealth
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                                  126
67.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Report to Commonwealth
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69.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Field Study Program of
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70.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., " Preoperational Thermal
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71.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Phytoplankton Study,  Pre-
    liminary Report, March-July,  1970," IBT No. W8956, Project  III, 1971.

72.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Intake-Discharge Experi-
    ments  at Waukegan Generating Station, Project XI, April-
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73.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Fish Field Study for
    Lake Michigan, Project VII, Final Report March through October,  1970,"
    June 17, 1971.

74.  Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories, Inc., "Field Studies on Periphyton
    Growth near Zion and Waukegan Stations, Project V, April 1970-
    March 1971," June  16, 1971.

75.  Jersey Central  Power & Light Company, Environmental Report for the
    Forked River Nuclear Station Unit 1, Attachment 5, January 1972.
76.  Krueger, R.  K., "A Report on the Study to Determine the Effect of the
    Point  Beach  Nuclear Power  Plant on Whitefish and Lake Herring Eggs
    and Fry in Lake Michigan,"  Wisconsin Department of Natural  Re-
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77.  Lamble, M. O., "Optimum Summer Environmental  Conditions  for
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78.  Lantz, C. H., and Lisauskas, R.  A., "Zion Discharge Model Study:
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79.  Lauer, G. J., Statement on Temperature Standards for Lake Michigan,
    Michigan Water Resources Commission, Lansing, Michigan,
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                                  127
80. Neill, W. H., and Magnuson, J.  J., "Distributional Ecology and Behav-
    ioral Thermoregulation of Fish in Relation to Heated Effluent from a
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    sity of Wisconsin, Water Resources  Center, Madison, Wisconsin,
    March 1972.

81. Massey, A., A Survey of Chlorine Concentrations in the Consumers
    Power Company's Big Rock Point Power Plant Discharge Channel,
    May 23,  1972.

82. McCormick, J. H., Jones, B. R.,  and Syrett, R. F., "Temperature Re-
    quirements for Growth and Survival  of Larval Ciscos  (Coregonus
    artedii)," Jour. Fish.  Res.  Bd., Canada, Vol. 20, No. 6,  1971,
    pp. 924-927.

83. Menon, A. S., Dutka, B. J., and Jurkovic, A. A., "Preliminary Bacte-
    riological Investigation of the Lake Ontario Thermal Bar," Proc. 14th
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84. Michigan, State of, Michigan Water Resources, Proposed Revisions to
    Interstate and  Intrastate Water Quality Temperature Standards for  Pro-
    tection of Fish and Aquatic Life,  Public Hearing, Lansing, Michigan,
    June 24,  1971.

85. Michigan Water Resources Commission, Water Quality  Control Division:
    Interim Effluent Standard for Industrial Discharges of Chlorine, issued
    Spring 1972.
86. Michigan Department  of Natural Resources, Bureau of Water Manage-
    ment, "Chlorinated Municipal Waste Toxicity to Rainbow Trout and
    Fathead  Minnows," EPA Grant  No. 18050GZZ (abstract  only), released
    June 1972.
87. Michigan Water Resources Commission, "Report on Water Pollution
    Control in the  Michigan Portion of the Lake Michigan Basin and Its
    Tributaries," 1968.
88. Nebeker, A. V., "Effect of Water Temperature on Nyphal Feeding Rate,
    Emergence and Adult  Longevity of the Stonefly (Pteronarcys dorsata),"
    Jour. Kans. Entmol. Soc. , Vol.  44, No. 1, 1971, pp. 21-26.

89. Nelson, G. R.,  EPA Research Chemical Engineer at Corvallis, Oregon,
    letter to J.  E.  Draley, Argonne National Laboratory, May 23, 1972.

90. Normandeau, D. A., "The Effects  of  Thermal Release on the Ecology of
    the Merrimack River,"  (in  a report to Public Service  Company of
    New Hampshire, pp. 199-210), Institute Res. Services, St. Auselin's
    College, New Hampshire, 1970.

91. Northern Indiana Public Service Company, Bailly Generating Station
    Nuclear-1 Environmental Report, March 22, 1971.
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                                  128
 92.  Policastro, A. J., and Tokar, J. V., "Heated-Effluent Dispersion in
     Large Lakes: State-of-the-Art of Analytical Modeling. Part 1.
     Critique of Model Formulations ," ANL/ES- 11, January  1972.
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     Its Tributary Basin, Third Session Reconvened, Chicago, Illinois,
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 94.  Proceedings  of the Conference on the Pollution of Lake Michigan and
     Its Tributary Basin, Third Session Reconvened in Workshop  Sessions,
     Chicago, Illinois, September 28-30-October 1-2, 1970  (5 volumes).
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 96.  Patriarchi, M. H., "Effects of Heated Discharges from Nuclear Power
     Plants on Fish Populations,"  Progress Report, July 1,  1969 to June  30,
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     for the Detroit Edison Company, Engineering Research Department,
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 98.  Pott, R. J., and Threinen, G.  W.,  "Surface Water Resources  of
     Kewaunee County," Wisconsin Conservation Dept., Madison,
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     trol  Board Concerning the Application of Commonwealth Edison
     Company for Permits for Zion Units 1  and 2 at Zion Station,  PCB 71-
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100.  Rodgers, G.  K., "The  Thermal Bar in Lake  Ontario, Spring 1965, and
     Winter, 1965-1966," Proc. 9th Conf. on Great Lakes Research, The
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     pp. 269-374.
101.  Rodgers, G.  K., "Field Investigation of the Thermal Bar in
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102.  Romberg, G. P., and Prepejchal,  W., "Observations of Fish at Point
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103.  Romberg, G. P., and Spigarelli, S. A.,  "Acoustic Location  Techniques
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     search, January through December 1971, ANL-7860, Part III,
     pp. 121-130.
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                                  129
104.  Raney, E. C., "Heated Discharges  and Fishes  in Lake Michigan in the
     Vicinity of the Donald C.  Cook Nuclear Plant," presented to Michigan
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105.  Scarpace, F. L., and Green, T., "The Use of a Thermal Line Scanner
     in the Remote Sensing of Water Pollution," The University of
     Wisconsin Sea Grant Program, Technical  Report No. 13,  1972.

106.  Scarpace, F. L., and Green, T., "On Rapid Changes  and Periodic
     Temperature Structure in Thermal Plumes,"  The University of
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107.  Schelske, C. L., andStoermer, E.  F., "Phosphorus, Silica,and Eutro-
     phication of Lake  Michigan," Symposium Nutrients and Eutrophication,
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     diction, Volume 1, Submerged Discharge," National  Environmental
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109.  Spigarelli, S. A., and Prepejchal, W., "The Effects of a Thermal Dis-
     charge on the Inshore Biological Communities of Lake Michigan," in
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     search, January through December 1971, ANL-7860, Part III,
     pp. 109-117.
110.  Stewart, S. R., Brown, W. L.,  and Polcyn, F. C.,  "Multi-spectral
     Survey of Power Plant Thermal Effluents  in Lake Michigan,"  Willow
     Run Laboratories, The University  of Michigan, April 1972.
111.  Stoermer, E. F., "Near-Shore Phytoplankton Populations in the
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112.  Stoermer, E. F., and Kopczynska,  "Phytoplankton Populations  in the
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113.  Stockham, J., "Cooling Tower Study," IIT  Research Institute,  Chicago,
     Illinois, Final Report No. C  6187-3,  January 1971.
114.  Tokar, J. V., "Thermal Plumes in Lakes:  Compilations of Field
     Experience," ANL/ES-3, August 1971.

115.  Toledo Edison Company,  Supplement to Environmental Report, Davis-
     Besse Nuclear Power Station, Volume 2, September 3, 1971.
116.  Truchan,  J. G.,  "Biological Survey of Lake Michigan in the Vicinity of
     the Consumers Power Company's Campbell Plants Thermal Discharge,"
     Michigan Department of Natural Resources, January 22, 1971.
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                                  130
117.  Truchan, J., "Fish Mortality at the Consumers Power Go's. Campbell
     Plant," Michigan Water Resources Commission Memorandum,
     February 17, 1971.

118.  Truchan, J., and Basch, R.,  A Survey of Chlorine Concentrations in
     the Weadock Power Plant Discharge Channel, October 21, 1971.

119.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, "Final Environmental Statement
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120.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Draft Environmental Statement for
     the Bailly Generating Station Nuclear-1,  July 1972.

121.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Final Environmental Statement
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     May 1972.

122.  U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Draft Environmental Statement for
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123.  Weiler, R. R., and Coker, R.,  "Some Chemical Effects  of the Thermal
     Bar in Lake Ontario," Abst. of 14th Conf. on Great Lakes Res. 1971,
     Internat. Assoc.  Great Lakes Res., 1971, pp. 208-209.
124.  Westinghouse Electric Company, Environmental Systems Department,
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     report to: Wisconsin Public Service Company, August  9, 1971.

125.  Wisconsin, State of, Department of Natural Resources, Hearing to
     Consider Revising Thermal Standards for  Lake Michigan to Conform
     with the Recommendations of the Lake Michigan Enforcement Confer-
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126.  Wisconsin Electric Power Co. and Wisconsin-Michigan Power Co.,
     "Environmental Studies at the Point Beach Nuclear Power Plant,"
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127.  Wisconsin Electric Power Co. and Wisconsin-Michigan Power Co.,
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128.  Wisconsin Electric Power Co. and Wisconsin-Michigan Power Co.,
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129-  Wisconsin Electric Power Company and Wisconsin-Michigan Power
     Company, Supplement to Applicants' Environmental Report to the
     Point  Beach Nuclear Plant Unit 2, Operating License Stage,
     November 1971.

130.  Wisconsin Public Service Corporation Environmental Report for the
     Kewaunee Nuclear Power Plant, Operating License Stage, January 1971
     and Revised November 1971.
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                                  131
131.  Wisconsin Public Service Corp., "Environmental Studies at the
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132.  Wisconsin Public Service Corp., "Environmental Studies at the
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133.  Wisconsin Public Service Corp., "Environmental Studies at the
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134.  Woodson, R.  D., "Cooling Towers for  Large Steam-Electric Gener-
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135.  Wuerthele, M., and Truchan, J., A Continuous Flow Bioassay on the
     Intermittent Discharges of Chlorine at the Consumers Power Com-
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136.  Youngdahl, R. C., Consumers Power Company, correspondence with
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     system modification costs, letter  dated February 8,  1972.
137.  Marcy, B. C., Jr., "Survival of Young Fish in the Discharge Canal of
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                                                                                 I
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